STI May June 2016 by Quartz

METALLURGY

AUTOMOTIVE STEELS

PROCESS CONTROL

PERSPECTIVES

Part two of Keith Walker’s masterclass

Steel is top dog, says the SMDI

Danieli Automation on Industry 4.0

Peter Bigwood of Brokk

www.steeltimesint.com May/June 2016 - Vol.40 No.4

STEEL TIMES INTERNATIONAL – May/June 2016 – Vol.40 No.4

US AND CHINA AT ‘WAR’ SEE REPORT ON PAGE 4 STI Cover may june.indd 1

6/8/16 9:46 AM

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CONTENTS - MAY/JUNE 2016

METALLURGY

AUTOMOTIVE STEELS

PROCESS CONTROL

PERSPECTIVES

Part two of Keith Walker’s masterclass

Steel is top dog, says the SMDI

Danieli Automation on Industry 4.0

Peter Bigwood of Brokk

www.steeltimesint.com May/June 2016 - Vol.40 No.4

Picture courtesy of Oerlikon. Mechanical vacuum system for secondary metallurgy steel degassing (ATEX certified 8-2-4 system configuration)

STEEL TIMES INTERNATIONAL – May/June 2016 – Vol.40 No.4

US AND CHINA AT ‘WAR’ SEE REPORT ON PAGE 4 STI Cover may june.indd 1

6/8/16 9:46 AM

EDITORIAL Editor Matthew Moggridge Tel: +44 (0) 1737 855151 matthewmoggridge@quartzltd.com

2 Leader 4 News The latest steel industry news from around the world 12 USA update An angst-ridden steel industry

Production Editor Annie Baker Advertisement Production Martin Lawrence

Chief Executive Officer Paul Michael

17 India update Protectionist measures save the day

21 Structural steel High-strength steel development at JSPL 26 Metallurgy masterclass Dealing with stress and strain

Sales Director Ken Clark kenclark@quartzltd.com Tel: +44 (0) 1737 855117 Managing Director Steve Diprose stevediprose@quartzltd.com Tel: +44 (0) 1737 855164

14 Latin America update Brazil is not for beginners

18 Iron ore China – it won’t be easy

Consultant Editor Dr. Tim Smith PhD, CEng, MIM

SALES International Sales Manager Paul Rossage paulrossage@quartzltd.com Tel: +44 (0) 1737 855116

28 Automotive Steel is top dog in automotive 34 Digital manufacturing Towards smarter steel manufacturing

SUBSCRIPTION Elizabeth Barford Tel +44 (0) 1737 855028 Fax +44 (0) 1737 855034 Email subscriptions@quartzltd.com Steel Times International is published eight times a year and is available on subscription. Annual subscription: UK £173.00 Other countries: £247.00 2 years subscription: UK £311.00 Other countries: £445.00 ) Single copy (inc postage): £39.00 Email: steel@quartzltd.com

Published by: Quartz Business Media Ltd, Quartz House, 20 Clarendon Road,

38 Rolling Improving laying head technology

Redhill, Surrey, RH1 1QX, England. Tel: +44 (0)1737 855000

42 Process control Cold rolling mill optimisation

Fax: +44 (0)1737 855034 www.steeltimesint.com Steel Times International (USPS No: 020-958) is published monthly except Feb, May, July, Dec by Quartz Business Media Ltd and distributed in the US by DSW, 75 Aberdeen Road, Emigsville, PA 17318-0437. Periodicals postage paid at Emigsville, PA. POSTMASTER send address changes to Steel Times International c/o PO Box 437, Emigsville, PA 17318-0437.

Printed in England by: Pensord, Tram Road, Pontlanfraith, Blackwood, Gwent NP12 2YA, UK ©Quartz Business Media Ltd 2016

46 Perspectives Keeping steelworkers safe 48 History The UK’s first large scale iron industry

ISSN0143-7798

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LEADER

Would Trump build a wall to keep out Chinese steel?

Matthew Moggridge Editor matthewmoggridge@quartzltd.com

Anybody who has read Philip K Dick will know all about parallel universes. In fact, if you read too much of this great American novelist you might find yourself ‘Dicked out’. In other words, being able to distinguish between what is real and what isn’t could prove difficult. I felt this way when I returned to my hotel room to mull over the content of AISTech 2016’s Town Hall Forum where American steel giants claimed they were at war with China – not the entire nation, just the steel industry. I should have known when I attended the 2015 event and ArcelorMittal USA’s Andrew Harshaw told journalists that the only thing the Chinese understand is the rule of law. This year it’s all-out war according to Cliffs Natural Resources’ Lourenco Goncalves. He told a massed audience at the David L Lawrence Convention Centre that the Chinese started it and they were being aided and abetted by the Australians who were supplying Chinese steel mills with iron ore ‘to perpetrate war with the rest of the world’. I’m not making this up. It wasn’t just Mr Goncalves indulging in such fighting talk; the rest of this year’s

esteemed Town Hall panel agreed and who can blame them? According to the AISI more than 12,000 US steel jobs have been lost in the past year, with imports touching a record 29% of the US market. Statistics like that make slapping a 522% tariff on cold-rolled flat steel from China perfectly acceptable and, of course, it’s good that the Americans are protecting their home-grown steel industry. On the other side of the pond, a ‘significant majority of MEPs’ believe it is wrong to grant China market economy status. Perhaps I am living in a parallel universe. Wandering around Penn Avenue, Pittsburgh, I found a comic book store, the sort of place where characters from Philip K Dick novels hang out. Characters like Donald Trump. I engaged the storekeeper in conversation about a potential Trump presidency and he didn’t seem to relish the prospect. Later, as I wandered back to my hotel, I wondered how a Trump victory might affect the US steel industry – positively or negatively – and whether a wall would keep out cheap Chinese steel. In a few months, perhaps we’ll know the answer to that question.

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INDUSTRY NEWS

It’s official: The USA is at ‘war’ with China Piotr Galitzine

There’s a thin line between reality and fantasy. Whenever I leave my house in the morning and make my way to work, I drift out of the real world of manicured lawns and water sprinklers and engage in various dreams and fantasies. For example, I often find myself sitting in the New York office of Simon & Schuster putting the final touches to a multi-million dollar book deal prior to lunch with Martin Scorsese and possibly an intimate encounter with Salma Hayek. Sooner or later I’m nutted by reality unless, of course, I find myself in Pittsburgh at AISTech 2016 where, I discover, senior executives from the global steel industry unanimously agreeing that ‘war’ is a good description of the current situation plaguing the American steel industry thanks to China’s persistent dumping of cheap steel on US territory. In what was arguably one of the best Town Hall Forums organised by AISTech, one of this year’s May/June 2016

Industry news.indd 1

Mario Longhi

panelists, Lourenco Goncalves of Cliffs Natural Resources, said that war was a good description of the situation that exists between the USA and China. “We’re at war with China,” he said, adding that the Chinese declared war with the USA and they were being aided and abetted by the Australians who are supplying them with iron ore to ‘perpetrate war with the rest of the world’. “We continue to entertain China,” Goncalves told a massed au-

dience of steelmakers at AISTech’s 14th Town Hall Forum, a grand occasion where a panel of senior steel executives get together to discuss, in a chat show format, the issues of the day – and China, of course, was never off the agenda. The panelists had earlier been given the opportunity to describe in one word their thoughts on the steel industry of today. John Brett of ArcelorMittal USA called it ‘challenging’; Piotr Galitzine of TMK IPSCO said it was ‘chaotic’;

Lourenco Goncalves

Nucor Corporation's John Bass said he was ‘cautiously optimistic’ and Lourenco Goncalves of Cliffs described it as ‘promising, but never boring’. Glenn Pushis of Steel Dynamics agreed with Brett and said it was ‘challenging’. Nucor’s Bass described China as a company disguised as a country. “It’s a war and they’re winning at the moment,” he added. US Steel is bringing lawsuits against Chinese companies under what is known in the USA as Section 337. The American steel giant is accusing the Chinese of theft, cheating and stealing trade secrets and is optimistic of success. The company’s Doug Matthews hopes it will result in a long ban on Chinese steel imports. Matthews also took issue with the word ‘protectionist’, arguing that the United States was simply demanding a level playing field. “Subsidised imports are not based on competitive market forces,” he said.

Glenn Pushis

www.steeltimesint.com

6/8/16 10:48 AM

INDUSTRY NEWS

Moving on to granting China ‘market economy status’ – or MES – ArcelorMittal USA’s Brett said that ’treating China as a market economy would render anti-dumping trade laws useless and give China free access to our markets’. It would risk millions of jobs, he asserted. TMK IPSCO’s Galitzine said that the American steel industry would have to fight on any level it can to ensure a future for jobs and industry, while Nucor’s Bass said that MES cannot be granted until China is a confirmed market economy. Cliffs’ Goncalves argued that China will continue to pollute as long as the world does nothing, adding that the USA must stop them. When the conversation was directed towards steel markets, it was quick to return to the issue of China. Nucor’s Bass said that while the construction industry was one of his company’s strongest markets, Chinese imports will negate recovery in any steel market. This was followed up by Cliffs’ Goncalves stating that ‘enforcing trade laws was the basis of everything’. He added that the USA was not against fair competition. “We thrive on that and must preserve a fair, legal market here in the USA.” Echoing Nucor CEO John Ferriola’s comments at an earlier press conference here at AISTech, US Steel’s Doug Matthews said: “We welcome fairly traded imports.” He added that demand was greater than supply in the USA and that the United States benefits from low energy costs and captive raw materials, not forgetting a competitive environment within which to manufacture steel – but unfairly traded products negate all that.

John Brett

Global overcapacity – the big issue As the USA announces tariffs of 522% on Chinese cold-rolled flat steel, two of the American steel industry’s big hitters, including 2016’s Steelmaker of the Year John Ferriola, have spoken out about the importance of the overcapacity issue and how it will be top-of-mind for whoever occupies the White House at the end of this year. While the story of Chinese imports of cheap steel being sold at below market prices is not new – and certainly not unique to the USA – the Americans are determined to throw everything at protecting their homegrown steel industry. Speaking at the AISTech convention in Pittsburgh, PA, USA yesterday, John Ferriola, CEO of the American steel giant Nucor Corporation told Steel Times International that the issue of Chinese steel imports into the USA will be a major one for whoever becomes President of the United States in November. “This will be a major issue for all of the candidates and I think that speaks to the magnitude of the impact it’s having on our economy, on the middle class worker of the United States, and that’s

John Bass

why it’s risen to such a high level. Whoever is the successful candidate, our expectation is that the promises they make throughout the campaign, we’ll hold them to those promises after they are elected,” he said. Mario Longhi, CEO of US Steel, pointed out that, based on the results of a national survey conducted by a respected market research organisation for the American Iron and Steel Institute, next to loving puppies, the average American believes that steel is important

for daily life and national security. “This is how powerful the situation is in the minds of people and, therefore, we’re going to have a voice in the next administration regardless of who wins,” he said. Longhi said that the issue of Chinese imports into the USA is going to be respected by whoever wins the presidential election in November. Cold-rolled flat steel is used in the automotive and construction industries and is the key ingredient of the shipping container.

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INDUSTRY NEWS

Crude steel production down 0.5% World crude steel production for the 66 countries reporting to the World Steel Association (worldsteel) was 135Mt in April 2016, down 0.5% compared to the same period last year. Crude steel production in China increased 0.5% to 69.4Mt, while Japan’s output was up 1.2% to 8.5Mt. In South Korea 5.7Mt was produced, down 1.3% on

last year’s figure; and in Europe, Germany’s crude steel production was down 1.5% at 3.6Mt. In Italy it was up 14.5% at 2.1Mt. Spain produced 1.2Mt, down 10.6%. The Turks produced 2.9Mt, up 5.3% and in Russia crude production was down 0.4% at 5.9Mt. Ukraine recorded an 11.7% increase (2.2Mt). Across the pond, the United

States saw an increase of 2.5% with crude steel production reaching 6.6Mt. Brazilian production was down 20.6% at 2.3Mt. The crude steel capacity utilisation rate of the 66 countries in April 2016 was 71.5%, 1.3 percentage points lower than in April 2015 and 0.8 percentage points higher than March 2016. SMS Group of Germany has supplied the first of two annealing lines to Baotou Iron & Steel Group – Rare Earth Steel Plate Company. The line has been commissioned and has annealed its first coil as planned, according to the German steel production technology specialist. The second line is planned for mid-2016 and will be identical to the first line. Both will form an integral part of Baotou’s new cold rolling mill number two. The picture shows the SMS group’s commissioning team in front of a six-high skin-passing mill.

NEWS IN BRIEF South Korean steelmaker cuts workforce

POSCO Energy is to cut its workforce by 40% to offset dwindling profits and a continuing fall in its LNG power plant operation rate. The company, which is an affiliate of the South Korean steel giant POSCO, will target its fuel cell business, which comprises around 400 staff. POSCO Energy plans to streamline its business through cost-cutting, claims a spokesperson.

Award for world’s biggest steel producer ArcelorMittal has received a best supplier award from its automotive customer PSA Group. The award in question is for technical cost savings. According to the steel giant, this is the second year in a row that it has won a best supplier award from the PSA Group. In 2015 ArcelorMittal won in the value creation category. ArcelorMittal was involved in all PSA Group projects focused on enhancing competitiveness.

ArcelorMittal is top dog ArcelorMittal, the world’s biggest steelmaker, lived up to its name this week when the World Steel Association (worldsteel) announced its top 10 steelmakers by output in its annual publication World Steel in Figures. The top three big producers were ArcelorMittal (97.14Mt); Hebei Iron and Steel (47.75Mt); and Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal (46.37Mt). With POSCO in fourth place (41.97Mt) and Baosteel down to fifth place (34.94Mt), sixth place went to Shagang Group (34.21Mt), Ansteel Group was in seventh place (32.50Mt),

JFE Steel Corporation was eighth (29.82Mt), Shougang Group ninth (28.55Mt) and Tata Steel Group in 10th place with 26.31Mt. The countries with the highest apparent steel use per capita in 2015 were: South Korea in first place, Taiwan (China) second, the Czech Republic third, Japan fourth, China fifth, Germany sixth, Turkey in seventh place and Austria eighth. Canada was ninth and Italy was in 10th place. These figures and more can be found in the World Steel Association’s 2016 edition of World Steel in Figures.

As truck company Scania hits the road to mark its 125th anniversary, Russian steelmaker NLMK is quick to point out that a quad-axle heavy tipper truck, produced by Scania and designed for hauling rock, incorporates Quard steel plate produced at NLMK’s Clabecq plant in Belgium and originating from the Group’s Lipetsk site in Russia. Quard was used to make the reinforced body of the vehicle’s rear-tipper.

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INDUSTRY NEWS

Europe rejects MES for China

The European Parliament’s resolution on Market Economy Status (MES) for China has highlighted the institution’s reservations on the subject, a position welcomed by EUROFER, the European Steel Association. Axel Eggert, director-general of EUROFER, commented: “The message from the European Parliament has been abundantly clear. A significant majority of MEPs do not believe it is the right time to grant China market economy status. China is not a market economy, and thus cannot be treated as such

for the purpose of anti-dumping investigations.” While EUROFER welcomes the European Parliament’s resolution, it wants the European Commission to consider more seriously the wider implications of MES on the steel industry, as well as to motivate member states to overcome the blockage in the Council on the modernisation of Europe’s Trade Defence Instruments (TDI). According to EUROFER, China is the largest dumper of steel on to the EU market – by some margin. It claims that 16 of the 37 antidumping measures currently in force on steel involve China in some way and says that trade defence measures would be rendered ineffective if MES was granted. The European Parliament’s resolution urges the Council to agree on the modernisation of the EU’s TDIs, but because the UK and the Netherlands continue to block the lifting of the Lesser Duty Rule, the European steel industry is ‘regularly

targeted by unfair trade from third countries’. “We call on the Dutch presidency, as well as the UK, to take responsibility now and lift the obstruction blocking the creation of more effective TDIs,” Eggert said. On 13 May the Foreign Affairs Council met to discuss trade aspects of the recent Communication on Steel, in which the European Commission urges modernisation of the EU’s TDIs. “Member states are reopening the TDI discussion,” said Eggert, adding that the Commission is undertaking efforts to try to upgrade the existing TDI system using the means currently available to it. “However, the wholesale TDI modernisation that is actually needed is firmly in the hands of the members states.” Eggert said that the Council ‘urgently needs to make progress on the dossier’. He said that EUROFER hopes the European Parliament resolution ‘will spur further development’.

