TEST BANK FOR THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 10TH EDITION by QuentinAxel

CHAPTER 1—PERSONALITY AND THE SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Why study personality? The study of human personality helps us understand ourselves and other people better and gives us a greater appreciation for the complexity of human experience. II. Definition of Personality: Personality is the dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by an individual that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations and behaviors in various situations. III. Personality and Science: Personality is a scientific enterprise concerned with the description, explanation, prediction, and control of events. A. Components of Science: Theories and Research Methods 1. What are theories? A theory is a system of interrelated conceptual statements that are created by investigators to account for a phenomenon or a set of phenomena. 2. Kinds of theories a. inductive-sets of general summary statements about phenomena derived from facts. b. deductive-theories in which specific hypotheses are derived from abstract propositions and then tested by the collection of data. Deductive theories consist of postulates, propositions, conceptual definitions, operational definitions, hypotheses, and empirical observations. 1. postulates-the fundamental or core assumptions of a theory. They are taken as selfevidently true in order to provide a clear and focused direction for theorizing and research. 2. propositions- general relational statements that may be true or false. They are not tested directly; instead, hypotheses are derived from them. 3. hypotheses-specific propositions containing constructs that are conceptually defined and operationalized so they can tested and confirmed or disconfirmed through empirical testing. Hypotheses are tentative theoretical statements about how events are related to one another, often stated as predictions. a. a prior predictions-predictions made before the collection of data. 4. conceptual definitions- concepts in the hypotheses are defined precisely so that accurate measures of the concepts can be devised. 5. operational definitions- procedures (or operations) used to define particular constructs. 6. empirical observations-observations of phenomena made by investigators.

1V. Research Methods Used to Test Theories A. Experimental Method-technique for studying cause-and- effect relationships between variables. It involves the manipulation of independent variables and observation of the effects of the manipulation(s) on dependent variables. 1. independent variables-the variables actively manipulated by the experimenter so that their effects on individual behavior can be observed. 2. dependent variables-changes in behavior that occur as a result of the manipulation of conditions by an experimenter. 3. control group-the group that does not receive the experimental treatment. It is designed to provide baseline data against which the effects of the experimental manipulation(s) on the dependent variable(s) can be accurately judged. B. Correlational Method-general procedure for establishing an association or relationship between events. 1. positive correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are associated with increases in the scores on the other variable. 2. negative correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are associated with decreases in the scores on the other. 3. no relation-the distributions of scores on the two variables are random C. Case Study Method-technique involving the intensive study of a single person in order to understand his or her unique personality and behavior. 1. post-hoc explanation-explanation of a phenomenon given after its occurrence. V. Ethics for Conducting Research A. informed consent-the practice of telling study participants about the nature of their participation in a proposed experiment and then obtaining their written agreement to participate. B. debriefing-informing study participants of the true nature and purpose of a study after it is completed. VI. Criteria for Evaluating Theories A. Comprehensiveness-theories are judged as more adequate and useful if they encompass and account for a wide range and variety of phenomena. B. Precision and testability- adequate theories should contain constructs and relational statements that are clearly and explicitly stated and measured. Under such conditions, theories can be more accurately tested. C. Parsimony- adequate theories should be as economical as possible, while still adequately accounting for the phenomena in their domain. D. Empirical validity- the hypotheses of theories are tested by the collection of data to determine whether or not they are accurate. 2

E. Heuristic value- adequate theories should be challenging; they should stimulate new ideas and new research. F. Applied value- adequate theories are capable of providing creative solutions to problems that are of interest and concern to people in society.

CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Judging the Scientific Worth of a Theory: Which Criterion is Most Important? Present the 6 criteria for judging the scientific worth of a theory and ask the students which one of them is the most important. Since most students, especially those who have taken several courses in psychology, are imbued with the need to have data to support whatever conclusions they reach and will immediately say empirical validity. You can then mention that you're not so sure. You can create a theory on the spot that lacks comprehensiveness but has massive empirical support. Walk up the classroom aisle until you find a male and a female sitting next to one another. Then tell the students you will create a theory of infatuation, saying that if the female likes the male sitting next to her, she will figure that if she sits next to him at each session, that they will begin to talk, come to like one another, and that he will eventually ask her out. Then tell the class that you predict on the basis of your theory that, class after class, she will sit next to him. And she does; thus, there is massive empirical support for your theory. Point out that while the theory has massive empirical support, it's not the most useful theory in the universe. It's too limited. It can't compare with the comprehensiveness of Freud's theory which explains vast numbers of phenomena, e.g., marriage, war, friendship, incest, dreams, accidents on the job, even though empirical support for the theory is mixed. As another example, you can mention that, if a theory is imprecise and therefore the scientist is unable to test it adequately, it will very likely yield data that are questionable. So the theory's empirical validity depends on its precision and testability. You can then draw the conclusion that all of the criteria are important and interrelated and that it makes little sense to argue that any one criterion by itself is most important. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 1, your students should be able to: 1. define personality from the perspective of professional personality psychologists and from the perspective of laypeople and to explain why personality psychologists see laypeople's definition of the term as inadequate and unscientific. 2. define scientific theory and to describe the differences between deductive and inductive theories. 3. define research methods and to explain the differences between the experimental, correlational, and case study techniques. 4. describe the differences between a priori and post hoc explanations. 5. name the six criteria that are used by personality psychologists to judge the scientific worth of theories and to be able to give a rationale for why the criteria are all interrelated and important and why judgments about theories' scientific worth need to take this interrelatedness into account.

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Personality is: a. easy to define precisely. b. defined best in terms of a person's social attractiveness to others. c. an abstraction that refers to the internal instincts of a person. d. the scientific study of individual differences. ANS: d 2. There is basic agreement among personality psychologists that personality is a(n): a. physical reality. b. instinct. c. complex abstraction. d. common genetic thing. ANS: c 3. Theory-based predictions are called: a. hypotheses. b. psychological constructs. c. empirical observations. d. physical observations. ANS: a 4. If people who are more dominant tend also to be more anxious, we would say that the correlation between the two traits is: a. positive. b. neutral. c. nonexistent. d. negative. ANS: a 5. If Bill explains Mark's aggressive behavior at a party by saying it was caused by feelings of insecurity, we would conclude that this explanation is a(n): a. post hoc conclusion. b. a priori conclusion. c. scientifically valid conclusion. d. scientifically reliable conclusion. ANS: a

6. Science is an enterprise that: a. leads to the accumulation of absolute facts. b. is concerned with the description, explanation, prediction, and control of events. c. leads to the accumulation of systematized knowledge based on speculation. d. is pursued by impersonal and bias-free scientists. ANS: b 7. Operational definitions of concepts are important because they: a. provide an objective and reliable basis for communication among scientists. b. are equivalent in many respects to conceptual replication schemes. c. allow the scientist to accumulate hard and absolute facts. d. provide a key operation for our data and facts. ANS: a 8. The variables actively manipulated by the experimenter are called: a. replication variables. b. independent variables. c. control variables. d. dependent variables. ANS: b 9. The measures of changes in behavior that occur as a result of the manipulation of conditions by an experimenter are called: a. dependent variable changes. b. independent variable changes. c. control group manipulations. d. independent constants. ANS: a 10. In their study on self-affirmation, Creswell, Welch, Taylor, Sherman, Gruenwald, and Mann found that: a. self-affirmation usually makes people feel immoral, incompetent, and inadequate. b. people who affirmed themselves by thinking about their most important values were better able to cope with the stress generated by a challenging task. c. stress associated with a boring task was unrelated to study participants' cortisol levels. d. people who failed to affirm themselves were better able to cope with the stress generated by a boring and complicated task. ANS: b

11. A perfect negative correlation would be written: a. -3.00. b. -1.00. c. -2.50. d. +1.00. ANS: b 12. Positive correlations between variables occur when: a. high scores on one variable are associated with low scores on another variable. b. high scores on one variable are associated with high scores on another variable. c. high scores and low scores are significantly related in a negative way. d. low scores on a key variable are related to high scores on a second variable. ANS: b 13. A correlational technique that allows an investigator to assess the relationship between two variables by eliminating the influence of other variables is called a(n): a. error correlation. b. crystal correlation. c. elimination correlation. d. partial correlation. ANS: d 14. The case history method involves: a. the study of typical differences in personality between people. b. assessment of the impact of independent variables on given dependent variables. c. intensive study of a person's behavior over a period of time and in many different situations. d. correlation between two variables in the person's life history that the therapist deems important. ANS: c 15. The use of the case study method: a. allows an investigator to make causal inferences about behavior. b. may lead to serendipitous findings that are the source of new and interesting testable hypotheses. c. yields data that are easily applicable to people in general. d. allows an investigator to control systematically and account for the variables under his or her scrutiny. ANS: b

16. A "good" theory should encompass and explain a wide range and diversity of phenomena. This statement refers to the theory's: a. precision. b. testability. c. applied value d. comprehensiveness. ANS: d 17. A "good" theory should stimulate thinking and research. This statement refers to the theory's: a. testability. b. heuristic value. c. applied value. d. precision. ANS: b 18. A "good" theory must be capable of generating accurate predictions of behavior. This statement refers to the theory's: a. heuristic value. b. testability. c. empirical validity. d. applied value. ANS: c 19. A "good" theory should contain only those concepts and assumptions that are necessary for the explanation of events within its domain. This statement refers to the theory's: a. rigor. b. testability. c. applied value. d. parsimony. ANS: d 20. A "good" theory leads to new approaches to the solution of people's problems. This statement refers to the theory's: a. precision. b. applied value. c. comprehensiveness. d. testability. ANS: b

21. Another term for data is: a. prediction. b. sample. c. empirical evidence. d. postulate. ANS: c 22. Science involves an intertwining of two major processes: a. research and correlational techniques. b. case studies and correlational techniques. c. hypothesis and theory. d. theory and method. ANS: d 23. The case study method provides: a. data that are easily applied to people in general. b. data stressing the average or typical differences between individuals. c. information on the consistencies of the person's behavior. d. a view of the uniqueness of the person. ANS: d 24. A highly complex abstraction which encompasses a variety of dimensions is called a: a. criterion. b. constructive entity. c. psychological construct. d. replication. ANS: c 25. A fundamental assumption in a theory from which hypotheses can be derived is called a(n): a. scientific method. b. postulate. c. concrete reality. d. spatial ability. ANS: b

26. A numerical index of the probability that a particular result occurred by chance is called: a. abstraction significance. b. statistical significance. c. probability norm. d. hypothetical norm. ANS: b 27. The establishment of a reliable relation between variables is called a: a. hypothesis. b. postulate. c. prediction. d. law. ANS: d 28. A person's written or oral description of his or her own behavior is called a(n): a. concrete behavior. b. self-report. c. experimental method. d. controlled behavior. ANS: b 29. Predictions made before the collection of data are called: a. a priori predictions. b. post hoc predictions. c. operational predictions. d. law predictions. ANS: a 30. In deductive theories, the definitions of the constructs in the hypotheses which must be stated clearly are called: a. empirical definitions. b. operational definitions. c. literary definitions. d. conceptual definitions. ANS: d

31. A good example of the case study method is Freud's analysis of the personality of: a. Leonardo Da Vinci. b. Rembrandt. c. Vermeer. d. Picasso. ANS: a 32. One of the major postulates of self-affirmation theory is that: a. each of us likes conflict. b. each of us has a unique self. c. some people have unique selves. d. masochism is associated with self-affirmation. ANS: b 33. According to Ryckman, a completely adequate theory of personality: a. will be constructed by a personality psychologist in the next decade. b. has already been constructed by several personality theorists. c. will never be constructed. d. was once constructed in the early 1900s by a French physician. ANS: c 34. If Jim observes Karen's behavior in a number of situations and concludes that she has a "decent personality", personality psychologists would claim that he is: a. defining her personality accurately. b. using the layperson's definition of personality. c. defining her personality scientifically. d. basing his judgment on an objective assessment of her behavior and attitudes. ANS: b 35. An explanation of a phenomenon given after its occurrence is called a(n): a. a priori explanation. b. previous explanation. c. post hoc explanation. d. postulate. ANS: c

36. There is basic agreement among personality psychologists that: a. personality theories are all the same in terms of the predictions they make. b. personality theories typically study identical phenomena. c. the kind of theories that theorists construct depend to some extent on the theorists' personalities. d. personality theories provide unequivocal hypotheses which yield highly consistent data. ANS: c 37. Theories that are created from a solid base of data are called: a. deductive theories. b. hypothetic-deductive theories. c. inductive theories. d. generalized deductive theories. ANS: c 38. Theories that are invented in order to account for facts are called: a. inductive theories. b. generalized moral speculations. c. metaphorical inductive theories. d. deductive theories. ANS: d 39. When experimenters provide study participants with a description of the true nature and purpose of a study after it is completed, we can conclude that: a. participants have not given their informed consent. b. participants have been debriefed. c. the experimenters are unethical. d. the experimenters can now proceed to solicit the participants' informed consent. ANS: b 40. The law of effect is a theoretical summary statement that was based on a(n): a. deductive approach to theory construction. b. inductive approach to theory construction. c. a set of general theoretical propositions. d. a priori theorizing. ANS: b

41. If Professor Judson is stimulated to do research on dreaming after reading Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams, we could say that: a. Freud's views had heuristic value for the professor. b. Freud's theory had little value for the professor. c. Freud's theory was so economical that the professor couldn't wait to test it. d. even though the professor believed the theory was completely accurate he decided to test it anyway. ANS: a 42. In the Katz, Fromme, and D'Amico study which examined the relationship between personality traits and various illicit behaviors, it was found that: a. low sensation seekers were more likely than high sensation seekers to engage in heavy drinking. b. high and low sensation seekers both tended to engage in the same level of illicit drug use. c. high sensation seekers abstained from heavy smoking, whereas low sensation seekers did not. d. high sensation seekers were more likely than low sensation seekers to engage in heavy drinking. ANS: d 43. The groups in an experiment that provides baseline data so that the effectiveness of the independent variable manipulation can be accurately assessed is called the: a. assessed group. b. dependent group. c. control group. d. independent group. ANS: c 44. Studies which provide some information on cause-and-effect relationships are called: a. correlational studies. b. independent studies. c. case studies. d. experiments. ANS: d

45. If Larry believes that John will start a fight with someone at the next party if he drinks too much beer, we would say that this belief is Larry's: a. axiom. b. data. c. philosophy. d. hypothesis. ANS: d 46. In an experiment, the group that does not receive the experimental treatment is called the: a. independent group. b. dependent group. c. control group. d. study group. ANS: c 47. Recorded observations of phenomena are called: a. data. b. propositions. c. postulates. d. hypotheses. ANS: a 48. A "good" theory should help to solve problems that are of concern to people. This statement refers to the theory's: a. basic value. b. parsimony. c. applied value. d. testability. ANS: c 49. When the exact purpose of an experiment is explained to a study participant after the experimental session, it is a(n): a. experiment. b. debriefing. c. consent form. d. uninformed consent form. ANS: b

50. Theories which consist of a set of assumptions from which hypotheses are derived and then tested are called: a. inductive theories. b. data theories. c. questionnaire-based theories. d. deductive theories. ANS: d 51. One limitation of defining personality in terms of the social attractiveness of the person is that it: a. defines personality in terms of a moral evaluation of the person being evaluated. b. assesses personality as primarily rooted in biology. c. prevents the description of the personalities of certain people. d. is that only women can be defined in terms of physical attractiveness. ANS: a 52. If people who are more intelligent also tend to be less anxious, we would say that the correlation between the two traits is: a. positive. b. negative. c. neutral. d. nonexistent. ANS: b 53. The study participants who experience the intentional alteration of a factor(s) in an experiment is called the: a. control group. b. partial correlational group. c. unmanipulated group. d. experimental treatment group. ANS: d 54. Research findings that are based on testing hypotheses are: a. never determined statistically. b. always considered absolutely proven. c. always determined statistically. d. nearly always irrelevant to the study's objectives. ANS: c

55. Prominent thinkers in the philosophy of science contend that: a. there is only one theory in each of the so-called mature sciences, not many competing theories. b. it is rare for any single theory to achieve unquestioned leadership or dominance in a discipline. c. psychology is a mature science because it has only a single theory. d. psychology and physics are the only disciplines to use competing theories to explain phenomena. ANS: b 56. If Bob observes Jim's behavior in a few situations and concludes that he has a "lousy" personality, personality psychologists would claim that Bob is: a. defining Jim's personality scientifically. b. using the layperson's definition of personality. c. making an objective judgment about Jim's personality. d. basing his judgment about Jim's personality on certain instinctual urges that he can see in Jim's behavior. ANS: b

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57. If Jill believes that John will start a fight if he sees her partying with Joe, we would say that this belief is Jill's: a. postulate. b. philosophy. c. hypothesis. d. axiom. ANS: c

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58. The finding which indicates that the greater the hypercompetitiveness of students, the lower their altruism reflects a: a. positive correlation. b. negative correlation. c. curvilinear correlation. d. lack of association between the two variables. ANS: b

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59. A perfect, positive correlation would be written: a. +2.00. b. -1.00. c. -2.00. d. +1.00. ANS: d

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60. In an experiment, the group of study participants that does not receive the experimental treatment is called a: a. correlational group. b. manipulated group. c. control group. d. experimental group. ANS: c

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COMPLETION 1. The dynamic and organized set of characteristics of a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors is called ______________. ANS: personality 2. A theory-based prediction is called an _____________. ANS: hypothesis 3. The fundamental or core assumptions of a theory are called ______________. ANS: postulates 4. ______________ theories are created from a solid data base of empirical observations. ANS: Inductive 5. ______________ theories consist of postulates and a set of interrelated and internally consistent propositions, from which specific hypotheses are derived logically and made testable by means of operational definitions. ANS: Deductive 6. When findings can be ______________, investigators are more confident of their validity. ANS: replicated 7. In the experimental method, the investigator actively manipulates the ______________ variables. ANS: independent

8. The correlational method expresses the direction and size of the link between two variables by a statistical device called the ______________. ANS: correlation coefficient 9. The intensive study of a given person over a long period of time is called ______________. ANS: case study 10. A theory that contains more constructs and assumptions than necessary fails to meet the test of ______________. ANS: parsimony 11. A theory that covers a wide range of phenomena is ______________. ANS: comprehensive 12. A theory that has much data to support it meets the criterion of ______________. ANS: empirical validity 13. A theory that is stimulating and generates new theorizing and research has strong ______________. ANS: heuristic value

14. A theory that helps to solve social problems has strong ______________. ANS: applied value 15. A theory that has well-defined concepts meets the criterion of ______________. ANS: precision TRUE/FALSE 1. Many investigators define personality as the scientific study of individual differences. ANS: T 2. Scientific theories are idle speculations that are rarely tested. ANS: F

3. Most personality psychologists think that theories are not simply derived from facts, but are invented to explain them. ANS: T 4. The variables actively manipulated by experimenters are called dependent variables. ANS: F 5. The size of a correlation indicates the direction of the association between two variables. ANS: F 6. The use of the case study method by investigators allows them to systematically control variables and to draw causal connections between them. ANS: F 7. A theory that encompasses one or two phenomena is comprehensive. ANS: F 8. A heuristic theory is one that stimulates new theorizing and research. ANS: T 9. A good theory must have data that support it. ANS: T 10. A good theory always meets the parsimony criterion if it has only a few concepts and no assumptions. ANS: F ESSAY 1. What is personality? What are some of the limitations of current definitions of the term? ANS: Answer not provided

2. What is a scientific theory? Discuss the relationship between propositions and hypotheses. ANS: Answer not provided 3. What does a correlation coefficient signify? Explain the differences between positive and negative correlations. Give examples of each kind of correlation. ANS: Answer not provided 4. Describe the criteria used by investigators to assess the worth of scientific theories. ANS: Answer not provided 5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the case study method. ANS: Answer not provided 6. List the essential differences between the inductive and deductive approaches to theory construction. ANS: Answer not provided 7. Why are control groups used by investigators who are testing hypotheses using the experimental method? ANS: Answer not provided 8. Describe Steele's theory of self-affirmation and the research designed to test its validity. ANS: Answer not provided 9. What are operational definitions of concepts? Why are they crucial for the testing of hypotheses? ANS: Answer not provided 10. Why are attempts at replication of studies important to the scientific understanding of phenomena? ANS: Answer not provided

CHAPTER 2-FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Psychoanalysis: theory of personality development, functioning, and change which places heavy emphasis on the role of biological factors in the determination of behavior. II. The Role of Conscious, Preconscious, and Unconscious Forces in Personality: A. conscious forces-refers to those ideas and sensations of which we are aware. It operates on the surface of personality and plays a relatively small role in human personality. B. preconscious forces- contains those experiences that are unconscious but that could become conscious with little effort. C. unconscious forces-operates on the deepest level of personality. It consists of those experiences and memories of which we are not aware. Such mental states remain out of awareness because making them conscious would create tremendous pain and anxiety for us. III. Instincts as Driving Forces in Mental Life: A. Instincts have four basic characteristics: 1. a source in some bodily deficit; 2.an aim gratification of the need; 3.an impetus that propels the person to act; 4.an object through which the instinct achieves its aim. B. Kinds of Instincts: 1. life instincts- each person has instinctive urges that seek to preserve life. Each of us is motivated to satisfy our hunger, thirst, and sexual needs. Without food and water, we could not survive. a. libido-the psychic and pleasurable feelings associated with gratification of the life instincts. 2. death instincts-the motivation by human beings to return to an inorganic state of balance that preceded life, in which there is no painful struggle to satisfy biological needs. IV. Structural Theory of Personality-three constructs were postulated (id, ego, superego) that described the ways in which these parts of personality originated and interacted with one another to dynamically to influence behavior.

A. id-the original aspect of personality, rooted in the biology of the individual; consists of unconscious sexual and aggressive instincts. The id is amoral and unconcerned with the niceties and conventions of society. 1. pleasure principle-indiscriminate seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. B. ego- organized aspect of id, formed to provide realistic direction for the person’s impulses. 1. Ego defense mechanisms are procedures to reduce or remove painful anxiety. a. compromise Formation-use of contradictory behaviors to attain some satisfaction of an undesirable impulse. b. denial- a person’s refusal to perceive an unpleasant event in external reality. c. displacement-unconscious attempt to obtain gratification for id impulses by shifting them to substitute objects. d. fixation-defensive attachment to an earlier stage of development; stymies development toward maturity. e. identification-taking on the characteristics of another person as a means of relieving anxieties. f. intellectualization-isolating thoughts about painful events from their feelings about them. g. projection-attribution of undesirable, personal characteristics to others to ward off anxiety. h. rationalization-use of plausible, but inaccurate excuses to relieve anxiety. i. reaction formation-conversion of an unacceptable impulse into its opposite. j. regression-person reverts to infantile behavior to reduce distress. k. repression -unpleasant memories are situated in the unconscious to keep them from reaching consciousness and causing pain. l. sublimation-form of displacement in which a socially acceptable goal replaces one that is unacceptable. m. suppression-the individual’s active and conscious attempt to stop anxietyprovoking thoughts by simply not thinking about them. n. undoing-way of making amends for a socially unacceptable act by performing a socially acceptable act that nullifies the misdeed. C. Superego-agency which describes the individual’s internalization of societal values. 1. conscience-punitive aspect of the superego; violation of the conscience makes the person feel guilty or ashamed. 2. ego-ideal-positive aspect of the superego, comprising the standards of perfection taught to the child by the parents.

V. Theory of Psychosexual Development A. oral stage-first pregenital stage of psychosexual development, in which primary gratifications center around the mouth. 1. oral aggressive-an individual who becomes fixated because of under-indulgence during feeding. a. oral aggressive character-As an adult, this person is characterized by envy, manipulation of others, and suspiciousness. 2. oral receptive-an individual who becomes fixated because of overindulgence during feeding. a. oral receptive character-As an adult, this person is characterized by gullibility, admiration for others, and excessive dependence. B. anal stage- Second pregenital stage of psychosexual development, in which primary gratification centers around the anal cavity. 1. anal character-child is locked in a power struggle for control with parents; if parents are too harsh and demanding, child may develop traits of defiance, obstinacy, and stinginess. C. phallic stage-Third pregenital stage of psychosexual development, in which main gratifications are derived from manipulation of the genitals. 1. phallic character-An individual fixated at the phallic stage who, later in life, needs to prove continually his or her sexual adequacy. D. latency stage-period during which libidinal energy lies dormant and the primary focus is on the development of interests and skills through contact with childhood peers and teachers. E. genital stage-final stage of psychosexual development, in which an attempt is made to conduct a mature love relationship with a member of the opposite sex. 1. genital character-A mature, healthy individual who is sexually developed and capable of relating to members of the other sex. VI. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques: A. free association-technique in which the therapist encourages patients to report, without restriction, any thoughts that occur to them. B. dream analysis-procedure used to probe the unconscious through interpretation of the patient’s dreams. C. transference-feelings presumed to have originally directed toward the parent(s) are now directed toward the therapist. VII. Evaluative Comments: A. comprehensiveness-highly comprehensive theory; extremely broad scope. B. precision and testability-not very precise and very difficult to test adequately. C. parsimony-too simplistic and reductionistic. 23

D. empirical validity-support for the theory is mixed; empirical support for the theory of psychosexual development is satisfactory; for the theory of therapy, the support is not very good. E. heuristic value-very high; has generated and, in some quarters, continues to generate new theorizing and research. F. applied value-has very high applied value; used by investigators in many disciplines to understand personal development in the family.

CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION The Reductionistic Nature of Freudian Theory. Mention to your students that Freud's theory is reductionistic in nature, because it uses only two motives to explain virtually all behavior--sex and aggression. Point out that he failed to consider other motives like affiliation, curiosity, achievement, religiosity, and abasement, among others, so that his theory cannot possibly do justice to the complexity of motivation and behavior. Mention that, despite this limitation, Freud certainly focused his attention and efforts on two motives that are extremely important in explaining many behaviors. Ones that are especially prominent in our society where violence and the obsession with sex are rampant. Mention the many films and TV shows that focus on women who are scantily clad, the large number of breast jokes currently fashionable, the obsession with breast implants, tummy tucks, diets to control weight, and so forth. Ask the students to list 5 TV shows that are permeated with sex. You also can ask the students to "test" this obsession with sex on TV by taking a remote control for their cable TV and then casually surfing through all the channels. Tell them it will be surprising if they do not come upon at least one example involving sex. In regard to violence, mention the proliferation of war toys for children, daily reports in the media of spousal abuse, child abuse, physical assaults, rapes, killings with guns, and the mayhem that occurs in many TV shows. Ask the students to list 5 TV shows where the emphasis is largely on violence. References Brown, T.J., Sumner, K.E., & Nocera, R. (2002). Understanding sexual aggression against women: An examination of the role of men's athletic participation and related variables, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 937-952. Caetano, R., Schafer, J., Field, C., & Nelson, S.M. (2002). Partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 1308-1322. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 2, your students should be able to: 1. define the concepts of conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. 2. define the concepts of id, ego, and superego and explain the interactions among them. 3. describe Freud's view of society and how it can oppress its citizens.

4. describe the oral, anal, phallic, and genital stages and the character types associated with each stage. 5. describe the development of identification by boys with their fathers and by girls with their mothers. 6. name the defense mechanisms and be able to discuss their role in the development of individuals. 7. define the concepts of free association, dream analysis, and transference and explain how they operate in therapy to help strengthen the person's ego.

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Freud found that dreams: a. were an idle activity that contained nothing more than a chaotic collection of memories b. yielded valuable information concerning the nature of the person's conflicts and the mechanisms by which they are concealed from awareness. c. cannot be used adequately to explain behavior. d. were rarely mentioned during the free-association process and therefore had to be asked for from the patient. ANS: b 2. According to Freud, instincts have four basic components. They are: a. aim, ego, source, and impetus b. aim, id, source, and superego c. source, aim, impetus, and object d. object, source, impetus, and ego ANS: c 3. The reaction of the patient to the therapist with the feelings and behavior previously shown toward earlier authority figures is called: a. sublimation b. repression c. transference d. displacement ANS: c

4. The aspect of personality thought by Freud to be rooted in a person's biology and to consist primarily of unconscious sexual and aggressive instincts is the: a. ego b. superego c. ergo d. id ANS: d 5. The energy associated with the life instincts is called: a. amoral b. ego c. superego d. libido ANS: d 6. In Freud's judgment, instincts are: a. fixed b. changeable c. learned forms of behavior d. derivatives of the superego ANS: b 7. The aspect of personality that is responsible for appropriate interaction with the environment is the: a. id b. conscience c. ego d. superego ANS: c 8. The ego defense mechanism that involves unconscious attempts to keep undesirable id impulses from reaching consciousness is: a. denial b. repression c. suppression d. sublimation ANS: b

9. The ego defense mechanism involving the person's refusal to perceive an unpleasant event in external reality is: a. denial b. suppression c. regression d. sublimation ANS: a 10. The ego defense mechanism that involves the substitution of acceptable ideas for unacceptable ones is called: a. sublimation b. reaction formation c. displacement d. projection ANS: c 11. The ego defense mechanism that involves the transformation of unacceptable impulses into creative and socially acceptable ones is called: a. denial b. sublimation c. projection d. displacement ANS: b 12. The defense mechanism wherein a person protects his or her ego by attributing his or her own undesirable characteristics to others is called: a. denial b. projection c. sublimation d. replacement ANS: b 13. The defense mechanism involving the conversion of an undesirable impulse into its opposite is called: a. sublimation b. projection c. reaction formation d. rationalization ANS: c

14. The defense mechanism that involves the justification of one's behavior through the use of plausible, but inaccurate, excuses is called: a. sublimation b. rationalization c. intellectualization d. undoing ANS: b 15. The defense mechanism that allows the person to protect himself or herself against unbearable pain by using dissociations between thoughts and feelings is called: a. rationalization b. intellectualization c. denial d. reaction formation ANS: b 16. The defense mechanism in which a person who thinks or acts on an undesirable impulse makes amends by performing an action that nullifies the undesirable action is called: a. denial b. compromise formation c. undoing d. displacement ANS: c 17. The defense mechanism involving the use of contradictory behaviors to gain some satisfaction for an undesirable impulse is called: a. sublimation b. reaction formation c. compromise formation d. rationalization ANS: c 18. The aspect of personality that concerns the learning of the values and ideals of society is the: a. id b. ego c. superego d. libido ANS: c

19. The state of psychosexual development wherein one is practically all id and cannot distinguish between the self and the environment is the: a. anal stage b. phallic stage c. genital stage d. oral stage ANS: d 20. The stage of development wherein the ego processes are being differentiated from the id, along with the assertion of independence, is called the: a. oral stage b. anal stage c. phallic stage d. genital stage ANS: b 21. The stage during which the superego develops as an outgrowth of the resolution of the Oedipal conflict during which the values of parents and their attitudes toward society are internalized is called the: a. phallic stage b. anal stage c. oral stage d. latency stage ANS: a 22. The stage during which sexual energy is sublimated or channeled into other pursuits is called the: a. anal stage b. oral stage c. latency stage d. genital stage ANS: c 23. The stage wherein one makes satisfactory adjustments in love and work is called the: a. oral stage b. phallic stage c. latency stage d. genital stage ANS: d

24. Bornstein argues that therapists trained in classical psychoanalysis should abandon the concept of: a. free association b. oral dependence c. defense mechanism d. eating disorder ANS: a 25. The character type described as exceptionally stingy, orderly, and obstinate is the: a. oral character b. phallic character c. genital character d. anal character ANS: d 26. The character type described as reacting to castration anxiety by behaving recklessly, resolutely, and in a self-assured manner is the: 1. oral character 2. phallic character 3. anal character 4. genital character ANS: b 27. The character type described as having modified socially unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable ones by finding satisfying careers and performing creatively is the: a. anal character b. oral character c. genital character d. phallic character ANS: c 28. The "Rat-Man" involved the case of a young man who was: a. obsessive-compulsive b. schizophrenic c. fixated at the oral stage d. oral-aggressive ANS: a

29. In Freudian theory, feelings of sexual pleasure that have their source in the individual's control over expulsion and retention of feces involve: a. oral compulsivity b. phallic vanity c. genital inferiority d. anal eroticism ANS: d 30. Freud's theory: a. is very precise and testable b. is very comprehensive c. lacks heuristic value d. lacks applied value ANS: b 31. Freud called people who were sexually mature and capable of orgasm: a. anal characters b. phallic characters c. oral characters d. genital characters ANS: d 32. Freud maintained that the ego: a. is formed in early adolescence b. comes into existence to forward the aims of the id c. is never in conflict with the superego d. operates on the pleasure principle ANS: b 33. The superego has two components, according to Freud: a. id and ego-ideal b. conscience and ego c. ego-ideal and conscience d. id and ego ANS: c

34. The ego-ideal functions to: a. aid the individual as he/she strives for perfection in certain areas of life b. stifle a father complex c. punish the individual for doing wrong d. make the individual feel incompetent ANS: a 35. The Oedipal conflict is strongest during the: a. oral stage b. anal stage c. latency period d. phallic stage ANS: d 36. According to Freud, men have a more highly developed sense of ethics and justice than women because: a. men are naturally more intelligent than women b. they are more capable than women of suppressing their sexual urges c. they identify more closely than women with the values of their mothers d. the resolution of the Oedipal conflict is more definite and clear cut in men than in women ANS: d 37. A study by Tribich and Messer showed the greatest conformity behavior (to a psychiatrist's influence attempts) by: a. oral characters b. anal characters c. phallic characters d. genital characters ANS: a 38. Freud's theory: a. meets the parsimony criterion b. is precise but not testable c. fails to meet the parsimony criterion d. has no heuristic value ANS: c

39. The defense mechanism that involves the conscious blocking of unpleasant memories from awareness is called: a. repression b. compromise formation c. suppression d. projection ANS: c 40. A driving force that attaches itself to an idea or behavior is called a(n): a. id and superego attachment b. cathexis c. superego attachment only d. anal attachment ANS: b 41. In Freudian theory, the phenomenon in which the patient redirects unconscious feelings of anger and hostility based on conflicts with authority figures in early childhood toward the therapist is called: a. negative transference b. sublimation c. undoing d. negative affection ANS: a 42. Research by Cramer and Kelly found that adults who were abused by their caregivers in early childhood became: a. nurturing parents themselves when they had their own children b. unhealthy adults who never had any children c. abusive parents themselves when they had their own children. d. healthy parents who had very large families. ANS: c 43. Research by Masling, O'Neill, and Katkin on high oral types found that: a. they experienced more stress than anal study participants when forced to interact with an impersonal individual b. they experienced less stress than anal participants when forced to interact with an impersonal person c. they experienced more stress in an interaction with an impersonal individual than in an interaction with a warm, personal individual d. they experienced no stress when forced to interact with a cold, impersonal person ANS: c