NEWS IN BRIEF

China – 100Mt cuts needed It is estimated that China needs to cut at least 100Mt of steel capacity over the next five years in order to bring supply and demand into line, according to an online media report. This, claims Laura Zhai, a credit analyst with Hong Kongbased Fitch Ratings, could mean shedding at least half a million steel jobs. Source: npr.com

Merkel courts Indian deal Angela Merkel’s government seems about ready to strike a deal with India on the supply of submarines in an effort to ‘head off at the pass’ the French and Russians who are trying to boost defence ties with India. Should a deal go ahead Thyssenkrupp Marine Systems will be in line for a big pay day.

You live and learn…amazing facts about steel and stuff • In the 1980s, it took 10.1 hours of human labour to produce a ton of steel. Today, it takes 1.9 hours to produce a ton. • More than 12,000 US steel jobs have been lost in the past year, with imports touching a record 29% of the US market. Source: AISI. • In the future, all elevators in the metropolitan area of Tokyo must have a built-in toilet. Source: ThyssenKrupp. • In Tokyo, not one person has died in an elevator during an earthquake. Source: ThyssenKrupp. • Producing primary aluminium ingot in North America currently generates at least four times the emissions of producing steel, (1.9 ton CO2e/ton for steel vs. 8.9 ton CO2e/ton for aluminium), even when using the aluminium industry’s assertion that aluminium smelters in

North America operate using 75% hydropower. Source: SMDI. • In a study by SMDI comparing vehicle life cycle emissions (over a 12-year average vehicle ownership), AHSS-intensive vehicles had lower emissions than aluminium intensive vehicles for every class of vehicle tested – sedans, trucks, SUVs and alternative fuel vehicles. Source: SMDI. • By the mid-1890s, the United States surpassed Great Britain to become the largest steel-producing nation in the world – a position it would maintain until 1974. • The EAF industry's share of US steel production has continued to grow, from 10% in the 1960s to approximately 63% in 2015. • Steel is recycled five times more than the sum of all other metals combined – including aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, chromium, and zinc. • North America is unique among major steel producing regions in that it is a major net importer of steel despite the fact that the region has existing steelmaking capacity that would be sufficient to satisfy domestic demand.

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INDUSTRY NEWS

British Steel is back! British Steel is up and running following the successful completion of the sale of Tata Steel UK’s Long Products Europe business to Greybull Capital. Peter Hogg, British Steel’s commercial director commented, “Today marks the first day of business for our new company and we are delighted to be launching under the iconic British Steel brand.” Mr Hogg thanked local and national government and local MPs for their support and stressed that the formation of British Steel was all thanks to ‘a strong partnership’ between the company’s employees, their union representatives, customers and suppliers. “Our industry has faced challenging times over the last few years, but we are confident that our new venture, built on our core values of pride, passion and performance, will not only reinvigorate this business, but position it as a world leader,” he said. Hogg’s sentiments were echoed by Paul McBean, chairman of the Scunthorpe site’s Multi Union, who described British Steel’s first day of

trading as ‘a momentous occasion’ for the company and the industry. “I am delighted we are relaunching our fantastic business as British Steel,” said McBean. Greybull Capital has arranged a £400m investment and financing package to support the turnaround plan being implemented by the management and employees. The financing has been provided entirely by a combination of shareholders and their banks and is available to British Steel to fund working capital and future investments. Greybull’s Marc Meyohas was equally delighted. “We have confidence in the transformation plan and the ability of management and the workforce to implement the required changes,” he said. Meyohas praised the ‘great professionalism’ shown by the workforce and the trade unions. The new British Steel employs 4,800 people (4,400 in the UK and 400 in France) and will produce 2.8Mt of steel every year.

NEWS IN BRIEF 11 Nucor’s new Canadian steel plant North American steelmaker Nucor’s Vulcraft/Verco Group will be operating a new production facility in Canada where it will operate under the name Vulcraft Canada. The new plant will be based near Hamilton, Ontario, and will service the Central and Eastern Canadian market, according to a report by Zacks.

Primetals Technologies provided Mexican steelmaker Altos Hornos de México SAB de CV (AHMSA) with a 300kt/ yr normalising line, which this month produced its first steel plate. AHMSA operates the largest integrated steelworks in Mexico and is the country’s only producer of heavy plate. The company generates more than 5Mt/yr of crude steel and primarily produces flat-rolled steel, including hot- and cold-rolled coil, heavy plate, tin-coated and tin-free sheet, and a variety of heavy sections. The normalising line processes carbon steel plates produced by a Steckel rolling mill also supplied by Primetals Technologies.

Liberty re-opens Tredegar Liberty House will re-open the Tredegar steelworks in the South Wales Valleys this month as the company continues its drive to transform the UK steel industry. The steel pipe and tube manufacturing facility is part of Liberty’s Greensteel Strategy and the seventh British steelworks Liberty House has re-opened in as many months. The Tredegar works was owned by Caparo Industries Group, but went into administration in 2015 and was rescued by Liberty House towards the end of last year.

DIARY OF EVENTS August 2016 10-12 Minerals, Metals, Metallurgy, Materials (MMMM Expo) Pragati Maidan, New Delhi, India This event is claimed to be an ideal B2B platform for a variety of decision makers lookng to forge meaningful business partnerships For further information, log on to www.mmmm-expo.com

31-02 September IFACMMM 2016, Vienna, Austria Organised by the International Federation of Automatic Control and sponsored by Voestalpine, Danieli Automation and Andritz Metals, this symposium is focused on control, optimisation and automation in mining, mineral and metal processing. For further information, email contact@ifacmmm2016.org

to Portugal and is expecting over 200 players from the industry. For further information, log on to www.metalbulletin.com/events/

12-14 7th European Coke and Ironmaking Congress, Design Centre, Linz, Austria Sponsored by Primetals Technologies and Paul Wurth (part of SMS group) this event brings together a wide range of experts to discuss various topics surrounding coke and ironmakng. For further information, log on to www.ecic2016.com

October 2016 03-05 9th North American Steel 2016, Fairmont Hotel, Chicago

06-08 International Special and Stainless Steel Summit, Intercontinental, Portgual

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USA UPDATE

An angst-ridden steel industry The fear of the unknown seems to characterise the present mood of the US steel industry, which seems to be unnerved by the prospect of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) becoming a reality, though the present crop of presidential candidates, apparently with an eye on trade unions, do not appear to be enthusiastic about it. By Manik Mehta* BESIDES steel producers, steel workers have also been agitating against the TPP with some calling it a ‘major threat’ to American jobs. Representatives of the United Steelworkers Association sounded the TPP alarm in the wake of layoffs at EVRAZ Pueblo’s rail and steelmaking operations where some 450 local steelworkers faced what is described as short-term layoffs. Layoffs in the steel industry are not well received; when steelworkers lose jobs, it not only affects the morale of those still employed, but also usually projects the steel companies in a poor light. US Steel’s announcement that it was going to temporarily idle the Lone Star tubular operations in Lone Star, Texas, and the Fairfield tubular operations in Fairfield, Ala., generated uncertainty in the sector. Some 450 employees at Lone Star, 200 employees in Fairfield, and 120 salaried non-union employees in Alabama, Texas, and Lorain, Ohio, are affected. In a recent testimony before the US Senate Committee, Rob Robson, director of corporate logistics at Nucor Corporation,

stated that the domestic steel industry in the country is in a state of crisis. The statement was made during his appearance before the Senate to extend support to the Water Resources Development Act (WRDA). According to Robson, the dumping of steel products into the US market has reached historically high levels, on account of surplus production by global steel making countries. Thus, the trade of goods into the country is in violation of international trade laws, he argued. The unfair trade practice has led to a significant reduction in domestic steel capacity utilisation. For instance, the capacity utilisation in 2015 dropped to less than 70%. Consequently, prices of steel products have witnessed unprecedented decline during the year. Meanwhile, the Congressional Steel Caucus (CSC) recently urged President Barack Obama to stop the illegal trade practices that are hurting the US steel industry. In a letter, US Rep. Tim Murphy (R-Upper St. Clair) and US Rep. Peter J. Visclosky

Representatives of the Trans-Pacific Partnership member states

May/June 2016

USA.indd 1

The US has taken a harder stance against the Chinese than the European Union

(D-Ind.), chairman and vice chairman respectively of the CSC, noted that Congress had passed two laws, the Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015 and the Trade Facilitation and Trade Enforcement Act of 2015, which they argued could be used against foreign countries and companies engaged in illegal steel dumping. The steel industry has been under continued pressure from the cheap foreign imports that have led to mass layoffs and plant idling and closure, including at Pittsburgh-based US Steel Corp. “We cannot impress upon you enough the importance of the American steel industry to the communities we represent and the national and economic security of our country,” both authors of the letter observed. “... We implore you to use each and every tool available to you to aggressively fight unfair trade practices and ensure the American steel industry is given the opportunity to compete on a level playing field and is positioned to serve future generations.”

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6/8/16 9:37 AM

USA UPDATE

“These actions are part of an ongoing adjustment in operations due to the challenging market conditions, including fluctuating oil prices, reduced rig counts, depressed steel prices and unfairly traded imports,” according to a statement from US Steel. “All of these factors continue to reduce demand for tubular goods,” the letter said. According to Visclosky, the American steel industry suffers from a negative perception, but it is still the most efficient in the world. “Too often people castigate steel,” the Democrat said. “One of the problems I think they face nationally is perception,” Visclosky recently told the Lake County Economic Alliance, adding that there was a misconception that Northwest Indiana’s steel mills are old and inefficient. “Some of those buildings are old, but no one produces steel more efficiently than we do in the United States and in the 1st Congressional District,” Visclosky said. “In the 1980s, it took 10.1 hours of human labour to produce a ton of steel. Today, it takes 1.9 hours to produce a ton. Next year it will take a little less – hence some of that unfortunate job loss we’ve had in Northwest Indiana.” US steelmakers have, in fact, achieved a 32% reduction in energy consumption per ton of steel because they have been getting more efficient, according to Visclosky. Has the US steel industry become a victim of its own success? Partly, but the culprits in the eyes of many steel producers still remain cheap foreign supplies. Steel supports hundreds of thousands

of American jobs. But because of these unfairly traded imports, many American steel producers have had to make difficult decisions affecting steelmaking communities. Steel companies have closed down major facilities, or reduced production at those plants, resulting in devastating layoffs and job losses for many families who have made steel for generations. More than 12,000 steel jobs have been lost in the past year, with imports touching a record 29% of the US market, according to the AISI. However, the US has been quick and effective in reacting, for example, to Chinese dumping by imposing tariffs 10 times as high as those imposed by the European Union (EU) on imports. While the EU took months to impose a 24% levy on the import of Chinese steel, the US was swift to slap on a 266% duty. Comparing US and EU reactions, observers say the disparity showed how the EU is hamstrung against taking effective measures because it has to take into account the views of its 28 member states. Being an entity, the US can act faster unlike the EU which needs to navigate through a maze of bureaucratic regulations and political decision-making. In another development, the Allegheny County Health Department and US Steel announced they had agreed on a new plan for resolving ongoing air quality violations at the Pittsburgh steel producer’s coke plant in Clairton. A proposed consent agreement filed in Allegheny County Common Pleas Court

indicates US Steel will make a number of changes at the plant to reduce emissions, besides paying a fine, as part of the latest agreement. A statement released by the company merely said that it was “fortunate to be able to work with [the health department] to ensure the future of not only Clairton, but the entire Mon Valley Works”. The agreement was finalised two months after a state-wide environmental group threatened to take US Steel to court over decades of air pollution violations at the Clairton plant, including 6,700 pollutionlimit violations over the last three and a half years. The group, PennFuture, said it would go to federal court to force US Steel to comply with the Federal Clean Air Act and other regulations. t

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May/June 2016

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LATIN AMERICA UPDATE

Brazil is not for beginners

Over the years, Brazil has had its fair share of economic problems, but today the situation is bordering on chaotic, according to Germano Mendes de Paula* TOM Jobim, one of the composers of The Girl from Ipanema (a song made famous by Frank Sinatra), has eloquently stated ‘Brazil is not for beginners’. In fact, the country had experienced various macroeconomic problems, related to its external debt crisis, exponential inflation and even confiscation of financial assets in the 1980s and early1990s. However, from the mid-1990s the nation seemed to engage in a new phase, by dropping inflation rates, reducing wealth inequality and paying its external debts. Blessed by generous commodities prices in the global market, in the mid-2000s, Brazil improved its economic performance. Nonetheless, today the country is facing a chaotic situation, derived from painful political and economic crises, which are reinforcing each other. Regarding the political arena, the Congress has started an impeachment of the President. The largest political party, to which the vice-president is a member, has recently decided to break away from the government. There has been a huge corruption investigation related to Petrobras, a state-owned enterprise (SOE) dedicated to the oil and gas sector, which is the country’s largest company. This scandal affects a former President of Brazil and a substantial proportion of the most prominent Congressmen. The investigation has already taken two years and it is quite difficult to foresee when it will be concluded. In addition, it is also

challenging to predict if the President will maintain (or not) her position until the end of her mandate (December 2018). Due to this highly turbulent political environment, not surprisingly the country’s economic performance is unsatisfactory. It can be argued that Brazil is experiencing ‘stagflation’, which means a combination of stagnation and inflation. Concerning the latter, the annual Consumer Price Index (CPI) increased from 6% in 2000 to 12.5% in 2002 (Fig. 1). After its retraction to 3.1% in 2006, it stayed around the 6% plateau along the period 2008-2014. In 2015, mainly because of a remarkable currency devaluation and more realistic prices for administrated goods (such as gas and electricity), the CPI jumped to 10.7%. According to the latest market consensus

Ms Dilma Rousseff

(released by the Central Bank), the inflation this year would be equivalent to 7.1%. The drop is explained by the recession, the lack of confidence and credit, and the diminution of real wages. Meanwhile, the government has been unable to go ahead with fiscal reform. Fig. 2 shows the evolution of Brazil’s GDP since 2000. The nation performed quite well during the years 2004-2008, with a 4.8% compound average annual growth rate (CAGR). After a small 0.1% retraction in 2009, GDP skyrocketed to 7.5% in 2010, underpinned by massive public expenditure and credit expansion. It was in this context that Ms Dilma Rousseff was elected President for the first time. However, as the global commodities bonanza came to an end, Brazil’s GDP growth diminished to 2.9% CAGR from 2011 to 2013. Even with a tiny 0.1% GDP expansion in 2014, Ms Rousseff was reelected. More importantly, it registered a 3.85% drop in 2015 and, based on market consensus, an additional 3.77% retraction is expected for 2016. Thus, the country is experiencing one of its worst recessions. Fig. 3 pays attention to the gross fixed capital formation (GFCF), which is the main indicator concerning investments in a given economy. In the period 20042008, the GFCF increased 8.2% CAGR. In 2010, it enlarged 17.9%, but decreased to an amplification of 4.4% CAGR from 2011-2013. Furthermore, it registered a