44. Research by Juni, Masling, and Brannon on high oral types found that: a. people high in orality used greater physical contact as a means of helping others solve a problem than people low in orality b. people low in anal eroticism used more physical contact as a means of helping others solve a problem than people high in anality c. vain people used less physical contact as a means of helping others solve a problem than people low in vanity d. people high in anal eroticism used more physical contact as a means of helping others solve a problem than people low in anality ANS: a 45. Eysenck's early data on the effectiveness of psychoanalytic therapy showed that: a. 72% of patients treated to completion by psychoanalysis were much improved or cured b. 92% of patients treated to completion by psychoanalysis were much improved or cured c. 72% of patients who were not treated by means of any formal therapy were much improved or cured within 2 years of the onset of their illness d. 66% of patients who were not treated by means of any formal therapy were much improved or cured within 2 years of the onset of their illness ANS: c 46. When Jerome never pays for anyone else's dinner and yet criticizes others for being stingy for not paying his dinner bill, he is using the defense mechanism of: a. denial b. projection c. reaction formation d. sublimation ANS: b 47. Anxiety is a highly unpleasant state that signals danger to the: a. id b. ego c. libido d. death instincts ANS: b

48. Researchers have consistently found that orally dependent people: a. are more interpersonally sensitive and likely to ask for help from others when they have problems b. are not very sensitive interpersonally c. do not seek emotional support in times of personal crisis d. are always competitive, even with friends ANS: a 49. The punitive aspect of the superego is the: a. ego b. ego-ideal c. id d. conscience ANS: d 50. The adult characterized by envy and suspiciousness is called a(n): a. phallic character b. oral aggressive character c. genital character d. oral receptive character ANS: b 51. The death instinct is called: a. obsession b. eros c. libido d. thanatos ANS: d 52. Slips of the tongue are called: a. parapraxes b. memory images c. cathexes d. transference memories ANS: a

53. For Freud, the major derivative of the death instinct is: a. fear b. aggression c. competitiveness d. isolation ANS: b 54. For Freud, the restraining forces located in the ego are called: a. cathexes b. controllers c. death instincts d. anticathexes ANS: d 55. In Freud's view, the phallic stage occurs during the: a. second and third years b. fourth and fifth years c. sixth and seventh years d. thirteenth and fourteenth years ANS: b 56. The emotional cleansing that occurs when a person vents his emotions and feelings is called: a. hypnosis b. free association c. catharsis d. transference ANS: c

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57. Freud began to use free association with his patients when he learned that: a. they appreciated his efforts at conditioning them b. he could not hypnotize many of them c. transference was not workable d. his attempts at uncovering conflicts through dream analysis had failed ANS: b

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58. If Jim continually boasts of his many female "conquests", a Freudian might argue that he has not resolved conflicts that originated in the: a. oral stage b. anal stage c. phallic stage d. genital stage ANS: c

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59. If Harry continually looks to others to help him solve his problems, he is likely to have unresolved conflicts with origins in the: a. oral stage b. anal stage c. phallic stage d. genital stage ANS: a

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60. If Sam can not vent his anger on his boss, he may then vent it on his dog. This behavior probably reflects: a. rationalization b. projection c. denial d. displacement ANS: d

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COMPLETION 1. The ______________ principle maintains that people always strive to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. ANS: pleasure 2. For Freud, control or our impulses becomes possible when the _____ is differentiated from the id. ANS: ego 3. ______________ is the construct Freud used to describe the individual's internalization of societal values. ANS: Superego

4. ______________ is an attempt by the ego to keep undesirable id impulses from reaching consciousness. ANS: Repression 5. An individual's active and conscious attempt to stop anxiety-provoking thoughts by simply not thinking about them is called ______________. ANS: suppression 6. Freud believed that the goal of all life is______________. ANS: death 7. ______________ are the driving forces in personality. ANS: Cathexes 8. The ideal type of person is the ______________. ANS: genital character 9. The ______________ is the dream we remember in the morning. ANS: manifest dream 10. People with strong dependency needs are at greater risk for ______________ than nondependent individuals. ANS: depression TRUE/FALSE 1. The conscious refers to those ideas and sensations of which we are unaware. ANS: F 2. The id operates according to the pleasure principle. ANS: T 3. The ego is formed separately from the id. ANS: F

4. The driving forces in personality are called cathexes. ANS: T 5. A movement from mature behavior to immature behavior is called regression. ANS: T 6. The dependent personality type is someone who is always passive and submissive. ANS: F 7. The child is highly negativistic in the genital stage. ANS: F 8. Oral characters tend to be vain, arrogant, and negativistic. ANS: F 9. Dreams are disguised attempts at wish-fulfillment. ANS: T 10. Transference is characterized by patients' ambivalent attitudes toward their parents. ANS: T ESSAY 1. What is the transference process? How can it help the patient in solving problems? ANS: Answer not provided 2. Name and describe five Freudian defense mechanisms. Why is it harmful for the individual to use them indiscriminately? ANS: Answer not provided 3. Discuss the various stages in Freud's theory of psychosexual development. ANS: Answer not provided 4. Identify and discuss the various Freudian character types. ANS: Answer not provided

5. Assess Freud's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. Discuss research which supports Freud's ideas about oral characters. ANS: Answer not provided 7. What are parapraxes? Give a specific example and show how its analysis might aid a therapist in understanding a person's underlying conflicts. ANS: Answer not provided 8. Define the dependent personality type and present and discuss the research to support its validity. ANS: Answer not provided 9. Describe Freud's analysis of the underlying conflicts of the "Rat Man". ANS: Answer not provided 10. Describe Freud's Oedipal Complex. ANS: Answer not provided

CHAPTER 3-JUNG'S ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Analytical Psychology-a depth psychology which emphasizes the complex interplay between oppositional forces within the psyche and the ways in which these internal conflicts affect personality development. II. Psyche-a construct to represent all of the interacting systems within human personality that are needed to account for the mental life and behavior of the person. A. libido-general life process energy B. Operation of the Psyche 1. principle of opposites-idea that the energy that propels personality and behavior is derived from the interplay between opposite forces within the psyche. 2. principle of equivalence-the idea that energy expended in one part of the psyche will be compensated for by an equal amount of energy in the same or different form in another part of the psyche. 3. principle of entropy-the idea that energy is automatically redistributed in the psyche in order to achieve equilibrium. C. Components of the Psyche: 1. ego-force in the personality responsible for feelings of identity and continuity. 2. personal unconscious- region that contains all of the personal experiences that have been blocked from awareness. 3. collective unconscious-depository of instincts and archetypes that go beyond personal experience. These transpersonal experiences are the residue of human evolutionary development. a. Archetypes-universal themes or symbols that can be activated by forces operating in the psyche. 1. persona- the role human beings play in order to meet the demands of others. 2. shadow-inferior, evil, and repulsive side of human nature. 3. anima-feminine archetype in men, including both positive and negative characteristics of the transpersonal female. 4. animus-masculine archetype in women, including both positive and negative characteristics of the transpersonal male. 5. self-an archetype that leads people to search for ways of maximizing the development of their multifaceted potentials. a. mandala-symbolic representation of the self; multifaceted, balanced, harmonious.

III. Theory of Psychological Types A. Fundamental Attitudes 1. extraversion-characterized by an outgoing and relatively confident approach to life. 2. introversion-characterized by a retiring and reflective approach to life. B. Functions 1. rational-modes of making judgments or evaluations of events in the world.(thinking and feeling) 2. irrational-Modes of apprehending the world without evaluating it (sensation and intuition). C. Typology: Combines 2 Attitudes and 4 functions: 1. extraverted thinking type-characterized in a positive way by an ability to organize masses of facts into a coherent theory and in a negative way by a selfish and exploitative attitude toward others. 2. introverted thinking type- characterized positively by imagination and an ability to think originally and boldly and negatively by social ineptness. 3. extraverted feeling type- characterized positively by an acceptance of the standards of society and negatively by a change in emotions from situation to situation. 4. introverted feeling type-characterized positively by intense feelings of sympathy for others who have experienced misfortune and negatively by shyness and inaccessibility. 5. extraverted sensing type- characterized positively by an appreciation for the arts and negatively by crude pleasure seeking. 6. introverted sensing type-characterized positively by the intensity of subjective sensations and negatively by oversensitivity and obtuseness. 7. extraverted intuitive type-characterized positively by a quick grasp of the creative possibilities in various ventures and negatively by impatience and flightiness. 8. introverted intuitive type- characterized positively by the ability to envision the future and negatively by an inability to communicate effectively with others. IV. Personality Development A. Self-realization-goal of development is the realization of one's potentials. V. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. Dream analysis-means of resolving current problems and pointing to directions for healthy development.

B. Method of amplification-technique in which the patient and analyst continue to reassess and reinterpret the same symbols in an attempt to broaden their understanding of them. C. Word association test-patients are presented with stimulus words and asked to give responses to them. Greater time latencies in responding are assumed to reflect the existence of underlying complexes. D. Painting therapy-technique used to help patients clarify the various symbols seen in their dreams and increase their understanding of themselves. VI. Evaluative Comments A. comprehensiveness-broad scope. B. precision and testability-not very precise and very difficult to test adequately. C. parsimony-too many concepts to explain phenomena in its domain economically. D. empirical validity- some support for the theory of psychological types. E. heuristic value-continues to generate interest in a variety of professional disciplines. F. applied value-has high applied value; used by investigators in many disciplines to understand the complex functioning of humans. CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION The Test to Measure Psychological Types. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is one of the most widely used psychological instruments in the world, with millions of people completing it each year. It has been translated into many foreign languages for use around the world. Many students are familiar with the instrument since the test is often administered to them by university officials when they first enter the university to help make judgments about the assignment of roommates who would be compatible with them. At many colleges guidance counselors give the test to students as a means of helping them to make good occupational choices. Research also indicates that guidance counselors can use the test to identify students at risk for poor academic performance so that they can be helped to improve. The Myers-Briggs also is used by personnel managers to place applicants into jobs for which they are suited. Finally, engineers have used the test to improve the performance of team members on various engineering projects. For example, introversion-extraversion differences on a team can lead to tensions. The extraverts often invade the quiet time that the introverted members need to think things through, but the extraverts find that their thought process is inhibited unless they can talk things through with someone. Introverts see the extraverts as "shooting from the hip" and not sticking to items on the agenda. On a team where extraversionintroversion differences among team members were identified through the use of the Myers-Briggs, tensions were overcome when extraverts learned to preface any out-loud thinking by reminding the other team members they were about to use their extraversion preference to throw out some ideas. They then asked assistance from the introverts on 45

the team in thinking through these ideas (Something introverts do well). Since introverts do not like being rushed to make judgments, team members routinely gave them time to think over a suggested project change and when there was a shortage of time left in the meeting recommended that introverts, who are more comfortable giving their responses in writing, give a report on their thinking at the next meeting. Other benefits of recognizing, discussing, and appreciating individual differences in introversion-extraversion among team members were, as follows: (1) in many meetings, introverts recognized that sooner or later they must stop thinking and start talking. (2) introverts learned that they needed to work on sharing their ideas with others. (3) extraverts recognized they must sooner or later stop talking and start listening. (4) extraverts learned not to interrupt and not to assume that others' pauses in the discussion were an invitation to jump in. (Introverts, for example, may have stopped to simply reflect on what they were saying before continuing.) Under these conditions, team performance improved substantially. References Culp, G., Fellow, & Smith, A. (2001). Understanding psychological type to improve project team performance. Journal of Management in Engineering, 17, 24-33. Kahn, J.H. Nauta, M.M., Gailbreath, R.D., Tipps, J., & Chartrand, J.M. (2002). The utility of career and personality assessment in predicting academic progress. Journal of Career Assessment, 10, 2-23. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 3, your students should be able to: 1. define Analytical Psychology and tell how it differs from Freudian psychoanalysis. 2. define archetypes and describe several of them. 3. compare and contrast the anima and animus. 4. discuss in detail the individuation process. 5. outline Jung's theory of psychological types. 6. describe the word association test and the method of amplification.

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. For Jung, psyche was: a. a Greek goddess b. the total personality c. a construct similar to the id d. one particular aspect of the unconscious ANS: b 2. Psychic energy is considered: a. a physical energy that is particularly manifested through id functions of the body b. a static, underdeveloped force a. c. a derivative of the conflict between forces within the personality c. as basically sexual in nature ANS: c 3. In Jung's theory, consciousness and unconsciousness are: a. inversely related b. directly related c. interdependent d. completely independent ANS: c 4. The unconscious and evil side of our natures is called the: a. shadow b. libido c. psyche d. entropy ANS: a 5. An increase or decrease in some aspect of psyche functioning that is met by a compensatory increase or decrease in another part of the psyche best describes the: a. principle of equivalence b. principle of entropy c. principle of opposites d. principle of physics ANS: a

6. Jung's position regarding the principle of equivalence is similar to Freud's notion of: a. reaction formation b. transference c. displacement d. ego processes ANS: c 7. The process within the psyche where elements of unequal strength seek psychological equilibrium is called the: a. principle of equivalence b. principle of entropy c. principle of opposites d. principle of tension reduction ANS: b 8. The area that consists of all of our forgotten experiences, including sense-impressions that have lost their intensity, is the: a. collective unconscious b. ego c. shadow d. personal unconscious ANS: d 9. Archetypes are: a. inherited characteristics of a Lamarckian nature b. themes that have existed in all cultures throughout history c. specific to peoples of Western Societies d. sublimations of our innate belief in God ANS: b 10. Thought-forms or ideas that give rise to visions that are projected onto current experiences are: a. images b. shadows c. archetypes d. personae ANS: c

11. The compromise between the demands of the environment and the necessities of the individual's inner constitution is called the: a. persona b. shadow c. anima d. self ANS: a 12. The Devil, in its various forms, would be an aspect of the shadow associated with: a. the personal unconscious b. the persona c. the collective unconscious d. social inhibition ANS: c 13. Ryckman believes that, despite Jung's claims that the anima and animus are universal phenomena, the descriptions sound curiously like: a. present-day cultural gender-role stereotypes b. the superego construct of Freud c. they apply only to a specifically Christian work-ethic society d. they suggest applicability only for matriarchal societies ANS: a 14. Mandalas represent: a. a union between opposites within the psyche before individuals attain selfrealization b. a synthesis between opposites within the psyche when individuals attain selfrealization c. the altar on which consciousness and life are brought forth d. an occult symbolization of the conflicting forces in one's personality components ANS: b 15. The two fundamental attitudes in Jung's typology are: a. progression and regression b. introversion and regression c. progression and introversion d. introversion and extraversion ANS: d

16. Not included in Jung's four functions is: a. thinking b. feeling c. affecting d. intuiting ANS: c 17. The function in which one relates to the world directly with a minimum of interpretation is: a. thinking b. feeling c. sensing d. intuiting ANS: d 18. The function in which one refers to the initial experiencing of phenomena without evaluation is: a. thinking b. feeling c. sensing d. intuiting ANS: c 19. The rational functions are: a. intuition and feeling b. thinking and feeling c. sensation and intuition d. thinking and sensation ANS: b 20. The irrational functions are: a. intuition and feeling b. sensation and intuition c. thinking and feeling d. thinking and sensation ANS: b

21. Research by Papazova and Pencheva showed that gifted students had: a. lower self-esteem than their more normal classmates b. higher self-esteem than their more normal classmates c. little or no self-esteem in comparison to their more normal classmates d. more acts of school vandalism than their more normal classmates ANS: b 22. The person who appears cold, aloof, and inconsiderate of others and who tends to be socially inept and inarticulate in attempts to communicate his/her ideas, which are based on a subjective foundation, is the: a. introverted thinking type b. extraverted intuiting type c. extraverted sensing type d. introverted feeling type ANS: a 23. Persons who seem unsympathetic to the plights of others but who are capable of intense feelings that originate in the collective unconscious are: a. introverted intuiting types b. introverted feeling types c. extraverted feeling types d. extraverted sensing types ANS: b 24. Persons who are primarily reality-oriented and typically eschew thinking and contemplation are: a. introverted sensing types b. extraverted thinking types c. extraverted sensing types d. introverted thinking types ANS: c 25. Persons who are highly concerned with exploiting external opportunities are: a. extraverted intuiting types b. extraverted thinking types c. introverted feeling types d. introverted sensing types ANS: a

26. The therapeutic process has four key stages, one of which is not: a. confession b. elucidation c. direction d. transformation ANS: c 27. The therapeutic stage that forces the person to acknowledge his/her limitations to another is: a. confession b. education c. elucidation d. transformation ANS: a 28. Research by Stilwell and Wallick examined medical students' specialty choices within medicine and found that: a. extraverted females opted for the surgical specialties b. female thinking types most often chose Family medicine as their specialty c. female feeling types most often chose Family medicine as their specialty d. males and females did not differ in their choice of specialty ANS: c 29. In Jung's typology, a self-serving activist who exploits the friendship of others would be an example of the negative side of the: a. extraverted thinker b. introverted feeling type c. intuitive feeling type d. extraverted feeling type ANS: a 30. In Jung's typology, the inarticulate and inconsiderate person is an example of the negative side of the a. extraverted feeling type b. extraverted sensing type c. introverted thinking type d. introverted feeling type ANS: c

31. In Jung's typology, the sociable, jolly person with a considerable capacity for enjoyment is an example of the positive side of the: a. introverted feeling type b. extraverted sensing type c. extraverted intuitive type d. introverted intuitive type ANS: b 32. Research by Hardigan, Cohen, and Carvajal on pharmacists' choices of practice types showed that: a. female intuitives chose most often to practice in retail pharmacy b. male thinkers chose most often to practice in retail pharmacy c. female thinking types opted out of pharmacy because they felt that it was unsuitable for them d. male thinkers most often chose to practice in retail pharmacy ANS: d 33. Mitchell and Shuff (1995) showed that hospice workers tended to prefer: a. sensing over intuition b. introversion over extraversion c. feeling over thinking d. intuition over extraversion ANS: c 34. Which of the following therapeutic techniques utilized by Jung involved having patients adhere to a particular symbol and giving numerous associations to it? a. free association b. word alchemy test c. universal testing d. method of amplification ANS: d 35. The feminine archetype in men is called the: a. animus b. anima c. entropy d. analysis ANS: b

36. The type of person who treats the objective world as mere appearance, or even as a joke is the: a. introverted sensing type b. extraverted feeling type c. introverted thinking type d. extraverted thinking type ANS: a 37. The subjective foundation of the introverted thinker is the: a. self b. rational being c. external world d. collective unconscious ANS: d 38. In Jung's theory, a collection of thoughts united by a common feeling is called: a. a symptom b. a complex c. the psyche d. the soul ANS: b 39. Clack, Allen, Cooper, and Head examined the personality types of physicians and their patients and found that: a. physicians were most concerned with establishing a warm relationship, whereas patients were more task-centered b. patients tended to see their physicians as caring, whereas physicians were actually uncaring c. all physicians were caring, whereas patients were all thinking types d. physicians tended to be thinking types, whereas patients were more likely to be feeling types ANS: d 40. Research on introversion and extraversion has shown that thinking types gravitate toward occupations such as: a. ministers b. certified public accountants c. musicians d. psychologists ANS: b

41. In the Cann and Donderi study on Jungian personality typology and the recall of dreams, it was found that: a. intuitives recalled fewer archetypal dreams than feeling types b. highly neurotic individuals recalled fewer archetypal dreams than individuals low in neuroticism c. introverts recalled fewer everyday dreams than extraverts d. intuitives recalled fewer archetypal dreams than sensing types ANS: b 42. The experimental technique using time latency as an indirect indicator of underlying complexes is called the: a. classical conditioning test b. method of amplification c. stimulus-response test d. word association test ANS: d 43. The belief that there is a causal order in the world that influences human behavior is called the: a. principle of synchronicity b. word association law c. principle of entropy d. law of opposites ANS: a 44. According to Jung, symbols: a. can be understood completely after thinking about them for long periods of time b. have multiple meanings and can never be fully understood c. can be understood easily and completely d. have only one form ANS: b 45. According to Jung, movement toward self-realization: a. is often a painful and difficult process b. is automatic for everyone c. does not depend on the nature of the environment confronting the individual d. occurs without personal crises ANS: a

46. In Jung's view, an archetype: a. can be understood completely if the therapist probes deeply enough b. is a rational set of symbols with a specific meaning c. resides in the personal unconscious d. is a universal symbol which has multiple meanings ANS: d 47. According to Jung, the social roles we play in our daily lives are forms of the: a. persona b. animus c. anima d. shadow ANS: a 48. The term used by Jung to describe conflict between ideas in consciousness and unconsciousness was the: a. principle of interdependence b. principle of the psyche c. principle of opposites d. principle of hostility ANS: c 49. If John has a dream which is highly original and even bizarre, a Jungian would probably claim that the dream was: a. the result of an argument he had with his girlfriend b. perfectly normal c. archetypal in nature d. the result of a disturbance in the personal unconscious ANS: c 50. If Christine sees her boyfriend as the universal father, Jung would maintain that she has: a. projected her anima onto him b. projected her animus onto him c. projected her feelings about her own father onto him d. projected her feelings about her mother and father onto him ANS: b

51. According to Jung, self-realization: a. is easy for just about everyone to achieve b. can not be attained by young people c. can never be attained by elderly people d. can be achieved only by those people under 35 years of age ANS: b 52. Individuation is the process whereby individuals: a. become more selfish b. become more egocentric and individualistic c. lose their sense of self d. become the unique persons they are ANS: d 53. According to Jung, the oldest mandala is a: a. picture of Christ surrounded by the apostles b. Paleolithic sun wheel drawing c. sun flower d. giraffe painted on a cave wall in Peru ANS: b 54. If Billy generates his creative ideas from experiences with his collective unconscious, Jung would claim that he is likely to be a(n): a. extraverted feeling type b. extraverted thinking type c. introverted sensing type d. introverted thinking type ANS: d 55. If Jill takes great pleasure in eating good foods and is highly sensual, Jung would claim she is probably a(n): a. introverted feeling type b. extraverted thinking type c. extraverted sensing type d. introverted intuitive type ANS: c

56. If Mark continually overreacts to harmless remarks by other students, Jung would maintain that he is likely to be a(n): a. extraverted thinking type b. introverted sensing type c. introverted thinking type d. extraverted feeling type ANS: b

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57. If George has strong needs to become a politician upon graduating from college, Jung would claim that he is likely to be a(n): a. extraverted intuitive type b. extraverted thinking type c. introverted thinking type d. introverted sensing type ANS: a

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58. Research by Myers and McCaulley shows that introverts have strong interests in: a. public relations work b. acting c. hotel management d. mathematics ANS: d

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59. Research by Myers and McCaulley shows that intuitive individuals have strong interests in becoming: a. lawyers b. musicians c. food service workers d. physicians ANS: b

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60. Research by Saks shows that gifted adolescents are more: a. sensing than intuiting b. feeling than thinking c. introverted than extraverted d. ego than extraverted ANS: c

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COMPLETION 1. Jung's unique brand of psychology is called ______________. ANS: analytical psychology 2. Jung called the feminine archetype in man the______________. ANS: anima 3. The masculine archetype in woman Jung labeled the______________. ANS: animus 4. The______________ is an archetypal potentiality representing our uniqueness. ANS: self 5. To Jung, the most important representations of the self were the______________, or magic circles, found in the writing and art of all cultures. ANS: mandalas 6. The two fundamental attitudes in Jung's typology are ______________ and introversion. ANS: extraversion 7. One of the irrational functions is ______________. ANS: sensation 8. One of the rational functions is ______________. ANS: thinking 9. Individuals characterized positively by an appreciation for the arts and negatively by crude pleasure seeking are ______________ types. ANS: extraverted sensing 10. The first stage in the therapeutic process is______________. ANS: confession

TRUE/FALSE 1. Archetypes are themes that have existed in all cultures throughout history. ANS: T 2. The dark, sinister side of our natures is called the persona. ANS: F 3. The extraverted thinking type is controlled by social norms. ANS: F 4. The extraverted sensing type is primarily reality-oriented. ANS: T 5. Introverts have strong interests in mathematics and computer programming. ANS: T 6. Jung believed that psychosis is an extension of neurosis. ANS: T 7. Dreams are compensatory in nature. ANS: T 8. Jung's analytical therapy is really a "psychology of the morning." ANS: F 9. Archetypes have many different meanings. ANS: T 10. Thinking types prefer law, dentistry, and medicine. ANS: T

ESSAY 1. What are the principles of opposites, entropy, and equivalence? ANS: Answer not provided 2. What is the collective unconscious? How does it differ from the personal unconscious? ANS: Answer not provided 3. Describe how the anima and the animus can operate in both constructive and destructive ways. ANS: Answer not provided 4. Identify the eight psychological types as envisioned by Jung. Describe research support for this theory. ANS: Answer not provided 5. Assess Jung's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. Name the kinds of occupational interests likely to be shown by introverted and extraverted college students. ANS: Answer not provided 7. Describe the process of self-realization. ANS: Answer not provided 8. What is the word association test? How is it used to uncover underlying complexes? ANS: Answer not provided 9. Describe the therapeutic process as it was seen by Jung. ANS: Answer not provided 10. Why is it so difficult to construct adequate tests of Jung's theory? ANS: Answer not provided

CHAPTER 4-ADLER'S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Individual Psychology-theory that seeks to understand the behavior of each person as a complex, organized entity operating within a society. A. Social interest-innate tendency in human beings to help and cooperate with one another as a means of establishing a harmonious and productive society. 1.feelings of inferiority and striving for superiority in accordance with social interest. 2.feelings of inferiority and striving for superiority in a selfish, uncooperative way. II. Personality Development A. Style of life-individual’s distinctive personality pattern, which is basically shaped by the end of early childhood. 1. destructive life styles a. ruling-person who strives for personal superiority by trying to exploit and control others. b. getting-person who attains personal goals by relying indiscriminately on others for help. c. avoiding-person who lacks the confidence to confront problems and avoids or ignores them. 2. constructive life styles a. socially useful- person who actively and courageously confronts and solves his or her problems in accordance with social interest. B. Creative self-belief that people have the ability to create and actively shape their own destinies and personalities. C. Birth order-how each child is treated by parents depends to a large extent on the child’s order of birth within the family. 1. first-borns-understand the importance of power, dominance, and intellectual achievement. a. confluence model (Zajonc)-support for Adler's views of first borns. 2. second-borns (and later borns)-likely to be rebellious and highly competitive. 3. youngest borns-family members tend to spoil them. 4. only-borns-likely to lack social competence. a. Falbo research suggests Adler was wrong about only borns. 5. Inadequacies of Confluence Model (Steelman and Rodgers). 63

III. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. Early recollections-earliest memories provide insights into life style. B. Dream analysis-technique used to uncover unconscious goals in accordance with his or her life style. C. Birth order analysis-provides information about the unconscious lifestyle goals of the person. IV. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-broad scope. B. Precision and testability-not very precise and very difficult to test adequately. C. Parsimony-too simplistic and reductionistic. D. Empirical validity- weak support for most aspects of the theory. E. Heuristic value-major contributions to existential psychology and psychiatry and on the humanistic psychology movement. F. Applied value-has high applied value. CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Birth Order and Personal Characteristics. Birth order is a topic that generates great interest among students. You can tell the students that Adler believed that first-borns were likely to have the greatest levels of intellectual development and success. Point out some of the research done by Zajonc and others verifies Adler's point. Ask your students to raise their hands if they are first-borns and then engage some of them in a discussion of their own characteristics. Are these characteristics ones that are consistent with the Adlerian view? Which ones are not? You can then present Adler's ideas about middleborns, youngest borns, and only children, along with major research findings. Don't forget to mention Falbo's research which contradicts Adler's ideas about only children. Are the youngest-borns in the class likely to be spoiled as Adler suggests? Ask your students to discuss his contention. You might finish this lecture by asking the students to imagine a time when they have children (or if they do have children), how they would overcome the relative lack of intellectual development in their youngest children (as suggested by Zajonc's research)? One way would be to put them in charge of children younger than themselves (peers from outside the family) so that they would have the opportunity to teach them and would be stimulated intellectually by the opportunity. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 4, your students should be able to: 1. describe Adler's developmental paths to psychological health or neurosis.

2. define social interest and explain how it is related to psychologically healthy development. 3. name the four major lifestyles and explain the differences between them. 4. provide specific arguments based on research showing that the person's order of birth typically does have an impact on their development. 5. discuss how early recollections and dream analysis are used by Adler in helping his patients make progress toward cure.

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to Adler, Individual Psychology is a science that attempts to understand: a. the experiences and behavior of each person as an organized entity b. the behavior of an individual in opposition to society c. the group as a collection of individual entities d. the behavior and experiences of only one individual regardless of the society of which he/she is a part ANS: a 2. Adler's propositions emphasized that an understanding of human personality would come only if we were aware of: a. the individual's past history b. the degree to which the person wishes to succeed in life c. the goals of the individual d. the individual's handicaps ANS: c 3. Adler claimed that the final goal of all people who were moving toward psychological health was: a. to achieve personal domination of others b. to attain perfection or completion c. movement toward perfection even at the expense of other members of society d. concern only for self-aggrandizement ANS: b

4. Adler believed that it was not the physical defect itself that facilitated or reduced striving but: a. the individual's denial of it b. the individual's coping behavior c. the individual's interpretation of others' behavior concerning the defect d. the individual's attitude toward it ANS: d 5. Adler felt that women were placed in an inferior position by society and that they often tried to: a. appear as defenseless as possible to maintain their position b. overcome this inferiority by becoming frigid c. defend themselves from this labeling by acting in an exaggeratedly feminine manner d. overcome feelings of inadequacy by imitating masculine behavior ANS: d 6. According to Adler, feelings of inferiority can be: a. only destructive b. only constructive c. debilitating to the individual d. largely constructive or destructive ANS: d 7. The fact that goals are necessary to give direction to our behavior, allowing us to advance and develop, and are ideals and not tangible, refers to: a. fictional finalism b. social interest c. process finalism d. processionalism ANS: a 8. A striving for a form of community that must be thought of as everlasting, as it could be thought of if mankind had reached the goal of perfection, refers to: a. fictional finalism b. style of life c. social interest d. perfectionism ANS: c

9. The unique way in which a person pursues his/her goals is called: a. style of life b. social interest c. attainment motive d. established pattern of behaving ANS: a 10. The concept that people are, in the final analysis, responsible for their destinies is called: a. social interest b. creative self c. fictional finalism d. determinism ANS: b 11. Adler believed that each child was treated uniquely by his/her parents depending on: a. the relative obviousness of the child's defects b. the order of birth c. the relative beauty of the child d. the preparation of the parents for the birth of the child ANS: b 12. The child who would best understand the importance of power and authority would most likely be the: a. oldest child b. second child c. youngest child d. only child ANS: a 13. The child who would set his/her goals at unrealistically high levels, thereby virtually ensuring failure, would be the: a. oldest child b. second child c. youngest child d. only child ANS: b

14. The child who tends to be excessively dependent on others for support and protection, yet who wants to excel in everything he/she does, would be the: a. oldest child b. second child c. youngest child d. only child ANS: c 15. In testing Adler's birth order thesis, Hudson found that: a. middle-borns were overrepresented among world leaders, whereas first-borns were underrepresented b. first-borns were overrepresented among world leaders, whereas middle- and lastborns were underrepresented c. female first-borns were overrepresented among world leaders, whereas male firstborns were underrepresented d. middle- and last-borns were as likely to world leaders as first-borns ANS: b 16. Rodgers' criticizes Zajonc's model of intellectual development by arguing that: a. later borns are always smarter than first-borns, no matter what Zajonc thinks b. later borns have IQs that are not very high c. there are many variables other than birth order that could be used to explain and refute Zajonc's claim that first-borns are more developed intellectually than later borns d. only a person's socioeconomic status can be used to show the poor intellectual development of first-borns ANS: c 17. Cheating and lying may become ways of: a. maintaining the status quo regarding one's place in society b. ensuring the maintenance or the enhancement of one's personal success c. gaining the upper hand in a dialogue between equals d. developing mechanisms to handle the rigors of competition ANS: b 18. Adler maintains that the attainment of perfection involves overcoming: a. aversive persons that one meets in life b. hardships of poverty, neglect, and other unfavorable circumstances c. resistances with which the environment confronts the organism d. the superiority drive inherited through one's birth order ANS: c

19. In Adler's view, neurotics typically: a. have mistaken life styles b. selfish genes c. are concerned with the welfare of their immediate families d. are very aware of their goals ANS: a 20. The position that Adler takes concerning goals is that they are: a. determinants of much of our behavior b. a function of the masculine protest c. determined by the past d. always attainable ANS: a 21. Adler's theory: a. is characterized by precisely defined concepts b. has strong heuristic value c. has no applied value d. has no empirical validity ANS: b 22. In Adler's view, people's mental health depends primarily upon: a. the gratification of their sexual needs b. the control of their aggressive impulses c. their efforts to contribute to the betterment of their community d. gratification of their need for achievement ANS: c 23. In testing a large sample of young men from the Netherlands, Belmont and Marolla found that: a. later-borns had superior intellectual achievement in comparison to first-borns b. first-borns had higher intellectual achievement test scores than later-borns c. only-borns outstripped first-borns in intellectual competence d. later-borns had higher achievement scores than only children ANS: b

24. In their research on birth order, Wagner and Schubert showed that: a. eldest sons were overrepresented among business executives b. young sons were overrepresented among teachers c. oldest sons were overrepresented among U.S. Presidents d. only children were overrepresented among university presidents ANS: c 25. According to most research studies, alcoholics tend to be: a. youngest children in families b. oldest children c. second-borns d. only-borns ANS: a 26. In birth order research, Melillo found that: a. only-borns are overrepresented among women with doctorates b. middle-borns are overrepresented among men with doctorates c. first-borns are overrepresented among men with doctorates d. first-borns are overrepresented among women with doctorates ANS: d 27. For Adler, prime examples of the ruling type were: a. juvenile delinquents, suicidal individuals, and drug addicts b. alcoholics, psychopaths, and psychotics c. neurotics, psychotics, and manic depressives d. juvenile delinquents and manic depressives ANS: a 28. According to Adler, which one of the following types typically uses their charms to persuade others to help them? a. avoiding type b. ruling type c. socially useful type d. getting type ANS: d

29. According to Adler, lesbianism was an extreme manifestation of: a. the creative self b. latent heterosexuality c. the masculine protest d. a liberal political attitude ANS: c 30. According to Adler, the person who desires to maintain the status quo the: a. first-born b. second-born c. youngest child d. middle-born ANS: a 31. The concept that an individual's goals direct his or her current behavior is called: a. style of life b. social interest c. teleology d. masculine protest ANS: c 32. In the study by de Haan on parental resource allocation to their children, the results indicate that parents tend to invest more money in the schooling of their: a. later born children than their first-born children b. first-born children than their second-born children c. second-born children than their first born children d. fourth-born children than their first-born children ANS: b 33. A study by Kowalski, Wyver, Masselos, and DeLacey found that faster cognitive and intellectual development is associated positively with: a. loving relationships among girls, but not boys b. pretend play c. organizational skills d. lower math scores ANS: b

34. In contrast to Adler's view, Falbo and Polit's research on birth order shows that: a. only-born children are highly unsociable b. only-born children are more psychologically maladjusted than later-born c. only-born children are as sociable and as psychologically well-adjusted as children from other types of families d. later-borns and only children are highly hostile and uncooperative ANS: c 35. In Adler's view, the father in a family: a. should be the dominant figure b. must treat his wife as an equal c. should compete with his sons to insure their eventual success d. should pamper his children ANS: b 36. In their study of birth order, Falbo and Cooper found that: a. mothers of preschool only children spent less time with them than did mothers with more children b. mothers of preschool only children spent the same amount of time with them as did mothers with more children c. mothers of preschool only children spent more time with them than did mothers with more children d. mothers of preschool later borns spent virtually all of their time with them ANS: c 37. According to Steelman, the research finding that first borns are more intellectually advanced than later borns may have been produced by the confounding of the: a. socioeconomic status of the families b. competitiveness of the families c. fact that many of the families had adopted their children d. fact that all the families had the same number of children ANS: a

38. In discussing the implications of birth order for personality development, Adler stated that: a. it was the order of birth itself that caused the person to develop in a particular direction b. it was the unique set of experiences within the family which had important implications for development c. birth order had no impact on the individual's development d. birth order was more likely to have a strong impact on the development of females, but not males ANS: b 39. Adler believed that we are all born with: a. a sense of social interest that needs little further development b. the potential for social interest c. fully developed ideas about cooperation d. a sense of competitiveness that can never be overcome ANS: b 40. In his earliest writings, Adler claimed that the final goal of our struggle was to be: a. cooperative b. sexually modest c. sexually immodest d. aggressive and all-powerful ANS: d 41. According to Adler, which one of the following types typically tries to reduce feelings of anxiety by acting in anti-social ways? a. avoiding type b. ruling type c. getting type d. competitive type ANS: b 42. Which one of the following types typically is self-absorbed and engages frequently in daydreaming? a. ruling type b. getting type c. altruistic type d. avoiding type ANS: d

43. In Adler's view, the person most likely to be politically conservative is the: a. first-born b. second-born c. last-born d. only child ANS: a 44. In the Zajonc and Markus theory of intellectual development, children's mental growth is primarily a function of the: a. intellect of their relatives b. intellectual environment in which they mature c. culture into which they are born d. intellect of their brothers, but not their sisters ANS: b 45. The belief that the individual's goals direct his or her behavior is called: a. a priori determinism b. classical conditioning c. mechanistic analysis d. teleology ANS: d 46. In Adler's view, all individuals' motivations: a. occur without the perception of goals b. are based on a realistic sense of personal superiority c. can not occur without the perception of goals d. stem from harsh treatment by parents initiated during late adolescence ANS: c 47. The theory of intellectual development created by Zajonc and Markus claims that: a. as the number of children in the family increases, their intellectual growth increases b. as the number of male children in the family increases, their intellectual growth increases c. as the number of children in the family increases, their intellectual growth decreases d. there is little or no relationship between the size of the family and the intellectual growth of children ANS: c

48. In examining feelings of inferiority in college students, research by Strano and Petrocelli showed that students with: a. intense feelings of inferiority had the highest GPAs b. normal feelings of inferiority had the highest GPAs c. no feelings of inferiority had the highest GPAs d. intense feelings of superiority had the highest GPAs ANS: b 49. In a study on the intellectual development of youngsters, Berglund, Eriksson, and Westerlund found that: a. first-born Scandinavian toddlers scored higher on vocabulary comprehension and vocabulary production than later borns b. only born Scandinavian toddlers scored higher on vocabulary comprehension and vocabulary production than later borns c. first-born Nigerian toddlers scored higher on vocabulary comprehension and vocabulary production than only borns d. later born Scandinavian toddlers scored lower on mathematical tests than only borns ANS: a 50. In Adler's theory, the term "style of life" was originally called the: a. creative self b. perfect self c. guiding image d. fictional reality ANS: c 51. If Billy is crippled permanently in a car accident, Adler would say that it is not the physical defect itself that would facilitate or hinder his movement toward psychological health but: a. his repression of the accident b. his attitude toward it c. his interpretation of what his parents think about the defect d. his interpretation of what his girlfriend thinks about the defect. ANS: b

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52. In Adler's writings after he severed his personal relationship with Freud, Adler assumed that human beings had strong needs: a. to be aggressive b. to be sexually active c. to develop their potentials for social interest d. to be power-hungry ANS: c

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53. The person with a strong social interest is very likely to be: a. empathic b. competitive c. aggressive d. perfectionistic ANS: a MSC: WWW 54. Adler believed that a boy raised in a family of girls is likely to develop: a. no gender orientation b. a very masculine or very feminine orientation c. a woman's rather than a man's sexual urges d. into a transvestite ANS: b

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55. Adler maintained that dreams: a. are primarily sexual in nature b. are concerned primarily with the gratification of aggressive needs c. provide us with glimpses into the future d. tell us primarily about traumatic experiences we have had in high school ANS: c

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COMPLETTION 1. The ruling, getting and avoiding types are examples of ______________ lifestyles. ANS: unhealthy 2. Adler believed that dreams reflect the individual's unconscious attempts to achieve personal ______________ in accordance with his or her unique style of life. ANS: goals 3. Dreams provide glimpses of the future, and thus suggest potential ______________ to the person's problems. ANS: solutions

4. Adler believed that when children become highly anxious and insecure, they develop protective devices--most often, a strong striving for personal ______________. ANS: superiority 5. Through therapy, the patient moves toward a ______________ of perceptions and begins to behave differently toward others. ANS: reorganization 6. Research indicates that ______________ are overrepresented among college students, graduate students, and university faculty. ANS: first-borns 7. It is not defect itself that produces striving in the individual, but rather the person's ______________ toward the defect that produces the striving. ANS: attitude 8. A constructive lifestyle produces a ______________ type. ANS: socially useful 9. For Adler, dreams provide a ______________ of the future. ANS: glimpse 10. The biological potential to cooperate and live in harmony with others in order to establish a productive society is called ______________. ANS: social interest TRUE/FALSE 1. For Adler, an understanding of human personality was possible only if you could understand the person's goals. ANS: T 2. The striving for personal superiority by people is healthy. ANS: F

3. The development of healthy or unhealthy goals is shaped to a considerable extent by experiences in the first five years of life. ANS: T 4. Adler proposed that there is a creative evolution in all things that aims at the goal of personal superiority. ANS: F 5. The youngest child understands best the importance of power and authority. ANS: F 6. Last-borns are overrepresented among college students, scientists, and eminent people in science and government. ANS: F 7. Faster cognitive and intellectual development is correlated positively with pretend play. ANS: T 8. Social interest is most likely to develop in authoritarian families. ANS: F 9. Avoiding types create fantasies in which they are always superior. ANS: T 10. Generally, the concepts in Adler's theory are very well-defined. ANS: F ESSAY 1. What is Individual Psychology? ANS: Answer not provided 2. Why do people strive for superiority? ANS: Answer not provided

3. In what ways does the order of birth of a child in a family influence his/her development? ANS: Answer not provided 4. Discuss research on birth order. Do you consider this evidence as support for Adler's theorizing about birth order? Why or why not? ANS: Answer not provided 5. Assess Adler's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. What role do goals play in the development of personality? ANS: Answer not provided 7. Describe the techniques that Adler used in therapy to help uncover the patient's conflicts? ANS: Answer not provided 8. Distinguish between striving for personal superiority through contributions to others. ANS: Answer not provided 9. What is the masculine protest? ANS: Answer not provided 10. Discuss the theory of intellectual development created by Zajonc and Markus. ANS: Answer not provided

CHAPTER 6-ERIKSON'S PSYCHOANALYTIC EGO PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Ego Psychology-theory that the ego is not always controlled by biological impulses, but often functions independently of these urges, thereby providing the individual with an opportunity for creative action and positive growth. II. Personality Development A. epigenetic principle-development unfolds in a predetermined sequence across a series of stages. B. Stages of Ego Development Stages

Crisis

Ego Strength

1. oral-sensory

basic trust versus mistrust.

hope

2. muscular-anal

autonomy versus shame and doubt.

will

3. locomotor-genital

initiative versus guilt

purpose

4. latency

industry versus inferiority

competence

5. adolescence

identity versus role confusion

fidelity

6. young adulthood

intimacy versus isolation

love

7. middle adulthood

generativity versus stagnation

care

8. late adulthood

ego integrity versus despair

wisdom

C. Ego Identity Statuses in Adolescence 1. identity diffusion-individuals who have never experienced a crisis concerning their goals have nevertheless made firm commitments concerning them. 2. foreclosure-individuals who have never experienced a crisis concerning their goals have nevertheless made firm commitments concerning them. 3. moratorium-individuals are actively considering alternatives to resolve crisis issues. 4. identity achievement-individuals have undergone a period of crisis and consequently have developed firm commitments concerning their life goals. D. Intimacy Statuses in Early Adulthood 1. intimate individuals-relationships are characterized by depth and commitment. 2. preintimate individuals-deep relationships, but are reluctant to commit themselves to enduring relationships. 3. stereotyped individuals-relationships are shallow and exploitative.

4. pseudointimate individuals-those who have enduring relationships, but whose relationships lack depth. 5. isolated individuals-individuals who have withdrawn from social relationships. 6.merger individuals-people who have lost their sense of identity and who live through their partners. E. Generativity Statuses in Middle Adulthood 1.stagnant style-adults who make little or no effort to develop their skills or to nurture the younger generation. 2.conventional style-their concern for the development of the younger generation is selective because they seek to guide and nurture only those young people who mirror their values and goals. 3.agentic style-contribute to society through their work, but are primarily concerned with their own growth and not the growth of young people. 4.communal style-neglect their own personal development as they indiscriminantly sacrifice themselves for the younger generation. 5.generative style-highly committed to their work and to the care of young people. F. Ego Integrity in Late Adulthood 1. grand-generativity-individuals in old age who continue to develop their talents and to contribute to individuals of all ages. III. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques (Same techniques as Freud, but interpretations center around the search for identity). A. free association B. dream analysis C. transference IV. Theory's Implications for Therapy A. Neurosis and psychosis-failures to resolve crises in one or more earlier stages. V. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-broad scope. B. Precision and testability-not very precise and very difficult to test adequately. C. Parsimony-too simplistic; too much reliance on the identity construct. D. Empirical validity- solid empirical support for the last 4 stages; need more research focus on the first 4 stages. E. Heuristic value-major contributions to disciplines such as philosophy, religion, cultural anthropology, historians, psychology, psychiatry, and social work.

F. Applied value-has high applied value in many disciplines including child psychology and psychiatry, marriage counseling, education, vocational counseling, and social work. CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Adolescence and Identification With the Wrong Heroes. Erikson points out that adolescence is a time of stress and confusion for many youth and that, as a result, they become "remarkably clannish, intolerant, and cruel in their exclusion of others who are 'different'..." Sometimes these students will overidentify with the wrong heroes (druggies, rock stars who are violent). You can elicit from students the names of such rock stars and film idols and generate a lively discussion, as some students may well agree and others disagree with the "heroes" that have been identified. Erikson has sympathetic feelings about young people as they grapple with the stresses of adolescence and overidentify with the wrong people because he thinks it may be the only way in which they can survive. Also, Erikson is sympathetic because he believed that young people are the caretakers of the future. Ask your students if, after reading the Erikson chapter, they thought that he was sympathetic to their problems. Emerging Adulthood: A New Period of Ego Development for Many Young People? A prominent psychologist has proposed that many young people are now going through a period of ego development that occurs between the ages of 18 and 25. Arnett (2004) calls his view “emerging adulthood” and says that it occurs between adolescence and adulthood. Adulthood is defined in terms of accepting responsibility for oneself, making independent decisions, and becoming financially independent from others, particularly parts. Some of the characteristics of emerging adults include self-identity explorations, instability, a feeling of “being in-between”, and the perception of a range of possibilities. When economic times are bad, as they are now in many countries, emerging adults experience a prolonged transition into adulthood. They are continually exploring a variety of career and job opportunities, hold many temporary and low-paying jobs, drop in-and-out of college, live on-and-off campus, delay committing themselves to others romantically and have a number of partners with whom they cohabit , and delay marriage and having children. Many of these young people continue to live at home during their twenties, or if they have moved out of their parents’ home while they try to “find themselves”, they continue to be supported financially by their parents while they struggle with their situations. Hendry and Kloep (2010) have presented new evidence that Arnett’s emerging adulthood theme applies mainly to young people in higher education who primarily come from affluent, higher socio-economic status families. In their research they interviewed a sample of young people from lower socio-economic status backgrounds who were not pursuing higher education. These interviews revealed that many of these young people reported that they were already settled into full-time jobs during the age range from 18 to 97

25, had a long-term relationship partner, and had gained independence from their parents. Most of them felt that they were adults and were perceived by others as adults. You might open a discussion with your students about whether they perceive themselves as emerging adults and/or do they know others who are still in transition even into their late 20s, and what they think some of the reasons are for the long delay in such cases. What path are they on? Have they changed schools often? Because they cannot settle on a career direction? What do they think some of the major uncertainties and stresses are for their peers in prolonged transition? Do these uncertainties and stresses create feelings of irritability and depression and lead to self-medication like binge drinking and other substance abuse? Do they have any proposals for constructive change to reduce or eliminate the costs associated with this prolonged transition to adulthood? References Arnett, J.J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from late teens through the twenties. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hendry, L.B., & Kloep, M. (2010). How universal is emerging adulthood? An empirical example. Journal of Youth Studies, 13(2), 169-179. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 6, your students should be able to: 1. describe the eight stages of personal development, naming the crisis unique to each one and the virtues that are an outgrowth of successful coping. 2. discuss the research associated with each stage, especially studies which have focused on adolescence and early, middle, and late adulthood. 3. name the four ego identity statuses in adolescence and to discuss the major research findings that help support Erikson's view of their role in development. 4. describe the psychohistorical analysis of the lives of important historical figures. 5. discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Erikson's theory.

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Erikson believes strongly that the ego: a. is concerned primarily with the control of sexual urges b. functions defensively nearly all the time c. is weak and operates in the service of the id d. operates oftentimes independently of id motivations ANS: d 2. In Erikson's view, personal development: a. does not occur throughout the life span b. is governed by the epigenetic principle c. is totally controlled by biological urges d. proceeds slowly through a variable unfolding of three stages ANS: b 3. According to Erikson, a crisis is: a. a threat of catastrophe b. not a part of the developmental process c. a turning point or critical point in development d. associated only with problems facing children, but not adults ANS: c 4. A positive resolution of a crisis at one stage: a. increases the chances of successfully resolving crises at other stages b. is independent of the resolution of a crisis at other stages c. decreases the chances of coping successfully with crises at other stages d. leads to destructive growth in men and women ANS: a 5. Human qualities of strength are called: a. virtues b. morals c. kindness d. latencies ANS: a

6. Successful crisis resolution: a. rarely occurs in healthy people b. occurs when the ratio of learning is more negative than positive c. occurs when the ratio of positive to negative learning is weighted in favor of the positive d. occurs in the oral-sensory stage but not typically in the muscular-anal stage ANS: c 7. Positive crisis resolution in the oral-sensory stage leads to the establishment of a sense of: a. autonomy b. basic trust c. initiative d. industry ANS: b 8. When the outcome of the crisis in the oral-sensory stage is positive, the person experience a sense of: a. purpose b. hope c. will d. competence ANS: b 9. When the resolution of the crisis in the muscular-anal stage is positive, the person experiences a sense of: a. love b. care c. hope d. will ANS: d 10. Negative crisis resolution on the anal-muscular stage leads children to experience: a. shame and doubt b. role confusion c. despair d. integrity stagnation ANS: a

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11. In Erikson's development scheme, the locomotor-genital stage bears some resemblance to Freud's: a. oral stage b. anal stage c. genital stage d. phallic stage ANS: d 12. Positive crisis resolution in the locomotor-genital stage gives children a sense of: a. hope b. purpose c. fidelity d. wisdom ANS: b 13. The virtue associated with the latency stage is: a. competence b. wisdom c. will d. care ANS: a 14. Research by Kowaz and Marcia showed that highly industrious children: a. were less motivated to succeed in school than children low in industriousness b. obtained higher grades in school than children low in industriousness c. were more competitive than children low in industriousness d. had stronger fixations on food than children low in industriousness ANS: b 15. According to Erikson, positive crisis resolution in the latency stage leads to a sense of: a. initiative b. autonomy c. ego integrity d. industry ANS: d

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16. In Erikson's developmental scheme, the fifth stage of development is called: a. young adulthood b. adolescence c. middle adulthood d. late adulthood (old age) ANS: b 17. The most disturbing part of life during adolescence centers on youths': a. romantic love b. inability to decide on an occupational identity c. ability to love many people simultaneously d. inability to identify with local customs ANS: b 18. Erikson calls the setting by adolescents of absolute boundaries values and beliefs: a. simplicity b. identification with parents c. totalism d. romantic loyalty

in terms of their

ANS: c 19. During adolescence, negative crisis resolution results in the continuance of a sense of: a. ego despair b. role confusion c. guilt d. shame and doubt ANS: b 20. Successful crisis resolution during adolescence leads to the emergence of a sense of: a. fidelity b. love c. wisdom d. competence ANS: a

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21. Erikson thinks that the sixth stage of development spans the period from: a. fifteen to twenty b. twenty to twenty-four c. thirty-five to forty-five d. forty-five to sixty-five ANS: b 22. The sixth stage of development is called: a. adolescence b. young adulthood c. middle adulthood d. late adulthood ANS: b 23. Erikson believes that young adults, but not adolescents, are capable of: a. mature love b. sexual orgasm c. romantic attachments d. negative identities ANS: a 24. Failure by young adults to develop a capacity for intimacy leads to the development of a sense of: a. sexual closeness b. guilt c. isolation d. role confusion ANS: c 25. The ego crisis during middle adulthood centers on: a. generativity versus stagnation b. identity versus role confusion c. autonomy versus shame and doubt d. basic trust versus mistrust ANS: a

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26. If the capacity for generativity exceeds a sense of stagnation, the virtue of: a. love emerges b. romantic love emerges c. hope emerges d. care emerges ANS: d 27. Positive resolution of the crisis of late adulthood leads to the development of: a. generativity b. ego integrity c. industry d. autonomy ANS: b 28. The virtue typically associated with a meaningful old age is: a. wisdom b. trust c. initiative d. industry ANS: a 29. According to Ardelt, wisdom involves: a. being intellectually superior to others b. affirming the integrity of experience, while having a body that is continuously improving in competence and strength c. ignoring those things in life you can change, but only with great difficulty d. genuine empathy, sympathy, and compassion for others ANS: d 30. The technique used by Erikson to build a bridge between history and psychoanalysis is called: a. histrionics b. psychohistory c. psychoanalytic motivation analysis d. psychology ANS: b

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31. Erikson's theory: a. is not very comprehensive b. is not very precise c. has little heuristic value d. has no applied value ANS: b 32. The virtue associated with middle adulthood is: a. care b. wisdom c. purpose d. hope ANS: a 33. The negative outcome in the last stage of life is called: a. mistrust b. shame c. despair d. doubt ANS: c 34. The principle that human development is genetically determined and that it operates in terms of the unfolding of stages in an invariant sequence is the: a. epiphenomenon principle b. epigenetic principle c. ego psychology principle d. unfolding stage principle ANS: b 35. Erikson calls the time of exploration between childhood and adulthood the: a. generativity period b. isolation period c. identity period d. moratorium period ANS: d

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36. Identity diffusion individuals are people who: a. have made firm commitments to occupational goals b. are actively in crisis c. lack firm commitments to occupational goals d. typically have decided on their political goals and commitments ANS: c 37. Moratorium individuals are people who: a. are currently in a state of crisis b. have never been in crisis c. have never been in crisis, but nevertheless have made firm commitments to occupational goals d. have developed firm commitments to goals ANS: a 38. Research on Marcia's identity statuses shows that: a. identity diffusion people evaluate their parents most favorably b. foreclosures rate their parents most unfavorably c. foreclosures most strongly endorse parental authority and values d. identity diffusion people most strongly endorse parental values ANS: c 39. Marcia maintains that progressive strengthening of the ego proceeds from low to high maturity, as follows: a. foreclosure, diffusion, moratorium, and identity achievement b. identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and identity diffusion c. moratorium, foreclosure, identity diffusion, and identity achievement d. diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement ANS: d 40. In examining differences in male and female identity, Waterman has found that: a. male identity centers primarily on getting married b. female identity focuses primarily on establishing a career c. male identity focuses primarily on establishing a career d. both male and female identities focus primarily on getting married ANS: c

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41. Which one of the following types of individuals typically establishes committed relationships that lack depth? a. preintimates b. pseudointimates c. stereotyped individuals d. intimates ANS: b 42. The individuals who have never experienced a crisis, but nevertheless have made firm commitments to a set of goals and values are called: a. identity achievers b. diffusers c. foreclosures d. moratoriums ANS: c 43. The most distance between themselves and their parents is reported by: a. identity achievers b. identity diffusers c. moratoriums d. foreclosures ANS: b 44. Research on identity formation in adolescents has shown that: a. female identity revolves around career and/or marriage and/or childbearing b. female identity revolves around marriage only c. male identity centers on marriage d. female identity focuses only on childbearing ANS: a 45. In a study of ethnic identity, Shrake and Rhee found that: a. Korean American adolescents with negative views of their ethnic identity had very high GPAs b. Korean American adolescents with positive views of their ethnic identity had higher GPAs than their counterparts with negative views of their ethnic identity c. ethnic identity was unrelated to GPA d. all Korean American adolescents were rebellious and did poorly in school because of their ethnic identity ANS: b

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46. Women who have become absorbed in their relationships with men at the expense of their own autonomy are called: a. intimate individuals b. stereotyped individuals c. merger individuals d. preintimate individuals ANS: c 47. Fusion with another person where one's own sense of identity and self are lost is called: a. enmeshment b. fidelity c. identity diffusion d. generativity ANS: a 48. In her study of intimacy statuses, Prager has found that: a. individuals in stereotyped relationships are those who have made lasting commitments to others b. intimates are selectively self-revealing, in contrast to individuals in the lower intimacy statuses c. intimates are much more competitive, in contrast to individuals in the nonintimate statuses d. intimates generally have stereotyped relationships ANS: b 49. Orlofsky's research on intimacy statuses has shown that: a. men in high intimacy status are almost invariably identity achievers b. preintimates are most frequently in the foreclosure status c. pseudointimate men tend to be identity diffusers d. isolates tend to be identity achievers ANS: a 50. Merger women try to achieve their goals by using subtle manipulation tactics, which include: a. insulting their partners b. domineering behavior c. dropping hints d. ridicule ANS: c

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51. Men in relationships with merger women try to control their partners by: a. acting seductively b. dropping hints c. using flattery d. using bullying tactics such as threats and insults ANS: d 52. In which one of the following stages do children show an untiring curiosity about their parents, friends, and surroundings? a. latency stage b. early adulthood c. late adulthood d. locomotor-genital stage ANS: d 53. In which one of the following stages does Erikson think that children feel a rivalry toward the parent of the same sex? a. locomotor-genital stage b. oral-sensory stage c. muscular-anal stage d. latency stage ANS: a 54. A survey by Violato and Holden showed that adolescents were most concerned about: a. sex b. their interactions with family c. their careers and grades d. their smoking behavior ANS: c 55. In the research by Snarey, Son, Kuehne, Hauser, and Vaillant which focused on the issue of generativity in middle adulthood, it was found that: a. fertile men who acted as Big Brothers to neighborhood kids were most likely to divorce a. b. infertile men who used parentlike substitute activities to encourage the development of other people's children were not likely to divorce b. infertile women who played with other people's children were least likely to adopt a child c. infertile men who engaged in narcissistic behavior were very likely to adopt a child ANS: b

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56. The research by Snarey, Son, Kuehne, Hauser, and Vaillant which focused on the issue of generativity in middle adulthood found that: a. a sense of generativity can only be attained when the husband is biologically the father of his child b. a sense of generativity can be achieved even if the husband is not the biological father of the child c. a sense of generativity can be achieved by men if they treat nonhuman objects (for example, car or pets) as their "babies" d. a sense of generativity can be achieved by infertile women if they become preoccupied with body building and forget their desires to have a child ANS: b

MSC: WWW

57. In the research by Vandewater and McAdams which examined the issue of generativity in middle-age, it was found that generative study participants: a. were self-absorbed b. had little hope for the future c. were oriented toward helping others d. could only be happy if they were biological parents ANS: c

MSC: WWW

58. The research by Walaskay, Whitbourne, and Nehre on ego integrity in late adulthood showed that: a. the memories of despairing individuals were quite positive b. despairing individuals had little death anxiety c. individuals high in ego integrity experienced less death anxiety than despairing people d. individuals high in ego integrity were more competitive than despairing people ANS: c

MSC: WWW

59. Beth and her parents have agreed completely since Beth was eight years old that she should become a physician, and Beth has subsequently pursued that goal without hesitation. Erikson would probably conclude that she is in a state of: a. identity diffusion b. identity achievement c. foreclosure d. moratorium ANS: c

MSC: WWW

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60. Joe has no commitments to anything and has never thought too seriously about the direction of his life. Erikson would probably conclude that he is in a state of: a. identity diffusion b. foreclosure c. moratorium d. identity achievement ANS: a

MSC: WWW

COMPLETION 1. Erikson postulated ______________ stages of ego development. ANS: eight 2. Erikson placed ______________ emphasis than did Freud on the sexual bases of the conflicts in these stages. ANS: less 3. The crisis in the first stage is______________. ANS: trust vs. mistrust 4. During the second stage, the child's interaction with the mother ideally culminates in the development of the virtue of ______________. ANS: will 5. If the fourth stage has a positive resolution, the outcome is an emergence of the virtue of ______________. ANS: competence 6. During the locomotor-genital stage, when their initiative is sparked, children who are severely punished for their advances may development a sense of ______________. ANS: guilt 7. The development of ______________ in minority individuals is associated with the highest levels of mental health. ANS: bicultural identity

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8. People who have successfully resolved the crisis in middle-age emerge with the virtue of ______________. ANS: care 9. In Erikson's fifth stage, called the stage of ______________, individuals who successfully resolve the crisis emerge with the virtue of fidelity. ANS: adolescence 10. Adolescents who have never experienced a crisis but who have nevertheless committed themselves to a course of action are called ______________. ANS: foreclosurers TRUE/FALSE 1. Erikson thought that human development is governed by the epigenetic principle. ANS: T 2. Virtues are human qualities or strengths that emerge from the successful resolution of the crises in the various stages. ANS: T 3. If the mother acts in an unreliable way toward her infant, he/she is likely to develop a sense of basic mistrust. ANS: T 4. The virtue of care emerges following the successful resolution of the crisis experienced by the person during the fifth stage. ANS: F 5. Unsuccessful resolution of the crisis in adolescence leads to a sense of guilt. ANS: F 6. Unsuccessful resolution of the crisis in middle age leads to a sense of stagnation. ANS: T

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7. The successful resolution of the crisis of adolescence leads to the virtue of fidelity. ANS: T 8. Fusion with another person, in which one's own sense of self and identity is lost, is called enmeshment. ANS: T 9. People who have enduring relationships, but whose relationships lack depth are called preintimate individuals. ANS: F 10. A sense of identity in which minority group members are characterized by positive attitudes toward their own ethnic group and toward the majority group is called a bicultural identity. ANS: T ESSAY 1. Define the term identity crisis and discuss its role and implications for development in the lives of adolescents. ANS: Answer not provided 2. Name the various stages of ego development and describe their unfolding in a healthy person. ANS: Answer not provided 3. Describe Erikson's research on toy construction in boys and girls and the implications of his results for male and female development. ANS: Answer not provided 4. In what ways is the emergence of neurosis and psychosis a function of the kinds of experience a person has had at various points in his or her developmental history? ANS: Answer not provided 5. Describe the scientific worth of Erikson's theory in terms of the six criteria. ANS: Answer not provided

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6. What are merger women? Why can't such individuals be considered to have achieved intimacy status in their relationships? ANS: Answer not provided 7. Generativity in middle adulthood can manifest itself in a variety of ways. Define generativity and discuss the research which shows the various paths which generativity can take in the healthy middle-aged adult. ANS: Answer not provided 8. Show how neurosis can be an outgrowth of the failure to resolve developmental crises. ANS: Answer not provided 9. Define the four ego identity statuses and then show how research demonstrates the validity of Erikson's theorizing about them. ANS: Answer not provided 10. Why does Erikson think that many adolescents are clannish, intolerant, and cruel in their treatment of people who are different from themselves? ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 7-KOHUT’S SELF PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Self Psychology-theory that the self is the center of psychological motivation, organization, and change in personality. It also assumes that psychological damage to the self produces psychopathology. A. objects-relations theory-the course of human development depends on the quality of the relationships established between individuals, particularly between parents and their children. 1. self-objects-representations of psychologically important people who can help us cope with and resolve problems. II. Personality Development A. primary narcissism-initial state of well-being and satisfaction in which all of the infant’s needs are gratified and the infant feels an oceanic perfection and bliss. B. grandiose self-primitive view of oneself as great. 1. need to be mirrored-a yearning for admiration and approval. C. idealized parental image-children’s initial view of their parents as perfect, that is, as all-knowing and all-powerful. 1. need to idealize-need to seek security by identifying with all-powerful figures, usually parents. D. Empathic parents-parents capable of assuming the perspective of the child, to know and understand his or her experiences. E. optimal frustrations-ideal, not traumatic, frustration of a person’s needs (by parents) that fosters new learning and personal growth. F. transmuting internalizations-process whereby individuals learn more realistic and effective ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving as a consequence of interactions with empathic parents. G. nuclear self-foundation of personality, established through a learning process initiated by empathic parents, in which individuals modify their unrealistic beliefs about themselves and their caretakers. H. cohesive self-personality that is organized, healthy and functions effectively, because its narcissistic energies are primarily invested in the pursuit of realistic goals. I. autonomous self-self of an individual who has achieved optimal mental health. III. Disturbances to the Self

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A. psychosis-severe disturbance of the self in which defenses do not cover major defects in the self. B. borderline states-disorders of the self in which damage to the self is permanent or protracted. In contrast to the psychoses, the central defect is better covered by major defenses. 1. schizoid personality disorders-defective self structures are protected against further damage by aloofness and superficial involvement in relationships. 2. paranoid personality disorders-deficiencies in self structures are shielded against further damage by using hostility and suspicion to keep potentially injurious objects at a safe distance. C. Narcissistic personality disorders 1. understimulated self-individuals feel empty, bored, and depressed because their parents have failed to respond empathically to their mirroring and idealizing needs. 2. fragmenting self-person feels uncoordinated, in some cases, the person may feel tired, mentally slow, and/or awkward following threatening experiences. 3. overstimulated self-individuals exposed to excessive stimulation in childhood, because their fantasies of greatness were continually reinforced by unempathic caregivers, 4. Overburdened self-person has not had an opportunity to merge with the calmness of an omnipotent self-object, usually a parent. The result is lack of the self-soothing capacity that could have been learned through such contact. D. Narcissistic behavior disorders 1. mirror-hungry personalities-individuals who crave self-objects whose confirming and admiring responses will increase their feelings of self-worth. 2. ideal-hungry personalities-individuals who experience themselves as worthwhile as long as they can relate to people they can admire. 3. alter-ego personalities-individuals who feel worthwhile only if they have a relationship with a self-object who looks and dresses like them and has similar opinions and values. 4. merger-hungry personalities-individuals who experience others as their own self. 5. contact-shunning personalities-intense longing to merge with self-objects, such individuals are highly sensitive to rejection. To avoid this pain, they avoid social contact. IV. Development of the Healthy Self A. autonomous self-self of an individual who has achieved optimal mental health and a freedom from inhibitions that interfere with his or her ability to act productively. V. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques

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A. role of empathy in therapy-the ability to assume the perspective of another person, to know and understand his or her experiences. B. free association C. dream analysis D. transference 1. mirror transference-transference in which a person who had not been adequately mirrored, that is, confirmed and given approval by his mother relives these experiences with the therapist. 2. idealizing transference-process in which a patient whose needs to be protected by an admired, powerful parent in early childhood were frustrated relives these experiences. 3. alter-ego transference-process in which a patient whose needs for belonging as a member of the group have not been met by family members relives these experiences with an accepting therapist. E. counter-transference-therapist’s tendency to react to the patient on the basis of his or her (therapist's) own narcissistic needs and conflicts. VI. Theory’s Implications for Therapy: goal of therapy is to redirect narcissistic energies from the unrealistic self structures to the nuclear self and ego. VII. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-broad scope. B. Precision and testability-not very precise and very difficult to test adequately. C. Parsimony-too reductionistic. D. Empirical validity- so far, not much empirical support for much of the theory, with the exception of theorizing about unhealthy narcissism. E. Heuristic value-highly heuristic, at least in stimulating professionals in psychoanalysis to reconsider many of the concepts they hitherto had adopted uncritically. F. Applied value-has high applied value in generating profitable research on narcissism.