* Professor in economics, Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil. E-mail: germano@ufu.br May/June 2016

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LATIN AMERICA UPDATE

12 8 4 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

-5

-4 2012 2014 2016F

Fig 1. Brazil’s Annual Consumer Price Index (CPI), 20002016 (%). Source: Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016F

Fig 2. Brazil’s GDP Growth, 2000-2016 (%). Source: Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) and market consensus

(IBGE) and market consensus

2010 2012 2014 2016F

Fig 3. Brazil’s Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) Growth, 2000-2016 (%). Source: Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) and Getúlio Vargas Foundation (FGV)

23 19 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016F

Fig 4. Brazil’s Steel Apparent Consumption, 2000-2016 (Mt). Source: Brazilian Steel Association (IABr)

negative variation of 4.5% in 2014 and additional shrinking of 14.1% in 2015. The Central Bank does not collect data on market consensus regarding GFCF. However, the Getúlio Vargas Foundation (FGV), a leading think-tank and business school, is forecasting a further 6.6% diminution in 2016. Obviously, such a disappointing economic outcome has negatively affected Brazilian steel demand. Steel consumption Brazilian steel apparent consumption amplified from 15.8Mt in 2000 to 24Mt in 2008 (Fig. 4), resulting in 5.4% CAGR. After a temporary decrease to 18.6Mt in 2009, it recovered to 26.7Mt in 2010 and even to 28Mt in 2013. Nevertheless, it plummeted to 25.6Mt in 2014 and to 21.3Mt in 2015. In late-March 2016, the Brazilian Steel Association estimates that the country’s steel demand will cut to 19.4Mt in 2016. If this forecast proves correct, the nation’s steel consumption will be 30.8% lower than the value obtained in 2013. In the interim, according to worldsteel’s latest short-term outlook, global demand will diminish 2.9%. Consequently, Brazilian participation on world steel consumption is going to decline from 1.8% in 2013 to 1.3% in 2016. It is a substantial shrinking for only a three year-period. Fig. 5 demonstrates the evolution of www.steeltimesint.com

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-15 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

15 2000 2002 2004

-10

-30 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016F Steel consumption GDP

-30

Fig 5. Brazil’s Steel Apparent Consumption and GDP Growth, 2000-2016 (%). Source: IBGE, IABr and market consensus

50 30 -10 -30 2016F 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 GFCF Steel consumption

Fig 7. Brazil’s Steel Apparent Consumption and GFCF Growth, by Quarter, 2000-2015 (%). Source: IBGEand IABr

Brazilian GDP growth and steel apparent consumption from 2000 to 2016. The correlation between the two variables is quite high (81%). If data for 2009 and 2010 are excluded – because they can be understood as outliers – the correlation increases to 86.1%. In the long-term, GDP is definitely a key driver to the country’s steel demand, but for the short-term, the latter tends to be more volatile than the first. For that reason, Fig. 6

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016F GFCF Steel consumption

Fig 6. Brazil’s Steel Apparent Consumption and GFCF Growth, 2000-2016 (%). Source: IBGE, IABr and FGV

shows GFCF growth and steel demand for the same period. It is crystal-clear that the two variables are closely associated. Indeed, the correlation for the whole period is 84.6%; excluding 2009-2010, it amplifies to 90.5%. GFCF – a good determinant GFCF is a good determinant (and predictor) of steel consumption in Brazil even on a quarterly basis, as it can be visualised in Fig. 7. The correlation is 63.4% for the entire series and 67.3% without 2009-2010. It is worth mentioning that where steel demand in Brazil is concerned, for the period 2000-2015, the income-elasticity reached 0.90, while investment-elasticity achieved 0.85. Considering the economic figures analysed in this article, it can be argued that Brazilian steel consumption will diminish between 5.6% in 2016 (based on FGV’s forecast on GFCF and the typical investment-elasticity) and 9% (according to the Brazilian Steel Association). This nightmare seems to be endless, because a robust recovery is only expected from the coming years. The regaining of steel demand requires GFCF, which depends on confidence – a fairly scare asset in Brazil these days. t

May/June 2016

6/8/16 9:38 AM

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INDIA UPDATE

Protectionist measures save the day India’s steel industry is now on a revival path thanks to multi-pronged strategies adopted by the government with a view to restoring investors’ confidence with long-term growth plans. By Dilip Kumar Jha* WHILE the Indian government imposed safeguard duty over and above minimum import price (MIP) in order to restrict cheap steel imports from Japan, South Korea and China, it also helped avail a low interest rate regime on working capital loans. Steel mills in India have started working towards completion of long-pending stalled projects. While investment in greenfield projects have faltered, revival of existing projects with high capacity utilisation is on the agenda for most mills. Steel mills, however, are waiting to see how demand spans out over the coming construction season between April and June. Tata Steel and JSW are planning to add new production facilities over the coming months. Increase in capacity utilisation Existing steel mills, however, have started to increase the capacity utilisation of large projects to raise per capita manpower output. Over the last six years, average steel mill capacity utilisation has dropped from nearly 90% in 2010 to 70% now. But over the last few months, capacity utilisation by private mills in India has increased steadily from less than 65% to 70% today. Private sector steel majors Essar Steel and JSW Steels reported sharp increases in steel production in India in March 2016. Consequently, Indian crude steel output increased amid hopes of resurgence in demand from the infrastructure and housing sector that consume nearly twothirds of India’s steel production. The latest Moody’s report forecast India’s steel demand to grow by a mid-to-high single digit percentage point because of increased infrastructure spending. A Fitch Ratings report estimates India’s steel demand to

grow by 7-8% for the financial year ending March 2017 from an estimated 4.7% for the year to March 2016. In the Union Budget 2016-17, the government of India increased focus on infrastructure spending. The Union Budget plans to increase capital expenditure in infrastructure by 23% per cent to INR 2.3 trillion in the financial year to March 2017. For the financial year March 2016, the government had budgeted for infrastructure investment to double from actual spending in FY15. Except for a pick-up in road construction, project implementation has been weak. Import restrictions Overcapacity in India has led to a 40% steel India’s steel balance sheet (million tonnes) Financial year (Apr-Mar)

Production

Import

Export

2010-11

68.82

6.66

3.64

2011-12

75.70

6.86

4.59

2012-13

81.68

7.93

5.37

2013-14

87.67

5.45

5.98

2014-15

91.46

9.32

5.59

2015-16

91.12

11.21

during the initial levy period between September 2015 and March 2016. With this, steel importers in India would have to pay safeguard duty up to 20% depending upon the period of imports. JSW Steel’s joint managing director and chief financial officer, Seshagiri Rao, welcomed the move. “This [the government’s extension of the safeguard duty period] proves that the Indian steel industry suffered because of rising imports especially when demand remained subdued,” he said. While the safeguard duty is levied on steel imports primarily from three major producers – Japan, South Korea and China being responsible for over 70% of India’s steel imports – the government also protected Indian steel mills from other origins of cheap imports through MIP. T V Narendra, managing director of Tata Steel, observed a tumultuous time for commodities, especially for steel as many countries, including Thailand and Indonesia, have taken measures to restrict imports and safeguard domestic steel mills. Narendra estimates that India’s steel consumption will rise 7.5% to 87.6Mt in 2016 as against 81.5Mt in 2015.

Source : Ministry of Steel

prices slump over the last 18 months to hit a multi-year low as compared to a 30% decline in global markets. Over the last year, steel prices have fallen from around $460/ tonne to $260/tonne in global markets. Indian steel mills, therefore, needed duty protection, which the government of India fulfilled. After the safeguard duty period ended in March 2016, the Indian government extended the duty levy by another two years as steel mills did not see any drastic change in their fortunes

Future turns positive Following import restriction measures, major steel mills raise their product prices by at least 20% in a phased manner, which is likely to turn steel mills’ profitability in the coming years. The World Steel Association reported a 2.6% jump in India’s steel production to 89.6Mt in 2015 as against 87.3Mt in 2014. While an estimated 7% growth in Indian steel consumption looks impressive, increased focus on India’s infrastructure development would boost the steel sector in future. t

* India correspondent www.steeltimesint.com

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IRON ORE

China – it won’t be easy Articles on iron ore published in the last year in Steel Times International have usually been upbeat, more often than not reflecting new projects, sometimes in developing markets. Unfortunately, events can conspire to cancel the good news, forcing production down and spreading severe pessimism. By Michael Schwartz* ONE such event, with all its global consequences, is the slow-down in Chinese industrial production; the volumes by which this is occurring bring home a situation that is desperate for many companies – and not just those who believed that ‘sell to China’ was the way to make up for under-achievements elsewhere. At its bluntest, China’s economy is experiencing a downturn with devastating consequences, which are starting to unravel now, but which will take years to absorb throughout the world. For example, one factor, which was recently picked up by Reuters, was the opportunistic import into China of commodities as a result of falling prices. Iron ore has been one such product, although the coming months are expected to witness a tapering off as China’s economic growth is brought home even to the opportunists. And iron ore? Industry analysts have expressed realistic (one has to say pessimistic) opinions when it comes to iron ore. Some analysts have stated that iron ore shipments could fall during 2016: one such is Beijing-based Sinosteel Futures’ Wang Yilin, who has declared, “Iron ore imports could fall slightly, as steel production in China will drop, while traders will also be reluctant to import iron ore due to the bearish outlook on iron ore prices.” Further comment has come from Maike Futures Co in Xi’an, where analyst Dang Man confirmed that mills had been cutting production, leaving stocks stranded at ports because of lower demand for the ore. Physical holdings of iron ore also

expanded at the end of last year, and at just over 93Mt are now believed to be the highest since last May. The reasons for this different, more complex situation continue to reveal themselves. In terms of lower prices, one can add the lower-priced ore supplied in abundance by the very largest players; Vale, Rio Tinto and BHP Billiton come to mind. In fact, Chinese steel mills held back on output as the prices for their products fell back. Even winter made its own intervention, working alongside China’s retrenching economy to lower output. Ore inventories may well rise beyond the 93Mt mark. Dang Man again: “Inventories will continue to rise in 2016, and holdings will probably climb back above 100Mt. It won’t be a continuous increase because some high-cost mines will halt shipments, but the rising trend will persist.” Further comment on inventories has come from Australia & New Zealand Banking Group, which predicted recently that port reserves would increase further. This source is a highly appropriate one, as Australia is a key exporter of iron ore into China – to the extent of increasing shipments by no less than approximately 100Mt to 868Mt, according to Australia’s Department of Industry, Innovation & Science. Quite simply, as these iron ore imports from Australia – and for that matter from Brazil – enter China, then steel overcapacity in China will put pressure on steel prices. The penalty of over-reliance Then there are those who thought they could gain easy long-term financial viability

by continuous trading with China. Well, surprise, surprise, all good things come to an end. Allowing China to become the largest trading partner for one’s country is a double-edged sword, not least for South Africa. The latter’s vast mineral resources, including iron ore, have helped to satisfy China’s voracious appetite for a whole range of minerals. The result of China’s cutbacks is a slump in the Rand, notably against the US Dollar, meaning that goods and services are likely to rise in price and that debts can be more expensive to service. It has been suggested that China’s slowdown will exacerbate socio-economic problems temporarily suppressed by the recent Chinese trade boom. What are the solutions ? There is invariably a cry of “something has to be done – and by politicians in particular.” But what steps can be taken? By the sheer size of China’s economy, i.e., a market previously rabidly hungry for natural resources, any new market will be a poor substitute for China. It is likely that iron ore prices will fall because of their current glut, and yet one wonders how long this glut will last before mine owners realise that they will have to scale back or even cancel production. One has the feeling that many iron ore miners will lose their jobs, that declining incomes will lead to fewer orders of machinery, and even that whole mines will have to close. An iron ore sector will continue to exist, but leaner and fitter after major reorganisation.

* Mining correspondent May/June 2016

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STRUCTURAL STEEL

High-strength steel development at JSPL High-strength, low-alloy H-beam parallel flange steel is used in a variety of structural applications. It can resist natural calamities, such as earthquakes, and for this reason is in high demand. At Jindal Steel & Power we have been busy developing these products in combination with the practice of micro-alloying and controlled processing, taking into account both customer requirements and plant capability. By Ankur Gaur*, Joy Dutta*, SK Ojha*, B. Lakshminarasimham* THE steel industry is focused on selling products based on inquiries from the customer and steel users. There are, however, a select few players who can provide comprehensive solutions comprising a variety of steel products required for constructing a building complex. JSPL has ventured into the construction materials and solutions business in order to harness the potential for tapping the growing need for faster, lighter and easier construction materials. In a way such a move comes naturally to JSPL due to its rich and diverse steel product mix, which has been offered to this segment for many years. Having experienced extensive expansion over the last decade, JSPL has built significant inhouse project management expertise to develop buildings and townships. These, coupled with the focus on continuous innovation to develop new grades of steel and product lines, offered immense potential to tap into this fast-growing market in a focused and concerted way. In fact, JSPL's beams are a most sought-after product by structural engineers, architects and construction companies as they are produced to meet various Indian and international standards. JSPL is the single largest producer of parallel flange beams. These sections are superior in terms of efficiency, higher axial and bending load bearing capacities, workability and economy when compared with conventional tapered flange beams. Parallel flange beams and columns enable complex fabrications in high volumes due to their inherent functional advantages. When used under bending load, steel savings of

Chemical composition %C

%Mn

%Si

0.22

1.65

0.025

0.020

0.50

0.52

Max

Mechanical properties Yield Strength (Mpa)

UTS (Mpa)

% Elongation

550 Min

650 Min

12 Min

Table 1 Chemical composition

Parallel flange beam

Conventional tapered flange beam

up to 10-25% are achievable, as beams of lower sectional weight can be used. In the current market scenario, a lot of attention has been paid, in both the steel and construction industry, to the importance of developing higher strength steel for constructing high-rise buildings. H-shapes are widely used in buildings, factories and various types of plants. In high rise buildings, specified design strength is amplified due to the higher strength requirements for structural members, which have a heightened need

for high strength steel in order to expand the range of choices for economical and efficient design. These include a reduction in the thickness, weight and size of steel structures. With this in mind, JSPL has developed the IS2062 E550 high-strength parallel flange H-beam using the beam blank casting method. In India, only JSPL has the capability to produce beam blanks using the continuous casting method, which has been an efficient commercial process to manufacture long steel products, including beams.

* Technical services department, Jindal Steel & Power, Raigarh 496001, India www.steeltimesint.com

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STRUCTURAL STEEL

% Element

Alloy A

Alloy B

0.18

0.2

%Mn

1.60

%Si

0.3

0.25

0.006

0.008

0.016

0.015

%Al

0.029

0.022

0.056

0.066

%Nb

0.037

0.045

N2 (ppm)

110

Table 2. Typical Chemistry of H beam Fig 1. Alloy A – (Nb&V) subsequently followed high temperature rolling

Fig 2. Alloy B – (high Nb&V) subsequently followed low temperature rolling

High strength steel grade development involves the adequate design of chemistry, considering the effect of each element on the final properties of the steel and secondly applying appropriate process design – such as reheating temperature, rolling speed, number of passes and finished rolling temperature – so that the desired mechanical properties can be achieved. As the main micro-alloying element, vanadium and niobium have been used and there has been relatively little dependence on the rolling process. Micro-alloying is one of the best ways of transforming conventional mild steel into a high strength product, but, with long products, JSPL has found that an additional substitutional solid solution alloy is required to generate a massive increase in the final strength using refined ferrite-pearlite microstructures. Taking the layout of the mill into consideration, we cannot adopt controlled rolling of long products as we can with flat products. Compared with flat products, beams require a higher rolling temperature where flow stress is low in order to fit the complex shape. Rolling from beam blank instead of billet does not provide an optimum reduction ratio at the beam flange. In the rolling process for H-shapes, May/June 2016

Jindal steel structural.indd 2

the material is heated to a temperature of 1250°C or more, which is higher than that used in flat rolling, in order to secure formability during universal rolling. At such high temperatures, austenite undergoes rapid grain growth. Furthermore, in the H-shape hot rolling process, the rolling reduction per pass and total reduction ratio are relatively small in the flange. Therefore, in order to secure ductility and strength, optimised low temperature finishing in the hot rolling process becomes important. Rail universal beam mill A rail universal beam mill, commissioned in 2003, produces a wide range of products

ranging from long rails up to 121 metres in length to medium and large-size parallel flange beams and columns. The total product mix includes: track rails, crane rails, parallel flange beams and columns and channels. To enhance productivity and quality consistency, the new tandem mill, the first of its kind in India, was purchased from SMS Meer, Germany, and installed and commissioned in November 2006, adopting the company’s patented X-H technology for rolling beams and columns. Other sections, such as rails and channels, are also rolled via the universal route. Conventionally, universal beams, like other structural shapes, are produced by rolling steel blooms in universal stands. More recently, beam blanks have been continuously cast, thereby bypassing certain stages in the rolling process. JSPL pioneered the production of medium- and large-sized hot-rolled parallel flange beams and column sections (H-Beams) in India; it is one of the leading producers and exporters of parallel flange. Now, due to rapid economic growth and development, demand for parallel flanges in India is increasing rapidly. And being a leading manufacturer, JSPL wants to capture this market.

Fig 3. Alloy C – (High Nb&V + Cr)

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STRUCTURAL STEEL

600

725

575

700

550

675 UTS (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

525

650

500

625

475

600

575

450 Alloy A

Alloy B

Alloy A

Alloy C

Alloy B

Alloy C

Comparison plot of UTS with respect to alloy composition (targeted UTS = 650Mpa)

Comparison plot of yield strength with respect to alloy composition (targeted YS = 550Mpa Min)

Fig.4: Graphical plot of yield strength with respect designed alloy composition were drawn

Technical requirement and composition determination of H-Beam steel The mechanical performance requirement of the developed low-carbon high-strength H-Beam steel and chemical composition is specified in Table 1. Experimental procedure Alloy design – Characterisation of developed grades is very important to validate process design and its impact on the various attributes of the desired product; alloy design for structural steel starts with a basic low C-Mn-Si base. This is used for low-strength structural steel. The main microalloying elements are Vanadium with Niobium when additional strength is required. It is a well-established fact that V and Nb promote strengthening by precipitation hardening and grain refinement The first trial was carried out with two variations in chemistry with regard to Nb and V (chemical composition is given in Table 1). The trials were processed through an electric arc furnace (EAF), cast into beam blanks and rolled into H-Beam. The beam blanks were reheated at temperatures ranging from 1230°C to 1280°C and subsequent pass reduction took place in a universal mill and cooled in still air. In the first trial, alloys A and B were reheated to a temperature of around 1270°C due to mill constraints. However, the difference between the two is that Alloy-A finished at a higher FRT that was just below 50°C from the recrystallisation stop temperature (Tnr) while Alloy-B May/June 2016

Jindal steel structural.indd 3

Chemistry

Finishing temp. (°C)

Yield strength (MPa)

UTS (MPa)

YS/UTS ratio

% El.

878

519

888

508

651

0.8

639

0.79

Alloy A

896

504

646

0.78

772

524

650

0.81

Alloy B

787

547

663

0.83

752

524

643

0.81

759

561

671

0.84

767

553

646

0.86

758

593

695

0.8532

782

581

682

0.8519

Alloy C

757

600

707

0.8487

765

584

692

0.8439

756

587

691

0.8495

Target

>550

>650

<0.90

>12%

Table 3. Mechanical properties of H-Bean experimental steel

finished at a comparatively lower FRT of 750°C, around 120-150°C below the recrystallisation stop temperature (Tnr). Based on the reheat temperature, the presence of NbCN in solution and the starting recrystallisation temperature, deformation was the same. It can be seen % Element

Alloy C

0.2

%Mn

1.6

%Si

0.25

0.01

0.02

%Al

0.02

%Cr

0.19

0.068

%Nb

0.047

N2 (ppm)

110

Table 4. Typical chemistry of H beam

that in both cases the mechanical properties and microstructure are similar. Chemistry and process parameters are given in Table 2 and 3. It can be further observed that Alloy B-Steel was processed at a comparatively lower finished rolling temperature and achieved a quite high mechanical cold strength when compared to Alloy A-Steel, which was produced by high temperature rolling, although it is not good enough to meet the standard requirement of IS: 2062 E550 Grade. Based on published literature reviews,[3-5] and considering our present mill capability, a further trial was undertaken with the addition of Cr and predicted that a modified chemistry, coupled with the appropriate rolling practices, would result in optimum strength levels in the H beam. Maintaining www.steeltimesint.com

6/8/16 2:53 PM

STRUCTURAL STEEL

Alloy B’s Nb & V levels and utilising a Cr content between 0.15 – 0.20% produces an optimised level of strength in hot-rolled high strength beams. Further trails were proposed for an Alloy-C using typical chemistry for H beams. (Table 4). The rolling parameters were designed for maximum benefit without further jeopardising mill capability. During this trial, the following key parameters were considered essential for the successful implementation of the trial. The following instructions were given to the mill operator:1. Decrease soaking temperature from 1270°C to 1230°C with a pretext of avoiding grain coarsening. 2. Lower the rolling speed of the break down mill and finishing mill to obtain uniform stress distribution/uniformity in microstructure. 3. Maintain the finished rolling temperature within a range of 750°C to 800°C. Results and discussions Microstructural Analysis The microstructures of Alloy B have a high Nb & V. H-beam steel samples with finishing temperatures of 752°C (Fig.2) have elongated grains consisting of ferrite and pearlite with an average intercept of 4.7μm. Alloy “A” finished at a higher FRT (>880°C), having equiaxed grains and an average intercept of 6.18μm (Fig.1). It can also be seen that Alloy “A” has no banded structure, while the Alloy “B” has a banded structure and elongated ferrite grains. Samples of Alloy “C”(Fig.3) show that the microstructures are ferrite and pearlite, due to solid solution alloying and an optimum finishing temperature. The sample has a uniform and fine microstructure having a grain size more than 9.0; and no unusual banding was observed in the microstructure. Performance analysis of the product In this case, a study using a single stand reversing roughing mill followed by a threestand universal mill with no post rolling cooling. We compared the mechanical properties of H-beam steel with respect to alloy design. The flanges from three batches (Alloy A, B and C) of high strength H-beam steel, size 406 X178X54mm, were sampled (sampling according to standard) for mechanical properties analysis. A www.steeltimesint.com

Jindal steel structural.indd 4

graphical plot of mechanical properties was drawn. In order to comparatively understand the impact of chemistry alteration on material behaviour under tensile loading, a graphical analysis of the trials was undertaken (Fig.4). The plot clearly shows that in Alloy C (Nb&V+Cr), the yield strength (YS) is higher, well above the standard requirement while with Alloy B (without Cr incorporation, higher V, Nb) the YS plot has only just managed to touch the targeted line at two points i.e. 561 MPa at a finish temperature of 759 deg C and 554 MPa at 767 deg C. In Trial 1 (without Cr incorporation, lower V,Nb), irrespective of finish temperature the YS is achieved below the requirement. Furthermore, the Cr addition in E 550 has been facilitated to achieve higher strength, which is a prime requirement of highstrength H-beam parallel flange steel. Conventional mechanical properties From the above comprehensive analysis, it can be determined that high-strength H-beam steels are micro-alloyed steels with the addition of Cr, V and Nb elements. They have good conventional mechanical properties, yield strengths are higher than 550Mpa and they have good formability due to a low YS/UTS ratio <0.90. The main process parameters of hot rolling to achieve the strength goals of 550 MPa grade high strength H-beam steel is a final finish rolling temperature within the range of 750°C-850°C, subsequently air-cooled to room temperature, which fully meets performance requirements. Taking the uniformity of the microstructure into consideration, the finishing rolling temperature should not be too low (<750°C) Vanadium and Niobium levels are known to give higher strength through dislocation strengthening, precipitation hardening and grain refinement because in existing process design, the reduction per pass working in the flange area is less, so the effect of dislocation and precipitation strengthening could not be derived at optimum level. Other alloying avenues were explored and Cr was chosen. The addition of Cr with microalloying (Nb&V), in Alloy C, was used as a major strengthening means for developed 550 Mpa grade high-strength H-beam steel.

Proper control The yield and tensile strength of the H-beam steel were increased with the decrease of finish rolling temperatures. As microalloyed Nb&V it did not yield encouraging results; adding Cr (Alloy C) gave the desired mechanical properties. Proper control of microalloy design and final processing temperatures means that optimum strength levels in high-strength H beam steel can be achieved. The key to success is a thorough understanding of the metallurgy involved, particularly the proper use of alloy ‘designing’. Way forward In order to develop such high-strength grades, mills should employ a post-cooling facility to reduce the extra costs involved with adding an alloy. Investment in post cooling facility development can be recovered through reduced alloy design in such grades. t

References 1. Douglas Glenn Stalheim & Michael Robert Wright, FUNDAMENTALS OF DEVELOPING FINE GRAINED STRUCTURES IN “AS ROLLED” LONG PRODUCTS 2. Dong ZH. World H-beam Steels and Rail Production Technology [M].Beijing: Metallurgical Industry Press, 1999: 56-62 3. Yu QB, Zhao XP, Sun B, et al. Yield-strength Ratio of Steel Plate for High-rise Building[J]. Iron and Steel, 2007, 42(11): 74-78 4. Pickering FB. Microalloyed Low Carbon High Strength Steel [M].Metallurgical Industry Press, Beijing, 1982: 32-36 5. Pickering F.B. Physical Metallurgy and the Design of Steels [M], Applied Science Publishers Ltd, London, 1978. 6. Stalheim, D., Glodowski, R., “Production of Fine Grained As-rolled Plate Steels”, Proceedings of AISTech 2009 Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2009 May/June 2016

6/8/16 2:53 PM

METALLURGY MASTERCLASS

Dealing with stress and strain This is the second of a series of articles that attempt to provide a basic introduction to the science of metallurgy. It is aimed at those within the steel industry with little background in this area. By Keith Walker*

Yielding and yielding strength If a stress sufficiently great is applied, at the end of the elastic region the steel will deform permanently, such that if the stress is removed, the steel will not return to its original length. This is called yielding, and the stress at which it occurs is called the yield strength. So, the higher the strength of the steel, the longer is the elastic region before yielding occurs. When we talk about strength, we are talking about the level of stress that can be applied to the steel without it deforming permanently. It is not obvious that steel can deform without breaking. Many materials cannot, an obvious example being most ceramics, which deform elastically and then break. Yielding occurs because of defects in the crystal structure of the steel that allow it to change shape without breaking. These defects are called dislocations and there are around a billion per square centimetre. To attempt to increase the strength of steel, it is a matter of preventing dislocations from moving and so allowing permanent deformation. The most immediately apparent way is to increase the carbon content, which has the effect of increasing the amount of pearlite up to a limit of around 0.8% carbon, at which

point the steel will be 100% pearlite. Dislocations can be considered to find it difficult to move through the pearlite structure of laths of ferrite and cementite. They also find it difficult to move across the interfaces between the crystals (grains) in the steel structure, such that decreasing grain size results in a higher strength. This is achieved through chemical composition and by temperature control during rolling. The melting shop and mill will discuss this before deciding on the composition of the steel. It is possible to prevent dislocations from moving by adding alloy elements other than carbon. While the elements have markedly differing effects, the basic intention is to encourage the formation of very small particles of the carbide or nitride of the element, which have the effect of ‘pinning’ dislocations and making movement difficult. Niobium and vanadium can be used in small amounts to achieve the desired effect. Returning to the application of a stress, resulting in elongation or strain, what happens after the yield point? The steel continues to elongate permanently, which is why it can be cold-worked, and becomes stronger. This is known as work hardening and the density of dislocations increases. Eventually, the steel will break. Since, for ease of practical usage, the stress reported is the load divided by the original cross sectional area, most stressstrain graphs appear to show the steel becoming less strong before it breaks. This is not so, because the steel cross section reduces when the stress is applied. The true stress increases until fracture and the steel itself never actually weakens, although the test piece does. For many grades of steel, particularly strip, the aim is for them to be cold-

worked without breaking. A low strength is required, such that permanent deformation is made easy. In such grades, the carbon content is reduced to very low levels. However, in many applications the final component must be strong in service, and metallurgists aim for steels that deform to the shape required without cracking, but which are then sufficiently strong in service. Easily confused are strength and toughness. In fact, achieving adequate levels of both in the same steel presents considerable difficulty, one tending to increase while the other decreases. Toughness is the capability to withstand impact loading without breaking, and is measured in terms of the amount of impact energy required to break the steel. The Charpy test Toughness is most often measured by breaking a notched sample of a standard size and shape, the most common being a Charpy test. A pendulum is raised to a fixed point such that its potential energy is known, and released to impact on the sample. The sample absorbs a proportion of the energy when it breaks and the pendulum swings upwards afterwards, indicating how much energy has been lost. Steels that are strong (or hard, which amounts to the same thing for most

Stress

WHEN a stress is applied to steel, at first it stretches elastically. If the stress is removed, the steel returns to its original length. This stretching is commonly called strain, such that an applied stress results in a certain strain. Within this elastic region, the strain resulting from the stress is constant for nearly all steel grades regardless of its strength, and it is critical to understand this. In other words, the elastic modulus (often called Young’s modulus) of steel does not vary.

Tensile stress Plastic region Yield stress

Elastic region

* Steel consultant. Email: keith.walker@steelfolk.co.uk May/June 2016

steelmaking k walker.indd 1

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METALLURGY MASTERCLASS

practical purposes) under tensile loading are often lacking in toughness if impact-loaded. One reason why there are so many grades of steel is because of the need, in service, to have the right combination of strength and toughness.

Charpy toughness

Transition temperature

Varying toughness The situation is made more complicated because the toughness of steel varies suddenly with service temperature. This is the so-called ductile to brittle transformation. Steel with good toughness at room temperature can undergo a sudden reduction at temperatures only just below freezing point, over a very short range of temperature. Many final applications, the steel must be designed to have adequate toughness at low temperature. This is a matter of depressing the point at which the ductile to brittle transformation occurs, which again affects the necessary composition of the steel. In very extreme low temperature applications, such as subsea, an amount of very expensive nickel is added to achieve good toughness as low as -70 Celsius. Impact testing must be carried out at this temperature to certify the steel. A further factor that affects the mechanical properties of steel is the type and level of non-metallic inclusions present. Steel can contain a wide range of them depending on chemical composition. Usually they are oxides and sulphides of the alloy elements that the steel contains, and they can arise in a number of ways. Perhaps the most common inclusion is manganese sulphide, arising from the reaction between the manganese and sulphur in the steel and forming largely during casting. Because the inclusions are effectively tiny holes within the structure of the steel they can reduce toughness considerably, and when required are managed to low levels by reducing the sulphur content during steelmaking. This

Brittle behaviour

is expensive, so the tolerable level must be determined when designing a steel grade. Oxide inclusions are considerably more difficult to manage. The type present varies with grade of steel and they can cause problems with fracture in small components, such as during drawing of fine wire. They can also initiate fatigue cracking in service, for example in valve springs. Control of them can place restrictions on the chemical composition, which can be used to give the desired mechanical properties, and also on the process used during steelmaking. In critical grades, the levels are checked by examination of a sample under an optical or electron microscope. One other property, which is often required, is to be able to machine the steel easily and efficiently. In this particular case, a high level of manganese sulphide inclusions is the aim, provided the component does not require high toughness. The inclusions have the effect of acting as chip breakers, avoiding the long stringers of swarf that occur during machining, and also extend tool life.