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CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Narcissism and Pathology. In Kohut's view, the lack of responsiveness on the part of parents to their child's mirroring and idealizing needs is the most dangerous threat to the psychological survival of an individual in Western culture. Such unempathic treatment results in many forms of an unhealthy self, one example of which is the understimulated self. Given the necessity of many families to have both parents work, many children have fewer and fewer opportunities to participate emotionally in their parents' lives. Kohut believed that children need to know about their parents' hopes and dreams but also about their limitations, failures, and disappointments. (You can ask your students to make a list of their parents' goals, hopes, dreams, disappointments, and so forth.) Without such experiences, children experience themselves as boring and apathetic and resort to other forms of stimulation to feel alive-promiscuous sex, gambling, and drug and alcohol abuse. Do any of your students know other peers who fit the description of the understimulated self? In the discussion, point out that some of these peers might not exist in families where both parents work, but rather exist in families where the parents are present but psychologically damaged themselves so they can not meet the needs of their children. It's pretty hard to minister to the child's mirroring and idealizing needs if the parents are heavily into drugs and alcohol themselves. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 7, your students should be able to: 1. define self-objects and discuss the role they play in the development of the person. 2. describe Kohut's model for healthy and unhealthy development. 3. understand the many differences between the stage theories of development of Kohut and Freud. 4. describe and understand the various narcissistic personality and behavioral disorders. 5. explain how the transference process is used in Kohut's theory to help patients make progress toward cure.

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TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. In Kohut's theory, individuals: a. are assumed to seek relationships with other people primarily to gratify their instinctual needs. b. are driven by sexual and aggressive instincts to gratify their urges on a variety of targets, including other people. c. sometimes react to threats and damage to the self by showing pathological sexual and aggressive behavior. d. usually show little respect for others because they are innately aggressive and lustful. ANS: c 2. Kohut calls the internal mental representations of people that are experienced as an integral part of the self: a. sexual target objects b. self-objects c. life and death objects d. aggressive reality objects ANS: b 3. In Kohut's view, the neonate, strictly speaking, has: a. no self b. a fully developed self c. an actualized self d. a sense of self that is usually incapable of modification ANS: a 4. Kohut calls the state of self-love that is perfect and blissful: a. secondary narcissism b. mother love c. conditioned narcissism d. primary narcissism ANS: d

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5. The unconscious belief of the child that he or she is great and perfect is called the: a. autonomous self b. grandiose self c. realistic self d. primary and secondary self ANS: b 6. For Kohut, the psychologically healthy development of children is based primarily on caregivers who are: a. tough, yet detached from them b. empathic toward them c. loving toward their spouses d. lenient and forgiving of virtually all their mistakes ANS: b 7. According to Kohut, each child has an innate need to: a. be aggressive b. be mirrored c. identify with his or her relatives d. identify with his or her peers ANS: b 8. According to Kohut, it is: a. usually the father who does the mirroring for both sexes b. the teacher who does the mirroring for boys, but not girls c. usually the mother who does the mirroring for both sexes d. typically not the mother who does the mirroring for boys ANS: c 9. For a child to grow up in a psychologically healthy way, Kohut believes that parental discipline must: a. rely on severe frustration of the child's needs b. not involve any frustration of the child's needs c. give the child love and affection all the time d. involve optimal frustration of the child's strivings ANS: d

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10. Kohut calls the ability to put yourself in another's place and understand his or her needs: a. cooperation b. love c. empathy d. goodness ANS: c 11. According to Kohut, children have an innate need to idealize. He thinks that it is typically and principally the: a. mother who is idealized by her sons. b. mother who is idealized by her sons and daughters. c. father who is idealized by his daughters. d. father who is idealized by his sons. ANS: d 12. In Kohut's view, effective parents are ones who present themselves as: a. "optimally failing" to their children b. never in need of help c. always successful d. failures to their sons and usually successful to their daughters ANS: a 13. The nuclear self is the result of efforts to recognize and come to grips with the limitations of two poles of the self, the: a. grandiose self and the autonomous self b. autonomous self and the primary self c. grandiose self and the idealizing self d. idealizing self and the secondary narcissistic self ANS: c 14. The ________________ is simply a quality of the nuclear self. a. grandiose self b. unrealistic self c. cohesive self d. sexual self

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15. In Kohut's view, successful resolution of the Oedipal conflict occurs when the child: a. is making progress toward the establishment of a firm nuclear self b.already possesses a firm nuclear self c. relies on his grandiose self to win the affections of the mother d.relies on his exhibitionistic self to avoid all contact with the father ANS: b 16. Kohut contends that healthy development is: a. achieved once-and-for-all during the oral stage b. achieved once-and-for-all during the phallic stage c. achieved once-and-for-all during the genital stage d. not achieved once-and-for-all at a particular time in the life-span. ANS: d 17. Kohut thinks that people in a. late middle age b. adolescence c. young adulthood d. preadolescence

are especially prone to severe crisis.

ANS: a 18. The major difference between borderline state disorders and the psychoses is that the: a. people suffering from borderline states are able to cover the defects in the self by using complex defense mechanisms b. people suffering from psychoses are able to cover the defects in the self by using defense mechanisms c. people suffering from borderline states have no defenses d. people suffering from borderline states are also fixated at the genital stage ANS: a 19. Individuals who achieve emotional distance from others by showing coldness and indifference are suffering from: a. paranoid psychoses b. schizoid personality disorders c. narcissistic personality disorders d. primary personality disorders ANS: b

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20. The type of narcissistic personality disorder that results from prolonged lack of responsiveness on the part of the parents is called the: a. paranoid self b. psychotic self c. understimulated self d. overstimulated self ANS: c 21. People who shy away from creative activities because they fear being overwhelmed by a grandiosity that is uncontrollable are suffering from an: a. understimulated self b. paranoid self c. psychotic self d. overstimulated self ANS: d 22. People who are continually searching for self-objects who will admire and nurture them are called: a. mirror-hungry personalities b. alter-ego personalities c. merger-hungry personalities d. ego personalities ANS: a 23. People who are continually searching for others whom they can admire for their beauty, intelligence, or moral stature are called: a. mirror-hungry personalities b. superego personalities c. ideal-hungry personalities d. narcissism-hungry personalities ANS: c 24. People who continually blur the boundaries between themselves and idealized figures to fulfill their desperate need for self-structure are called: a. merger-hungry personalities b. mirror-hungry personalities c. approval-hungry personalities d. alter-ego hungry personalities ANS: a

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25. Individuals who can experience themselves as worthwhile only when they are in relationships with self-objects who will conform to their opinions, beliefs, values, and behavior are called: a. alter-ego hungry personalities b. mirror-hungry personalities c. merger-hungry personalities d. ideal-hungry personalities ANS: a 26. In Kohut's judgment, the epitome of mental health is seen in the person with a(n): a. contracted self b. autonomous self c. interested self d. expanded and mirrored self ANS: b 27. Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee found that students higher in unhealthy narcissism had stronger tendencies than students lower in unhealthy narcissism to overestimate: a. their kindness to others b. the income of their parents c. their physical attractiveness d. their respect for others ANS: c 28. Zamostny, Slyter, and Rios found that male and female college students who reported having had many narcissistic injuries in childhood were the ones who: a. were most competitive in their relationships with their teachers b. were most academically and socially maladjusted during their college careers c. engaged most in pranks that resulted in injuries to their fellow students d. majored in sociology, art, and music ANS: b 29. In a longitudinal study of college women approximately 20 years after their graduation, Wink found that healthy narcissists reported: a. personal discomfort in their 30s when they were first trying to juggle the demands of family and career b. a continued commitment to a relatively low status but highly satisfying career. c. more satisfaction with their careers but less satisfaction with their roles as mothers d. less drug dependence and good marriages and careers ANS: d

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30. Morf and Rhodewalt examined individual differences in unhealthy narcissism and performance on a competitive task and found: a. that study participants higher in narcissism rated their opponents' personalities much more negatively than participants lower in narcissism under both high and low threat conditions. b. that participants higher in narcissism rated their opponents' personalities much more negatively than participants lower in narcissism under high threat conditions c. that participants higher in narcissism rated their opponents' personalities much more positively than participants lower in narcissism under high threat conditions d. no differences between participants higher and lower in narcissism in their evaluations of their opponents' personalities. ANS: b 31. In terms of its scientific worth, Kohut's theory: a. is not very comprehensive b. is highly heuristic c. has very strong empirical validity d. has no applied value ANS: b 32. Kohut believed that empathy was a therapeutic technique used by therapists to: a. collect subjective impressions about the patient's inner life b. collect objective data about the patient's subjective inner states c. show their patients that they viewed them dispassionately, unsympathetically, and objectively d. convince their patients that their consciousness could not be assessed ANS: b 33. In the alter-ego transference, the patient seeks: a. the comfort and acceptance from the therapist that his own parents failed to provide b. to have the therapist transfer his or her best personal qualities onto the patient so that the patient's ego can be strengthened c. to eliminate the patient's ego by considering alternative ways of behaving d. to transfer his or her primary narcissism onto the therapist ANS: a

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34. The tendency of the therapist to react to the patient on the basis of the therapist's narcissistic needs and conflicts is called: a. ego-ideal transference b. countertransference c. cohesive self transference d. idealizing transference ANS: b 35. Children's initial view of their parents as perfect is called the: a. grandiose self imago b. fragmenting imago c. idealized parent imago d. empathy imago ANS: c 36. Kohut calls the dreams that are not disguised attempts at wish fulfillment, but rather straightforward depictions of the current state of the self: a. transmuting dreams b. latent dreams c. psychopathological dreams d. self-state dreams ANS: d 37. Another name for the therapeutic tool of empathy is: a. primary and immediate introspection b. vicarious introspection c. concrete observation d. personal and empirical observation ANS: b 38. When the mother reflects, echoes, approves, and confirms her child's selfrepresentation, it is called: a. mirroring b. transmuting internalization c. optimal frustration d. optimal failure ANS: a

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39. The process whereby a person learns new, more realistic ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving as a consequence of interactions with empathic parents is called: a. classical internalization b. instinctual internalization c. transference internalization d. transmuting internalization ANS: d 40. Kohut believes that the person's personality: a. cannot be changed much after age five b. is still subject to considerable changes after age five c. is always fixated at the oral stage and can not be changed after age two d. can only be changed through interactions with the parents ANS: b 41. In Kohut's opinion, empathy as a therapeutic tool: a. serves as a prerequisite for therapists' ability to experience compassion for others b. is the same thing as compassion and sympathy for the patient c. is derived from strong therapist feelings of compassion and sympathy for the patient d. is always felt by the patient for the therapist ANS: a 42. The process whereby traumatic memories are faced again and the infantile wishes of the patient are re-experienced and slowly relinquished is called: a. thinking it through b. traumatic isolation and elimination c. working through d. cognitive reliving ANS: c 43. In Kohut's theory, the unifying and directing role in personality development and functioning is attributed to the: a. id b. ego c. superego d. self ANS: d

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44. In Kohut's view, self-objects: a. help individuals regulate tensions and stresses that they are incapable of handling b. can also be called grandiose selves c. very early in life are typically mythological figures d. are not at all useful to individuals ANS: a 45. Kohut thinks that the nuclear self is based: a. only on interactions with the father b. only on interactions with the mother c. on interactions with both the mother and father d. primarily on the child's interactions with his or her teachers ANS: c 46. According to Kohut, contact-shunning personalities: a. avoid others because of disinterest in them b. avoid others they admire because they fear rejection by them c. were able to merge with admired figures in early childhood d. were able to merge with an admired mother figure but not an admired father figure ANS: b 47. Kohut thinks that the person with an autonomous self: a. has no further need of others b. has a continuing need for relatedness to self-objects c. is highly unrealistic d. has dreams primarily of an aggressive and sexual nature ANS: b 48. Kohut defined psychoanalysis as the: a. historical study of conscious states b. scientific study of complex mental states c. scientific study of simple reflexes d. historical study of transference ANS: b

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49. Kohut believes that the nuclear self: a. is totally unrealistic and needs to be changed b. is realistic c. develops initially during adolescence d. is typically fragmented ANS: b 50. The type of narcissistic personality disorder where the child's grandiose fantasies of greatness were constantly reinforced by the parents is called the: a. understimulated self b. overstimulated self c. overburdened self d. fragmented self ANS: b 51. Kohut believed that the primary need in human beings is the need for: a. sex b. power c. aggression d. relatedness ANS: d

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52. The ability to take the perspective of another human being is called: a. empathy b. conditioning c. primary conditioning d. primary reinforcement ANS: a

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53. Kohut thought that each person's personality is: a. not subject to considerable changes after age 3 b. not subject to considerable changes after age 5 c. subject to considerable changes after age 5 d. subject to considerable changes only after age 40 ANS: c

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54. Which one of the following narcissistic behavioral disorders is the most severe type of psychopathology? a. mirror-hungry personality b. ideal-hungry personality c. alter-ego personality d. contact-shunning personality ANS: d

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55. In a study by Otway and Vignoles focusing on the developmental roots of narcissism, British adults who recalled being reared by: a. unempathic parents reported high levels of healthy narcissism b. caring parents reported low levels of unhealthy narcissism c. unempathic parents reported high levels of unhealthy narcissism d. foster parents reported low levels of healthy narcissism ANS: c

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COMPLETION 1. A fundamental premise of Self Psychology is that ______________ are central to psychoanalytic thinking and treatment. ANS: object relations 2. Kohut believed that a successful resolution of the ______________ conflict takes place only when the child already possesses a firm nuclear self. ANS: Oedipal 3. ______________ is a state of self-love that is perfect and blissful. ANS: Primary narcissism 4. When a mother reflects, approves, and confirms her child's sense self-representation, she is said to be ______________ her child. ANS: mirroring 5. The most dangerous threat to the psychological survival of the individual in Western culture is the lack of responsiveness to the child's needs by caregivers which results in an ______________. ANS: understimulated self

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6. ______________ personalities are continually searching for self-objects who will admire and nurture their famished selves. ANS: mirror-hungry 7. ______________ personalities only experience themselves as worthwhile when they are in relationships with self-objects who will conform to their opinions, values, and behavior. ANS: alter-ego 8. The epitome of the psychologically healthy person is a person with an ______________. ANS: autonomous self 9. In a ______________ transference, patients seek to be validated by the therapists' approval. ANS: mirror 10. Children's initial views of their parents as perfect, that is, as all-knowing and allpowerful is captured by the concept ______________. ANS: idealized parental imago TRUE/FALSE 1. Self-objects are mental representations of people that exist within the self. ANS: T 2. Strictly speaking, the newborn has no self. ANS: T 3. The autonomous self is the foundation of an individual's personality. ANS: F 4. Empathy is the ability to understand oneself more than an ability to take the perspective of another. ANS: F

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5. The grandiose self is the sophisticated view of other people as more perfect than oneself. ANS: F 6. Individuals who are alter-ego personalities feel worthwhile only if they have relationships with self-objects who look and dress like them and have similar opinions and values. ANS: T 7. Infants are the ones who mirror their parents so that they (the parents) will grow up psychologically healthy. ANS: F 8. Dreams that are disguised attempts at wish fulfillment are called self-state dreams. ANS: F 9. The process whereby individuals learn more realistic and effective ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving is called transference conditioning. ANS: F 10. Individuals who have overstimulated selves have been constantly reinforced by their parents for their grandiose fantasies of greatness. ANS: T ESSAY 1. Why does Kohut think that unempathic treatment by parents makes it likely for their children to develop in psychologically unhealthy ways? ANS: Answer not provided 2. Discuss Kohut's views of the Oedipal conflict in boys and girls. In what important ways does his viewpoint differ from Freud's? ANS: Answer not provided 3. Describe the developmental process leading to the development of an autonomous self. ANS: Answer not provided

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4. Why does Kohut think that people need self-objects throughout their lives? ANS: Answer not provided 5. What kinds of aberrant behavior are adolescents likely to show if they have grown up in families where the parents were unempathic? ANS: Answer not provided 6. What are some of the differences between healthy and unhealthy narcissism? ANS: Answer not provided 7. Kohut has greatly broadened Freud's transference concept. Describe the major kinds of transference utilized by Kohut in his clinical practice to help cure patients. ANS: Answer not provided 8. What are the differences between the grandiose self, idealized parent imago, nuclear self, cohesive self, and the autonomous self? ANS: Answer not provided 9. What are some of the basic distinctions between borderline state disorders and psychoses? ANS: Answer not provided 10. Discuss Kohut's views on dream analysis and show how they differ from Freud's. ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 8-ALLPORT'S TRAIT THEORY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. A Humanistic View of Personality A. Becoming-process involving movement toward self-realization. B. Personality-set of traits that determine the person's characteristic thoughts and behavior. II. Theory of Traits A. Trait-neuropsychic disposition which causes person to act consistently across a variety of situations. 1. cardinal-characteristics that serve as the motivating force for virtually all of an individual’s behavior. 2. central-characteristics that control an individual’s behavior in many situations, but are less comprehensive than cardinal traits. 3. secondary-peripheral characteristics that exert little control over a person’s behavior. 4. common dispositions-traits shared with others. 5. personal dispositions-traits unique to the individual. III. Personality Development A. Evolution of the Self or Proprium 1. bodily self-feelings about oneself based on feedback from one’s physical senses. 2. self-identity-sense of self has having continuity and sameness. 3. self-esteem-feelings about one’s worth. 4. self-extension-sense of identity with one’s possessions, family, home, and country. 5. self-image-role played in order to win the approval of others. 6. self-as-rational coper-awareness of oneself as someone capable of rationally formulating and utilizing strategies in order to solve problems and attain personal goals. 7. propriate striving-motive that propels the individual toward the attainment of important, long-range goals. These drives involve an increase, rather than a decrease, in tension. 8. self-as-knower-integrative sense of self as one who consists of many different facets. IV. Development of the Mature Self 133

A. functional autonomy-process whereby a behavior that was once controlled by a basic motive comes to operate independently of that motive. B. Characteristics of Maturity 1. extension of the sense of self-ability to participate in activities with others that go beyond striving to gratify one's own selfish needs; genuine concern for others. 2. warm relatedness to others-able to be intimate and compassionate in one's relationships with others. 3. self-acceptance-understanding and acknowledgement, not only of one's strengths, but one's weaknesses as well. 4. realistic perception of reality-accurate perception of the world as it actually exists. 5. self-objectification-ability not to take oneself too seriously. 6. unifying philosophy of life-development of a set of life goals and values that guide the person's behavior. a. role of religion 1. intrinsic religiosity -orientation adopted by people to help them make sense of their experiences and to surrender themselves to a power higher than themselves. 2. extrinsic religiosity-orientation used by people for self-serving purposes. V. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. nomothetic-approach to the study of behavior that seeks to establish laws by specifying the general relationships between variables. B. idiographic-approach to the study of behavior that seeks to understand the uniqueness of a specific individual through intensive investigation. 1. personal documents (Jenny Gove Masterson) VI. Theory's Implications for Therapy A. Growth dependent on "love given and love received" VII. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-moderate in scope; focus on healthy development. B. Precision and testability-not very precise and difficult to test adequately. C. Parsimony-too simplistic. D. Empirical validity-empirical support is weak. E. Heuristic value-stimulating to personality psychologists because it forces them to bear in mind that the discipline must take into account the uniqueness of the individual. F. Applied value-theory of the development of the self has high applied value for clinicians and counselors.

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CLASSROOM FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Positive and Negative Consequences of Religious Belief. Allport believed that religion played a major role in the psychological development of most people. He acknowledged that religion has done tremendous harm to people at many points in our history, including today. Witness the senseless killings in the Middle East, many countries in Africa, India, Iraq and Afghanistan for example, all conducted in the name of religion. Also, religion is currently being used by terrorists to justify their slaughter of thousands of people. On the other hand, Allport also believed that religion is often used for good purposes daily throughout the world, as people demonstrate their caring and concern for the poor and the disabled. Witness the international relief efforts in Japan and Haiti, designed to relieve the suffering of the members of those countries in the aftermath of massive earthquakes. Since all of the major religions of the world teach love of others, you might ask your students to give an explanation of why so many horrific acts are committed in the name of someone's religion. Discussion could center on the need by fanatics to believe that they are the only ones with the true view of God and that infidels must be converted or killed. Many religious institutions and the clergy who exist within them can readily be described in hierarchical terms and arguments given for how status differences that emerge out of such an organizational structure are translated into power and then used to maintain control over the masses by some clergy. You could point out that the actions of such clergy are often self-serving and run counter to the teachings in the holy books to put others before oneself. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 8, your students should be able to: 1. define a trait and explain the differences between cardinal, central, and secondary traits. 2. explain the differences between the idiographic and nomothetic approaches to the study of personality. 3. discuss the various facets of the proprium. 4. name the various characteristics of maturity. 5. discuss why indiscriminate acceptance of society's values can restrict the person's propriate strivings.

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TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. A science that seeks to understand the behavior and experiences of people in general, focusing on the typical or average person with nothing to say about a given individual, is: a. idiographic in nature b. nomothetic in nature c. abstract d. propriate in nature ANS: b 2. A science within which the primary goal is to understand the functioning of a specific individual is: a. nomothetic b. idiographic c. propriate d. abstract ANS: b 3. The idiographic approach to the study of personality: a. relies heavily on the use of statistics b. consists mainly of abstractions from a unique personality c. provides us with information about the ways characteristics interact within a particular personality d. tells us nothing about a particular person's personality and uniqueness ANS: c 4. For Allport, personality was seen as: a. a fragmentation of various components b. a static system of components c. being unified and constantly changing and evolving d. being totally dependent on the forces without ANS: c 5. Allport's definition of personality shows that he considered it to be composed of: a. both "mind" and "body" elements that are organized into a system b. mental events c. physical events d. the characteristics or unique thoughts of the person

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ANS: a 6. Allport feels that differences in learning and performance will occur as a function of the degree of: a. self-respect b. proprium c. self-esteem d. ego-involvement ANS: d 7. Allport substitutes the term "proprium" for: a. the concept of self b. the concept of ego c. all aspects of personality involving thoughts d. all aspects of personality involving overt behavior ANS: a 8. According to Allport, the first aspect of the proprium to emerge is: a. self-esteem b. self-identity c. bodily self d. self-image ANS: c 9. The aspect of the proprium occurring during the first eighteen months of life is: a. self-extension b. self-image c. self-esteem d. self-identity ANS: d 10. The aspect of the proprium emerging from the second through the life is: a. self-extension b. self-esteem c. bodily self d. self-identity

third years of

ANS: b

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11. The aspect of the proprium characterized by a testing of the limits of our environment and a refusal to take orders from others is: a. self-extension b. self-esteem c. bodily self d. self-identity ANS: b 12. The aspect of the proprium that emerges between four and six years of age is: a. self-identity b. bodily self c. self-esteem d. self-extension ANS: d 13. The aspect of the proprium characterized by a concern with possessions and loyalty is: a. bodily image b. self-extension c. self-esteem d. self-identity ANS: b 14. The aspect of the proprium concerned with learned expectations of the roles we are expected to enact and the kinds of aspirations we should have for the future is the: a. bodily self b. self-identity c. self-image d. self-esteem ANS: c 15. The self as a rational coper stresses: a. our sense of our rational powers and the use of them b. an avoidance of situations in which our skills will be tested c. problem solving of a concrete situational character d. avoidance of emotional input to decision making ANS: a

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16. Motives that include our impulses, our drives, and our striving toward immediate gratification of our needs are: a. peripheral motives b. propriate motives c. automatic motives d. covert motives ANS: a 17. Motives that tend to increase rather than decrease tensions and consist of "egoinvolved" behavior are: a. peripheral motives b. propriate motives c. automatic motives d. covert motives ANS: b 18. Allport's general law of motivation that states that as persons mature they break their bonds with the past is: a. goal reinforcement b. structural autonomy c. dialectical motivation d. functional autonomy ANS: d 19. In the warmth of relatedness to others, there are two types of warmth: a. compassion and possessiveness b. intimacy and compassion c. intimacy and acceptance d. possessiveness and acceptance ANS: b 20. The mature person who has a high "frustration tolerance" level is said to have: a. self-acceptance b. a realistic perception of reality c. a warm relatedness with others d. an accurate extension of the sense of self ANS: a

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21. A trait that would include a master motive and a ruling passion would be a: a. central trait b. secondary trait c. cardinal trait d. structural trait ANS: c 22. Characteristics that are peripheral to the person's personality are called: a. secondary traits b. cardinal traits c. central traits d. structural traits ANS: a 23. A unique characteristic of a person not shared with others is a: a. common trait b. personal disposition c. central trait d. common disposition ANS: b 24. At the present time, empirical support for Allport's theory is: a. very strong b. strong c. weak d. moderately strong ANS: c 25. The chief virtue of Allport's theory seems to lie in its: a. precision and testability b. strong empirical validity c. heuristic value d. parsimony ANS: c

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26. In Allport's theory, an inherited characteristic that may or may not be reflected in the outward appearance of the individual is called a(n): a. phenotype b. proprium c. genotype d. ideograph ANS: c 27. In Allport's view, an illegitimate method of assessing personality is through the use of: a. personal documents b. self-ratings c. projective tests d. character reading ANS: d 28. A research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of communications is: a. response association test b. physical analysis c. content analysis d. word test ANS: c 29. The term used by Allport to identify all aspects of personality that make for inward unity is the: a. content self b. communicated self c. material self d. proprium ANS: d 30. For Allport, a trait: a. can be seen directly by an observer b. actually exists in the nervous system c. is a label for an event that is fictitious d. is a fiction that directs behavior ANS: b

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31. In Allport's view, the mature person: a. is qualitatively different from the immature one b. is gossipy c. has low frustration tolerance d. has attained all of his or her ideals ANS: a 32. Allport talked about the developmental process as one of: a. habits and routines b. loving c. becoming d. conditioning ANS: c 33. The study of Jenny's letters is a good example of the: a. nomothetic approach to the study of personality b. statistical approach to the study of personality c. idiographic approach to the study of personality d. objective and nomothetic approach to the study of personality ANS: c 34. In Allport's opinion, mature individuals: a. perceive themselves and others realistically b. tend to dwell on their past experiences c. tend to poke fun at the mistakes of others d. tend to be rather formal and aloof ANS: a 35. In Allport's view, the self-as-rational coper first emerges between the ages of: a. two and three b. four and six c. six and twelve d. thirteen and fifteen ANS: c

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36. Paul's friends like him because he can poke fun at his own mistakes and shortcomings. Allport would say that Paul is showing: a. self-extension b. self-image c. self-identity d. self-objectification ANS: d 37. For Allport, a trait is a: a. behavior which is guided by the person's conditioning b. neuropsychic structure which guides behavior c. set of dissimilar stimuli d. functionally autonomous impulse ANS: b 38. If Bill kisses and pats his car and refers to it as his "baby", he is probably operating in the early phase of self-development called: a. self-identity b. self-extension c. self-image d. self-esteem ANS: b 39. The outward appearance of a particular characteristic that may or may not reflect the underlying genotype is called a: a. secondary trait b. gene type c. biological type d. phenotype ANS: d 40. If Gary has an overwhelming need to be powerful and expresses it in virtually all of his behavior in all situations, Allport would say he has a: a. psychic trait b. cardinal trait c. specific trait d. secondary trait ANS: b

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41. If we say that some individuals are more intelligent than others, we are defining intelligence as a: a. conditioned trait b. individual trait c. personal disposition d. common trait ANS: d 42. Cardinal traits are found: a. in everyone b. in most people c. in no one d. in a small number of people ANS: d 43. If Professor Billingston writes a letter of recommendation for Jan and describes her to an employer as punctual, neat, intelligent, sincere, and hard-working, these terms would be considered to be: a. secondary traits b. central traits c. cardinal traits d. conditioned traits ANS: b 44. If three year old Todd has temper tantrums whenever his mother tells him to go to bed, Allport would probably say that Todd is showing behavior characteristic of children in the stage of: a. self-extension b. self-identity c. self-esteem d. propriate striving ANS: c 45. The possession of long-range goals by a person is associated with the stage of: a. self-identity b. self-esteem c. propriate striving d. self-extension ANS: c

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46. According to Allport, propriate striving first emerges at approximately age: a. 3 b. 5 c. 12 d. 30 ANS: c 47. In Allport's view, which one of the following methods was not appropriate for the scientific study of personality? a. personal documents b. case studies c. personality tests d. unverified anecdote ANS: d 48. Which one of the following approaches to the study of personality relies on the use of statistical analysis? a. depth b. nomothetic c. personal disposition d. idiographic ANS: b 49. An analysis of Jenny's letters revealed that she was: a. cooperative and aggressive b. sentimental and competitive c. suspicious and sentimental d. dramatic and competitive ANS: c 50. Allport believed that psychologists could understand people better if they: a. focused on their conscious motives before probing into their unconscious b. focused on their unconscious motives before probing into their conscious motives c. ignored their conscious motives completely d. immediately plunged into the depths of the person's unconscious ANS: a

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51. According to Allport, characteristics that dominate the person's life are called: a. central traits b. secondary traits c. cardinal traits d. cooperative traits ANS: c

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52. The aspect of the self or proprium that transcends and unifies the other seven components is called the: a. bodily self b. self-as-knower c. self-as-rational-coper d. self-identity ANS: b

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53. Intimacy and compassion are both part of the mature person's ability to: a. relate warmly to others b. poke fun at themselves when they are isolated from others c. isolate themselves from everyone but their parents d. be kind to those people who live in their country ANS: a

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54. Indiscriminate acceptance of society' demands: a. is psychologically unhealthy b. is psychologically healthy c. facilitates personal growth d. eliminates prejudice ANS: a

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55. Allport's theory: a. has high heuristic value b. is very precisely stated c. has strong empirical validity d. is not very eclectic ANS: a

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COMPLETION 1. A trait is a ______________ structure which causes people to behave in consistent ways. ANS: neuropsychic 2. Cardinal traits are ______________. ANS: master motives 3. Characteristics that are peripheral to the person are called ______________. ANS: secondary traits 4. The traits that people use to describe another person or to write a letter of recommendation for him or her are called ______________. ANS: central traits 5. A unique characteristic of a person is called a ______________. ANS: personal disposition 6. Allport's first aspect of selfhood, the ______________ self, first becomes salient in infancy. ANS: bodily 7. Allport's second aspect of the proprium is called ______________. ANS: self identity 8. Children are typically very negativistic during the third aspect of the proprium when ______________ emerges. ANS: self-esteem 9. Self-extension in the earliest phases of development is selfish; in the latter phases, it is ______________. ANS: generous

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10. An inherited characteristic that may or may not be reflected in the phenotype of the person is called the ______________. ANS: genotype TRUE/FALSE 1. Personality is the dynamic organization of situations within the person. ANS: F 2. A trait is a fluctuation of many situations. ANS: F 3. The personal disposition is a unique characteristic of the person, a trait not shared with others. ANS: T 4. The first aspect of selfhood is the bodily self. ANS: T 5. The aspect of selfhood where the person delights in testing their skills is called the self-as-rational-coper. ANS: T 6. Mature individuals are characterized by self-objectification. ANS: T 7. To understand the unique functioning of a single individual, Allport preferred using an idiographic approach. ANS: T 8. The development process involving movement toward self-realization is called Being. ANS: F 9. Peripheral characteristics that exert little control over behavior are called secondary traits. ANS: T

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10. Master motives are called cardinal traits. ANS: T ESSAY 1. How does Allport define personality? ANS: Answer not provided 2. What is a trait? Discuss Allport's theory of traits. ANS: Answer not provided 3. Name the various aspects of the proprium. ANS: Answer not provided 4. Describe the characteristics of the mature personality, as seen by Allport. ANS: Answer not provided 5. Assess Allport's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. Discuss the differences between common traits and personal dispositions. ANS: Answer not provided 7. Name the various research methods that Allport considered to be legitimate and illegitimate for the study of personality. Discuss the differences between the legitimate and illegitimate techniques. ANS: Answer not provided 8. What are the differences between the idiographic and nomothetic approaches to the study of personality? ANS: Answer not provided 9. Why is the concept of functional autonomy important in Allport's theory of personal development? ANS: Answer not provided

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10. Describe the distinctions between cardinal, central, and secondary traits. ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 9-CATTELL'S STRUCTURE-BASED SYSTEMS THEORY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Structure-based systems theory-set of traits that guide behavior, but can be modified by complex interactions with the culture and situations. A. Theoretical approach to study of personality 1. inductive-hypothetico-deductive spiral-approach to theory construction and validation in which facts are collected first and then generalized into hypotheses, which lead to deductions that can be tested empirically. B. Empirical approach to study of personality 1. Factor analysis-technique designed to simplify a complex set of data by accounting for them in terms of underlying factors, usually fewer in number than the original number of variables in the original data set. a. R technique-form of factor analysis used to infer underlying source traits in large subject populations. b. P technique-form of factor analysis that permits assessment of the unique trait structure of an individual. II. Defining Personality A. traits-relatively permanent and broad reaction tendencies that serve as the building blocks of personality; traits initiate and guide behavior. 1. constitutional-traits determined by biology. 2. environmental-mold-traits determined by experience. 3. ability-skills that enable individuals to cope effectively with problems posed by the environment. 4. temperament-innate tendencies to react to the environment in particular ways; includes such variables as the person’s moodiness, excitability, and activity level. 5. dynamic-characteristics that embrace people’s motives and interests. a. dynamic lattice-organized system of traits within human personality. b. subsidiation-process involving the interrelatedness of traits within the dynamic lattice or organizational structure of personality; attitudes are dependent on sentiments; sentiments are dependent on ergs. 6. surface-observable trait that is controlled by an underlying source trait. 7. source-underlying characteristic inferred from the intercorrelations among a number of measured variables, or surface traits. III. Personality Sphere-listing of all the traits used to describe behavior in a culture.