Segregation Segregation has to be controlled for many grades and applications. Segregation is the concentration of alloy elements at the centre-line of the cast product, the most common being carbon and manganese. It can be made worse by poor casting conditions, such as caster alignment or casting superheat, which is too high, again placing restrictions on processing. In heavy plate it is a particular concern, especially when the product is butt welded, such as in pipelines. It is also possible for segregation to cause problems during downstream processing, such as wire breakage during drawing. So, having understood the meaning of words associated with mechanical properties of steel, a brief description of the considerations and constraints placed upon steel makers has been presented. They can cause a great deal of frustration because to the naked eye, steel looks pretty much the same regardless of its composition, inclusion content or level of segregation. Only thorough testing and examination provide adequate levels of guarantee.

Ductile behaviour

Most stress-strain graphs appear to show the steel becoming less strong before it breaks. This is not so because the steel cross section reduces when the stress is applied

→

made in Germany

→ → → → → → → etc.

Temperature

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steelmaking k walker.indd 2

May/June 2016

6/8/16 10:39 AM

AUTOMOTIVE

Steel’s top dog in automotive With the continued push for fuel economy improvements throughout the entire vehicle fleet, it is no surprise that recent North American vehicle launch announcements highlight the use of advance high-strength steel (AHSS) to meet automotive lightweight requirements. By David W. Anderson*

A recently updated study by Ducker Worldwide shows that AHSS is the fastest growing automotive lightweighting material applied by the vehicle design community. The growth of AHSS over the past three years exceeded original estimates from Ducker (2010) by more than 20 pounds (10%) per vehicle, while competing materials such as aluminium are falling short of their forecasts. The international steel industry continues to partner with automotive customers to develop and apply the next generation of AHSS highvalue solutions to meet the fuel economy and performance requirements of future vehicles. Automotive steels Automotive steels are classified in several different ways. Common designations include conventional steels (interstitial-free and mild steels); HSS (carbon-manganese, bake hardenable and high-strength, low-alloy steels); and AHSS (dual phase, transformation-induced plasticity, twinninginduced plasticity, ferritic-bainitic, complex phase and martensitic steels). Additional HSS for the automotive market include hotformed, post-forming, heat-treated steels and steels designed for unique applications such as improved edge stretch and stretch bending. Conventional steels, interstitial-free and mild steels, are widely produced and, with their exceptional formability (elongations of 30 – 60%), are typically used for complex shapes, including vehicle exterior painted

surfaces, such as doors, fenders and deck lids. Conventional steels have an essentially ferritic microstructure. High-Strength Steels (HSS)| HighStrength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels are medium strength (approx. 400 – 800MPa) and are used in various body structure, suspension and chassis parts and wheels,

where strength is needed for increased in-service load. HSLA steels are essentially single-phase ferritic microstructures strengthened primarily by the addition of micro-alloying elements. Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS) are high-strength (generally greater than 500 MPa) and applied in the body structure,

Conventional and high-strength steel have an essentially

Dual Phase steel microstructure consists of a soft ferrite

single-phase ferritic microstructure. Chemistry additions

phase with a hard martensitic phase added to improve the

control grain size and strength

strength. As the percentage of martensite increases, the strength of the dual phase steel increases

300

+24lbs.s +22lbs.s +22lbs.s +11lbs.

200

100

108

124

139

156

175

194

213

232

251

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012 2013

2014

2015

2010 release

2014 additional AHSS pounds per vehicle

* Senior director, automotive market and long products program at the Steel Market Development Institute (SMDI) May/June 2016

automotive steel SMDI.indd 1

www.steeltimesint.com

6/8/16 9:55 AM

AUTOMOTIVE

including beams and cross members, sill and pillar reinforcements and other energy-absorbing components. These steels provide the automotive design engineer with high value, lightweight solutions with the required stiffness (for improved ride and handling), crash energy management (to absorb front and rear crash energy) and strength (to provide anti-intrusion during side or roll-over accidents). The principal difference between HSS and AHSS is the microstructure. HSS are single-phase ferritic steels with a potential for some pearlite in C-Mn grades. AHSS are primarily steels with a microstructure containing additional phases – for example martensite, bainite, austenite, and/or retained austenite in quantities sufficient to produce unique mechanical properties. In addition to controlling the chemistry, AHSS require control of the cooling rate to help create the desired microstructure, either on the hot mill run-out table (for hot-rolled products) or in the cooling section of the continuous annealing furnace (continuously annealed or hot-dip coated products). Typical grades of AHSS include: Dual Phase (DP) Steels: These range

in strength from 500MPa to 1200MPa and obtain their properties from the introduction of a martensitic phase into the ferrite microstructure. The ferrite phase provides excellent formability, while the martensitic phase provides the improved strength (higher ultimate tensile strength compared to conventional steel with similar yield strength). Resulting from their ability to absorb energy during crash events DP steels are typically used in motor compartment and rear rails. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Steels: These range in strength from 500MPa to 1200MPa, while providing improved formability versus Dual Phase steel. Improved formability is obtained with the introduction of additional phases (austenite and bainite) into the microstructure. These phases improve the work hardening properties of steel and provide additional energy absorption characteristics. Ultra High-Strength Steels (UHSS): These are AHSS, which are ‘ultra-high’ in strength, greater than 800 MPa and are used in areas where exceptional strength and anti-intrusion are needed, including the

Transformation Induced Plasticity steel microstructure consists of a soft ferrite phase with additional phases

Martensitic steels have a microstructure that is predom-

(martensite, austenite and bainite) to control strength and

inately martensite with small amounts of ferrite and/or

formability

bainite

A-pillars, B-pillars, rockers and rails. Typical grades of UHSS include: Martensitic (MS) Steels: These are AHSS with very high tensile strengths (800MPa to 1900MPa) and are produced by transforming the austenite from the hot rolling or annealing process to martensite during quenching on the run-out table or in the cooling section of the continuous annealing line. MS steels are characterised by a martensitic matrix containing small amounts of ferrite and/or bainite. Hot-Stamped Steels: These are formed at a minimum temperature of 850°C (thus fully austenitised) followed by a cooling rate greater than 50°C per second to ensure the desired mechanical properties are achieved. The implementation of press-hardening applications (quenching in the forming die) and the utilisation of hardenable steels are promising alternatives for optimised part geometries with complex shapes and no springback issues. Hot-stamped steels have been in use since the 1990s mainly in the passenger compartment. Steel industry demonstration projects Why do automakers continue to use steel for their vehicles? As shown above, innovation in the steel industry is continuous. In addition, the steel industry works closely with customers to develop new steel grades to provide solutions tailored for each application throughout the vehicle. There are more than 200 grades of automotive steels featuring a number of properties and strengths from 200MPa to 1900MPa and formability up to 60%. This wide range of engineered material has been showcased in numerous industry projects with the latest being the FutureSteelVehicle (FSV) project. FSV, a collaboration project between SMDI and WorldAutoSteel completed in 2011, DP 500,600 - 11.8%

HSLA 450,BH 340, 400-32.7%

DP 800 - 9.5%

DP 1000 - 10%

Mild steels - 2.6% HF 1500 11.1% FSV BEV steel types as % of body structure

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automotive steel SMDI.indd 2

MS 1200 - 1.3%

TRIP 980 - 9.5% TWIP 980 - 2.3% CP 1000 - 1470 - 9.3%

May/June 2016

6/8/16 9:56 AM

第十四届中国炼焦技术及焦炭市场国际大会

14th China International Coking Technology and Coke Market Congress 2016年9月7-9日长沙万达文华酒店 Sept. 7-9, 2016 Wanda Vista Changsha, China

冶金工业国际交流合作中心 Metallurgical Center for International Exchange and Cooperation

COKE CHINA 与您2016年9月相聚长沙

白苗女士、丘广俊先生 Ms. May Bai

China International Coking Technology and Coke Market Congress 2016

中国贸促会冶金行业分会 Metallurgical Council of CCPIT (MC-CCPIT)

AUTOMOTIVE

Twist beam structure

Alum baseline

Clamshell

I-Beam Baseline

1.00

0.79

0.74

24.90 2.19

20.00

0.90 0.75

25.00

Mass (kg.)

Cost/cost baseline

1.16 1.00

Bushings

30.00

1.25

1.00 1.01

Note: Insufficient data for forged design

0.66 0.50

17.44 2.19

15.00 10.00

-30.0%

21.20 2.19

22.71

15.25

19.01

OEM Baseline

U-beam

S-beam

-14.9%

5.00 0.00

30,000 100,000 250,000 Production volume [vehicles/year] Costs relative to baseline at each volume

Mild steels 1500Mpa 7.1% 1300Mpa 1.4% 980Mpa 12.8% 580Mpa 32.1% 440Mpa 2.5% 340Mpa 4.0% 270Mpa 34.5% Aluminium 3.3% Magnesium 1.7% Other 0.6%

7.1 1.4 12.8

High-strength steel

980Mpa 14%

590Mpa 21%

Mild steel 42%

440Mpa 23%

focused on developing optimised AHSS body structures for four proposed 2015 to 2020 model-year vehicles. The goal was to show maximum weight reduction with the combination of advanced steel materials and an efficient load-path design achieving the same performance as the baseline vehicle. Using 97% HSS and AHSS in the body structure design, the results showed 29% body structure mass savings at no manufacturing cost penalty. Another recent project demonstrating innovative design on a component level is the Front Lower Control Arm (FLCA) project completed by the Auto/Steel Partnership. In this project a state-of-the-art aluminium forged FLCA was used as the baseline for a design optimisation study. A total of three steel solutions were developed meeting the mass and performance of the aluminium baseline and offering a 34% manufacturing cost savings. The AHSS clamshell design has already been implemented on several new vehicle designs replacing original aluminium designs. www.steeltimesint.com

automotive steel SMDI.indd 3

A study on the twist beam proved how AHSS technologies enable weight savings in the vehicle’s suspension system. The objective of the project was to develop a lightweight steel twist beam achieving 15 to 25% mass reduction, with equivalent performance to the baseline design and a lower or equivalent cost to alternative materials. The U-Beam design achieved a 30% mass reduction relative to the baseline assembly with lower manufacturing cost compared to designs using alternative materials. The combination of new AHSS steel grades and computerised design optimisation software enables steelbased solutions to compete with existing aluminium components in mass and with greater cost benefit. Automakers continue to examine optimised steel solutions before assigning components to more expensive alternative materials for mass reduction because the highest value solutions will very often be achieved with AHSS optimised designs.

Examples of AHSS in 2016 vehicles Working directly with automakers on demonstration and enabling projects is paying off big for the steel industry. New vehicle launches over the past two years are showing rapid adoption of the latest innovations in the new designs. In other words, the AHSS technologies introduced in the FSV program are on the road today; a very rapid adoption by our automotive customers. Automakers are proud to demonstrate these new innovative designs and bring attention to steel technology during their unveilings at recent auto shows, which have featured steel-intensive vehicles. There follows a few examples highlighting the benefits of using AHSS in 2016 vehicle launches. 2016 Honda Pilot The 2016 Honda Pilot applies highstrength and ultra high-strength steel in the body. These steel grades add strength and enhance rigidity to its frame, as well as improve collision safety performance. The body structure is composed of 21.3% ultra high-strength steel. The Pilot features 1300 MPa steel door reinforcement beams and front door outer stiffener rings made of 1500 MPa hot-stamped steel. These are designed to better protect occupants in a frontal or side impact. The increased strength allows the components to be 2.8 pounds lighter. 2016 Nissan Titan XD The 2016 Nissan Titan XD features 58% high and advanced high-strength steel in its body structure. To accommodate its imposing towing and payload, the Titan was redesigned with a larger high-strength steel, fully boxed, full-length ladder frame. Every component has been bolstered and May/June 2016

6/8/16 9:56 AM

AUTOMOTIVE

strength steel

IF Mild IF-HS BH CMn +

40 30 20

used in all-new

OPTIMA

0 0

200

500

Austenitic Stainless (Annealed)

AHSS Grades

advanced high

Conventional Steels

60 50

The ratio of

Elongation (%)

70 51%

TRIP HSL

Cur

rent

A, F

800

DP,

3rd

3rd GEN

AHS S

1100

HS S

MnB+HF

1400

1700

2000

Tensile strength (MPa)

Steel AHSS PHS

LIFE CYCLE EMISSIONS Current focus by regulators in efforts to reach 54.5mpg by 2025

Steel is the only automotive material that is continously recyclable without loss of product strength and integrity

MANUFACTURING EMISSIONS DRIVING EMISSIONS

RECYCLING

DRIVING EMISSIONS ARE ONLY A PIECE OF THE PUZZLE 2.0-2.5kg CO2e/kg steel 11.2-12.6kg CO2e/kg Al

Material production has a large impact on a vehicle’s life cycle emissions. If we want to improve our environment, regulators must look beyond driving emissions and consider the entire life cycle

strengthened for added stiffness, vertical and lateral bending, as well as torsional rigidity. 2016 Kia Optima The new Optima uses more than 50% AHSS, a 150% increase from the previous model. A new ring-shaped section, defining the trunk opening behind the rear seats below the shelf, substantially increases body rigidity. Hot-stamping components in 16 core stress areas boost the body structure for better driving dynamics and a quieter ride. Additional examples of 2016 vehicle launches The above vehicles represent a typical example of an SUV, pick-up truck and mid-sized car. There many more examples demonstrating mass reduction through the use of AHSS for equal or improved performance. This trend is continuing with early releases of 2017 models such as the GMC Acadia. The body structure of the Acadia incorporates press-hardened, high-strength steels, which allow thinner components in some areas offering comparable or better crash performance than conventional materials. They also help reduce the base curb weight by an May/June 2016

automotive steel SMDI.indd 4

Steel

2.0-2.5

Aluminium

8.9 –12.6

Magnesium

18-45

Carbon FRP

21-23

Current Average Greenhouse Gas Emissions Primary Production

Greenhouse gas from production (in kg CO2/kg of material)

estimated 700 pounds (318 kg) compared to the current model. The SMDI and its members have numerous projects with automakers on future vehicles demonstrating sufficient lightweighting to enable OEMs to meet future fuel economy regulations and ensure these vehicles remain steel vehicles into the next decade. Continued development To provide customers with high-value steel solutions in the future, the steel industry in partnership with the United States Department of Energy (DOE) and automotive customers are developing the next generation of AHSS, known as third generation AHSS (3rd Gen AHSS). This new class of steel shares the high-strength properties of AHSS while also having higher elongations similar to high-strength steels to enable forming using automakers’ current stamping infrastructure. The Integrated Computational Materials Engineering (ICME) project is a four-year project (finishing in 2017) with goals and deliverables to develop models for various length scales from the steel microstructure to material forming and vehicle crash. As part of the project validation phase, the DOE provided two target 3rd Generation AHSS grades: 1). high-strength (1200MPa)/

exceptional ductility (30%) and 2). exceptional strength (1500MPa)/high ductility (25%). During this time, the steel partners along with CANMET successfully melted and processed experimental heats, which resulted in grades close to these targets. An additional project deliverable is to use the developed 3rd Generation AHSS models as part of a multi-disciplinary design optimisation on at least four automotive components to achieve 35% weight savings. Preliminary results indicate that such a weight saving is achievable with similar vehicle performance. As demonstrated by this project, 3rd generation AHSS provide both higher strength and formability, offering the automotive design engineer additional products to reduce mass and continue to keep steel the material of choice in future vehicles. Environmental impact Automakers are working diligently to meet future fuel economy (CAFE – Corporate Average Fuel Economy) regulations. In anticipation of these requirements, the steel industry accelerated the introduction of AHSS and continues to introduce new AHSS grades with improved properties. Automakers can combine the potential www.steeltimesint.com

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mass reduction enabled by AHSS with new engine technologies to achieve their desired fuel-economy goals. In fact, from model years 2004 to 2014, when these technologies were combined, CO2 emissions decreased by 95 grams per mile (g/mi), or 21%, and fuel economy has increased by 5.0 mpg, or 26%. The manufacturing and disposal of a car or truck can account for a significant portion of the vehicle’s lifecycle emissions. While the focus of federal regulations is on tailpipe emissions, the true vehicle emissions impact is only evident by considering the entire life cycle. A vehicle’s life cycle has three parts: production, use (driving) and endof-life (recycling and/or disposal). Production emissions are an important environmental consideration since in addition to the widespread adoption of AHSS, automakers are also considering lightweighting with aluminium, magnesium and carbon fibre. Producing primary aluminium ingot in North America currently generates at least four times the emissions of producing steel, (1.9 ton CO2e/ton for steel vs. 8.9 ton CO2e/ ton for aluminium), even when using the aluminium industry’s assertion that aluminium smelters in North America operate using 75% hydropower. Power accounting methods using regional grid information and/or recognising imported aluminium ingots would skew production emissions even higher. Production of other materials can generate 20 times the emissions of steel. Disposal of a steel vehicle also has significant advantages. Steel is magnetic, making it easily and affordably recycled. With steel’s physical properties, one product can be recycled into another without loss of quality, contributing

to the material’s high recycling rate and value. Aluminium sheet, however, must be sorted and recycled by grade, requiring the investment of millions of dollars in equipment. With the advantages of steel with lowest material production emissions, improved fuel economy through lightweighting and ease of recyclability, it is no surprise that steel offers the best life cycle emissions, too. In a study by the SMDI comparing vehicle life cycle emissions (over a 12- year average vehicle ownership), AHSS-intensive vehicles had lower emissions than aluminium-intensive vehicles for every class of vehicle tested – sedans, trucks, SUVs and alternative fuel vehicles. Even when tested using parameters very favourable to competing materials, the life cycle emissions of steel vehicles remain lowest in approximately 70% of the vehicle and driving cases. Conclusion As the automotive industry works to meet increasingly stringent regulations, the North American steel industry is introducing new AHSS grades. These grades provide strength, mass reduction, and high-value and help alleviate the impact on the environment. The variety of steel grades allows automakers to use the right grade in the right application for exceptional occupant protection, crash energy management and durability. The trend of AHSS as the fastest growing lightweighting material exceeding industry forecasts, along with lower adoption of aluminium, is proof of the high value of steel to the automaker and the consumer. Clearly, steel will remain the dominant material in the automobile for years to come. t

NOZZLES AND SYSTEMS Lechler nozzles have been setting standards in quality, performance and design for over 135 years. A wide range of specially developed and proven nozzles of many different designs and in a range of materials is available for applications throughout the processes of metal smelting, refining, casting, rolling and processing.

PICKLING LINES

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Towards smarter steel manufacturing Smart manufacturing will make an important contribution to the sustainability of manufacturing, argues M. Ometto*, A. Polo** and C. Pietrosanti*** of Danieli Automation INDUSTRY 4.0, a collective term coined in April 2011 at the Hannover Fair in Germany[1], summarises how the implementation of enabling technologies relevant to manufacturing and ICT (Big Data, Internet of Things, Cyber Physical Systems and so on), will revolutionise the organisation of the global value chain. “By enabling Smart Factories, the Fourth Industrial Revolution creates a world in which humans, virtual and physical systems of manufacturing globally co-operate with each other in a flexible way”[2]. Due to increased market instability and the instability of economic systems in particular, Smart Factory and Industry 4.0, will make an important contribution to the sustainability of manufacturing, in particular the steel industry. The competitiveness of industrial systems will depend on the global deployment of these concepts. In this context, system integration companies have plenty of growth potential if they are able to take on the challenge and propose solutions and systems to the market[3]. Danieli Automation (DA), a forwardlooking automation business that is part of the Italian Danieli Group, sensed that change was in the air during the first decade of the new millennium, long before the official launch of Industry 4.0. This article outlines the company’s vision and the strategy of the Steel Smart Factory, analysing compliancy with the Industry 4.0 approach. Furthermore, it examines enabling technologies and products, and research and development now and in the future. Roadmap to smart manufacturing Since the end of the ‘noughties’, DA has

played an active role in research activities linked to the Steel Smart Factory. The company has renewed its product portfolio and released new solutions based on the results of its extensive research and development work. DA’s projects have focused on the provision of integrated monitoring and control systems and the development of sustainable manufacturing and business processes beyond the usual plant perimeter. In 2013 when the term Industry 4.0 was introduced, DA deeply re-analysed its industrial approach and implementation strategy and found, unsurprisingly, that there were many similarities between its already adopted strategy and the Industry

Fig 1.

Fig 2. iSTAND training system

4.0 paradigm. Such analysis confirmed the validity of the company’s general approach and, in particular, the importance of the three main pillars at the base of its strategy: 1. Centrality of the human factors (the ‘human-in-the-loop’ or HITL approach with relevant simulation, cognitive behaviour, machine learning techniques, safety and so on), 2. The capital importance of data gathering and processing for extracting the embedded value, actually emphasised by the Big Data paradigm. 3. Extended development of models with a complex multi-physical and throughprocess simplified for offline simulation, plant design, scenario analysis and execution practices design; and simplified models mostly derived from previous process control models and real time applications. The above three points were the foundation of three development directions: 1. Extended area and through-process supervision; 2. Deployment of robots where possible to increase safety; 3. Extended use of intelligent autonomous systems in the plant and the provision of effective and in-time decision support to operators through knowledgebased systems. The wide and strong push modelling of steel manufacturing aimed at: • implementing local supervision for each process and manufacturing area; • extending supervision over the steel manufacturing process sequence to tally with customer orders and expectations,

*Executive vice-president Danieli Automation BU Steelmaking and DA Research Centre **Executive manager R&D - DA Research Centre ***C. Pietrosanti – senior consultant May/June 2016

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Fig 3. DA control room of melting and secondary metallurgy area in the Riva plant of Thy-Marcinelle

Furthermore, model deployment – both in the design phase and in monitoring, control and decision-making – epitomises the fundamental aspects of the Digital Factory concept[4]. The main advantage of the Digital Factory is that it can carry out the comprehensive multi-objective optimisation of products, processes and systems before a new factory is built or any modification is actually carried out on an existing system, in order to improve quality and reduce time. DA’s strategy has been continuously evolving and two milestones emphasise the sense of this evolution and represent two important steps towards the development of the Steel Smart Factory: the 3Q approach and DIGIMET. 1. 3Q represents the actual state-ofthe-art of the conceptual evolution of the approach; 2. The evolutions of the 3Q environment into a new platform (DIGIMET). A brief presentation of these two milestones in the DA approach can effectively show the importance and the novelty of the work done and the strong influence on DA’s product and solution portfolio. 3Q concept and Q3 technology set The 3Q approach (Fig. 1 shows the relevant logo) is focused on customer needs and requirements; the three Qs stand for focus on: • Quality, for excellence in quality and product quality certification, • Quantity, for high productivity, www.steeltimesint.com

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• Quickness, for quick response to market demand. From a technical standpoint, the key assumed drivers are data and data analytics, process supervision, attention to the social aspects, digitalisation and the application of robots in working areas. The integrated 3Q concept generated a set of three technological packages: OA – Operator Assistant associated with the virtual environment iSTAND, PPI – Plant Performance Indicator, and API – Area Performance Indicator. OA – operator assistant and iSTAND are based on digital technologies (see Fig. 2 for the iSTAND environment) like touch screen, 3D rendering and screen pages with digital buttons devoted to the execution of operational tasks. OA provides interactive and knowledgebased assistance to operators for safe and intelligent plant operation. It can be part

of the fully digitalised pulpit solution or, synchronically, can assist operators using a conventional button pulpit for command execution. It concentrates much of the intelligence needed within the automation system and reduces the number of commands that operators have to consider. The digital pulpit is part of the virtual environment for effectively testing the automation of a yet-to-be built plant as well as effective operator training. This assembly is the iSTAND: a system allowing a virtual reality control applied to the entire automation system of a plant. iSTAND enables virtual simulated commissioning before the design phase and later after the assembly and installation of new plants. Where design and prototyping activities are concerned, a sensible reduction in time and cost is possible and allows for performance validation on 3D models. Being a virtual system, iSTAND is also a very important step for knowledge transfer and operator training prior to plant installation and during its operational life. This environment integrates real time process control models and offline multi-physics models for virtual design, equipment testing and operator training, linking simulated or historical data streams, carrying out operating practice design and set-up, risk analysis, safety assessment and HMI design and test. The digital pulpit with OA and the iSTAND environment are part of the capital evolution of DA’s Digital Factory approach, running in parallel with the real plant. Thus, it will be possible to run a synchronised ‘Digital Twin’[5] devoted to fast testing of modifications, different configurations and scenario analysis. This is also the suggested

Fig 4. Evolution from the descriptive to the prescriptive approach

What optimisation? How can I automate a manual decision?

4. PRESCRIPTIVE

ADDED VALUE

according to the Industry 4.0 paradigm.

3. PREDICTIVE

2. DIAGNOSTIC

1. DESCRIPTIVE

Where are we heading towards?

Where is the problem? Why did this happen? What happened? Where did it happen?

DEGREE OF INTELLIGENCE

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environment for complex optimisation analysis to benchmark the above-mentioned recovery strategies. • PPI – the Plant Performance Indicator provides overall information on plant performance and the status of process synchronisation in controlled areas. The PPI receives data from the plant’s technological areas and translates it into a graphical overview that is presented to operators. The upper virtual environment can run PPI in a simulated manner using either simulated or historical data and providing the same graphical vision. • API – the Area Performance Indicator function provides, for each technological area, overall information on the status and quality of process performance in the controlled area. It receives information from each technological area and translates it into a graphical overview to inform and assist operators. In analogy with PPI, API can be part of the virtual environment. Experiencing the 3Q framework The first phase of the approach led to the deployment of the 3Q concept and products in the customers’ plants. This involved the development of a supervision platform with a local and horizontal integrated view, as previously explained; robots for important functions in the plant area; development and deployment of intelligence in the plant through the use of intelligent systems; plus extended decision support to operators. In 2012, an extended use case and the relevant validation campaign took place in the Riva Plant of Thy-Marcinelle (Fig. 3). Analysis of the preliminary results was very encouraging: an increase of 0.5 heats per shift stabilised following the installation of a supervision platform and the relevant products. Furthermore, the number of stoppages decreased from 20% to 2% due to the automation systems. OA and PPI in particular empowered operator performances according to the requirements. At the end of a positive validation campaign, the main question being asked within the company, bearing in mind pressure from the German Industry 4.0 programme, was how to go forward. At that time, compliancy analysis ended with a positive conclusion and the answer was simple: We must proceed in the same way. A further step was launched with the following commands: Keep robotising, more sensors in the field, no man on floor May/June 2016

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Q-MAINTENANCE

Q-ENERGY

Q-PROCESS

DIGIMET PLATFORM

MES

Fig 5. The DIGIMET platform

PCS

PLANT

and exploit data. In other words, keep digitising. Through interaction between robots and systems, the development of a new generation of autonomous CPPs has taken place; exploitation of data value adopting the Big Data approach is being tested in customers’ plants. Two aspects are very interesting: 1. The evolution from the descriptive to the prescriptive approach; 2. Development of the new platform. From Descriptive to Prescriptive Point 1 summarises the process needed to evolve from a purely reactive approach by following the recognition of events that have already happened to the proactive prescription of actions already processed by autonomous systems. Fig 4 illustrates this process. The metrics combine the degree of intelligence needed to take decisions autonomously and the added value for the customer. Such an approach requires extensive development of CPS to be fast, reliable and effective, robust modelling suites for fast scenario analysis, and inmemory processing of large volumes of data. This is also part of the approach for condition monitoring and predictive maintenance configuring a category of remote services through the deployment of the Internet of Things. The DIGIMET platform Extensive exploitation of data (volume, velocity, veracity i.e. ‘Big Data’), complex reasoning capabilities and autonomy of systems, are transversal functions of the existing automation landscape. Moreover, execution must be supported

by supervision and forecast functions, including intelligent scheduling of resources, for which the latest MES are adequate. A new platform is needed to cross cut the structure virtually, taking and supplying information everywhere. This can be achieved with the DIGItal platform for the metals industry (DIGIMET – Fig. 5). This is not a further hierarchical level in the Automation Pyramid, but a way of breaking the hierarchy when and where necessary. Furthermore, it provides the logical layer to plug services represented by logical systems of differing degrees of complexity. In Fig. 5, for example, systems dealing with remote or in-house maintenance, energy monitoring and optimisation, support to manufacturer on process quality and so on, are easy to plug and play in the upper part of the shell. The DIGIMET platform Downward MES, for example, is linked and the transversal colloquium through the system is realised. A first important benefit is to configure a service-oriented organisation of functions with little or no re-organisation of execution, thanks to the DIGIMET platform. An easier connection to specialised vendor applications is already possible and the savings are represented by the progressive building of higher level functions with no drastic or immediate change to the ICT landscape (monitoring, control and management systems). All of the general aspects and specific systems responding to the abovedescribed ICT organisation are running in DA customer plants while others are under development. Several use selected www.steeltimesint.com

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DIGITAL MANUFACTURING

applications, connected by DIGIMET, and are under evaluation in the field. Towards the Smart Factory We have discussed the importance of the ‘Industry 4.0’ paradigm in the future of the manufacturing industry. However, for some system integration companies, the process toward the Smart Factory, as defined in the introduction to this article, started before the formalisation of the term in 2011. In this context, DA has become an important player in terms of realising solutions that are available today, but their development started before the birth of Industry 4.0. The main steps of this evolution consisted of the development of the 3Q framework and then the DIGIMET platform a couple of years ago. The three main development lines assumed were:1. Put the intelligence in the plant. 2. Exploit the hidden value of data by increasing sensors along the manufacturing chain. 3. Where possible, ‘automatise’ (systems and robots) retaining supervision

International Trade Fair for Metallurgy, Machinery, Plant Technology and Products

and full decision-making capability in the hands of human beings, confirming full compliancy with the Industry 4.0 vision and allowing important customer benefits. There are many examples of these benefits in the field, specifically those devoted to knowledge capture and embedding into systems, which have already been subjected to long-running test campaigns that positively confirm customer expectations. Benefits and opportunities Ultimately, while the global risks connected with this new approach are reasonable, they are outweighed by the benefits and future opportunities. Customers have demonstrated their satisfaction and willingness to maintain the ICT landscape, which is not subject to drastic modifications and, in the process, save money while enabling a smooth growth towards newer technologies. Continual optimisation of the steel manufacturing process will make the production of steel more profitable and sustainable thanks to continuing development of the Smart Factory concept. t

The International Tube and Pipe Trade Fair in Russia

6 – 9 June 2016

References [1] VDI Nachrichten, H. Kagermann, W.D. Lukas, 1. April 2011, “Industrie 4.0: Mit dem Internet der Dinge auf dem Weg zur 4. industriellen Revolution”, http://www.vdinachrichten.com/Technik-Gesellschaft/Industrie40-Mit-Internet-Dinge-Weg-4-industriellenRevolution [2] K. Schwab, The Fourth Industrial Revolution, [3] C. Bauer, D. Wee June 2015, “Manufacturing’s next act, June 2015, McKinsey http://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/ operations/our-insights/manufacturings-next-act [4] C.D. Schlapfer, M. Koch, P. Merkofer, “Industry 4.0 Challenges and solutions for the digital transformation and use of exponential technologies”, Deloitte Report, 2015 http://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/ Deloitte/ch/Documents/manufacturing/ch-enmanufacturing-industry-4-0-24102014.pdf. [5] M. Grieves, Digital Twin: Manufacturing Excellence through Virtual Factory Replication, http://innovate.fit.edu/plm/documents/doc_ mgr/912/1411.0_Digital_Twin_White_Paper_Dr_ Grieves.pdf