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A. Sixteen Personality Factor Test-factor-analytically derived questionnaire designed to measure the primary or basic underlying traits of personality. B. Clinical Analysis Questionnaire-test designed to measure normal and deviant personality traits; includes the 16 PF traits and 12 other psychopathological traits. IV. Econetic Model-model that postulates a complex interaction between traits and the physical, social, and cultural environments in the prediction of behavior A. Environmental Sphere-listing of all the terms used in a culture to designate situations. V. Dynamic Calculus-set of mathematical formulas (specification equations) that integrate traits, environment, and motivational factors in the prediction of behavior. A. specification equations-formulas that specify the ways in which traits are weighted in relation to given situations and then combined to predict behavior. VI. Personality Development A. Role of Heredity and Environment-both biology and learning affect the development of traits. 1. classical conditioning-type of learning in which a stimulus that is originally incapable of evoking a response becomes capable of evoking it after continued pairing of this stimulus with one that naturally produces the response. 2. instrumental conditioning-type of learning in which the presentation of a rewarding or punishing stimulus is made contingent on the occurrence of a response or behavior; also known as operant conditioning. 3. integration learning-type of learning in which people utilize their reasoning abilities and value systems to maximize the attainment of long-range goals. B. Abnormal Development 1. neurosis-disorder in which person is highly anxious and emotionally unstable. 2. psychosis-very severe disorder in which person often loses contact with reality and may be a threat to himself or others. VII. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. L-data-information about a person’s life based on the actual observance of the person’s behavior or on records of the person’s behavior. B. Q-data-information about a person=s behavior obtained through self-ratings on a questionnaire. C. T-data-information based on an observer’s judgments of how a person reacts to the environment; the data are collected in situations that do not permit the person to know what aspect of his or her behavior is being evaluated. VIII. Theory's Implications for Therapy-relies heavily on the use of psychometric instruments in the diagnosis of the disorder and to gauge effectiveness of treatment.

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IX. Beyondism-new morality based on scientific research and data. Cattell believed this new set of ethics would help society progress beyond its current state of instability, confusion, and crisis. A. restrictive eugenics-program to reduce the birth rate of the mentally handicapped. Cattell advocated this program in the belief that such individuals are a costly burden to society and slow its evolutionary growth. B. creative eugenics-program designed to increase the birth rate of more intelligent people in the belief that such individuals will develop sounder ethical values and contribute more to society’s well-being. X. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-broad in scope. B. Precision and testability-precise and testable. C. Parsimony-high in parsimony. D. Empirical validity-empirical support for the predictive validity of the 16 PF test is good in the area of occupational psychology, but little support for the econetic model as yet. E. Heuristic value-theory has not proved very stimulating to mainstream researchers, but some of Cattell's pioneering ideas about the role of traits have had an impact on contemporary personality psychologists, especially those interested in the Big Five factors (See Chapter 18). F. Applied value-considerable influence in the clinical diagnosis of psychopathology and tremendous impact on occupational psychology.

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CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Cattell's Moral Philosophy. Most students abhor Cattell's Beyondism--the proposed system for discovering ethical goals based on scientific knowledge and investigation. Ask the students if they agree with Cattell's eugenics ideas as a means of encouraging the development of a population with higher intelligence and emotional stability. You could challenge the students with the question, "What's wrong with wanting to 'weed out' the incompetent and mentally defective?" Then emphasize the strong anti-democratic and authoritarian tendencies in Cattell's proposal. Mention also that Cattell assumes that intellect is the supreme, positive trait in a healthy society and that other people would debate his view, arguing that other qualities such as altruism and compassion are even more important. Emphasize that there is little scientific evidence to support Cattell's position and recall for the students that there is (mercifully) little hope that Cattell's plan will ever gain prominence among personality psychologists. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 9, your students should be able to: 1. explain the inductive-hypothetico-deductive spiral. 2. define factor analysis and understand both the strengths and weaknesses of the procedure. 3. name the primary source traits of personality. 4. describe the three kinds of learning that are involved in the formation and development of personality. 5. distinguish between neurosis and psychosis.

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to Cattell, to build a theory, we start with: a. empirical observation and description and then generate tentative hypotheses based on this procedure b. the theory and then discover ways to measure the behavior accurately either to prove or to disprove the theory c. the deductive spiral d. a set of general propositions from which hypotheses are then deduced and tested ANS: a

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2. Cattell argues that the bivariate method, which relies on the manipulation of an independent variable and the assessment of its impact on a dependent measure: a. studies the "whole organism" b. is the best way of studying behavior c. arbitrarily considers "bits" of human behavior and ignores the total organism d. leads to complex interpretations of the way events operate in reality ANS: c 3. The statistical method in which many different measurements are obtained from a large group of study participants and then are intercorrelated to determine the common or underlying factors that determine the variation in the surface variables or the variables that appear to be related to each other is: a. bivariate correlation b. multivariate correlation c. intercorrelation methodosity d. factor analysis ANS: d 4. The degree of association between each surface variable and the factors is called: a. associative variability b. factor loading c. factor variability d. surface variability ANS: b 5. Analysis of primary factors may yield: a. second-order factors b. innate factors c. factor variability d. internal factors ANS: a 6. Cattell defines personality as: a. species specific behavior of a universal nature b. that which tells what a man or woman will do when placed in a given situation c. the term for behavior springing from innate drives and traits d. that which allows one to generalize the behavior of an individual to that of society at large ANS: b

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7. Traits that refer to a person's skill in dealing with the complexity of a given situation are: a. stylistic traits b. dynamic traits c. ability traits d. temperament traits ANS: c 8. Traits that refer to the stylistic tendencies of an individual are: a. ability traits b. dynamic traits c. temperament traits d. stylistic traits ANS: c 9. Traits that refer to the motivation and interests of the person are: a. ability traits b. dynamic traits c. temperament traits d. stylistic traits ANS: b 10. A trait that is simply a collection of trait elements of a greater or lesser width of representation which obviously "go together" in many different individuals and circumstances is a: a. common trait b. source trait c. representative trait d. surface trait ANS: d 11. The method of gathering data that is not one of Cattell's three major methods of gathering data is: a. M data b. L data c. Q data d. T data ANS: a

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12. The data-gathering method that refers to an interview situation in which respondents fill out paper-and-pencil tests from which trait scores can be derived is: a. M data b. Q data c. L data d. T data ANS: b 13. The data-gathering method that refers to the measurement of behavior in actual everyday situations is: a. M data b. Q data c. L data d. T data ANS: c 14. The data-gathering method that refers to information that is gathered by an observer in a standard test situation is: a. M data b. Q data c. L data d. T data ANS: d 15. The essence of a lack of ego strength (Factor C), as stated in your text, involves: a. an inability to control one's impulses and to deal realistically with problems b. a high tolerance for anxiety c. an opposition to the psychoanalytic concept of ego strength d. the control of irrational impulse in service to the ego in order to remain at ease in social settings ANS: a 16. Cattell initially developed a reliable measure of personality based on his source traits, which he used in generating hypotheses about the behavior of people; he called it the: a. 16 PF b. Cattell Personality Instinct Measure c. 20 F.P. Questionnaire d. Source Trait Questionnaire ANS: a

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17. In order to specify the ways in which traits are to be combined to predict any performance, Cattell developed the: a. Trait Interaction Equation b. Specification Equation c. Trait Prediction Scale d. Trait Assessment Questionnaire ANS: b 18. Specific interests in particular courses of action toward certain objects in a given situation are called: a. sentiments b. attitudes c. responses d. ergs ANS: c 19. The two subdivisions of dynamic traits that are inferred from the factor analytic study of attitudes are: a. sentiment and response b. responses and ergs c. opinions and sentiments d. ergs and sentiments ANS: d 20. Traits learned via experience with people are: a. ergs b. attitudes c. sentiments d. responses ANS: c 21. The process whereby certain traits control and lead to the occurrence of other traits is: a. domination b. dynamism c. differentiation d. subsidiation ANS: d

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22. Cattell feels that the formation and maintenance of the dynamic lattice will depend on the acquisition of behaviors and attitudes that simultaneously contribute to the satisfaction of two or more different goals; this is called: a. confluence learning b. reward learning c. integration learning d. modeling learning ANS: a 23. Sentiments themselves are learned via: a. confluence learning b. reward learning c. integration learning d. substitute learning ANS: b 24. The integration of the various attitudes, sentiments, and interests of the person, as well as the regulation of the expression of ergs, is accomplished by: a. quantitative techniques b. integration learning c. the utilization of the self-sentiment concept d. association learning ANS: c 25. The technique that involves testing the person on a large number of personality dimensions repeatedly over a number of different occasions, providing a means of discovering the unique trait structure of the person, is the: a. C technique b. PF technique c. Z technique d. P technique ANS: d 26. The most common form of factor analysis involves use of the: a. R technique b. P technique c. C technique d. D technique ANS: a

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27. To account for the role played by situational variables in influencing our behavior, Cattell has constructed a(n): a. trait model b. econetic model c. economic model d. exchange model ANS: b 28. In order to assess the major traits of normal and abnormal personality, Cattell has most recently constructed the: a. Personality and Motivation Questionnaire b. Clinical Analysis Questionnaire c. Dynamic Questionnaire d. Subsidiation-Erg Questionnaire ANS: b 29. The person who suffers insistent, repetitive ideas would be characterized as high in: a. anxious depression b. euphoria c. paranoia d. psychasthenia ANS: d 30. The person who has little need for excitement would be characterized as low in: a. brooding discontent b. bored depression c. psychopathic deviation d. general psychosis ANS: a 31. The list of all the terms used in a culture to describe situations is called the: a. personality sphere b. environmental sphere c. emotional sphere d. subsidiation sphere ANS: b

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32. Yang, Choe, Baity, Lee, and Cho studied the personality characteristics of Korean adolescents who were addicted to the Internet and found that Internet addicts: a. were higher in Factor C than minimal Internet users b. were lower in irritability than minimal Internet users c. derived most of their satisfaction from Internet activity than from friendships d. were lower in anxiety than minimal Internet users ANS: c 33. Cattell's theory has: a. weak applied value b. no applied value c. applied value only in the area of occupational psychology d. strong applied value ANS: d 34. Cattell's theory has: a. had little heuristic value b. strong heuristic value c. no precision d. no testability ANS: a 35. Cattell's theory is: a. overly simplistic b. economical c. too parsimonious d. simplistic ANS: b 36. The statistical procedure which Cattell uses to assess the degree to which various traits are determined genetically and environmentally is called: a. Multiple Factor Analysis b. Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis c. Correlational Variance Analysis d. Multiple Factor Abstraction Analysis ANS: b

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37. According to Cattell, the percentage of genes in common for members of various groupings, ranging from most to least, is: a. identical twins, fraternal twins, and unrelated children b. identical twins, unrelated children, and fraternal twins c. unrelated children, identical twins, and fraternal twins d. siblings, fraternal twins, and identical twins ANS: a 38. Genetic research has indicated that approximately: a. 90% of the variation in intelligence among individuals is due to environmental factors b. 30% of the variation in intelligence is due to environmental factors and errors of measurement c. 90% of the variation in intelligence is due to genetic factors d. 50% of the variation in intelligence is due to genetic factors ANS: b 39. On the 16 PF test, people who are caring and generous tend to score high on Factor A, the dimension of: a. emotional stability b. liveliness c. warmth d. social boldness ANS: c 40. On the 16 PF test, people who are resistant to change and traditional tend to score low on Factor Q1, the dimension of: a. openness to change b. self-reliance c. perfectionism d. warmth ANS: a 41. The program that focuses on reducing the large number of mentally defective individuals in the culture by requiring sterilization is called: a. restrictive eugenics b. competitive eugenics c. healthy eugenics d. creative eugenics ANS: a

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42. According to Ryckman, Beyondism: a. is based almost completely on solid scientific data b. will probably enjoy increased popularity with personality psychologists over the next three decades c. is largely a conservative philosophy with little scientific evidence to support it d. encompasses a set of ideas that are noncontroversial ANS: c 43. Cattell's creative eugenics program would: a. encourage less intelligent people to have more children b. encourage poorer people to have more children c. encourage more socially successful people to have more children d. discourage richer people from having any children ANS: c 44. Cattell's views about the need for a new morality based on science is summarized by the term: a. secular humanism b. Christianity c. Beyondism d. Hinduism ANS: c 45. For Cattell, the supreme value is: a. liberalism b. the survival of the individual c. the survival of the group d. socialism ANS: c 46. The person who is complacent toward his own antisocial behavior is high in: a. bored depression b. hypochondriasis c. energy depression d. psychopathic deviation ANS: d

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47. If Christine is very clumsy in handling things, tense, and easily upset, she might achieve a score on the Clinical Analysis Questionnaire which indicates that she is high in: a. paranoia b. hypochondriasis c. brooding discontent d. anxious depression ANS: d 48. The kind of intelligence that is based on formal education is called: a. fluid intelligence b. innate intelligence c. crystallized intelligence d. trait intelligence ANS: c 49. The kind of intelligence that is largely innate is called: a. fluid intelligence b. crystallized intelligence c. habitual intelligence d. trait intelligence ANS: a 50. Cattell claims that his Beyondist philosophy could best be realized in a country that has a(n): a. democratic government b. communistic government c. socialistic government d. authoritarian government ANS: a 51. On the Clinical Analysis Questionnaire, people who report they are being persecuted or mistreated by others score high in: a. depression b. schizophrenia c. hypochondriasis d. paranoia ANS: d

MSC: WWW

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52. On the Clinical Analysis Questionnaire, people who report they avoid contact and involvement with others score high in: a. suicidal disgust b. paranoia c. bored depression d. psychasthenia ANS: c

MSC: WWW

53. Cattell attempts to remedy the deficiencies of trait models which neglect the role of the environment in predicting behavior by developing a(n): a. econetic model b. personality model c. self-sentiment model d. instinctual model ANS: a

MSC: WWW

54. The kind of behavioral data which is collected in actual, everyday situations is called: a. Q-data b. G-data c. A-data d. L-data ANS: d

MSC: WWW

55. The policy aimed at reducing the number of mentally defective people through the use of voluntary or forced sterilization is called: a. humane eugenics b. creative eugenics c. restrictive eugenics d. cooperative eugenics ANS: c

MSC: WWW

COMPLETION 1. Structure-based learning implies that there are sets of ______________ within the person that can initiate and direct behavior. ANS: traits 2. Cattell's approach to theory building is the begin with ______________ and, on this basis, to generate a tentative, rough hypothesis. ANS: empirical observations

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3. Cattell believes that excessive reliance on bivariate experiments can lead to oversimplified interpretations of the way events operate in reality. He thinks that only______________ experiments allow investigators to analyze and interpret complex behavior adequately. ANS: multivariate 4. The most common form of factor analysis is the ______________ technique. ANS: R 5. The degree of association between each surface variable and its underlying factor is called the ______________. ANS: factor loading 6. The P technique is designed to discover the______________ trait structure of a single individual. ANS: unique 7. Cattell defines ______________ as "that which tells what (a person) will do when placed in a given situation". ANS: personality 8. ______________ traits are determined by biology, whereas environmental-mold traits are determined by experience. ANS: Constitutional 9. Cattell has created a complicated statistical procedure called ______________ to assess the degree to which various traits are determined genetically and environmentally. ANS: multiple abstract variance analysis 10. Cattell's ______________ attempts to discover the major source traits of personality by beginning with an adequate list of all the personality traits that can be used to describe individuals. ANS: personality sphere

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TRUE/FALSE 1. The Clinical Analysis Questionnaire measures normal and abnormal personality traits. ANS: T 2. Verbal and mathematical skills are examples of crystallized intelligence. ANS: T 3. The two dimensional, organized system of traits within the person is called the simplified lattice (network). ANS: F 4. A personality sphere is the list of all the terms used in a culture to designate situations or environments. ANS: F 5. Abilities that are innately based are called fluid intelligence. ANS: T 6. Investigations designed to assess the impact of four variables on another variable are called bivariate experiments. ANS: F 7. The program which encourages more intelligent people to have more children is called creative eugenics. ANS: T 8. Restrictive eugenics is a policy aimed at reducing the number of defective individuals through sterilization. ANS: T 9. L-data refers to the measurement of behavior in actual, everyday situations. ANS: T 10. The term used for reward learning is instrumental conditioning. ANS: T

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ESSAY 1. Distinguish between bivariate and multivariate experiments. Why does Cattell advocate the use of multivariate experiments so strongly? ANS: Answer not provided 2. What is factor analysis? Distinguish between surface and source traits in your answer. ANS: Answer not provided 3. Describe the various kinds of traits used by Cattell in his attempts to understand personality functioning. ANS: Answer not provided 4. What is the Clinical Analysis Questionnaire? Describe ten of its major traits. ANS: Answer not provided 5. Assess Cattell's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. Describe Cattell's Beyondist philosophy. ANS: Answer not provided 7. Show how specification equations can be used to predict the behavior of individuals. ANS: Answer not provided 8. What are the differences between crystallized and fluid intelligence? ANS: Answer not provided 9. What is the 16 PF test? Describe some of its major source traits. ANS: Answer not provided 10. What is the inductive-hypothetico-deductive spiral? How does it differ from the hypothetico-deductive model? ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 10-EYSENCK'S BIOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Personality-relatively enduring organization of a person's character, temperament, intellect, and physique which determines his unique adjustment to the environment. A. Typology-a means of classifying behavior through the use of continuous, highly abstract concepts (types) that encompass clusters of correlated traits. B. Types of personality 1. extraversion-individuals who have an outgoing and sociable approach to life. 2. neuroticism-emotionally unstable people 3. psychoticism-individuals with severe disorders; they are cruel, inhumane, hostile, and egocentric, yet highly original. Eysenck believed that some psychotics can be creative, but only in the limited sense that they can give many original responses to various stimuli that others cannot. a. divergent thinking-geniuses and psychotics both have the ability to think along many different paths, to consider alternatives not ordinarily considered in trying to solve problems. b. convergent thinking-only geniuses, but not psychotics, have the ability for convergent thinking. Such thinking involves focusing on one idea from an array of possible ideas in arriving at creative solutions to problems. Divergent and convergent thinking are both necessary for creativity, and only geniuses are capable of both types of thinking. II. Inhibition Theory-explanation of behavioral differences on the basis of inhibitory cortical processes that hinder nervous system arousal. A. extraverts-relatively strong inhibitory processes and weak excitatory processes. B. introverts-strong excitatory processes and weak inhibitory processes. III. Arousal Theory-explanation of behavioral differences in terms of the interactions between inherited levels of nervous system arousal and levels of environmental stimulation. A. ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)-part of the central nervous system located in the lower brain stem; it is involved in the arousal of the cerebral cortex. B. autonomic nervous system-part of the peripheral nervous system usually not under the individual's voluntary control that regulates the operation of internal organs and glands; it consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic subsystems. C. extraverts-brains have lower innate levels of arousal and are less responsive to stimulation.

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D. introverts-brains have higher innate levels of arousal and are more sensitive to stimulation. E. examples of research findings-introverts performed more poorly on a reading comprehension test while watching a TV drama than extraverts; extraverts tend to consume more chocolate, coffee, tea, and soft drinks than do introverts. F. neuroticism and autonomic activation 1. visceral brain-parts of the brain that underlie emotional feelings and expression; also known as the limbic system. 2. neurotics have lower thresholds for activity in the visceral brain and greater responsiveness of the sympathetic nervous system (division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for action); thus, neurotics overreact to even mild forms of stimulation. G. psychoticism and hormones 1. androgens-male sex hormones; in mammals, the principal one is testosterone. 2. maleness linked to antigens, and schizophrenics have antigens in their bodies. IV. Personality Development: personality is to a large extent biologically-based, but personality can be shaped by the influence of the environment. A. Heredity plays a large role in development; same 3 personality types (extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism found in many cultures, suggesting a strong genetic basis for personality 1. Twin studies used as evidence for genetic basis of personality. a. monozygotic-twins who develop from the splitting of a single fertilized egg (also called identical twins). b. dizygotic-twins that develop simultaneously from two separate fertilized eggs (also called fraternal twins). B. Role of socialization 1. Extraverts learn the rules of socialization less quickly and efficiently than introverts; extraverts generally tend to be less socialized than introverts; extraverts are more likely to show more antisocial behavior and become criminals than introverts. C. Intelligence is a major personality factor; largely genetic, but can be shaped by learning environment. 1. electroencephalogram (EEG)-recording of electrical activity in the cerebral cortex obtained by means of electrodes placed on the skull. 2. evoked potentials-patterns of waves that occur in the brain following its stimulation. V. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques-relied on host of experimental techniques to study personality.

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A. eyeblink conditioning-classical conditioning paradigm in which a tone is used as the conditioned stimulus, and a puff of air to the eye is the unconditioned stimulus. Conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus alone is sufficient to produce the eyeblink response. B. electrodermal response-changes in the electrical conductance of the skin that are associated with arousal. C. pupillary response-changes in dilation of the pupils of the eyes associated with arousal. D. research on lower animals. VI. Theory's Implications for Therapy A. Behavior Therapy-multifaceted approach to the treatment of disorders based on the principles of learning. 1. counterconditioning-procedure often utilized for therapeutic purposes, in which a conditioned response (CR) is weakened by associating the stimulus (CS) that evokes it with a new response that is antagonistic (incompatible) with the CR. 2. modeling-demonstration of behavior by one person so that another person can imitate it. 3. flooding-form of behavior therapy in which the client is exposed to the most intense stimuli that evoke fear, typically for prolonged periods of time, in an effort to extinguish it. 4. systematic desensitization-technique designed to reduce the strong anxieties associated with various stimuli; the client is gradually exposed to them and, at each level in the anxiety hierarchy, learns new responses through counterconditioning. VII. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-broad in scope. B. Precision and testability- generally precise and testable. C. Parsimony-fails to meet the parsimony criterion; too simplistic. D. Empirical validity-much empirical support for Eysenck's arousal theory, especially in regard to the behavior of extraverts and introverts; much more work needs to be done for the neurotic and psychotic types. E. Heuristic value-theory is proving to be very stimulating to researchers, not only in Great Britain, but in other countries as well. F. Applied value-considerable influence on researchers in cognitive behavior therapy.

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CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Gender, Psychopathology, and Creativity. Eysenck believed that psychotics could be creative, but only in the limited sense that they could give many highly original responses to various stimuli. People high in psychoticism were more likely to be very aggressive, toughminded, unempathic, and aggressive. These traits are all ones associated with extreme masculinity. Also, males scored higher in psychoticism than females across several studies. Eysenck contended, therefore, that males were more likely than females to be creative. According to him, creative people had to be tough, aggressive, highly competitive, and fiercely independent to fight against conventional people who often oppose new and original work to succeed. Ask your students if males indeed are more creative than females, as Eysenck thought. In the discussion, you can focus on the feminists' arguments that, since we live in a generally patriarchal society with males dominating virtually every sphere of life, it is not surprising that the accomplishments of females have gone unrecognized. In other words, there have been many creative accomplishments by females, yet society has chosen to ignore them. Ask your students to bring in a list of 10 women who have indeed made significant contributions to science, literature and the other arts to buttress the feminists' arguments. Also point out that even if researchers did find that most creative accomplishments were generated by men, it does not necessarily mean that such creativity was based on differences in the biological makeup of men and women. Point out that gender-role socialization theory would attribute differences in the creative accomplishments to differences in traditional male and female roles. Men are trained to be more aggressive, assertive, independent, and competitive, whereas women are taught to be more submissive, deferent, and passive. Thus, if we accept Eysenck's arguments about the role of super-masculine traits in producing creative products and hence the creative superiority of men, we do not have to accept its biological base. Instead the differences may be rooted in the socialization process. Thus, if we change the socialization process for the sexes so that females can learn to be more assertive, independent, and competitive, we should see changes in the number of women who generate creative work. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 10, your students should be able to: 1. identify the three major dimensions of personality. 2. describe the traits making up the type concept of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. 3. discuss Eysenck's view of the links between psychopathology and creativity. 4. discuss the role of arousal in creating differences in behavior of introverts and extraverts. 5. describe how behavior therapy works to reduce phobic behavior in patients. 172

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to Eysenck, psychology has two major orientations, namely: a. experimental psychology and conditioning psychology b. personality psychology and correlational psychology c. experimental psychology and personality psychology d. factor psychology and personality psychology ANS: c 2. Eysenck defines personality as: a. the instincts that a person possesses which helps in the prediction of all actions b. an enduring organization of the person's behavior, but not their instincts, which helps him/her adjust to the environment c. the manner in which the person's intellect governs the person's actions d. a relatively enduring organization of a person's character, temperament, intellect, and physique, which determines his/her unique adjustment to the environment ANS: d 3. Eysenck's biological typology: a. is organized in terms of instincts and reflexes b. consists of types, traits, and habits c. consists primarily of attitudes and types d. is organized hierarchically in terms of attitudes, habits, and reflexes ANS: b 4. In Eysenck's typology, types: a. are most abstract, followed by traits, and then habits b. are most concrete, followed by habits, and then traits c. do not involve observed intercorrelations among traits d. are inferred directly from intercorrelations among specific observable responses ANS: a

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5. Research by Campbell-Sills, Cohan, and Stein which focuses on behavioral differences between introverts and extraverts has found that: a. extraverts seek social contact, but only in middle age b. extraverts are better able to cope with adversity or trauma than introverts c. introverts have greater social skills than extraverts d. there are no differences between introverts and extraverts in their social skill levels ANS: b 6. Individuals who appear unable to assess the consequences of their behavior and who act in anti-social ways are called: a. introverts b. ambiverts c. manic-depressives d. psychopaths ANS: d 7. Neurotics who are free from the burden of anxiety and fear are called: a. manic-depressives b. phobics c. psychopaths d. schizophrenics ANS: c 8. Individuals who are insensitive to others, cruel, and inhumane are called: a. neurotics b. psychotics c. psychopaths d. manic-depressives ANS: b 9. In the ancient Greek typology, cholerics were considered to be: a. moody b. pessimistic c. impulsive d. calm ANS: c

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10. In the ancient Greek typology, sanguines were considered to be: a. sociable b. moody c. restless d. passive ANS: a 11. In the ancient Greek typology, melancholics were considered to be: a. touchy b. restless c. careful d. pessimistic ANS: d 12. In the ancient Greek typology, phlegmatics were considered to be: a. passive b. moody c. touchy d. sociable ANS: a 13. The experimental psychologist, Wilhelm Wundt, pointed out that: a. melancholics and cholerics were nonemotional b. phlegmatics and sanguines were nonemotional c. melancholics and sanguines were psychotics d. phlegmatics and sanguines were psychotics ANS: b 14. The experimental psychologist, Wilhelm Wundt, noted that: a. cholerics and sanguines were unchangeable in their behavior b. melancholics and phlegmatics were unchangeable in their behavior c. introverts and phlegmatics were changeable in their behavior d. cholerics and extraverts were unchangeable in their behavior ANS: b

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15. Eysenck postulates three major personality dimensions, namely: a. stability-extraversion, impulse control-psychoticism, and introversion-instability b. instability-psychoticism, introversion-extraversion, and impulse-controlneuroticism c. impulse control-neuroticism, introversion-extraversion, and stability-psychoticism d. introversion-extraversion, stability-neuroticism, and impulse control-psychoticism ANS: d 16. Eysenck's typology has: a. a strong physiological base, but one which unfortunately ignores environmental influences b. a strong physiological base, but one which does not ignore environmental influences c. a strong environmental base, but one which unfortunately ignores the role played by biology in the determination of behavior d. a strong environmental base, but one which does not stress physiological influences ANS: b 17. In Eysenck's inhibition theory, individual differences in introversion and extraversion have their origins in the: a. viscera b. adrenal glands c. pituitary glands d. cerebral cortex ANS: d 18. Eysenck maintains that extraverts have: a. weak excitatory processes and strong inhibitory processes b. strong excitatory processes and weak inhibitory processes c. weak nervous systems d. the same kind of weak nervous system as introverts ANS: a 19. In Eysenck's view, a strong need for sensory stimulation is found in: a. psychotics b. introverts c. extraverts d. psychopaths ANS: c

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20. Eysenck argues that the brains of: a. introverts react more strongly and slowly to stimuli than the brains of extraverts b. extraverts react more quickly to stimuli than the brains of introverts c. extraverts and introverts react equally as quickly to stimuli d. introverts react more strongly and quickly to stimuli than the brains of extraverts ANS: d 21. In comparison to introverts, extraverts prefer: a. dull colors b. soft music c. reading and chess d. loud music ANS: d 22. In trying to explain the nature of genius, Eysenck claims that: a. geniuses throughout history have nearly all been psychologically healthy b. there is a positive correlation between genius and psychopathology c. all paranoid schizophrenics are geniuses d. geniuses have had to exploit others to get ahead ANS: b 23. On theoretical grounds, Eysenck would expect extraverts to: a. tolerate sensory deprivation less well than introverts b. find sensory deprivation conditions less aversive than introverts c. tolerate sensory deprivation as well as introverts d. stay in a sensory deprivation experiment approximately four hours longer than introverts ANS: a 24. Eysenck maintains that extraverts are: a. less susceptible to reactive inhibition than introverts b. more susceptible to reactive inhibition than introverts c. less susceptible to retroactive disinhibition and inhibition than introverts d. more susceptible to reactive disinhibition, but not to disinhibitory conditioning, than introverts ANS: b

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25. According to Eysenck, schizophrenics have an overinclusive cognitive style because of a(n): a. excess of dopamine in the brain b. lack of dopamine in the brain c. excess of serotonin in the brain d. excess of testosterone that is manufactured by the brain ANS: a 26. In Eysenck's arousal theory, the differences in behavior between introverts and extraverts are traced to the: a. ascending reticular activating system b. visceral organs c. activating pineal and limbic system d. adrenal glands ANS: a 27. Which type of person has a more innately aroused cortex at base level? a. psychotic b. extravert c. phobic d. introvert ANS: d 28. In examining differences between introverts and extraverts, Campbell and Hawley found that: a. introverts preferred seating areas where the furniture arrangement would encourage social interaction and high auditory stimulation b. extraverts preferred individual study carrels c. extraverts took more study breaks than introverts d. both introverts and extraverts preferred to study in individual carrels ANS: c 29. Eysenck locates the seat of neuroticism in the: a. pituitary gland b. visceral brain c. muscle synapse d. adrenal gland ANS: b

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30. According to Eysenck, people high in neuroticism have: a. higher thresholds for activity in the visceral brain b. greater responsiveness of the sympathetic nervous system c. lower responsiveness of the sympathetic nervous system d. lower reactivity to mild forms of stimulation ANS: b 31. Correlations between neuroticism and anxiety are typically in the: a. +.20 to +.30 range b. -.20 to +.30 range c. -.50 to +.90 range d. +.60 to +.70 range ANS: d 32. According to Eysenck, neurotics possess: a. overreactive autonomic nervous systems b. underactive autonomic nervous systems c. nervous systems that react very slowly to stressful stimulation d. highly stable autonomic nervous systems ANS: a 33. Research by Brezo, Paris, and Turecki examining suicide in introverts and extraverts has found that: a. introverts have fewer thoughts about suicide than extraverts b. extraverts make more suicide attempts than introverts c. extraverts make fewer attempts at suicide and have fewer actual suicides than introverts d. introverts and extraverts do not differ in the number of suicide attempts they make ANS: c 34. Eysenck maintains that psychoticism is related to: a. brain stem injuries b. limbic system malfunctioning c. femaleness d. maleness ANS: d

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35. According to Eysenck, high P scorers show a(n): a. excess of serotonin in the blood b. absence of antigens in their bodies c. lack of serotonin in the blood d. absence of adrenalin in their bodies ANS: c 36. According to Eysenck, if genetics plays a major role in determining personality, we would expect to find: a. exactly seven personality factors in many cultures b. the same numbers and kinds of factors in all cultures that are tested, despite substantial cultural variations c. different numbers and kinds of factors following factor analysis d. thirty-five factors, one factor for every culture tested ANS: b 37. In Eysenck's view, introverts: a. experience much more difficulty in learning materials than extraverts b. tend to be undersocialized c. learn societal rules more readily than extraverts d. are less mature generally than extraverts ANS: c 38. Research on differences between introverts and extraverts shows that: a. criminals tend to be introverted b. it is the impulsivity component of extraversion that is related directly to criminality c. it is the sociability component of extraversion that is related directly to criminality d. extraversion in combination with neuroticism which hinders the development of criminality ANS: b 39. Research investigations examining the stability of personality over long periods of time show that: a. individuals who are introverted in childhood tend to be introverted in adulthood b. individuals who are introverted in childhood tend to become extraverted in adulthood c. most people who are introverted in childhood become neurotic in adulthood d. people who are extraverted in childhood tend to become psychotic in adulthood ANS: a

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40. Eysenck calls the application of learning principles to the treatment of disordered behavior: a. instinct therapy b. cognitive therapy c. stimulus therapy d. behavior therapy ANS: d 41. In the phobia conditioning experiment in which little Albert was the subject (study participant), the loud, fear-producing noise was the: a. conditioned stimulus b. unconditioned response c. unconditioned stimulus d. conditioned response ANS: c 42. The procedure whereby the person learns to make a new response to a fear-producing stimulus is called: a. counterconditioning b. stimulus conditioning c. fear conditioning d. operant conditioning ANS: a 43. The autonomic nervous system consists of the: a. sympathetic and autonomic components b. sympathetic and parasympathetic components c. parasympathetic and brain stem components d. visceral and sympathetic components ANS: b 44. Which one of the following systems prepares the person for fight or flight? a. parasympathetic system b. conditioning system c. counterconditioning system d. sympathetic system ANS: d

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45. Hecker and Thorpe believe that flooding is most effective in reducing or eliminating fear when the: a. exposure to the dreaded object or situation is brief b. exposure to the dreaded object or situation is prolonged rather than brief c. person is exposed to the dreaded object for five minutes d. phobic person is a man rather than a woman ANS: b 46. In the phobia study by Marshall using clients who were afraid of heights, it was found that: a. most clients who were exposed to the dreaded situation for long time periods were able subsequently to walk up the fire escape stairs to the 20-foot level b. clients who were not exposed to the dreaded object were able subsequently to walk up the entire 30 feet c. all clients who were exposed to the dreaded object for brief periods of time showed an increased fear of heights d. the length of exposure to the dreaded situation had considerable negative impact on introverts but not extraverts ANS: a 47. In terms of its scientific worth, Eysenck's theory clearly: a. is highly imprecise b. is parsimonious c. is comprehensive d. has no empirical validity ANS: c 48. The positive or negative feelings and evaluations of stimulation associated with various levels of arousal are called: a. conditioning tones b. hedonic tones c. stimulus tones d. inhibition tones ANS: b 49. The parasympathetic nervous system: a. speeds up heart rates b. speeds up breathing rates c. conserves bodily energies d. acts in the same ways as the sympathetic nervous system ANS: c