International Trade Fair for Aluminium and Non-Ferrous Metals, Materials, Technologies and Products

Krasnaya Presnya, Moscow, Russia

www.metallurgy-tube-russia.com

Messe Düsseldorf GmbH P.O. Box 10 10 06 _ 40001 Düsseldorf _ Germany Phone +49 (0) 2 11/45 60-77 93 _ Fax +49 (0) 2 11/45 60-87 77 93 RyfischD@messe-duesseldorf.de

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ROLLING

Improving laying head technology The laying head’s role on the finishing end of a rod rolling mill – to form a product rolled at very high speed into a helical ring pattern – means that its efficient operation is critical to the success of the rolling process. As speed capability in the finishing blocks has continued to increase well beyond 100 m/s, the importance of this piece of equipment has intensified. By Bruce V Kiefer*

THE key to success in sustaining or improving operations is to selectively target existing equipment that can be improved with new technology and increase the level of automation. Modernisations can provide consistent operations with higher speeds, less maintenance and downtime, longer wear part life for more ‘up time’ between changes, and as little operator intervention as possible. In today’s high-speed operations, the laying head often creates a bottleneck, usually as a result of two factors: • Only at slower speeds can the rod be presented to the controlled cooling

conveyor with consistent ring shapes and patterns including head and tail-end rings and, therefore, enable uniform cooling and proper coil package formation. • Rapid wearing of laying head pipe requires frequent pipe changes – causing downtime that reduces mill production. These factors limit many mills to speeds under 100 m/s on small sizes, which can have a significant impact on production capacity. Recent design changes in the laying head and laying pipe, coupled with the use of proprietary materials, have resulted

in revolutionary performance levels at higher finishing speeds and with better mill utilisation. Challenges at the laying end Regarding the laying head (Fig. 1), the most common industry problems faced by rolling mill managers are head and tail end formation, packaging and patternrelated issues. These are most often the result of laying heads that rely on outdated technology, have high vibration levels and suffer from excessive pipe wear. It is very common to experience problems with both head and tail ends on many laying heads

Fig 1. Morgan high-speed laying head

* Primetals Technologies USA LLC, Worcester, MA 01605 USA. Phone: 508-755-6111. Email: bruce.kiefer@primetals.com May/June 2016

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ROLLING

Fig 2. Standard laying head design

even with tail end controls in place, while also producing an inconsistent ring pattern and leading to delays at the reform station. In addition, laying head pipe wear causes delays with frequent pipe changes. To tackle this industry-wide problem, engineers at Primetals Technologies in Worcester, Massachusetts, USA, have spent several years developing new laying head technology, working with selected customers for on-site testing and development. The goal was to design an improved laying head that could produce a consistent ring pattern at high speeds with a pipe life significantly greater than just 1,000 to 2,000 metric tons that often occurs when rolling 5.5 mm rod at 100 m/s or more, therefore requiring frequent pipe changes. One of the first test sites was at Sterling Steel. In 2002, Sterling Steel Company LLC began operations in Sterling, Illinois, on the former Northwestern Steel & Wire property purchased by Leggett & Platt. The wire rod mill includes a mix of older and newer equipment. Prior to mill modifications, the high-speed minimill produced 450kt/ yr of rod. About 80% of its production is small diameter rod, primarily 5.5 mm and 6.35 mm. The laying head in the acquired mill had been rebuilt several times and ran using obsolete technology. Laying head pipes wore out too often, and both head ends and tail ends experienced problems, producing an inconsistent laying head pattern. In a typical month, Sterling would roll less than 40kt, changing pipe two to three times per week. Each pipe change shut down the line for close to 30 minutes. In addition, poor ring patterns would cause delays at the reform station, slowing production even further. www.steeltimesint.com

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Fig 3. Overview of improved laying head design

Fig 5. Exit end of SR Series after some rolling

Transformational design The standard laying head consists of a pipe support with clamps arranged in a three-dimensional space curve to hold the laying head pipe, a quill to couple the pipe support to the laying head gear train and motor, and a shroud to help contain the rings. The standard Morgan high-speed laying head made by Primetals Technologies also includes a patented tail end control device, with segmented deflector plates, attached to the pipe support for control of head and tail end rings. The standard laying head (Fig. 2) has segment plates1 to control head and tail end rings, and a deflector plate2, bolted on to couple the segment plates to the pipe support3, a component with a 3D space curve machined into it to allow the fitment of the laying head pipe to the path. The laying head pipe4 forces the rod into the coil pattern and the quill5 couples the pipe support to the laying head gear train and motor.

Fig 4. New laying head design

Primetals Technologies developed a number of improvements to the laying head. The basic design was altered from two pieces to a single integrated piece (see Fig. 3), shrinking the total weight by 28%. The modified pipe path was optimised for longer life, and the new design shifted the centre of gravity for the pipe support back toward the gearbox, resulting in a slightly longer pipe curve. Finally, the design lowered the maximum stress level concentration in the laying head by 70%. This laying head upgrade is now patented as the SR Series® technology. The new laying head technology incorporates several patented innovations, with the greatest changes along the pipe path (Fig. 4). In this concept, new material replaces worn sections of laying head pipe through a slow ‘self-regenerating’ process during rolling, controlled by managed thermal cycling, tolerances and friction. The regeneration shifts the wear zone up to 150 mm (six inches) without affecting the laying head dynamic balance. The resulting dramatic improvement in pipe life can be further enhanced with pipes featuring proprietary materials. Fig. 5 shows an example of the relative pipe movement that characterises the selfregenerating feature of SR Series pipes. The increase in pipe life as a result of this selfregeneration is a function of a number of factors, such as mix of product sizes, speeds and steel grade. Fig. 6 shows examples of how pipe life can be dramatically increased over that of normal pipes from experience at three highspeed rod mills and how it can vary with combinations of those factors. May/June 2016

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ROLLING

70X

Fig 6. Production results for the SR Series pipes

60X

Pipe life multiplier

50X 40X 30X 270X 10X 0 Installation

Mill A 5.5 - 6.35mm up to 100m/s

Mill B 5.5 - 7.0mm up to 110m/s

Mill C 5.5 - 6.3mm up to 115m/s

Fig 7. High speed turndown

Fig 8. Typical high speed ring pattern (left), compared with improved SR Series ring pattern (right)

In addition, the patented product portfolio includes a high-speed turn-down (Fig. 7), with the increase in pipe life prompting improvements in turndown life to eliminate downtime. Sterling has rolled a record 300kt per turn-down guide. Dramatic performance results The new SR Series technology has been used in production at four facilities – two in the US and two in Asia, with recordbreaking results. At Sterling, the rolling mill ran 130kt through the laying head, and the new SR Series pipe did not wear through, a mill record. That production level included primarily 5.5 mm (7/32”) size rod, which forms 58% of all mill products, intended for the springs market. In addition, the improved consistency of ring pattern resulted in a reduction of delays at the reform station, leading to new production records at the mill. Unplanned downtime for pipe changes went from almost 2,500 minutes a year to less than 100 minutes. The three other test sites have reported May/June 2016

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similarly dramatic results. At the other US site, mill speeds increased appreciably, as the laying head was no longer a bottleneck. Average production rates rose close to 50% for four sizes of rod, and speeds increased nearly 30% to 110 m/s for 5.5 mm rod. Mill utilisation rose and downtime fell. The mill achieved new production records for both 12-hour and 24-hour periods for 5.5 mm, 6.35 mm and 6.50 mm diameter rod. These production records have been

made possible because the speeds of 110 m/s are sustainable for long production cycles, unlike other installations that report higher speeds, but only for the purpose of demonstration. The two wire rod mills in Asia that installed the new laying head pipe and pipe support both report success with the equipment. Several other mills in Europe, Asia and Australia have ordered the SR Series technology as part of either new plants or modernisation projects. Recent commissioning of an SR Series laying head at one of the Asian mills provided an excellent demonstration of the possible improvements in ring pattern. This particular mill has two strands, and the laying head upgrade was applied to one strand at a time. After the installation of the upgrade on one strand and with both strands running, site engineers could compare the laying head performance both with and without the SR Series pipe. Fig. 8 shows the difference in pattern at the exit of the laying head and Fig. 9 shows the resulting ring package on the controlled cooling conveyor – while rolling 5.5 mm

Fig 9. Common ring spacing (left), compared with improved SR Series ring spacing (right)

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ROLLING

Fig 10. Coil height reduction due to SR Series pattern at right

at 105 m/s. It is obvious that the SR Series pipe gives a much improved pattern. From the other installations discussed above, it has now been demonstrated that this improved pattern can be achieved consistently and with fewer pipe changes required due to wear. Patented ring distributor system The advantages of the improved ring package continue beyond the conveyor into the coil reform area, which, ideally, is equipped with a Primetals Technologies ring distributor. The patented ring distributor system, which has been implemented in scores of wire rod mills, assists in the orderly formation of a coil in the reform tub. The ring package exiting from the conveyor, however, influences the quality of the coil formed by the ring distributor. In the two-strand mill discussed above, a side-by-side comparison of coil quality due to ring package was possible, since both strands had a ring distributor, while only one had the SR Series upgrade. Fig.10 shows one coil from each strand on vertical stem pallets in the coil handling system before compacting. The coil on the left from a standard laying head and ring distributor has a very good shape, but the improved pattern from the SR Series pipe was able to produce a coil with height reduced by approximately 15% to 20% – an important factor for compacted coil integrity, coil storage and shipping. New market-shifting technology In response to problems at many wire rod mills with older laying head designs that limit mill speeds and production rates, and negatively affect quality, Primetals Technologies, in collaboration with several customers, has developed new market-shifting technology for use in new laying heads and for laying head upgrades. The new design is lighter weight, has less vibration and significantly reduced stress levels. It features a pipe path incorporating a unique arrangement and proprietary materials that extend pipe life through a patented self-regeneration process. Remarkable results Production results with the new technology have been remarkable, with pipe changes required only when the mill changes rod size above 13.5 mm, rather than due to pipe wear. Wire rod mill operations have been able to improve production rates and achieve higher speeds without the penalty of reduced service life. The resulting coil package is greatly improved, with consistent high quality rod meeting market demand. This laying head design is available for all future rolling mill upgrade projects. www.steeltimesint.com

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www.infosight.com +1-740-642-3600 sales@infosight.com May/June 2016

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PROCESS CONTROL

Cold rolling mill optimisation The high-speed production achieved by modern cold rolling mills requires reliable and robust thickness sensors. Automatic Gauge Control (AGC) systems and hydraulic actuators in place today are capable of reacting to strip changes within just a few milliseconds, so accurate measurements must be supplied with comparable speed. A sensor that provides high-speed measurements allows faster feedback loops, and tighter control of flat sheet thickness resulting in product improvement, cost savings and mill optimisation. By Christopher Burnett* SHEET steel is an essential material for our modern lives, from the buildings we live in, the cars we drive, to the containers that hold and transport our food. With its strength and flexibility, it is the ideal material for industrial and consumer applications. It can be recycled over and over again, reducing landfill waste and saving energy. With the ever-growing concern for efficiency and sustainability, steel producers strive to provide the world-class quality strip on the first coil of a campaign, maximising mill yield and minimising scrap material. Steel sheet producers and their customers have agreed standards to describe various physical parameters for the material traded, with thickness, width, hardness, and strength among key variables defined in a simple product code. Cold rolling mills The evolution of rolling mills has accelerated as the speed of processors and

S,T,P, temp, gap

Thickness in

digital controls have grown by orders of magnitude. The capital cost in a rolling mill is substantial and investors understand that in order to achieve the maximum return on investment and the shortest payback time, the mill needs to produce high quality sheet at the fastest possible mill speeds. Diligent plant managers are always focused on safely maximising mill output. To accomplish this, mills are operated 24 hours a day, seven days a week. When a mill is down for any reason, the accountants not only consider the energy and labour consumed while the mill is idle, but the value of the product that could have been made during that ‘lost time’. It is no surprise to hear that mills operate at the

highest speeds allowed by their motors and drives. However, raw production in tons means nothing if the material produced fails to meet quality standards. Many believe that strip quality begins in the meltshop, and that is not far from the truth. Controlling the chemistry and thermal history of the steel not only assures the grade produced will meet the mechanical properties desired of the final product, but that the strip will handle the tons of pressure and tensions of the high speed rolling process. Table 1 summarises the typical thicknesses and rolling speeds for each mill type. Not surprisingly, as the material gets thinner, the speeds increase dramatically.

Hot roughing mill

Hot finish mill

Maximum Thickness

> 400 mm

20-50 mm

3-20 mm

Minimum Thickness

20-50 mm

3-20 mm

0.100 mm

~ 100

~1000

~2000

Rolling speeds (meters per min)

Cold rolling mill

Table 1. Overview of Steel Rolling Mill parameters Fig 1. (left) Selected AGC input variables for a simple single stand mill Thickness out Speed, Tension, Power, wraps

Speed, Tension, Power, wraps

Fig 2. (right) Thermo Scientific™ X-ray Strip Thickness Gauge

*Technical product manager, Thermo Fisher Scientific. Email: Christopher.burnett@thermofisher.com May/June 2016

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PROCESS CONTROL

1.02 1.01

Sensor response

0.99

X-ray sensor with 5ms response

0.98 0.97

Isotope sensor with 5ms response

0.96 0.95

Isotope sensor with 150ms response

0.94 0.93

500

1000 Time (ms)

1500

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150 kv photons 40 kv photons

2000 Thickness (micron )

Fig 3. Simulated sensor responses to a 250 ms, 1.0% deviation from target

Automatic gauge control The average human response time is of the order of a quarter of a second, at the maximum rolling speed of a cold or foil mill, eight metres of strip is produced. It is easy to see why Automatic Gauge Control (AGC) is an essential component of modern rolling mills. Comprehensive AGC algorithms incorporate readings from dozens of sensors around the mill. Some of the key AGC input parameters are speed and tension (Fig.1). Conservation of mass dictates that the mass per unit time entering the mill must equal the mass per unit time exiting the mill. So as the material is rolled thinner, the speeds must increase. If the drive motors are off, even by a few centimetres per minute, the strip may break or cobble with catastrophic results. There is a delicate balance between the reduction caused by the mill force, and the reduction caused by drawing (extruding) the material through the gap. Thickness gauges are primarily used to look for dramatic deviations in thickness; other than that, their feedback is used to check the predictions of the mass flow models. Small changes are corrected by slight adjustments in speed and tension, as the motor power can be controlled very quickly. Larger changes are compensated by the hydraulic cylinders in the mill stand, which can react in a matter of milliseconds. When a mill is operating at 1800mpm, the material moves 3 cm every millisecond. If the mill is using 0.5 metre diameter rolls, the circumference of the roll would be roughly equivalent to 50 milliseconds. In order to see any eccentricity or periodic event related to a roll of this diameter, one would need to have a thickness sensor not only capable of operating at 5ms, but being able to provide measurements with manageable signal-to-noise values.