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50. The visceral brain is also known as the: a. visceral glands b. spinal cord c. olfactory organs d. limbic system ANS: d 51. Eysenck finds that the evoked potential waves of highly intelligent people are: a. relatively simple b. complex c. complex, but they change and become simple over short time periods d. highly simple ANS: b 52. The ascending reticular activating system is part of the: a. pineal gland b. adrenal glands c. liver d. lower brain stem ANS: d 53. In their research examining differences between extraverts and introverts in social interactions and happiness, Srivastava, Angelo, and Vallereau found that extraverts: a. had fewer social interactions in a day than introverts b. had more social interactions in a day than introverts c. were less happy than introverts d. were very unhappy ANS: b 54. Research by Romero, Villar, Luengo, and Gomez-Fraguela suggests that: a. introverts are more optimistic about achieving success in the pursuit of their goals than extraverts b. extraverts are more optimistic about achieving success in the pursuit of their goals than introverts c. both introverts and extraverts are equally happy and optimistic about achieving success in the pursuit of their goals d. both introverts and extraverts are very pessimistic about their chances of achieving success ANS: b

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55. According to Eysenck, criminals tend: a. to have low IQs b. to have very high IQs c. to be normal in other respects d. to have moderately high IQs ANS: a 56. In Eysenck's judgment, intelligence is: a. 50% inherited, and 50% due to environmental factors b. 20% inherited, and 80% due to environmental factors c. 80% inherited, and 20% due to environmental factors d. 10% inherited, and 90% due to environmental factors ANS: c 57. Which one of the following systems slows down a person's heart rate? a. counterconditioning system b. sympathetic system c. conditioning system d. parasympathetic ANS: d 58. Eysenck that the visceral brain regulates: a. intelligence b. the beliefs of the person c. all of the person's behavior d. emotion ANS: d 59. The cognitive component of anxiety is: a. intelligence b. thinking c. worry d. calm feelings ANS: c

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60. In Eysenck's view, anxiety consists of two components: a. worry and intelligence b. conditioning and worry c. emotionality and worry d. intelligence and emotionality ANS: c 61. In Eysenck's theory, people who are cold, inhumane, and aggressive are called: a. anxious b. neurotic c. borderline personalities d. psychotic ANS: d

MSC: WWW

62. Twins who develop from the splitting of a single fertilized egg are called: a. monozygotic twins b. dizygotic twins c. fraternal twins d. gendered twins ANS: a

MSC: WWW

63. The two components of anxiety are: a. worry and aggressiveness b. emotionality and hostility c. resentment and hostility d. emotionality and worrying ANS: d

MSC: WWW

64. Patterns of waves that occur in the brain following its stimulation are called: a. potential waves b. evoked potentials c. electrical instincts d. perpetual arousal ANS: b

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65. Eysenck's theory: a. has no empirical evidence to support it b. fails to meet the parsimony criterion c. is not very comprehensive d. has low applied value ANS: b

MSC: WWW

COMPLETION 1. Eysenck observes that psychology has two major orientations--personality psychology and ______________. ANS: experimental psychology 2. Eysenck cites considerable evidence showing that schizophrenics perform very well on tests of creativity that require them to use ______________ thinking. ANS: divergent 3. Furnham and his colleagues found that ______________ performed very poorly on a reading comprehension test while watching a TV drama. ANS: introverts 4. Eysenck would predict that ______________ would prefer loud music, bright colors, the use of alcohol and other drugs, and engage in various types of sexual activity. ANS: extraverts 5. Eysenck maintained that extraverts are more susceptible to ______________ inhibition than are introverts and are more likely to tire of a given activity sooner and turn to another. ANS: reactive 6. In Eysenck's theory, ______________ are assumed to have innately higher levels of arousal and to be more sensitive to stimulation. ANS: introverts 7. Eysenck assumes that extreme levels of stimulation produce negative ______________ tone and negative evaluations of the experience; whereas positive feelings and evaluation will occur only at intermediate levels of sensory stimulation. ANS: hedonic

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8. Esysenck would predict that when highly anxious people perform as well as those low in anxiety on certain tasks, they expend much______________ effort than people low in anxiety. ANS: more 9. Eysenck viewed human beings as biosocial creatures in whom environment and interact to produce behavior. ANS: biology 10. For Eysenck, biological factors, rather than ______________, play a stronger role in the development of personality. ANS: environmental factors TRUE/FALSE 1. In Eysenck's view, psychotics tend to be hostile, cruel, inhumane, and aggressive. ANS: T 2. The differences in behavior between extraverts and introverts can be traced to the limbic system. ANS: F 3. Eysenck locates the seat of neuroticism in the visceral brain. ANS: T 4. Males as a group score higher on psychoticism than females. ANS: T 5. Extraverts learn the rules of society more quickly and efficiently than introverts. ANS: F 6. Criminals tend to have very high IQs. ANS: F

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7. Current research indicates that both divergent and convergent thinking are necessary for creativity. ANS: T 8. The application of learning theory and principles to the treatment of disordered behavior is called behavior therapy. ANS: T 9. The parasympathetic nervous system slows down the digestive process and speeds up heart and breathing rates. ANS: F 10. Male sex hormones are called androgens. ANS: T ESSAY 1. Define types, traits, and habits and explain how they are organized hierarchically in Eysenck's typology. ANS: Answer not provided 2. Describe the similarities and differences between Eysenck's inhibition and arousal theories. Show how each theory can be used to explain behavioral differences between introverts and extraverts. ANS: Answer not provided 3. Explain why Eysenck thinks neurotics typically overreact to mild forms of stimulation. ANS: Answer not provided 4. Show how Eysenck demonstrates the strong genetic basis of the three primary personality dimensions. ANS: Answer not provided 5. Describe Eysenck's views on how neurotic behavior is learned and how it can be eliminated. ANS: Answer not provided

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6. What does Eysenck mean when he says that he prefers a meritocracy to a "mediocracy"? ANS: Answer not provided 7. In Eysenck's view, what is the nature of the relationship between criminality and IQ? What arguments does he present to support his view? ANS: Answer not provided 8. What is Eysenck's explanation of the connection between genius and creativity? ANS: Answer not provided 9. Describe the typical socialization of introverts and extraverts, as seen by Eysenck. ANS: Answer not provided 10. Why does Eysenck's theory fail to meet the parsimony criterion used in judging the scientific worth of a theory? ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 11-KELLY'S THEORY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Cognitive theory-focuses on the ways in which we process information about the world, forming constructs, and then using the constructs to make predictions about the operation of our worlds. The aim of construct utilization is to increase our understanding and control of the world around us. A. constructs-ways of representing our experiences; they are abstractions that are defined in terms of the similarities and contrasts of their poles. B. constructive alternativism-basic assumption that human beings are capable of changing their interpretations of events. C. Kinds of constructs 1. superordinate-construct that controls many other constructs. 2. subordinate-construct that is controlled by other constructs. 3. core-fundamental belief that is part of the individual’s personal identity. 4. peripheral-belief that is relatively unimportant to the person and that can be changed rather easily. 5. preemptive-construct that includes only its own elements and maintains that these elements cannot apply to other constructs. 6. constellatory-construct that allows its elements to belong to other constructs concurrently; however, once identified in a particular way, these elements are fixed. 7. propositional-construct that leaves all of its elements open to modification. II. Basic Assumption and Corollaries A. Fundamental postulate-people's beliefs or constructs guide their behavior. B. Corollaries 1. construction-a person anticipates events by assuming there is regularity between them. 2. individuality-proposition that people differ in their constructions of reality. 3. organization-proposition that the individual’s constructs are arranged in particular ways within his or her personal system. 4. dichotomy-proposition that constructs are bipolar. 5. choice-proposition that people select between alternatives in dichotomized constructs in making their judgments about reality. 6. range-constructs vary in the scope of events they cover.

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7. fragmentation-proposition that an individual’s personal construct subsystems may be disjointed and mutually incompatible and that the person is often unaware of the inconsistency. 8. commonality-proposition that similar construct systems in different individuals lead to similarities in their behavior. 9. sociality-proposition that healthy interpersonal relationships depend on mutual understanding of each other’s construct systems. III. Personality Development-development revolves about the person's attempts to maximize understanding of the world through the continuing definition and elaboration of his or her construct system. IV. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. Role Construct Repertory Test (Rep Test) V. Theory's Implications for Therapy A. Clients use invalid constructs; therapists must assist clients' growth by employing the technique of controlled elaboration-technique in which clients are encouraged to clarify and think through their problems in consultation with the therapist; this process enables them to revise or discard old constructs and to formulate new and more effective ones. B. Fixed-role therapy-procedure designed to produce personality changes in clients by constructing roles for them that help them overcome their weaknesses and enable them to reconstruct themselves and their life situations. 1. self-characterization sketch-initial step in fixed-role therapy, in which clients are asked to write a brief character outline of themselves as it might be written by an intimate and sympathetic friend. 2.enactment sketch-client is asked to play a role designed to contrast sharply with the client’s current self-perception, as revealed in the self-characterization sketch, and thus to produce major changes in the client. VI. Evaluative Comments A. comprehensiveness-limited in scope. B. precision and testability-precise and testable. C. parsimony-fails to meet the parsimony criterion; too simplistic. D. empirical validity-empirical support is strong for some aspects of the theory. E. heuristic value-theory is proving to be stimulating to researchers in Great Britain. F. applied value-considerable influence on business managers and occupational counselors. Applied value of the theory is steadily increasing.

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CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Using the Rep Test to Assess Personality. To measure a person's construct system, Kelly developed the Role Construct Repertory Test (popularly known as the Rep Test). In the classic version of the test, a person is given 20 to 30 different role definitions of persons assumed to be important to him or her. For example, mother, father, boyfriend, girlfriend, teacher, brother, sister, male friends, female friends, self, and so forth. Then the therapist selects three of these role definitions and asks the person to state which two are alike, but different from the third. The person has just defined a construct. This process is repeated until the client can no longer generate constructs. For example, the therapist might initially select the roles of father, mother, and self. The client might respond that his father and mother are similar in that they both are uneducated, and different from himself since he is educated. The construct, uneducated-educated has been defined. Next the therapist might select the roles of brother, sister, and self. The client might say that he and his brother are similar in that they like to party, but their sister is uninterested in partying. The process continues until the client can no longer generate new constructs. It is important to know that there are many versions of the Rep Test. You could give the students a handout in which the following constructs have already been "mapped out" or generated for good boys versus bad boys by a man who had been convicted of a crime. Boys

Boys

1. makes me feel superior

makes me feel inferior

2. trusting

mistrustful

3. follows easily

defiant

4. I could manipulate

I could not manipulate

5. innocent

corrupt

6. likes to help me

does not like to help me

7. handsome

unattractive

8. makes me feel powerful

makes me feel helpless

9. had good manners

had no manners

10. relaxed

tense

11. forgiving

unforgiving

12. pure

impure

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Ask the students to identify which column was for the good boys and which for the bad boys. (answer: left for good boys, right for bad boys), Ask the students to identify general themes to aid them in search of the correct solution (answer: manipulable-#2,3,4; innocence-#5,12; power-#1, 8). Ask the students to guess the crime committed by the man who generated the above constructs (answer: pedophilia). LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 11, your students should be able to: 1. define a construct and explain the difference between core and peripheral constructs. 2. discuss the fundamental assumption and corollaries in Kelly's personal construct theory. 3. describe the Role Construct Repertory Test and explain its role in the therapeutic process. 4. describe the fixed-role technique for creating constructive growth in clients. 5. discuss the links between schizophrenia and loose constructions.

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The concept that refers to the assumption that all of us are capable of changing or replacing our present interpretations of events is: a. construct interpretation b. constructive alternativism c. superordinate construct d. displacement ANS: b 2. Kelly's statement that "Determinism and freedom are inseparable for that which determines another is by the same token, free of the other" means: a. we are free to choose our own goals but once chosen, the goals determine certain related behaviors b. we are never free to pursue our goals c. we are free only within the confines of a predetermined structured world d. once we determine our goals we are free to do as we wish until the goals are achieved ANS: a

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3. Kelly believed that each person was in a process of evaluating and reevaluating experiences and trying to use personal interpretations to understand and control the world, making everyone a: a. philosopher b. phenomenologist c. scientist d. theorist ANS: c 4. The way in which we organize experiences in terms of similarities and contrasts is called a(n): a. paradigm b. theory c. construct d. element ANS: c 5. One construct may subsume another or other constructs. This controlling construct is called a: a. preemptive construct b. superordinate construct c. range of convenience d. permeability ANS: b 6. The term that means that a construct might be related to some constructs but not to others is: a. range of convenience b. ordinal relationship c. preemptive construct d. permeability ANS: a 7. The aspect of a construct that allows it to include additional new elements is its: a. range of convenience b. originality of relationship c. preemptiveness d. permeability ANS: d

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8. A concept that includes only its own elements and that maintains that these elements cannot be part of other constructs is called a: a. preemptive construct b. constellatory construct c. propositional construct d. permeable construct ANS: a 9. A construct that "permits its elements to belong to other realms concurrently but fixes their realm memberships" is called a(n): a. permeable construct b. constellatory construct c. ordinal construct d. propositional construct ANS: b 10. The corollary that people not only anticipate events but that they may differ from one another in their anticipations is an example of: a. fragmentation b. organization c. choice d. individuality ANS: d 11. The corollary that says "each person characteristically evolves, for his convenience in anticipating events, a construct system embracing an ordinal relationship between constructs" is: a. fragmentation b. organization c. choice d. individuality ANS: b 12. The fact that given an option we choose alternatives designed to facilitate personal growth is the corollary of: a. fragmentation b. organization c. choice d. individuality ANS: c

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13. The corollary described by saying our construct systems are not always completely consistent with one another and that we may show behaviors that are inconsistent with our most recent antecedent experiences is: a. fragmentation b. commonality c. individuality d. organization ANS: a 14. The corollary described by saying that "to the extent that one person employs a construction of experience which is similar to that employed by another, his psychological processes are similar to those of the other person" is: a. fragmentation b. commonality c. sociality d. organization ANS: b 15. The corollary described as predicting accurately what another would do and adjusting his or her own behavior accordingly to the extent that he or she understands the construct system of another is: a. fragmentation b. invalidation c. sociality d. organization ANS: c 16. One of the ways in which a therapist can produce major changes in a client is by: a. threat b. invalidation c. acceptance d. exhortation ANS: c 17. A readiness to understand the client's construct system and the ability to use the client's own construct system as an aid in therapy best describes: a. acceptance b. controlled elaboration c. exhortation d. invalidation ANS: a

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18. Helping the client "think through" problems with an aim toward making his or her construct system internally consistent and communicable best describes: a. acceptance b. controlled elaboration c. exhortation d. invalidation ANS: b 19. According to Kelly, a construct must contain at least: a. two elements b. three elements c. four elements d. five elements ANS: b 20. In order to bring about change in a client, Kelly relied primarily on: a. free association b. fixed-role therapy c. transference d. dream analysis ANS: b 21. Kelly's theory is: a. economical b. parsimonious c. too economical d. overly complex ANS: c 22. Kelly's theory is: a. vague b. unusually clear and testable c. untestable d. imprecise ANS: b

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23. In Neimeyer's research on vocational choices, it was found that people: a. with simple and fragmented construct systems were able to see the job clearly and to make wise career decisions b. who used preemptive constructs continually were able to make the best career decisions c. with more differentiated and integrated construct systems were better able to make more realistic and satisfying career choices d. with a few peripheral constructs were able to make the best career decisions ANS: c 24. In Kelly's view, therapists: a. need to engage in preemptive thinking much of the time so that the clients can understand them better b. must have a clear idea of their own construct systems c. must not let clients know when they (the therapists) have made a mistake d. need to confront the clients directly and firmly with the invalidity of their thinking ANS: b 25. Kelly's theory: a. rivals Freud's in terms of its comprehensiveness b. is not very comprehensive c. is highly comprehensive d. is moderately comprehensive ANS: b 26. Constructions which are very weak and unstable and which lead to varying predictions are called: a. impermeable constructions b. tight constructions c. abstract constructions d. loose constructions ANS: d 27. Research on disordered thinking by Bannister and Fransella showed that there was a lack of consistency in the thinking of: a. schizophrenics b. normal individuals c. depressives d. organics ANS: a

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28. Kelly's theory is a(n): a. person-oriented theory b. situational theory c. interactionist theory d. theory which cannot be classified as personalistic ANS: a 29. Harter, Erbes, and Hart did a content analysis of the personal constructs generated by college women who experienced sexual abuse in childhood and found that: a. sexual abuse survivors had more constructs referring to fear than women with no history of abuse b. women with no history of abuse had no constructs referring to cooperation c. sexual abuse survivors had fewer constructs referring to anger than women with no history of abuse d. women with no history of abuse failed to generate constructs of any kind ANS: c 30. Kelly proposed that the thinking of schizophrenics: a. was surprisingly rational b. was disordered c. was more rational than the thinking of normals d. was well-organized ANS: b 31. For Kelly, a construct: a. is unipolar b. is bipolar c. has three poles d. has two contrast poles ANS: b 32. Constructs that reflect our personal identity are: a. peripheral constructs b. always constellatory constructs c. unimportant constructs d. core constructs ANS: d

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33. If the construct good-bad can be applied to many different experiences, it: a. has a narrow range of convenience b. has a broad range of convenience c. is impermeable d. is preemptive ANS: b 34. If a person says that "Anything which is a ball can be nothing but a ball," she is using ball as a: a. constellatory construct b. preemptive construct c. secondary construct d. propositional construct ANS: b 35. If a person says that "Any round object can be considered, among other things, to be a ball," she is using ball as a: a. preemptive construct b. constellatory construct c. impermeable construct d. propositional construct ANS: d 36. Constructs are organized in terms of: a. similarities and identities b. contrasts and instincts c. similarities and cores d. similarities and contrasts ANS: d 37. Cognition refers to: a. ideas or thoughts b. classical conditioning c. overt behavior d. emotional instincts ANS: a

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38. The statement, "We can always change our minds," is related to Kelly's concept of: a. subordinate construct b. fragmentation c. constructive alternativism d. preemptiveness ANS: c 39. The similarity pole of a construct has: a. one element b. at least two elements c. at least three elements d. at least six elements ANS: b 40. Kelly's measure of the person's construct system is called the: a. Role Concept Repetition Test b. Real Concept Repertory Test c. Role Construct Repertory Test d. Real Construct Preparatory Test ANS: c 41. Repertory means: a. concepts b. collection or inventory of constructs c. core constructs d. peripheral constructs ANS: b 42. Research indicates that schizophrenics make judgments of people in photos in: a. personal terms b. competitive terms c. impersonal terms d. instinctual terms ANS: c

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43. When John claims that politicians are nothing but a bunch of crooks, he is using the construct of politicians in: a. propositional terms b. secondary terms c. competitive terms d. preemptive terms ANS: d 44. When Jill says that she has learned to see her ex-boyfriend as a friend rather than as an enemy, we could say her construct of her ex-boyfriend is: a. impermeable b. her core construct c. impersonal d. permeable ANS: d 45. Propositional thinking is: a. flexible thinking b. rigid thinking c. mathematical thinking d. peripheral thinking ANS: a 46. If Wes believes that it is more important to socialize with his friends than to study for his exams: a. his socializing construct is subordinate, whereas his academic construct is superordinate b. his socializing construct is superordinate, whereas his academic construct is subordinate c. both his socializing and academic constructs are superordinate d. both his socializing and academic constructs are subordinate ANS: b 47. If Susan shouts racial epithets at an Afro-American family that is attempting to move into a white neighborhood, but claims that she is not prejudiced against Afro-Americans, we would say that her construct system is: a. consistent b. permeable c. organized d. fragmentized ANS: d

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48. A construct that is controlled by other constructs is called a: a. superordinate construct b. central construct c. subordinate construct d. core construct ANS: c 49. If Kim's construct system has many constructs that are permeable, we would say that she is: a. open-minded b. closed-minded c. rigid d. competitive ANS: a 50. The concept of personal choice in Kelly's theory is related to his term: a. conditioning b. emotion c. impermeable d. constructive alternativism ANS: d 51. Kelly believed that individuals: a. must rely on their parents in making their choices and decisions b. can not freely make decisions that are successful c. make their own choices and decisions and are responsible for the consequences of their actions d. should almost always rely on others to make good decisions ANS: c

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52. The person who maintains that "anything which is a cup is nothing but a cup" is using a: a. propositional construct b. constellatory construct c. permeable construct d. preemptive construct ANS: d

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53. Kelly discussed the relationships between superordinate and subordinate constructs in the: a. choice corollary b. organization corollary c. sociality corollary d. core construct corollary ANS: b

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54. Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Test is also known as the: a. Core Construct test b. Peripheral Construct test c. Rep test d. Preemptive Construct test ANS: c

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55. In the clinical area, most of the research has centered on analyses of the disordered thinking of: a. psychopaths b. schizophrenics c. bored people d. narcissistic people ANS: b

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COMPLETION 1. The concept of ______________ alternativism underlies Kelly's theory of cognition. ANS: constructive 2. Kelly believed that each of us, like the scientist, attempts to ______________ and control events. ANS: predict 3. In building our systems of personal constructs, we place ______________ on events; that is, we construe them. ANS: interpretations 4. Kelly refers to contructs that are highly important in people's lives as ______________ constructs. ANS: core

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5. Constructs vary in their range of ______________, that is, the number of other constructs to which they are related. ANS: convenience 6. A construct that includes only its own elements and precludes these elements from being part of other constructs is called a ______________ construct. ANS: preemptive 7. Stereotypes belong to a category that Kelly defines as a ______________ construct. ANS: constellatory 8. A construct whose elements are open to construction in every respect is called a ______________ construct. ANS: propositional 9. People differ not only in their constructs but also in the ways in which they ______________ them. ANS: construe 10. Kelly's commonality corollary states that those who ______________ events similarly will behave alike. ANS: interpret TRUE/FALSE 1. Kelly believed that each of us, like the scientist, attempts to predict and control events. ANS: T 2. In building our systems of personal constructs, we never place interpretations on events. ANS: F 3. Beliefs that affect our personal identity and are very difficult to change are called peripheral constructs. ANS: F

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4. Stereotypes belong to the category of constellatory constructs. ANS: T 5. People use information from their genes in deciding on a course of action by using a preemption-control-circumspection cycle. ANS: F 6. To measure our personal constructs, Kelly used the Repertory Test of Emotions. ANS: F 7. To help their clients, Kelly used the therapist-assisted process of "working through." ANS: F 8. Beliefs that are unstable, weak, and poorly defined are called loose constructions. ANS: T 9. A construct that controls other constructs is called a superordinate construct. ANS: T 10. Beliefs that are relatively unimportant to the person and that can be changed relatively easily are called peripheral constructs. ANS: T ESSAY 1. Why does Kelly believe that every person is a scientist? ANS: Answer not provided 2. Define the term "construct." Describe the various characteristics of constructs, as seen by Kelly. ANS: Answer not provided 3. What is the fundamental postulate of Kelly's theory? Describe several of the corollaries associated with this postulate. ANS: Answer not provided

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4. What is the Role Construct Repertory Test (RCRT)? How is it used to appraise client experience? ANS: Answer not provided 5. Assess Kelly's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. What's the difference between superordinate and subordinate constructs? How can they be used in the accurate prediction of a person's behavior? ANS: Answer not provided 7. How is the fragmentation corollary used to help therapists understand clients? ANS: Answer not provided 8. How is the choice corollary related to personal growth? ANS: Answer not provided 9. What is the C-P-C cycle? ANS: Answer not provided 10. Describe how fixed-role therapy is used by therapists to help cure clients. ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 12-MASLOW'S SELF-ACTUALIZATION POSITION CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Self-actualization-view that the basic nature of human beings is potentially good and oriented towards pushing people in the direction of optimal psychological health if the right social conditions prevail. II. Hierarchy of Human Needs A. sets of needs 1. basic or deficiency-lower needs that must be gratified before it becomes possible to move into the growth area. a. physiological-needs for food, water, sex, air, sleep. b. safety-needs for feeling safe, protection, structure, freedom within limits. c. belongingness and love-needs to feel that we have a place and that we are loved. At this level, we experience love in a selfish way-love in which the individual is more concerned with receiving love and gratifying his or her needs than with giving love to another; also known as deficiency-love (D-love). d. esteem-needs for respect and recognition. 1. self-esteem-respect based on our own competence, independence, and achievements. 2. esteem from others-respect and recognition accorded us by others. 2. growth-higher needs that may emerge once the basic needs have been satisfied; also known as meta needs. A. growth depends on environmental conditions 1. permissive parenting-disciplinary style in which parents make few demands on their children and use little punishment. 2. authoritarian-disciplinary style in which parents discourage verbal give-and-take with their children and expect instead unquestioning obedience to their judgments. 3. authoritative-disciplinary style in which children are consulted by parents in the establishment of disciplinary rules. B. B-cognition state-state of experiencing that is nonjudgmental and self-validating. C. peak experience-intense, mystical experience in which an individual exists in a temporary state of joy and wonderment. D. characteristics of self-actualizers 1. problem-centered

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2. democratic character 3. unprejudiced 4. cosmopolitan in outlook 5. socially responsible 6. resist enculturation, where appropriate 7. capable of unselfish love (B-love or Being love) 8. fresh appreciation of events III. Personality Development-stage-emergent theory of development in which the person must satisfy the lower needs before higher ones can become operative. As they gratify higher needs, they begin to live more and more frequently in a B-cognition state, a state of psychological health. IV. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) V. Theory's Implications for therapy-neurotics are those who have been unable to satisfy their basic needs. The therapists help clients gratify these needs and display those values associated with positive growth. VI. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-limited in scope. B. Precision and testability-not very precise and somewhat difficult to test adequately. C. Parsimony-fails to meet the parsimony criterion; too simplistic. D. Empirical validity-empirical support is not consistent. E. Heuristic value-theory has been very stimulating to researchers in a large number of disciplines; strong heuristic value. F. Applied value-strong applied value in pastoral and educational counseling and in the business world.

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CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Are Self-actualizers Elitist Snobs? Self-actualizers are characterized by a democratic attitude toward others, according to Maslow. They respect people who can teach them things, whether it is a carpenter or a short-order cook. But while they respect others, they tend to associate with people who have a great deal of ability like themselves. They are an elite and tend to associate with an elite group. Maslow thinks they are superior to the masses of people, and his writings suggest that self-actualizers have a condescending attitude toward others. As he puts it, "[self-actualizers] have a sense of noblesse oblige [nobility obliges]. It is the duty of the superior, the one who sees and knows, to be patient and tolerant, as with children." Also most people will never become actualizing. They are destined to be average, trying to gratify their basic needs; less than 1% of the adult population will become actualizers. In an early survey, only 1 in 3000 college students were actualizing. You can point out to your students that Maslow's scheme would also eliminate the poor since their basic needs would never be totally gratified. Yet critics have maintained that poor people, even given their preoccupation with survival, can love others in a mature sense--their spouses, children, and other family members. If these limitations in Maslow's view do exist, how does one develop a theory that allows optimal psychological health to exist in various groups of people-the poor as well as the wealthy, the intelligent as well as the unintelligent? LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 12, your students should be able to: 1. discuss the concept of humanistic biology in relation to self-actualization. 2. name the basic needs and list them in order of their potency to control the individual's perceptions of the world. 3. name the growth needs and explain the ways in which they are different from the basic needs. 4. explain the differences between D-cognition and B-cognition. 5. list the characteristics of self-actualizing people. 6. understand Maslow's theory of therapy.

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TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to Maslow, human nature is: a. basically neutral b. intrinsically bad c. innately good or, at the very least, neutral d. essentially learned through contact with other people ANS: c 2. In Maslow's view, the tendency toward self-actualization is: a. very strong in all human beings b. stronger in men than in women c. weak in all human beings d. essentially incapable of being modified by environmental forces ANS: c 3. The two sets of needs that are rooted in our biology are: a. deficiency and basic needs b. growth and deficiency needs c. growth and meta-needs d. basic and secondary needs ANS: b 4. From most to least powerful, the basic needs include the: a. safety needs, love needs, belongingness and love needs, and esteem needs b. physiological drives, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, and esteem needs c. physiological needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, and safety needs d. love and safety needs, esteem needs, physiological needs, and belongingness needs ANS: b 5. The needs for structure, law, order, and limits are encompassed by the term: a. physiological drives b. esteem needs c. safety needs d. love and order needs ANS: c

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6. An example of a statement from the Personal Orientation Inventory that would be endorsed by a self-actualizing person is: a. "It is important that others accept my point of view." b. "I feel I must always tell the truth." c. "I am not absolutely bound by the principle of fairness." d. "I must justify my actions in the pursuit of my own interests." ANS: c 7. Once the basic needs have been gratified, the: a. needs for self-actualization and safety emerge b. deficiency needs emerge c. needs for self-esteem emerge d. needs for cognitive understanding and self-actualization may become salient ANS: d 8. B-cognition experiences: a. are nonstriving and nonjudgmental b. are nonstriving and judgmental c. involve seeking negative, as well as positive, approval from others d. are relatively permanent and usually negative ANS: a 9. Self-actualization demands: a. D-cognition but not B-cognition b. B-cognition but not D-cognition c. both B- and D-cognition d. neither B- nor D-cognition ANS: c 10. Self-actualizers: a. are often inhibited sexually b. tend to be highly concerned with their own accomplishments c. show little resistance to enculturation d. are more problem-centered than nonactualizers ANS: d

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11. Self-actualizers: a. are perfect human beings b. are never ruthless c. have a number of weaknesses, as well as many strengths d. are never irritable or vain ANS: c 12. For Maslow, the healthy society is one that: a. minimizes personal choices b. tells the individual how to behave c. requires the individual to obey his or her parents d. provides the necessities of life and allows the individual maximum choices ANS: d 13. In Maslow's theorizing, the: a. growth needs are arranged in a hierarchical order of potency b. basic needs are less potent than the growth needs c. basic needs are arranged hierarchically d. growth needs differ in their potency ANS: c 14. Maslow says that humans have two sets of needs: a. basic and meta-needs b. deficiency and efficiency needs c. structural and experiential needs d. experiential and growth needs ANS: a 15. The basic needs are: a. equally potent b. not necessarily filled in order to attain self-actualization c. arranged hierarchically d. only biological needs ANS: c

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16. Safety needs are presumed to emerge once the: a. physiological needs are satisfied b. belongingness and love needs are satisfied c. esteem needs are satisfied d. need for rootedness is satisfied ANS: a 17. The needs for belongingness and love emerge after the gratification of the immediately previous: a. physiological needs b. safety needs c. esteem needs d. needs for rootedness ANS: b 18. The last of the basic needs to emerge is: a. B-love needs b. physiological needs c. safety needs d. esteem needs ANS: d 19. A person's curiosity about himself or herself and the working of the environment is aroused after the gratification of: a. meta-needs b. basic needs c. efficiency needs d. saliency needs ANS: b 20. The state of being that involves experiences of judging, condemning, and approving and disapproving of ourselves and others is that of: a. D-cognition b. B-cognition c. "peak experience" d. passive noninterfering state ANS: a

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21. The state of being that involves experiences of self-validation, nonstriving, temporariness, and nonjudgmental opinions is: a. meta-need fulfillment b. B-cognition c. comparison predisposition d. D-cognition ANS: b 22. The most fully developed, psychologically healthy person is called the: a. healthy non-neurotic b. transcending self-actualizing person c. non-transcending self-actualizing person d. meta-need champions ANS: b 23. Self-actualizers are not: a. more efficient in the perception of reality b. known to show greater acceptance of themselves, others and nature c. less problem-centered than nonactualizers d. found to show greater resistance to enculturation than nonactualizers ANS: c 24. Which of the following is a B-need (Being need)? a. self-esteem b. safety c. truth d. belongingness ANS: c 25. Dietch examined the idea of mature love in college students and found that: a. they were incapable of mature concern and affection for others b. self-actualizing students were less resentful toward their ex-lovers than those who were less actualizing c. students higher in self-actualization were intolerant d. only 50% of them were capable of mature love ANS: b

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26. Research by Dominguez and Carton on parenting style and self-actualization showed that self-actualizing students reported that their parents used a(n): a. authoritative parenting style to discipline them b. authoritarian parenting style to discipline them c. permissive parenting style to discipline them d. competitive parenting style to discipline them ANS: a 27. Maslow calls the attitude to be disrespectful and cynical toward others the: a. sacralizing attitude b. depression attitude c. desacralizing attitude d. personalizing attitude ANS: c 28. Maslow calls the selfish concern with seeking love from others: a. B-love b. S-love c. R-love d. D-love ANS: d 29. A danger associated with B-cognition is that: a. the self-actualizing person will behave aggressively toward others b. the self-actualizing person will be too tolerant of others c. it never ends d. it causes the self-actualizer to become too critical of others ANS: b 30. In most of the humanistic theories, the environment (society): a. almost always fosters personal growth b. has little or no impact on the development of the person c. is often seen as the enforcer of rules and regulations that stifle human growth d. is perceived as helping the person to make choices that facilitate growth ANS: c

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31. In Keutzer's survey of students' peak experiences, the highest percentage of students endorsed: a. drugs as triggers to peak experiences b. sexual lovemaking as a trigger to peak experiences c. looking at the beauties of nature as triggers to peak experiences d. looking at paintings as triggers to peak experiences ANS: c 32. The procedure used by Maslow to identify self-actualizers is called: a. graphology b. character reading c. iteration d. personal sketch ANS: c 33. Maslow calls the fear some people have that the exercise of their abilities to the maximum will bring responsibilities that they cannot handle, the: a. Jonah complex b. fear complex c. humanistic complex d. Oedipal complex ANS: a 34. Another term for meta-need is: a. deficiency need b. basic need c. deprivation need d. growth need ANS: d 35. Maslow likened the psychotherapeutic relationship between therapist and client to a relationship between: a. two highly intelligent people b. friends c. acquaintances d. a teacher and his/her student ANS: b

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36. According to Maslow, self-actualizing people: a. live continually in a B-cognition state b. live continually in a D-cognition state c. live sometimes in a B-cognition state d. exist in a continual state of bliss ANS: c 37. If John is continually worrying about earning enough money to prevent him and his family from being evicted by their landlord, we could say he is trying to gratify his: a. self-esteem needs b. safety needs c. love needs d. meta-needs ANS: b 38. In their research on "fear of success" in women, Crawford and Maracek argue that: a. females who fear success fantasize about being men b. females unfortunately are judged by the members of society in relation to male norms and values c. females fail to perform well on female-oriented tasks d. females outperform males on male- and female-oriented tasks ANS: b 39. Hyland, in his research on "fear of success" in females, maintains that: a. success is often sacrificed by females for more important goals b. avoiding success is always irrational c. success is often sacrificed because of females' feelings of incompetence d. avoiding success occurs in elderly women but not in younger women ANS: a 40. In the study by Kasser and his colleagues, individuals who were: a. insecure were, surprisingly, less concerned with materialistic things b. raised in families that were able to satisfy their basic needs were lower in selfactualization c. very involved in the community were more self-actualizing d. unable to satisfy their needs for friendship and love grew up to be more selfactualizing ANS: c

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41. Maslow maintains that self-actualizing people: a. are usually inhibited about sex b. are not very concerned with gratifying their physical needs c. sleep well and enjoy themselves without regret, shame, or guilt d. follow the rules of society even when they run contrary to their own values ANS: c 42. In Maslow's view, self-actualizing people: a. are not very task-oriented b. do not feel excessively guilty about their shortcomings c. are anti-democratic d. never obey the rules and regulations of society ANS: b 43. In judging its scientific worth, Maslow's theory: a. has high heuritic value b. has no applied value c. meets the parsimony criterion d. is easy to test empirically ANS: a 44. According to Piedmont, one of the problems with research on the "fear of success" phenomenon is that: a. a few researchers have assumed that the fear of success motive is present in all males b. many researchers have assumed that the fear of success motive is present in all females c. the fear of success motive is not present in any females d. the fear of success motive is absent in all males ANS: b 45. The meta-needs are: a. growth needs b. lower needs c. physiological needs d. deficiency needs ANS: a

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46. Carver and Baird found that individuals who were pursuing: a. materialistic goals for intrinsic reasons ended up being less self-actualizing b. materialistic goals for extrinsic reasons ended up being less self-actualizing c. community involvement goals for extrinsic reasons were more likely to end up higher in self-actualization d. love with as many partners as possible were very healthy psychologically and physically ANS: b 47. The ultimate goal of Maslow's theorizing about human nature was to: a. understand human intelligence and problem-solving b. establish a biologically based, universal value system c. adopt the value system used by Americans d. guide people to rely on traditional authority in making moral decisions ANS: b 48. Janice needs frequent signs of appreciation and approval from her friends. Maslow would claim that she is seeking gratification of her: a. safety needs b. physiological needs c. esteem needs d. mature love needs ANS: c 49. Gretchen feels she must continually strive to master tasks so that she can feel competent. Maslow would say that she is seeking gratification of her: a. physiological needs b. esteem needs c. mature love needs d. safety needs ANS: b 50. One of the physiological needs is the need for: a. competition b. routine c. sex d. cooperation ANS: c

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51. In Maslow's theory, the physiological needs include the needs for: a. food and water b. truth and beauty c. aggression and competition d. aggression and cooperation ANS: a

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52. The needs for safety are activated in infants and children when: a. they are threatened by loud noises b. they live in a stable and familiar environment c. they are provided with sufficient nourishment and care d. their parents reinforce them in a systematic manner ANS: a

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53. According to Maslow, adolescents who are cynical toward adults have a(n): a. sacralizing attitude b. cooperative attitude c. desacralizing attitude d. ambitious attitude ANS: c

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54. To discover the unique characteristics of self-actualizing people, Maslow relied on: a. reliable data b. impressionistic data c. objective scientific data d. parsimonious data ANS: b

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55. In the research by Carvallo and Gabriel on the need for belongingness, it was found that: a. students with an avoidant attachment style loved everyone b. students with an avoidant attachment style experienced increased self-esteem when accepted by other group members c. all students had competitive needs to cooperate d. there was no relation between attachment style and need to belong ANS: b

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COMPLETION 1. Maslow laid the groundwork for his theory of ______________ by making the assumption that each of us has an intrinsic nature that is good or, at the very least, neutral. ANS: self-actualization 2. Maslow's humanistic ______________ was devised as a ethic which would overcome the relativism inherent in traditional appeals to moral authority and provide a set of ideals to serve as guides for human conduct. ANS: biology 3. According to Maslow, human beings have two basic sets of needs that are rooted in their biology: deficiency (or basic) needs, and ______________ (or meta) needs. ANS: growth 4. The most powerful basic needs are the ______________ needs. ANS: physiological 5. Safety needs are ______________ needs. ANS: deficiency 6. What Maslow termed D-love, is a basic, or ______________ need for love. ANS: deficiency 7. B-love, or ______________ love, can only be satisfied when the basic needs have been sufficiently gratified and the person is moving toward self-actualization. ANS: being 8. Esteem needs are the ______________ of the basic urges to emerge. ANS: last 9. Discovery of our abilities brings happiness; it also brings fear of new responsibilities, a fear of the unknown which Maslow called the ______________ complex. ANS: Jonah

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10. When Maslow talks about an intensely positive experience that is effortless and spontaneous, he is speaking about a ______________ experience. ANS: peak TRUE/FALSE 1. From most to least powerful, the basic needs are the physiological, love, safety, and esteem needs. ANS: F 2. The selfish concern with receiving love from others is D-love. ANS: T 3. The needs for safety emerge once the physiological needs are gratified. ANS: T 4. According to Maslow, another term for B-love is Being love. ANS: T 5. B-cognition experiences involve judging, condemning, and approving and disapproving of ourselves or others. ANS: F 6. Peak experiences are intensely negative experiences which are useful and helpful for personal growth. ANS: F 7. Self-actualizing individuals are perfect. ANS: F 8. The reliable and valid measure of self-actualization is the Personal Orientation Inventory. ANS: T

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9. The item, "I am not absolutely bound by the principle of fairness," is one endorsed by self-actualizing people. ANS: T 10. The item, "I am afraid to be tender," is one endorsed by self-actualizing individuals. ANS: F ESSAY 1. What are some of the basic criticisms that orthodox psychology makes of humanistic psychology? ANS: Answer not provided 2. Describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and show how this theoretical scheme is related to the actualization process. ANS: Answer not provided 3. What is the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI)? Describe some of its major subscales and some of the research studies that have been conducted to establish its validity. ANS: Answer not provided 4. What are some of the distinguishing personality characteristics of actualizers? ANS: Answer not provided 5. Assess Maslow's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. Discuss the fear of success phenomenon in women. ANS: Answer not provided 7. How do B- and D-cognition states differ? ANS: Answer not provided

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8. Define and give examples of peak experiences. ANS: Answer not provided 9. How did Maslow decide which famous people were actualizing? ANS: Answer not provided 10. What are the characteristics of a good therapeutic relationship? ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 15-SKINNER'S OPERANT ANALYSIS CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Personality from an Operant Analysis Approach A. personality-study of unique learning history and unique genetic make-up (assuming that the person is not an identical twin) of the individual. B. operant analysis-study of the ways in which behavior is acquired, maintained, or modified by its reinforcing or punishing consequences. II. Operant conditioning-establishment of the linkage or association between a behavior and its consequences. A. Components of operant conditioning 1. contingency-relationship between a behavior and its consequences. a. three-term contingency-this kind of contingency has three parts: (1) the events that precedes the behavior; (2) the behavior itself; and (3) the consequences that follow the behavior. 2. discrimination-responding differently in the presence of different situational events. 3. generalization-learned response is made to a wide range of stimuli. 4. positive reinforcement-presentation of a positive reinforcer following a response, with the result that the rate of that response increases. 5. negative reinforcement-removal of an aversive stimulus following a response, with the result that the rate of that response increases. 6. positive punishment-presentation of an aversive stimulus following a response, with the result that the rate of that response decreases. 7. negative punishment-removal of a positive reinforcer following a response, with the result that the rate of that response decreases.

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__________________________________________________________________ Summary of Operant Conditioning Principles Positive Stimulus

Negative Stimulus

Presentation

positive reinforcement

positive punishment

Removal

negative punishment

negative reinforcement

8. extinction-reduction in behavior that occurs as a result of the failure to reinforce previously reinforced behavior. 9. shaping-teaching a new behavior by reinforcing responses that successively approximate it. B. Schedules of reinforcement 1. continuous-schedule of reinforcement in which each response is followed by a reinforcer. 2. intermittent-schedule of reinforcement in which responses produce reinforcers only occasionally. a. fixed-ratio-schedule of reinforcement in which a fixed number of responses is required before a reinforcer is applied. b. fixed-interval-schedule of reinforcement in which the first response that occurs after a fixed amount of time has elapsed is reinforced. C. Self-control processes-actions instigated by a person to alter the conditions that influence his or her behavior. 1. physical restraints. 2. physical aids. 3. changing the stimulus conditions. 4. manipulating emotional conditions. 5. performing alternative responses. 6. positive self-reinforcement. 7. self-punishment.

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III. Personality Development-not a stage theory, but rather people survive by learning which contingencies lead to reinforcement and which ones lead to punishment. A. repertoires-unique set of acquired behavior patterns. IV. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. Skinner did not use traditional techniques such as dream analysis, free association, and personality measures. Instead, he insisted that we needed an experimental analysis of behavior. We need to identify those environments that can change behavior we consider detrimental to the individual and/or to the society. V. Theory's Implications for Therapy A. Behavior modification-series of procedures that seek to change behavior through reliance on reinforcement principles or, less often, by reliance on punishment principles. 1. discrimination training-procedure in which person learns to confine certain behaviors (e.g., eating) to certain situations (e.g., dining room table) and to refrain from performing the behavior in other situations (e.g., watching TV, talking on the phone, lying in bed reading). 2. time out from reinforcement-punishment procedure in which, contingent on undesirable behavior, access to positive reinforcers is withdrawn for a brief period. 3. response-cost-loss of positive reinforcer after performing an undesirable behavior. 4. habit reversal-making a response that is incompatible with an undesirable behavior. 5. token economy-procedure in which patients earn tokens for performing behaviors that are necessary if the patients are to live effectively. The tokens are conditioned reinforcers that can be exchanged for experiences and/or goods desired by the patients. 6. aversive techniques-punishment is used to stop an undesirable behavior. 7. differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)-schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is delivered at the end of a time interval during which no instances of unacceptable behavior occurred. 8. shaping-teaching a desirable behavior by reinforcing responses that successively approximate it. VI. Theory's Implications for Education A. What does not work. 1. permissiveness does not work. 2. punishment does not work. B. What does work.

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1. arranging contingencies of reinforcement so that students can learn. VII. Theory's Implications for Society A. Walden Two-utopian society in which environments are structured to meet community members' needs. VIII. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-initially narrow in scope because it focused almost exclusively on so-called lower animals, but later developments of the theory focused more on human behavior, thereby increasing the comprehensiveness of the theory. As such, it is a comprehensive theory. B. Precision and testability- precise and testable. C. Parsimony-relatively economical, but still needs some concepts to explain certain social-learning phenomena. D. Empirical validity-strong empirical support. E. Heuristic value-highly stimulating to investigators in a variety of disciplines. F. Applied value-strong applied value, especially in the areas of psychopathology and education. CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Skinner's Views on Physical Punishment. A common misconception among many students and some professionals is that Skinner was an authoritarian who wanted to use physical punishment to control the undesirable behaviors of individuals. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Throughout his long career, Skinner vigorously opposed the use of physical punishment to control behavior. He argued against its use because (1) he believed that its effects on behavior are only temporary, (2) it creates undesirable sideeffects that give rise to emotional responses that prevent corrective action, (3) it may create strong conflict in people so that they become indecisive and timid and unable to act effectively, and (4)it may create resentment and hostility against the punisher that could lead to counter-attack. According to Skinner, society relies too heavily on the use of punishment to control the criminal behavior of its citizens-fines, incarceration. People then learn to fear the police and to feel threatened in their presence. Ask the students to recall the last time they were followed by a police officer in his or her car. Were they thinking that the nice officer was going to stop them to praise them for making a complete stop at a red traffic light or putting on their turn signal before turning the corner? Or were they thinking, "What did I do wrong?" Like society, many parents rely too heavily on physical punishment to control their children's undesirable behavior? If punishment generally does not work, why do so many parents continue to use it? First, it is easy to administer; second, it stops the undesirable behavior (at least temporarily); and third, it is very satisfying to the

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punisher. Instead of punishment, Skinner advocates the use of reward to encourage constructive behavior. The child should be praised when he is playing cooperatively, not ignored, and then not punished when he acts aggressively. She should be praised for reading, not criticized when she fails to read. He should be praised for cleaning his room, not punished for leaving the room messy. But students may argue that it would be impossible to reward every constructive act. Skinner agreed, but noted that considerable scientific research shows clearly that any behavior could be maintained, not only under continuous reinforcement conditions, but under intermittent reinforcement conditions as well. So good behavior needn't be reinforced every time it occurs, but only occasionally. If Skinner opposed the use of physical punishment, how could undesirable behavior be stopped? The answer, in Skinner's view, is to put the person on an extinction schedule until the behavior stopped--in other words, ignore the person until he or she finally stops. While theoretically this argument makes some sense, in reality it would be a disaster. Undesirable behavior is usually very strongly learned and very resistant to extinction, and it would take long, long periods of time for the behavior to stop. Recall an obnoxious child who whines, cries, and screams continually while clinging to his mother. How long could she ignore the behavior? Five minutes, ten or twenty minutes, or in the case of someone as holy as Mother Teresa, perhaps 30 or 40 minutes longer. Most parents give in after a few minutes, thereby reinforcing the child for his behavior into the next millennium. Most parents have been taught to ignore the whiny behavior, while at the same time providing an alternative behavior that is more desirable. For example, telling the child that if he stops crying, he can have a big ice cream cone. The problem here is that whiny behavior may be encouraged because it is reinforced by a treat. When the child wants ice cream in the future, he starts crying and whining. So, what's the solution? Many psychologists would advocate the use of nonphysical punishment procedures to control undesirable behavior-namely, response cost (punishment procedure in which, contingent on undesirable behavior, a positive reinforcer is removed or lost) and time-out from reinforcement (punishment procedure in which, contingent on undesirable behavior, access to positive reinforcers is withdrawn for a brief period). There is massive research support for the effectiveness of these procedures. However, nearly all psychologists agree with Skinner that reward is preferable to punishment, and that unfortunately society and its members tend to rely too heavily on physical punishment. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 15, your students should be able to: 1. explain why Skinner believed so strongly that we need a technology of behavior. 2. define and explain the differences between positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment. 3. distinguish between discrimination and generalization. 4. discuss the various techniques that people use to control their behavior.

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5. discuss various behavior modification techniques used by therapists to help their clients become more psychologically healthy.

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. To John B. Watson, psychology was the: a. scientific study of the mind b. study of the soul c. scientific study of behavior d. scientific study of inner experience ANS: c 2. In Skinner's view, the study of cause-and-effect relationships between events is called: a. a correlational analysis b. a functional analysis c. cognition and determinism d. determinism ANS: b 3. For Skinner, verbal reports are: a. unacceptable in a scientific analysis of behavior b. acceptable, if they are capable of being reliably and objectively recorded c. acceptable, if they contain mentalistic explanations d. nearly always vague and subject to interpretational errors ANS: b 4. In Skinner's opinion, free will is: a. synonymous with determinism b. the basis for free choice in human beings c. a myth d. a fundamental assumption in his theoretical system ANS: c 5. Voluntary behavior on the part of a person that produces consequences is called: a. contingency behavior b. classical conditioning behavior c. operant behavior d. reinforcer behavior ANS: c 268

6. According to Skinner, the most common form of control of behavior in our society is: a. positive reward b. reward c. extinction d. punishment ANS: d 7. A schedule of reinforcement in which a fixed number of responses is required before a reinforcer is applied is called a: a. fixed-interval schedule b. fixed-ratio schedule c. variable ratio schedule d. variable interval schedule ANS: b 8. Stimuli associated with behavior that increases the likelihood of the occurrence of the behavior are called: a. operant reinforcers b. negative reinforcers c. punishers d. positive reinforcers ANS: d 9. According to Skinner, the primary goal of science is the: a. description of events b. prediction and control of events c. naming phenomena d. manipulation of some events ANS: b 10. In Skinner's view, there is: a. a qualitative difference between normal and abnormal people b. no qualitative differences between abnormal and normal people c. a quantitative difference between neurotics and psychotics d. no need for a science that can predict events ANS: b

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11. Programmed learning is designed to: a. ignore individual differences b. provide the student with sufficient reinforcement for his or her performances c. teach the individual to be highly creative and imaginative d. be efficient but relatively boring ANS: b 12. Skinner has constructed a theory that: a. is more comprehensive than the one created by Freud b. is very imprecise c. is strongly supported by data d. lacks heuristic value ANS: c 13. A schedule of reinforcement in which each response is followed by a reinforcer is called: a. a continuous reinforcement schedule b. an intermittent schedule c. extinction d. a fixed-interval schedule ANS: a 14. A goad to behavior is called a: a. response b. stimulus c. stimulation d. conditioned response ANS: b 15. According to Skinner, one of the primary obstacles to scientific progress in psychology is: a. determinism b. free will and determinism c. cognition d. mentalism ANS: d

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16. According to Skinner, all control of behavior: a. is good b. is bad c. may be good or bad, depending on its consequences for people d. is good, but not bad, depending on our input into the decision-making process ANS: c 17. Kissing, dressing, and singing are all examples of: a. classical conditioning b. operant behavior c. contingency schedules d. schedules of reinforcement ANS: b 18. The concept used to describe the process whereby the failure to reinforce a response affects its occurrence by making it less and less is called: a. punishment b. extinction c. reinforcement d. negative reinforcement ANS: b 19. Skinner opposes the use of punishment to control behavior because it: a. cannot stop the undesired behavior at all b. can create emotional responses that are incompatible with appropriate behavior c. creates an inner struggle between schedules of reinforcement d. is difficult to administer in most situations ANS: b 20. A schedule of reinforcement in which a positive reinforcer is delivered at the end of a time interval in which no instances of unacceptable behavior occurred is called: a. differential reinforcement of other behavior b. contingency planning effect c. rapid interval reinforcement d. generalization extinction ANS: a

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21. In Walden 2, there are: a. eight planners, five women and three men b. six planners, usually three women and three men c. ten planners, usually five women and five men d. four planners, two men and two women ANS: b 22. It is clear that Walden 2 is a: a. democracy b. highly competitive and exploitative society c. benevolent dictatorship d. community which emphasizes the indiscriminate accumulation of material goods ANS: c 23. Skinner's view on democracy is that: a. democracy is a fine institution b. it is an institution that should be improved so that its citizens' happiness will be maximized c. it is a form of government in which the majority is at the mercy of the minority d. democracy is really despotism since the minority is at the mercy of the majority ANS: d 24. In Skinner's Walden 2, a person's self-esteem is based upon: a. personal gain b. the accumulation of material goods c. making contributions for the betterment of the community d. earning large sums of money ANS: c 25. In Skinner's view, Walden 2: a. springs from a rejection of modern life b. is not based on a romanticized "return to the farm" philosophy c. is primarily dependent for its continuation on the larger, outside community d. is a highly competitive community ANS: b

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26. In Skinner's view, personality involves: a. seeing the person as an originating agent of his/her behavior b. the systematic examination of the unique learning history and unique genetic background of the individual c. seeing the person in terms of a collection of traits which direct behavior d. an examination of the many traits and instincts that govern behavior ANS: b 27. According to Skinner, when we clap our hands over our mouths to avoid laughing at someone else's mistakes, we are exercising a form of self-control called: a. physical aid b. manipulating emotional conditions c. physical restraint d. performing alternative responses ANS: c 28. When overweight people put a box of candy out of sight in order to avoid temptation, they are exercising a form of self-control Skinner calls: a. manipulating emotional conditions b. physical aids c. changing the stimulus conditions d. physical restraints ANS: c 29. In the study by Putnam, Handler, Ramirez-Platt, and Luiselli on improving the busriding behavior of school children, it was found that: a. the use of a lottery system to reward desirable behavior reduced rowdy behavior on the buses b. the use of constant reinforcers for every child failed to lower desirable behavior c. parents were able to reduce rowdy behavior by spanking each child d. the use of lottery system was highly ineffective in eliminating rowdy behavior ANS: a 30. Skinner calls unique, acquired behavior patterns, a(n): a. reinforcement b. stimulus c. mentalism d. repertoire ANS: d

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31. When Olivia puts a box of candy out of sight in order to avoid temptation, she is exercising a form of self-control Skinner calls: a. changing the stimulus conditions b. physical aids c. physical restraints d. manipulating emotional conditions ANS: a 32. When Mike "psychs himself up" before an important game, he is exercising a form of self-control Skinner calls: a. changing the stimulus conditions b. physical restraints c. physical aids d. manipulating emotional conditions ANS: d 33. A good example of a primary reinforcer is: a. praise b. attention c. food d. money ANS: c 34. A good example of a secondary reinforcer is: a. food b. water c. sex d. attention ANS: d 35. A good example of a negative reinforcer is: a. electric shock b. water c. food d. sex ANS: a

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36. A good example of a primary punisher is: a. a very loud noise b. poor grades c. ridicule d. sarcasm ANS: a 37. A good example of a secondary punisher is: a. loud noise b. extremely bright lights c. physical assault d. criticism ANS: d 38. Mike hits one of his classmates and is instructed by his teacher to sit on the periphery of the group and observe the appropriate behavior of the other children. Then he is invited to return to the group once he indicates that he understands how to play cooperatively. Finally, he is reinforced for the correct behavior. This form of discipline is called: a. shaping b. a contingent observation procedure c. a token economy d. classical conditioning ANS: b 39. To reduce his weight, Steve learns to eat only in the dining room and not while he is watching TV. This form of self-discipline is called: a. shaping b. a discrimination training procedure c. a token economy d. classical conditioning ANS: b 40. If John lies to his mother about his grades, and his father then takes away his allowance money, the form of discipline is called: a. shaping b. response-cost c. discrimination training d. classical conditioning ANS: b

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41. The most common form of treatment for hyperactivity in children is the prescription of a medication called: a. LSD b. aspirin c. Ritalin d. lithium ANS: c 42. In the study by Jackson and Wallace in which a girl was trained to speak at an appropriate level, the form of therapeutic procedure used was: a. classical conditioning b. response-cost c. shaping d. lots of love and affection ANS: c 43. In Walden 2 the people responsible for providing adequate goods and services to community members are the: a. planners b. managers c. mothers d. fathers ANS: b 44. When Jenny claps her hands over her mouth to avoid laughing at Christine's mistakes, she is exercising a form of self-control called: a. physical aid b. physical restraint c. emotional leveling d. response-cost ANS: b 45. A rule which states that some event, B, will occur if and only if another event, A, occurs is called a: a. stimulus b. contingency c. good d. voluntary response ANS: b

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46. If Jeff quickly learns to avoid eating smelly meats and to eat red meats instead, his behavior is said to be: a. emotional b. under instinctive control c. under stimulus control d. programmed ANS: c 47. Events that help initiate responses are called: a. neutralizers b. generalizers c. instinctive stimuli d. prompts ANS: d 48. A behavior that is reinforced in one situation which also increases in other situations (even though it is not reinforced in those situations) is called: a. response generalization b. stimulus and response c. discrimination generalization d. stimulus generalization ANS: d 49. Generalization is a phenomenon that is opposite to: a. conditioning b. emotional leveling c. discrimination d. situational generalization ANS: c 50. In the study by Clayton and Helms on the use of prompts to control car seat belt use as students exited a parking lot, it was found that: a. 95% of the students in the control condition were already buckled up. b. in the “Please Buckle up-I Care” condition, only 10% of the drivers complied and buckled up. c. in the “Click it or Ticket” condition, 100% of the drivers complied. d. 86% of the drivers in the Please Buckle up-I Care” condition complied, whereas 92% of the drivers in the “Click it or Ticket” complied with the prompt. ANS: d

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51. When we learn that a red light is a cue for us to bring our car to a halt, whereas a green light indicates that we can proceed, Skinner would say that we have learned a: a. generalization b. discrimination c. conditioning light d. stimulus generalization ANS: b

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52. In Skinner's view, punishment: a. can permanently eliminate any behavior b. applied after a response increases the rate of that response c. temporarily suppresses behavior d. applied after a response results in denial ANS: c

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53. When we walk away from a person who has insulted us, we have used a self-control technique called: a. physical restraints b. positive reinforcement c. physical aids d. extinction ANS: a

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54. Skinner thought that when therapists use guidance as a technique: a. it generally helps their clients make substantial progress toward cure b. they obscure the reinforcements actually responsible for the changes in their clients' behavior c. they can identify precisely the reinforcements responsible for behavioral changes in their clients' behavior d. it is effective, especially in group counseling ANS: b

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55. In Skinner's view, the study of cause-and-effect relationships between events is based on an underlying assumption of: a. luck b. fate c. determinism d. correlation ANS: c

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COMPLETION 1. ______________ refers to explanations that give the appearance of helping us to understand our behavior, but in fact do not help us at all. ANS: Mentalism 2. According to Skinner, it is usually the ______________ that causes our behavior. ANS: environment 3. Skinner believed that personality involves a systematic study of the unique ______________ history and unique genetic background of the individual. ANS: learning 4. ______________ behavior includes reading, writing, walking, and running. ANS: Operant 5. People learn a ______________ when they understand that their behavior is likely to be reinforced in the presence of certain stimuli and unlikely to be reinforced in the presence of other stimuli. ANS: discrimination 6. _____________ generalization occurs if a behavior that is reinforced in one situation also increases in other situations. ANS: Stimulus 7. Electric shock and sudden loud noises are examples of ______________. ANS: primary punishers 8. ______________ from reinforcement refers to the removal of all positive reinforcers for a certain period of time. ANS: Time out 9. The presentation of a positive reinforcer following a behavior, with the result that the rate of that behavior increases is called ______________. ANS: positive reinforcement

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10. A unique set of acquired behavior patterns is called a ______________. ANS: repertoire TRUE/FALSE 1. A behavioristic analysis would focus on those events in the environment that help produce the behavior. ANS: T 2. The establishment of an association between behavior and its consequences is called operant conditioning. ANS: T 3. When our responses are differentially controlled by our instincts, they are considered to be under stimulus control. ANS: F 4. Generalization is the opposite of discrimination. ANS: T 5. Food, water, and sex are secondary reinforcers. ANS: F 6. Negative reinforcers are aversive stimuli, e.g., very loud noises and electric shock. ANS: T 7. Criticism, ridicule, and sarcasm are primary punishers. ANS: F 8. Antecedent stimuli that help initiate behavior are called prompts. ANS: T 9. A fixed-interval schedule is one in which the first response that occurs after a fixed amount of time has elapsed is punished. ANS: F

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10. Research indicates that corporal punishment administered by parents to their children subsequently produces aggressive and delinquent behavior in them. ANS: T ESSAY 1. In Skinner's opinion, why is there a need for a scientific technology of behavior? What are the dangers of mentalism as he sees it? ANS: Answer not provided 2. What is operant conditioning? Under what conditions is the occurrence of behavior made more or less probable? ANS: Answer not provided 3. Why is Skinner opposed to the use of punishment to control behavior? ANS: Answer not provided 4. Describe the various schedules of reinforcement and their relationships to the development of healthy and unhealthy behavior. ANS: Answer not provided 5. Assess Skinner's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. What is operant extinction? ANS: Answer not provided 7. What kinds of self-control procedures can be used to minimize aversive experiences? ANS: Answer not provided 8. Name the various kinds of operant conditioning procedures which have been used to eliminate socially undesirable behavior. ANS: Answer not provided

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9. What are token economies? ANS: Answer not provided 10. Define a response-cost procedure and discuss research which shows how it can be used to reduce hyperactivity in children. ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 16-ROTTER'S EXPECTANCY-REINFORCEMENT VALUE MODEL CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Social-learning Approach to Personality A. four major concepts 1. behavior potential-probability that a particular behavior will occur, as a function of the person’s unique expectancies and the perceived value of the reinforcer secured by the behavior in a given situation. 2. expectancy-cognition or belief about the property of some object or event. 3. reinforcement value-importance of a given reinforcer to an individual in relation to other reinforcers, if the probabilities of attaining all of them are equal. 4. psychological situation-meaning of the situation as it is defined by the person. B. two derivative concepts: 1. freedom of movement-individual’s expectancy that his or her behaviors will generally lead to success (high freedom of movement) or failure (low freedom of movement) in a given life area. 2. minimal goal-dividing point between those outcomes that produce feelings of satisfaction and those that produce dissatisfaction. II. Personality Development-not a stage theory; developmental process involves the acquisition and modification of expectancies and reinforcement values through contact with various socialization agents (e.g., parents, siblings, friends, teachers). IV. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. procedures 1. laboratory studies 2. clinical interview 3. projective tests 4. controlled behavioral tests 5. behavioral observation methods 6. personality questionnaires a. internal vs. external control of reinforcement-individual’s belief that his or her behavior is self-determined (internal control) or determined by outside factors (external control). b. research with I/E Scale V. Theory's Implications for Therapy

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A. Maladjusted people-those who behave in ways that society considers destructive; therapists need to help them change expectancies and reinforcement values that do not work. 1. must learn a set of realistic expectancies 2. must learn a set of realistic reinforcers 3. must learn to discriminate between those situations that are likely to lead to behaviors that are appropriate and those likely to lead to behaviors that are inappropriate. 4. must learn to eliminate behaviors that are undesirable and to learn those that are desirable. VI. Evaluative Comments A. comprehensiveness-broad in scope. B. precision and testability-precise and testable. C. parsimony-quite parsimonious. D. empirical validity-strong empirical support for the locus of control construct; rest of the theory remains untested. E. heuristic value-theory is stimulating to scholars in many areas, including learning theory, psychopathology, psychotherapy, personality development, and social psychology. F. applied value-strong applied value. CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Locus of Control and Ideal Mental Health. Virtually all of the studies examining differences between internals and externals have painted a glowing picture of internals as individuals who possess nearly all positive characteristics and behavior, in comparison to externals who are seen as possessing characteristics that are largely negative. This onesided view of internals as having more desirable characteristics relative to externals conforms to Western societal ideals. Western culture places a high value on individuals' overcoming of any external obstacle and achieving success through hard work and persistence. The belief is that people can solve problems no matter how difficult they are if they will only keep trying. Internality is related to these traditional American values, whereas externality is not. Thus, it is not too surprising that internality has been associated with adaptiveness in the research literature, whereas externality has been linked to maladaptiveness. Despite this one-sided view, there increasing numbers of studies in the research literature which suggest that internals may have some negative qualities. For example, compulsive individuals, with their excessive concern for order and control, are likely to score high on internal locus of control. Internals also have an exaggerated need to control their 284

outcomes. Several studies also suggest that, as compared to externals, internals may experience more guilt and shame when they fail ,and they tend to blame themselves when they fail, even when they are not at fault. (For example, sometimes the test instructor does construct a poor test; if the internal fails, it is not his fault, but the instructor's. (Of course, we hope that the poor test construction is a rare event.) Researchers have also argued that, on theoretical grounds, the adoption of an external view may well be very healthy under certain circumstances. There are numerous situations that are largely beyond our control so that it may be detrimental to us to continue to act on the belief that such situations are subject to our control. For example, a patient given a diagnosis of tumors in his liver may well want to get a second or even third medical opinion to verify that the diagnosis is accurate. Then he may ask around among his friends and other medical people he knows for their advice on selecting the best surgeon in the area to perform the operation; he also could check to find the hospital with the best facilities, and the one with the best nursing staff for support following the operation. At some point, however, the patient must relinquish control to the surgeon finally chosen. It would not be adaptive to continue to distress himself with thoughts about a negative outcome or to cancel the operation at the last minute because he fantasizes that the surgeon is incompetent and uncaring. Personality psychologists are beginning to adopt the idea that neither extreme internality nor extreme externality is adaptive. Extreme internals may seek to exert total control over their own and others outcomes by acting in aggressive, obtrusive, and domineering ways. They may experience considerable frustration and anxiety when placed in a subservient role or in a situation in which the attainment of their goals is in fact beyond their control. Extreme externals, in contrast, may be too submissive and passive in most situations and are unlikely to develop the skills that are necessary to solve problems in many situations. Thus, they are likely to experience severe frustration and anxiety when placed in leadership roles or in situations which require the utilization of their personal skills. Since they also tend to attribute success externally, externals are unlikely to feel much pride in their accomplishments or to persist at tasks that are indeed solvable. Researchers are beginning to rethink the relationship between locus of control and psychological health, seeing ideally healthy people as those who have a flexible view of the role played by internal and external beliefs in their lives. Such individuals would be too realistic to try to control all aspects of their environments and yet be too independent to relinquish all control. They would instead adopt the view that they should make personal efforts to solve problems that are solvable and to accept what cannot be changed. Such psychologically healthy people would be those who would take into account the appropriateness and effectiveness of utilizing internal or external beliefs in their decisions about how to behave. You can ask the students to guess which of the personality theorists that they have covered earlier in the semester comes closest in his theorizing to this viewpoint. The answer is Jung; although he did not talk explicitly about internals and externals (introverts and internals and extraverts and externals are not the same; in fact, internals are more extraverted in nature than externals), he did argue that psychologically healthy people are those who develop all sides of their nature. Thus, psychologically healthy people would be those who have developed both the internal and the external sides of their nature. With both sides of their nature well developed, they

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would be in the best position to decide how to behave and would behave more constructively. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 16, your students should be able to: 1. define the concepts of behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and psychological situation and explain the role of each of these concepts in the prediction of behavior. 2. describe how the concepts of freedom of movement and minimal goal are used in the diagnosis of maladjusted behavior. 3. outline the characteristics of maladjusted individuals. 4. define internality and externality and explain how these individual differences are related to a wide variety of behavior. 5. discuss Rotter's view of therapy and the techniques he uses to bring about constructive changes in patients.