Sensor response

Actual value

Fig 4. Sensor response as a function of steel thickness for different photon energies

Thickness gauge selection While there are several choices in thickness gauge technology, there really is only one choice for the speed and accuracy requirements demanded when optimising a cold rolling mill and that is the X-ray gauge. Direct contact gauges have the advantage of being insensitive to alloy, however, the measurement stylus marks the strip, and the mechanical tolerances of the frame prevent measurement near the centre line of the strip. Additionally, the small measurement spot size of the stylus translates microvariations in the strip surface into a noisy signal. While these variations may actually be in the strip, the signal needs to be filtered to reduce the noise, and the filtering will delay responses to actual longer-term changes. Therefore, high speed AGC is not practical with contact gauges. Non-contact radiation-based thickness gauges can use either radioisotope or X-ray sources. However, in the case where the gauge measurement is to be used in a closed loop AGC system, there is really only one solution, X-rays. (Fig. 2) The number of photons emitted from an X-ray source is approximately 1,000 times that of the commercially available isotopes. Due to the statistical nature of radiation detection, measurements made with more photons per unit time have a better signal-tonoise ratio, and consequently a more true measurement. In the case of X-ray versus isotope, the noise level for an isotope is of the order of 20 to 30 times worse than that of an X-ray-based sensor when the same averaging time is used. Statistical noise at that level creates a situation where small changes in thickness are lost in the noise of the signal. While higher activity or multiple isotope pellets might be used in an effort to increase the signal, the regulatory and safety considerations make this option

prohibitive. Another approach to improve the noise on isotope-based systems is to increase the averaging, or response time. However, when this is done, small, and instantaneous changes in product thickness are blurred to the point of not being seen. (Fig. 3)

Just as the low signal to noise ratio is a serious factor in source selection, one must take care to select a proper energy source so as not too have too much signal. While there may be a small spares inventory saving to be made using a single source type across a number of rolling mills, there are serious performance drawbacks. If an X-ray gauge is operated at too high energy, the dynamic range of the detector output is reduced, limiting the measurement resolution and precision. In the case of thin strip production at around 250 microns, a 10 micron change in thickness results in a signal change of less than 0.2% at a photon energy of 150 keV, whereas the same thickness change at a photon energy of 40 keV will produce a signal change of May/June 2016

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PROCESS CONTROL

Actual thickness of product

Thickness x

Actual thickness of product 63%

Thickness change as measured by gauge

Time

Fig 5. Graphical representation of gauge response to an instantaneous thickness change

T0 Thickness change as

Mean response time = time to reach 63.2% of

measured by gauge

final reading (99.3%) of final reading is reached after 5*TR)

over 7% (Fig. 4). When the statistical noise on the measurement is +/- 0.1%, it is easy to see that the 150 keV source is just too much for the thin strip application. The advent of high-speed data, however, means that, by increasing the response time of the detector, statistical noise can be reduced. Incoming data can be manipulated and processed by advanced filters to mask or hide true statistical variations. Radiation measurements are statistical by their very nature (Fig. 3).

All noise figures should be quoted with a reference to the number of Sigmas, or confidence levels (CL). Most gauge manufacturers present 2 sigma (95% CL) noise figures, but not all. Straightforward data processing provides for predictable results and a better representation of the process dynamics. If a change occurs in the process, advanced filtering may portray a portion of the change, but not the full change. Process engineers and their AGC algorithms may over react, or under correct thanks to the manipulated data. In order to ethically improve the speed of the sensor response to change, without increasing the statistical noise on the May/June 2016

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measurement, the physical characteristics of the sensor need to be optimised for the application. The raw signal must be shielded to remove as much electrical noise as possible. In an ideal instrument, the radiation detector output is digitised immediately. The analog detector signal is converted to a digital number within a few millimetres of its origin. This practically eliminates the possibility of electrical noise impinging on the signal. In comparison tests, the noise on the newly designed detector improved by a factor of 30%. Additionally, users of this type of system can benefit further by taking advantage of the detector’s ability to operate at a 1ms mean response time. At this speed, and with the reduced noise, process engineers have the tools to analyse data at high speeds, revealing mill chatter and other higher frequency anomalies. In a typical rolling mill that produces sheet steel at 250 um, the noise at a 10 ms mean response time might be of the order of +/- 0.10% (2 sigma). With the improved signal processing of this system the noise will drop to +/- 0.07% (2-sigma). For a mill that produces 2Mt/yr, that translates to a savings of almost $240,000 in raw material alone (using HRC price at US$400/ton). Data archiving A final benefit is realised in the powerful tool of data archiving. This ideal system is available with a software feature that stores any gauge data stream in the iba “.dat” format. This format is gaining popularity as the iba PDA data analysis tool also gains popularity. The flexibility of the iba visualisation tool is its real strength. A simple example of the flexibility is depicted in Fig. 6 showing a coil report with the thickness data presented as a function of length, with tolerances and coil statistics. Easy-to-use features allow for time-based,

Fig. 6. Typical coil report using iba data archiving tools

and length-based data analysis. Built-in mathematical tools such as FFT can point process engineers to mill components that might need maintenance. In this situation, mill downtime can be best managed, and unplanned downtime dramatically reduced. Comprehensive data analysis The data archiving feature can also be configured to accept and record data from other sensors within the mill. Any data point that is available to the mill computer through an Ethernet connection can be collected by the system to allow for comprehensive data analysis. This permits the pairing of thickness measurement output to mill tensions and speeds. While traditional analogue outputs are typically used for gauge validation, it is equally acceptable to use the data transferred via Ethernet, or other means, to a data archive. Summary Advances in online control of flat sheet have necessitated a state-of-the-art X-ray-based sensor system to provide high speed/low noise measurements permitting producers to realise material savings and quality improvements. The ideal sensor would be housed in a robust frame designed for the rigours of the rolling mill environment, thus allowing for mill optimisation to achieve world-class quality and strip uniformity at the highest rolling speeds. The result would give rolling mill owners and investors a maximum return on investment. t www.steeltimesint.com

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PERSPECTIVES: BROKK

Keeping steelworkers safe As many regions of the world deal with the problem of cheap Chinese imports flooding global steel markets, the need to help steelmakers cut costs and increase efficiencies becomes top priority. As Brokk celebrates its 40th anniversary, Peter Bigwood*, says that the company’s products – remote-controlled demolition machines and attachments – offer workers a safer way to do a variety of challenging tasks in the steel mill.

1. How are things going at BROKK? Is the steel industry keeping you busy? Things are going very well. Interestingly, our business has picked up even as the steel industry itself has been struggling somewhat. A number of mills are discovering that Brokk remote-controlled demolition machines offer an excellent alternative to current methods of cleaning and de-bricking furnaces, ladles and even torpedo cars. Workers who previously used jackhammers or rivet busters to complete some of these intensive and hazardous tasks have embraced the transition to an option that involves considerably less strain and risk of injury. Management on these sites can assign a single operator to use a Brokk machine to accomplish the job, and deploy other workers on other projects. 2. Where in the world are you busiest at present? That’s a great question! If you look at our Facebook page, you’ll see photos that fans send from around the globe as they use their Brokk machines on a wide variety of applications. We have hundreds of Brokk machines working throughout the USA and Canada, and thousands more in the rest of the world. We feel confident that Brokk usage will continue to grow as companies seek more efficient and safe methods to perform refractory removal and demolition. More specifically, we are working on a project to help a steel mill find a safer method of removing the tuyeres on their BOF. Today, this is done mostly manually, and we are developing an attachment that will allow one operator to do the entire

procedure of removing and then replacing the tuyeres using a remote-controlled Brokk machine. 3. Can you discuss any major steel contracts you are currently working on? As far as our relationships within the steel industry go, we recently reached a milestone with our equipment at TimkenSteel. Our Brokk 800P just completed its inaugural year of operation at one of its steel plants. TimkenSteel purchased the machine in December 2014 to clean out its 175-ton ladles as well as to remove refractory lining from its electric arc furnace at its Faircrest Steel Plant in Canton, Ohio. We designed our Brokk 800P with a heatprotected, three-part arm with continuous 360-degree rotation, which helps it effectively clean hot ladles and converters as well as complete refractory renovations. We pair the unit with a heat-protected Atlas Copco SB452 hydraulic breaker, which generates as much as 650 foot-pounds of force at the tip of the tool. The precision and manoeuvrability of our arm combined with the incredible power of the hammer results in impressive productivity. Peter Bigwood 4. Where does BROKK lead the field in terms of steel production technology? While Brokk equipment doesn’t increase steel production directly, the use of robotic equipment promotes a safer, more efficient steel mill. Robotic equipment is many times more efficient than handheld tools, and it gives the operator the power to finish

the job in less time while greatly reducing the risk of injury. That helps increase overall productivity at the plant. Robotic equipment allows labourers to work quickly, resulting in less downtime for cleaning. When replacing a furnace’s refractory lining, for instance, workers often turn to rivet busters and other pneumatic tools. While ubiquitous in the field, they lack efficiency and can generate uncomfortable hand-arm vibrations. The wireless remote control system on our Brokk machines allows the operator to choose the best position for viewing the work being completed, which keeps the operator safe and free from vibrations and heat. 5. What exhibitions and conferences will BROKK be attending in 2016? We’re celebrating our 40th anniversary this year across a series of tradeshows and conferences. The celebration started in Las Vegas at World of Concrete, where we offered a preview of the new Brokk 120 Diesel, the world’s smallest diesel-powered remote-controlled demolition machine. Other anniversary-year events include MINExpo in Las Vegas in September. 6. Talking of ‘green issues’ and emissions control, how is the steel industry performing in this respect? From our perspective, there’s been interest in electric-powered machines in the industry. The bulk of our robotic demolition machines operate with an electric motor on 480 Volt 3-Phase power, although several of our machines are also available with a diesel engine. Brokk’s history has largely

* Vice president of sales and marketing for Brokk in North America May/June 2016

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PERSPECTIVES: BROKK

been focused on our electric-powered units, offering very high power-to-weight ratios and excellent mobility without the harmful exhaust fumes. The electric capabilities provide safe, emission-free operation for labourers working in confined areas. 7. From Brokk’s location in the USA, what’s happening, steel-wise, in the country? We’re seeing many plant managers taking steps to reduce costs in their plants; reviewing their production and maintenance processes from start to finish to uncover the inefficiencies. This prompts them to seek innovative equipment that can complete a wide range of tasks effectively. Our own design approach differs from other offerings in the industry, starting with our three-part arm system, which provides a wider variety of angles to attack the work. We also offer a tremendous degree of precision and control of the arm, and therefore the hammer, allowing the operator to work quickly and cleanly. For example, a foundry might use a Brokk machine with a single operator to remove refractory from inside a cupola; before, that same task might have required about eight labourers using 30-pound pneumatic hammers. In this instance, the Brokk machine allows the operator to avoid the risk of heat exhaustion and stand clear of any falling refractory. Plus, it frees up seven workers to take on other tasks at the plant. Long term, the machine helps eliminate the risk of workers’ compensation claims because the operator no longer has to strain his or her body while operating a heavy handheld tool. That savings can be pretty significant, knowing that shoulder surgery, for example, can cost about $100,000 per person.

energising than any cup of coffee! Word-of-mouth has been a key driver for finding these new applications. Someone might have heard, seen or read about the benefits of using a Brokk machine to solve a difficult problem, which might prompt him or her to reach out to us to see if it might be a good solution for their application. This is what drives us — finding applications where Brokk machines can speed productivity and prevent injuries. The ability to solve a problem or increase efficiency at a facility inspires us toward continued innovation.

9. If you possessed a superpower, how would you use it to improve the global steel industry? In a way, we at Brokk already have a superpower – the ability to give workers a safer way to do a variety of challenging tasks in the steel mill. We’re lucky to work with some of the best people in the steel industry, and I’m proud of the contribution we make by manufacturing and supplying powerful, precision equipment that can help speed production and keep workers safe year after year. t

Brokk robotic demolition machines are claimed to be many times more efficient than handheld tools

8. Apart from strong coffee, what keeps you awake at night? Like anyone involved in the steel industry right now, we are concerned about the current weakness in demand and pressure on many North American mills. Having said that, we are excited at the prospect of playing a role in the kinds of cost-cutting efforts that will be required in order to respond to the existing threats. Uncovering or hearing about new applications for robotic demolition equipment in the steel industry is far more www.steeltimesint.com

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HISTORY

The UK’s first large-scale iron industry The large-scale iron industry first came to Britain by transfer of technology from the Wallonia area of western Europe’s Low Countries – parts of today’s Belgium, Netherlands and France. It arrived in the south of England in an area known as the Weald. With it arrived the country’s first blast furnace in 1490, the start of an industry that persisted for 323 years. By Tim Smith* THE blast furnace was described in Part 1 of this article (see Steel Times International, April 2016). Much of the iron was cast into usable artefacts, including cannon, but also much was refined in forges to more malleable wrought iron and steel. 109 forges were built during this period to support the 119 blast furnaces. In most cases, the forges were located within a few kilometres of the blast furnace to ease transport of the sows to be refined, which weighed up to 2000 pounds (907kg), but on separate or downstream water supplies as their demand for water to turn the water wheels was far greater than at the blast furnace. This was because the forge required at least three wheels, one to drive a hammer, one to work the bellows of the refining hearth (the finery) and one for the bellows to supply the reheating hearth (the chafery). The hammer demanded the most powerful wheel, and gave rise to the name ‘hammer pond’ which remains today given to surviving ponds – those dedicated to blast furnaces never worked a hammer. A contemporary description of the operation of a Wealden forge, published in 1672 by John Ray, describes the forge thus: “In every forge or hammer there are two fires at least; the one they call the finery, the other the chafery.” Typical of the Walloon process, one end of a sow was fed into the finery hearth (through a hole in the back wall) and about three quarters of a hundredweight (38kg) melted off. This ‘loop’ was decarburised by working it under the bellows air blast, removed hot from the hearth, and hammered on the anvil (shingling) to draw it out into a square section bloom about

Cast iron sows for refining

1. Pig iron shed

4. Axel tree for bellows

2. Finery hearth

5. Axel tree for hammer

3. Chafery hearth

6. Hammer

3 4 2 6

Illustration of a Walloon forge. Note semi-circular opening on left wall below window through which sows were fed to the finery

two feet (600mm) long. This was reheated in the finery several times, each time being drawn out (hammered) into a bar (ancony) about three feet long (900mm). A portion of the bloom was left at each end of this for the tongs to clasp. Three loads of large charcoal are used in the finery per ton of forged iron. The ancony was reheated in the chafery and the remains of the bloom at the ends drawn out by hammering to make a complete bar of common dimensions along the whole length. Fuel consumption here is one load of small charcoal per ton of forged

iron. Today, no forges remain extant on the Weald, but excavations have revealed their layout. Some show that two wheels were accommodated in tandem in a single pit about 20m long alongside one wall of the forge and a third wheel alongside the opposite wall. These were all located outside of the building and fed by launders controlled by sluices on the dam (locally called a bay). Generally, the first wheel in the double pit drove the hammer and the second bellows was for the chafery hearth. The hammer wheel was the larger of the two excavations revealing a typical diameter around 3.45m and a width of 0.66m or less. The axle of this wheel passed through the forge wall and was fitted with four cams which, as they rotated, lifted the shaft of the hammer to a point where the head fell under gravity, assisted by a ‘spring’ beam, onto the work piece held with tongs on an anvil. Because the second wheel working the chafery bellows required less power, its diameter could be smaller at around 2.4m, which meant it was clear of the water flowing in the pit from the hammer wheel and so not impeded. Pit water flowed via a tail race (channel) to the stream below the bay, which had been dammed to provide the pond. The wheel on the opposite wall of the furnace drove the finery bellows and was of a similar size to that of the chafery bellows. The feed of water to the wheels was generally overshot, but occasionally breast shot (the most efficient method) for the hammer wheel, which entailed curving the adjacent end of the wheel pit to match the radius of the wheel. Wheel pits were usually lined with timber, but sometimes stone. t

* Chairman Wealden Iron Research Group www.wealdeniron.org.uk/ May/June 2016

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