TEST BANK MUPTIPLE CHOICE 1. Rotter's social learning position states that behavior is a function of an individual's expectancies and the: a. situation b. self-concept c. value of the reinforcer d. need for social identity ANS: c 2. According to Rotter, an external is a person who: a. believes that the reinforcers in his/her life are under his/her control b. sees little or no relationship between behavior and its consequences c. feels powerful d. is highly achievement oriented ANS: b

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3. Rotter assumes that most of our behavior is: a. learned through contact with other people b. innate c. learned through self-analysis d. essentially biologically based ANS: a 4. Rotter believes that: a. it is usually not essential to study the individual's distant past experiences in great detail in order to predict behavior adequately b. the traumatic experiences of the person in early childhood are the best predictors of current behavior c. personality is relatively stable from birth d. behavior is not goal-oriented ANS: a 5. Social learning theory assumes that a person's early goals are learned primarily through contact with the person's: a. friends b. peers c. teachers d. family ANS: d 6. Rotter places: a. less emphasis on the role of cognitive factors in the prediction of behavior than Skinner b. little emphasis on the role of cognitive factors in the prediction of behavior c. heavy emphasis on the role of cognitive factors in the prediction of behavior d. no emphasis on cognition in the prediction of behavior ANS: c 7. Rotter's definition of behavior: a. is very narrow and specific b. focuses only on behavior that can be directly observed c. is quite broad and diverse in nature d. includes only running, crying, fighting, smiling, and talking ANS: c

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8. Rotter calls a belief about the property of some object or event a(n): a. reinforcer b. expectancy c. stimulus object d. contingency ANS: b 9. The person's preference for any one of a group of reinforcers to occur, if the probabilities of all occurring are equal, is called the: a. expectancy b. contingency c. reinforcement value d. positive reinforcer ANS: c 10. The lowest goal on a continuum of potential reinforcers for some situation that is perceived as a satisfaction is called: a. freedom of movement b. minimal goal c. maximum goal d. response potential ANS: b 11. A student would be considered maladjusted if he/she has a: a. high freedom of movement and continued to set high minimal academic goals b. low freedom of movement but continued to set high minimal goals c. low freedom of movement and continued to set low minimal goals d. high minimal goals that he/she met ANS: b 12. In recent research on locus of control, Krause found that elderly people with a: a. stronger sense of God-mediated control tended to have a greater sense of selfworth and life satisfaction b. stronger sense of God-mediated control had higher levels of death anxiety c. poor self concept did not believe in God d. good sense of external control believed in several Gods ANS: a

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13. In Rotter's view, maladjusted behavior may occur in families where there is: a. a strong, dominant father b. rejection of the child c. consistent discipline d. acceptance of the child ANS: b 14. In his efforts to assess personality, Rotter relies on: a. only the Rorschach b. primarily the clinical interview c. primarily the behavioral observation method d. a wide variety of measurement procedures ANS: d 15. The relatively informal assessment of behavior that relies on the use of observers in natural settings is called the: a. clinical interview b. controlled behavioral test c. behavioral observation technique d. natural observer and respondent procedure ANS: c 16. In a study which examined the link between locus of control and age, Brandtstadter and Rothermund found that: a. many elderly people maintain an internal orientation by adjusting their goals to make them fit the reality of their situations. b. many elderly people become very external as they create new goals for themselves that unfortunately are unattainable c. middle-aged adults become very internally oriented as they ponder the inevitability of their death d. many adolescents force themselves to create goals that are unworkable so they can be very dissatisfied with their lives. ANS: a 17. Research on the locus of control construct indicates that: a. internals are cognitively passive b. internals are inflexible c. internals learn the rules necessary to solve problems more quickly than externals d. externals tend to seek more information to use in the solutions of their problems than internals ANS: c

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18. Research on the locus of control construct indicates that: a. internals blame others for their failures b. externals attribute their success to luck or an easy task c. externals blame themselves for failures d. internals and externals both take credit for their successes ANS: b 19. Maladjusted people tend to: a. engage in behavior that others find desirable b. show behaviors that lead to immediate rewards but that are punishing in the long run c. place little importance on the gratification of one need d. have realistic expectations for success ANS: b 20. Rotter's ideas about the person's locus of control: a. have not received much research attention b. have generated hypotheses that have received strong empirical verification c. have generated hypotheses that have received little empirical verification d. have had little heuristic value ANS: b 21. After failing various intelligence tests, Phares found that: a. internals claimed that success on these tests was not that important b. externals claimed that their success on the tests was highly important c. externals said that they secretly wanted to fail d. externals claimed that success on the tests was not that important ANS: d 22. Phares and Lamiell found that externals: a. chose to perform on a series of intelligence tests with excuses for failure already "built-in" b. performed much better than internals on a series of intelligence tests c. employed defensive strategies only after task performance but not prior to it d. were reluctant to employ rationalizations for their failures ANS: a

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23. In a study looking at locus of control and divorce, Barnet found that: a. external divorced women reported experiencing more predecision stress, less stress during the divorce, and less social maladjustment following divorce than internal divorced women b. internal divorced women reported experiencing more predecision stress, less stress during the divorce, less postdivorce stress, and less social maladjustment following divorce than external divorced women c. internal divorced women reported experiencing less predecision stress, less stress during the divorce, more postdivorce stress, and less social maladjustment following divorce than external divorced women d. external divorced women reported experiencing less predecision stress, less stress during the divorce, and more social maladjustment following divorce than internal divorced women ANS: b 24. In their study on locus of control and law violators, Kauffman and Ryckman found that: a. internals are less punitive than externals in their judgments of wrongdoers b. externals are more punitive than internals in their judgments of some wrongdoers c. internals are more punitive and less sympathetic than externals in their judgments of wrongdoers d. internals and externals do not differ in their judgment of wrongdoers ANS: c 25. In the area of career development, Luzzo and Ward found that: a. internal students with career interests in business obtained part-time jobs in plumbing more than in auto mechanics b. external students with career interests in business obtained part-time jobs in retail sales rather than as auto mechanics c. internal students with career interests in business obtained part-time jobs in retail sales rather than as auto mechanics d. external students with career interests in physics were unable to obtain part-time jobs in chemistry ANS: c

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26. Research on the relationship between locus of control and physical health by Steptoe and Wardle showed that: a. externality is linked positively to superior physical health b. there is no relationship between internality and superior physical health c. internals had more knowledge about proper nutrition and diet than externals d. externals had more knowledge about the harmful effects of eating fatty foods than internals ANS: c 27. A study by Suh and Suh with American high school students showed that: a. externals are more likely than internals to drop out of high school b. externals are more likely than internals to receive their high school diploma c. neither internals nor externals ever graduated from high school d. 100% of the internals dropped out of high school ANS: a 28. In the research by Kalechstein and Nowicki on the locus of control construct and academic performance, they found that: a. internals had lower test scores on exams than externals b. internals outperformed externals on exams and had higher final course grades than externals c. internals and externals did not differ in their test scores d. both internals and externals earned A grades on all their tests ANS: b 29. According to Rotter, expectancies are: a. beliefs that do not vary in terms of their generality b. cognitions c. not subject to modification by experience d. are not based upon past experiences ANS: b

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30. In research on internality and externality, Gueye, Castle, and Konate found that: a. internal males, but not females, reported using contraceptives at the time of first sexual intercourse to prevent unwanted pregnancy b. internal males and females reported being more likely to use contraceptives at the time of first sexual intercourse to prevent unwanted pregnancy than did male and female externals c. neither internals nor externals used contraceptives at the time of first sexual intercourse to prevent unwanted pregnancy d. internal females, but not males, reported using contraceptives at the time of first sexual intercourse to prevent unwanted pregnancy ANS: b 31. The ideal person (maximally physically and psychologically healthy) is likely to be: a. completely internal b. completely external c. a blend of internal and external orientations d. competitive, but not cooperative ANS: c 32. Kirkcaldy, Shepard, and Furnham examined the relationship between locus of control and job performance and found that: a. internals were less satisfied with their jobs than externals b. internals experienced more stress on their jobs than externals c. internals reported being more autonomous and having more control over their jobs than externals d. externals never thought of quitting their jobs ANS: c 33. Research on the locus of control construct indicates generally that: a. internals show a greater willingness to persist at tasks than externals b. externals show a greater willingness to persist at tasks than internals c. externals experience more pride in their achievements than internals d. neither internals nor externals show much pride in their successes ANS: a

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34. Which one of the following statements would an internal student be likely to endorse? a. "Nervousness while taking a test helps me do better" b. "Sometimes I worry so much about a test that by the time I actually take it, I'm too tired to do well" c. "I never get nervous during a test" d. "I do well in all my courses without much studying for tests" ANS: a 35. The term used to describe responses made by a person in the presence of an original stimulus which come to be made in the presence of other stimuli that resemble the original one is: a. resemblance conditioning b. response and instinct conditioning c. spontaneous recovery d. stimulus generalization ANS: d 36. Two good examples of behavior that lead to immediate rewards but that are punishing in the long run are: a. alcoholism and painting pictures b. overeating and alcoholism c. sex and mature love d. overeating and learning to play the piano ANS: b 37. There are four major concepts in the expectancy-reinforcement value approach. They are: a. behavior, expectancy, outcome, and objective situation b. behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and psychological situation c. objective situation, psychological reinforcement, expectancy, and outcome d. stimulus generalization, potential, outcome, and objective situation ANS: b 38. Nick believes that, if he wears his new Reeboks, his friends will compliment him. This is a good example of a(n): a. simple cognition b. expectancy for reinforcement sequences c. expectancy for a behavior-reinforcement outcome d. reinforcement expectancy sequence ANS: c

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39. Joe believes that physicians are honest. This is a good example of a(n): a. simple cognition b. reinforcement belief value c. reinforcement series d. complicated emotional value ANS: a 40. If Pam is satisfied only with earning A grades in her courses, Rotter would say she has a: a. high minimal goal b. low minimal goal c. high freedom of movement value d. simple evaluative cognition ANS: a 41. Carl tends to dislike people he cannot control or influence. Research suggests he is probably a(n): a. external b. passive-aggressive external c. active-aggressive moderate d. internal ANS: d 42. Research on internal-external control of reinforcement suggests that, if Jim is a strong internal, he is likely to have: a. a low GPA b. a high GPA c. strong needs for affiliation d. weak needs for achievement ANS: b 43. Research on I-E differences indicates that: a. internals report less facilitating anxiety than externals b. both internals and externals report about the same level of facilitating anxiety c. externals report more debilitating anxiety than internals d. both internals and externals have low levels of anxiety, even when they are performing under stressful conditions ANS: c

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44. In comparison to externals, internals are found to be: a. lower in self-esteem b. more compulsive c. lower in the need for control d. more cooperative ANS: b 45. Of those individuals who quit smoking, internals: a. are more likely than externals to resume smoking b. and externals are equally likely to begin smoking again c. and externals are found never to resume smoking d. are less likely than externals to resume smoking ANS: d 46. Bill believes that he is a failure at work. Later he comes to believe that he is a failure at home, even though this assessment is inaccurate. Rotter would say that Bill: a. has low reinforcement value in both situations b. is generalizing his expectations inappropriately c. finds his work uninteresting and his family life exciting d. has extremely high minimal goals ANS: b 47. In a study by Williams-Piehota, Schneider, Pizarro, Mowad, and Salovy on locus of control and health communications about the importance of getting a mammogram, it was found that: a. a higher percentage of internals than externals responded positively to an internally-oriented health message by having a mammogram b. a lower percentage of internals than externals paid no attention to an internallyoriented health message c. a lower percentage of externals than internals responded positively to an externally-oriented health message by having a mammogram d. there was no difference between internals and externals in the way they responded to classical conditioning messages ANS: a 48. If Eileen achieves A grades in all her mathematics courses, we could say that she has: a. low minimal goals b. high freedom of movement in math c. moderate freedom of movement in math d. low freedom of movement in math ANS: b

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49. A mean expectancy for obtaining positive reinforcements in a given life area is called: a. minimal goal b. reinforcement value c. freedom of movement d. outcome value ANS: c 50. Sarah studies extremely hard because obtaining high grades are very important to her. In terms of Rotter's theory, we would say that: a. Sarah has high freedom of movement in the academic area b. grades have high reinforcement value for her c. Sarah has set a low minimal goal for herself d. Sarah has strong expectations for failure ANS: b 51. One of the key constructs in Rotter's theory is called: a. affiliation reinforcement b. internal/external control of reinforcement c. internal classical conditioning d. external classical conditioning ANS: b

MSC: WWW

52. One of the fundamental assumptions of Rotter's theory is that: a. most of our behavior is caused by biological factors b. our temperament controls most of our behavior c. most of our behavior is acquired through our experiences with others d. our hormones control much, but not all, of our behavior ANS: c

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53. "I think this is a painting by Vermeer," is an example of a(n): a. simple cognition b. expectancy for a behavior-reinforcement outcome c. a sequence of stimulus and response cognitions d. cognitive-instinctual link ANS: a

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54. If John finds any grade above D satisfying, whereas Steve finds any grade above B satisfying, we would say that: a. John and Steve have the same minimal goal b. Steve has a higher minimal goal than John c. John has a higher minimal goal than Steve d. John has a higher motivation to succeed in academic situations than Steve ANS: b

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55. Rotter's definition of behavior is: a. narrow b. focuses only on overt behavior c. very broad d. focuses only on covert behavior ANS: c

MSC: WWW

COMPLETION 1. A cognition or belief about the property of some event is called an______________. ANS: expectancy 2. ______________ value refers to the importance we attach to different activities. ANS: Reinforcement 3. ______________ of movement is defined as the person's generalized level of confidence of obtaining satisfactions in a given life area. ANS: Freedom 4. ______________ goal is the lowest point on a continuum of potential reinforcements for some situation which will be perceived as a satisfaction. ANS: Minimal 5. ______________ are people who believe that reinforcers are subject to their own control. ANS: Internals 6. Parents of internally-oriented children are ______________ in their disciplinary practices. ANS: consistent

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7. Parents of externally-oriented children are excessively ______________ in their disciplinary practices. ANS: harsh 8. After they experience failure, internals experience more shame and ______________ than do externals. ANS: guilt 9. People who have a vicarious type of internal control are believers in ______________. ANS: God-mediated control 10. The ______________ situation is defined as the meaning of the situation as it is perceived by the person. ANS: psychological TRUE/FALSE 1. In Rotter's theory, each expectancy is based on past experience. ANS: T 2. "If I graduate from this university, I'll probably get a high status and high paying job," is an example of an expectancy for reinforcement sequences. ANS: T 3. Externals believe that there is a strong connection between their behavior and various reinforcing outcomes. ANS: F 4. Parents of internal children tend to be overly controlling. ANS: F 5. Externality is associated positively with superior performances on achievement tests. ANS: F 6. Internals are more opposed to an idealistic view of romantic love than are externals. ANS: T

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7. A minimal goal is the dividing point between those outcomes that produce feelings of satisfaction and those that produce dissatisfaction. ANS: T 8. Rotter assumes that much of our behavior is goal-directed. ANS: T 9. Social learning theory recognizes the importance of both dispositional and situational influences in the production of behavior. ANS: T 10. In Rotter's view, language plays a minor role in the child's development. ANS: F ESSAY 1. How does Rotter define behavior? Give several examples. ANS: Answer not provided 2. Define freedom of movement and minimal goal. Show how these concepts can be combined and used in the prediction of behavior. ANS: Answer not provided 3. Name and describe the various measurement procedures used by Rotter to assess individual differences in behavior. ANS: Answer not provided 4. Define internal-external control of reinforcement and show how the measure is used to predict behavior in a variety of situations. ANS: Answer not provided 5. Assess Rotter's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided

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6. Why does Rotter conclude that knowledge of the psychological situation is important for the accurate prediction of behavior? ANS: Answer not provided 7. What are Rotter's views of effective therapy? ANS: Answer not provided 8. When Rotter says that behaviors can be functionally related, what does he mean? ANS: Answer not provided 9. Describe the three different kinds of expectancy postulated by Rotter's social learning theory. ANS: Answer not provided 10. What are Rotter's views on personal development? ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 17-BANDURA'S SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Assumptions of the social-cognitive approach A. behavior occurs as the result of a complex interplay between inner processes (cognitions, motivations, personality factors) and environmental influences. 1.triadic reciprocal determinism-belief that cognition, behavior, and the environment operate interactively as determinants of one another. 2.assume that we represent external events symbolically a. verbal representation-word that signifies an object in the environment. For example, the word cat is a verbal representation of a purring quadruped that exists in the environment. b. imaginal representation-image conjured up by a person that resembles an object in the environment. 3. assume that most of our behavior is not controlled by immediate external reinforcement. a. much of our behavior is controlled by anticipated outcomes-person’s expectancy that the performance of certain behaviors will secure certain reinforcers-and modeling-type of learning in which individuals learn new behavior by observing others. II. Modeling theory A. Whether or not the person imitates observed behavior of a model depends on three factors. 1. characteristics of the observer. 2. characteristics of the model. 3. rewards and punishments associated with the model's behavior. a. vicarious reinforcement-willingness to imitate the behavior of a model after observing that the model was reinforced for the behavior. III. Aggression and Violence in Films, Television, and Video Games A. Factors facilitating the occurrence of violence and aggression 1. observers who watch models being rewarded for certain behaviors tend to repeat them, whereas observers who watch models being punished for their actions tend not to repeat those actions. 2. observers are more likely to imitate aggressive models who receive no punishment for their behavior.

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a. even when models are punished for their actions, observers can and will imitate them if given strong incentives. 3. observers will imitate even a disliked model who has been rewarded for his aggression if they believe his actions are exciting and fun. 4. observers will imitate aggressive behavior performed by models if the aggression is justified. 5. observers are more apt to behave aggressively if they are low on impulse control. 6. observers behave more aggressively if they identify with the aggressor. 7. observers are more apt to be aggressive if they can dehumanize the victim, or when the injuries suffered by the victim are minimized or sanitized. B. recommendations to reduce violence in the media. 1. media executives need to be encouraged by members of the public to create more constructive shows and video games. 2. parents need to limit their children’s exposure to media violence by monitoring the content of programs in advance, modeling nonaggressive behavior for their children, and rewarding nonviolent behavior. IV. Role of efficacy expectations in determining behavior A. efficacy expectations-individuals’ convictions or beliefs that they can execute the behaviors required to produce certain response consequences. B. efficacy expectations depend on four factors: 1. performance accomplishments. 2. vicarious experiences. 3. verbal persuasion. 4. emotional arousal. C. Research on efficacy expectations 1. academic development and achievement 2. career choices and job performance 3. physical and mental health V. Personality Development A. Important Factors 1. children learn and develop via rewards provided by their caretakers; learn what not to do by being disciplined (not physically punished) for their wrong actions 2. children learn through watching successful parents a. multiple models-learning more difficult when models are performing behaviors that conflict with one another.

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3. children eventually learn to apply self-reinforcers and self-punishers to their own behavior. VI. Therapeutic Assessment Techniques A. no use of traditional techniques (free association, dream analysis, transference) B. heavy reliance on experimentation to assess personality functioning and change. 1. modeling used to reduce or eliminate undesirable behavior and to teach new, more desirable behavior. a. guided participation modeling-procedure in which models first show study participants how to successfully tolerate increasingly threatening interactions with dreaded objects, and then guide the participants through these threatening activities until they are finally able to master their fears. 2. eliminate fears by raising efficacy expectations. 3. self-modeling-type of learning in which individuals watch themselves behave in a situationally-appropriate manner via video-tape and then show the same behaviors later on. VII. Evaluative Comments A. Comprehensiveness-broad in scope. B. Precision and testability-precise and testable. C. Parsimony-parsimonious. D. Empirical validity-strong empirical support. E. Heuristic value-high heuristic value, proving stimulating to researchers in clinical psychology, social psychology, health psychology, and vocational counseling. F. Applied value-strong applied value, especially in the areas of education and psychopathology. CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION Violent Video Games and Subsequent Aggression. Since many students play video games, often ones replete with violence (e.g., Doom II, Grand Theft Auto III, Mortal Kombat, Soldier of Fortune, God of War III), they will probably be very interested in the research results reported in the text showing that playing violent video games makes them more susceptible to aggression. If you are having a discussion about this matter, some students may maintain that they play violent video games for hours and have never acted aggressively. You could point out that Bandura does not argue that every person who plays violent video games will act aggressively. Instead he maintains that playing such games could have a negative impact on those students with certain personality characteristics. For example, students with low self-esteem and low impulse control are more likely to act out their aggressive tendencies after playing hours of such games, 305

assuming they are provoked in some way (e.g., insulted, ridiculed) by someone. Also, very young children who are not mature enough to have developed cognitive inhibitory mechanisms to counter and restrain aggressive impulses may act aggressively under the right conditions. Finally, even if the students playing the games do have adequate cognitive inhibitory mechanisms to stop them from acting aggressively, the long hours they spend playing the games in which "heroes" maim, stab, burn, and kill the bad guys keeps them from learning that there are more adaptive solutions to problems than violence. It seems clear that video games with less violence and more constructive, nonviolent methods of coping with problems is preferable. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 17, your students should be able to: 1. discuss the assumptions of the social-cognitive approach. 2. discuss the role of cognitive and social processes in the determination of behavior. 3. discuss the research on modeling as it relates to the treatment of phobias. 4. define efficacy expectations and describe the sources of self-efficacy in people. 5. explain how people's efficacy expectations can critically determine their psychological and physical health.

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. A strong emphasis in Bandura's theory is on: a. observational learning b. the psychodynamic approach to learning c. participatory learning d. classical conditioning ANS: a 2. People tend to be influenced by models who are: a. dissimilar to them in physical appearance b. similar to themselves in terms of personal background c. incompetent and demanding d. low in nurturance ANS: b

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3. In a study concerned with the effects of multiple models on observers' imitative behavior, the results indicated that children: a. who watched models who were inconsistent in their self-reinforcement practices showed the most imitative behavior b. who saw two models who practiced self-restraint in their self-reinforcement practices emulated their behavior very closely c. never imitated the models d. imitated the two male models but not the female ones ANS: b 4. In Bandura's view, if parents do not react to activities by their children that were punished in the past, these activities may take on, though contrast, a. negative significance b. meaning for the child c. meaning for the parent d. positive significance ANS: d 5. Bandura's theory: a. uses terms that are always clearly and precisely defined b. has impressive empirical validity c. has very high heuristic value d. has low applied value in the area of psychopathology ANS: b 6. Ozer and Bandura provided mastery training for women who were very fearful of a sexual assault and found that the women: a. continued to identify themselves as victims despite the training they received b. greatly increased their willingness to call the police after they were attacked c. continued to have many negative thoughts about their inability to defend themselves successfully d. became much more confident about their ability to successfully defend themselves in case of attack ANS: d

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7. Bandura believes that behavior occurs as a result of a complex interplay between inner processes and: a. cognitive processes b. moral judgment c. dissonance d. environmental influences ANS: d 8. When Bandura says we solve problems symbolically without resorting to overt trialand-error behavior, it is because: a. we foresee the consequences of our behavior and modify our actions accordingly b. our inferior cognitive capacity allows us to forego a period of trial and error c. we do not wish to take the time to practice our behavior in a trial-and-error framework d. we cannot foresee a failure condition and therefore do not practice our behavior ANS: a 9. Bandura feels that most of our behavior is not controlled by immediate external reinforcement but is based on the accumulated results of earlier experiences. Our behavior is, therefore, regulated to a large extent by: a. acquired goals b. information processing c. anticipated or expectancy outcomes d. traditional learning ANS: c 10. It has been observed that we often maintain a variety of behaviors in the absence of external rewards. These behaviors involve the development of self-control processes. Which of the following is not a sub-process of self-control? a. resistance to temptation b. fear of our instincts c. delay of gratification d. self-reinforcement and evaluation ANS: b

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11. In recent extensions of the work on multiple modeling it was found that an interesting implication was that children reacted best to the situation of: a. Do as I say, not as I do! b. Do your own thing! c. Do as I say and as I do! d. Do unto others before they do it to you! ANS: c 12. Bandura believes that media portrayal of violence can have harmful effects on our behavior and that of others. He further states that even "normal" individuals can aggress against each other if: a. they become temporally classified as disturbed b. situational variables are conducive to violence c. they are encouraged to display their true emotional content d. they are feeling grumpy or out-of-sorts with the other person ANS: b 13. Even though observers tend not to perform the actions of punished models, they have still: a. seen the behaviors performed b. noticed that others display such behavior and are punished for it c. been fascinated by the forbidden actions of the model regardless of the punishment d. learned the disapproved behaviors that could be elicited under positive conditions in the future ANS: d 14. In a study which examined violent video games, Bartholow and Anderson found that: a. students who played violent video games got it out of their systems and were subsequently less punitive toward an opponent in a competitive game b. female students refused to play violent video games, preferring instead to play games that emphasized peace and harmony c. students who played violent video games were more likely to deliver intense punishment to their opponents in a subsequent competitive game than were students who played a nonviolent video game d. violent video games had not effects on the aggressiveness of students ANS: c

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15. Studies have shown that viewers are more apt to behave aggressively if they identify with: a. the situation portrayed b. the "underdog" c. the theme of the particular film d. an aggressive hero ANS: d 16. A study with modeling and high test-anxious students showed that the greatest positive impact on these students was from the: a. anxious coping model b. nonanxious model c. noncoping anxious model d. noncoping model ANS: a 17. Bandura's position does not stress: a. observational learning b. maturational processes and their influences on behavior c. the acquisition of complex behaviors via modeling d. that novel responses may be acquired in the absence of external reinforcement ANS: b 18. One construct that plays a major role in Bandura's theory is: a. reinforcement b. the id c. fantasy d. responsiveness ANS: a 19. The provision of appropriate models can: a. provide us with interesting experiences b. appeal to our cognitive processes c. considerably shorten the acquisition process d. lengthen the time spent in trial-and-error behavior ANS: c

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20. To eliminate aggression, Bandura maintains that we need: a. individual corrective effort and group action aimed at changing current societal practices b. love between parents and children but not necessarily between children and their peers c. to imitate ourselves d. to follow the current rules and regulations of society ANS: a 21. Bandura's theory of personality is called a: a. existential theory b. self theory c. classical conditioning theory d. social cognitive theory ANS: d 22. Individuals who are afraid of public places are called: a. compulsive b. agoraphobics c. obsessives d. psychotics ANS: b 23. The individual's belief that he or she can execute the behavior required to produce certain response consequences is called a(n): a. efficacy expectation b. outcome c. stimulus d. response outcome ANS: a 24. Bandura thinks that: a. reinforcers automatically strengthen behavior b. punishers automatically weaken behavior c. punishers automatically strengthen behavior d. reinforcers and punishers have useful informational value for the person ANS: d

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25. In Bandura's view, learning from response consequences is largely a(n): a. cognitive process b. instinctive process c. drive process d. motivational process ANS: a 26. Research on test anxiety in students has shown that high test-anxious people tend to: a. be unconcerned with questions about their intellectual competence b. be unconcerned about the reactions of others to their performances c. pay attention to irrelevant cues that subsequently interrupt their performances d. concentrate only on task-relevant cues ANS: c 27. Bandura believes that efficacy expectations are rooted primarily in: a. vicarious success experiences b. personal mastery experiences c. verbal persuasion by others d. vicarious failure experiences ANS: b 28. According to Bandura, people are more likely to expect to: a. succeed when they are tense b. fail when they are relaxed c. succeed when they are physiologically aroused d. fail when they are physiologically aroused ANS: d 29. In a study by Rosenberg-Kima and her colleagues, female participants exposed to similar models were found to have more positive attitudes toward: a. elementary education than female participants exposed to highly neutral models b. engineering than female participants exposed to dissimilar models c. engineering than participants exposed to childish models d. physics than participants exposed to dissimilar instructors ANS: b

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30. Because their efficacy expectations are poor, abnormal individuals: a. are less likely to avoid threatening situations they believe exceed their coping skills b. are more likely to avoid threatening situations they believe exceed their coping skills c. are highly motivated to confront threatening situations they believe exceed their coping skills d. always succeed when they attempt very difficult tasks ANS: b 31. In Bandura's opinion, cognitive factors, behavior, and environmental factors all influence one another. He calls this concept of interaction: a. dyadic reciprocal determinism b. mutual reciprocal bilateralism c. triadic reciprocal determinism d. observational reciprocal bilateralism ANS: c 32. A key feature of Bandura's theory is that it: a. ignores the effects of reinforcement on behavior b. focuses exclusively on the classical conditioning of behavior c. maintains that much of our behavior is regulated by anticipated outcomes d. pays little attention to self-control processes ANS: c 33. In their research on modeling, Bussey and Bandura found that: a. boys and girls tend to imitate opposite-sex models b. boys tend to imitate opposite-sex models, but girls imitate same sex models c. boys and girls tend to imitate same-sex models d. boys and girls tend to imitate their brothers, but not their sisters ANS: c 34. Vicarious reinforcement can have a significant impact on our behavior. It involves: a. receiving a reward from others for behaving in a socially-approved manner b. seeing other people rewarded for their behavior and then imitating it c. having other people give us rewards when we are helpful d. being helpful and kind by giving rewards to others ANS: b

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35. In Berkowitz's experiment on modeling and aggression, it was found that: a. aggressiveness in study participants was inhibited after they witnessed acts of violence that seem justified b. aggressiveness in participants was facilitated after they witnessed acts of violence that seemed justified c. there was no relationship between the witnessing of violent acts and subsequent aggression in participants d. aggressiveness in participants was facilitated after they witnessed violent acts that seemed unjustified ANS: b 36. Which one of the following strategies does Bandura think will be most effective in getting the media to modify and control the showing of aggressive behavior? a. appeals by the general public to government agencies calling for the control of the commercial marketing of violence b. loud protests by the general public to government officials c. the encouragement of public broadcasters to regulate themselves d. rewarding desirable practices (ones that curtail the showing of violence) by members of the media ANS: d 37. John tends to be rather self-centered and doubtful about his intellectual abilities. It is likely that he is also: a. low in test anxiety b. high in exhibitionism c. low in nurturance d. high in test anxiety ANS: d 38. In their second experiment on the use of modeling to help elderly patients overcome their fears in a bathing situation, Downs, Rosenthal, and Lichstein found that: a. few, if any, patients overcome their fears b. the control participants were able to overcome almost all of their fears c. patients in the guided participation modeling condition successfully completed the bathing activity d. almost all the patients became disruptive and acted negatively toward the therapist ANS: c

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39. In Bandura's view, modeling: a. rarely works b. is a viable alternative to traditional psychodynamic approaches to therapy c. should not be used when psychodynamic approaches to the treatment of patients are available d. is less effective as a therapeutic tool than free association and transference ANS: b 40. Carl tells himself that he will go to a party after he finishes studying for his anthropology exam. He is using a form of self-regulation called: a. self-reinforcement b. extinction c. self-punishment d. shaping ANS: a 41. In his theory, Bandura places: a. more emphasis on the biological determinants of behavior than on observational learning b. less emphasis on the biological determinants of behavior than on observational learning c. most emphasis on classical conditioning in his theory of personality d. equal emphasis on the biological and environmental determinants of behavior ANS: b 42. Which one of the following therapeutic techniques does Bandura utilize in the treatment of clients? a. dream analysis b. free association c. modeling d. transference ANS: c 43. If Dave's mother keeps telling him that he can achieve higher grades because he's so smart, she is trying to accomplish change in him through: a. personal mastery experiences b. emotional arousal c. verbal persuasion d. vicarious experiences ANS: c

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44. According to Bandura, Jim is more likely to expect to: a. succeed on an exam when he feels very physiologically aroused as he proceeds to try to answer the questions b. fail when he is very physiologically aroused and tense as he tries to answer the test items c. fail when he is relaxed as he takes the test d. answer most of the questions incorrectly when he is relaxed and confident ANS: b 45. In Bandura's opinion, parents who continually belittle and criticize their children are likely to: a. create low efficacy expectations in them b. create high efficacy expectations in them c. produce highly competent orientations in them d. challenge their children to do great things ANS: a 46. In Bandura's study on the clinical treatment of snake phobics, it was shown that: a. there was no reduction of fear in the phobics following their observations of models who were successful in their handling of the snakes b. phobics who were able to successfully handle the snakes had higher physiological arousal c. phobics who were able to successfully handle the snakes had higher efficacy expectations and higher physiological arousal d. phobics who were able to successfully handle the snakes had higher efficacy expectations and reductions in their heart rates and blood pressure ANS: d 47. If June finds that she cannot shop in stores and supermarkets because she finds the crowds too threatening, we would say that she suffers from: a. kleptomania b. pyromania c. manic-depressive psychosis d. agoraphobia ANS: d

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48. If Bill sees one of his peers rewarded for volunteering to help the elderly, he is: a. unlikely to help the elderly b. likely to avoid volunteering to help the elderly c. likely to help other peers d. likely to help the elderly himself ANS: d 49. Bandura maintains that the use of violence to punish wrongdoers: a. gives observers the impression that violence is unjustifiable b. stops the unacceptable behavior permanently c. gives viewers the impression that violence is justifiable d. tells observers that violence is unjustifiable and not a solution for problems ANS: c 50. Bandura believes that the portrayal of violence in the media: a. has little harmful effects on our behavior b. must have harmful effects on the behavior of every person who sees it c. can, under the right circumstances, facilitate aggression in some people d. is good because it teaches respect for the law ANS: c 51. If Matt sees a man rewarded for saving a child from drowning, he is: a. more likely to imitate the man's behavior under similar circumstances. b. less likely to imitate the man's behavior under similar circumstances c. likely to avoid situations in which his own heroism would be put to the test d. likely to experience feelings of dread and anxiety ANS: a

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52. Adults with high efficacy expectations tend to: a. select problem-solving tasks that are very easy to do b. opt for challenging tasks which provide an opportunity for developing new skills c. choose tasks that are impossible to complete d. choose ambiguous tasks that can be solved only by children. ANS: b

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53. People with high efficacy expectations tend to: a. engage in much self-criticism b. be doubtful about their abilities c. expend maximum effort in trying to solve challenging tasks d. quit trying very hard to succeed on difficult tasks ANS: c

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54. The name of Bandura's personality theory is: a. ego cognitive theory b. social cognitive theory c. self theory d. modeled self theory ANS: b

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55. Bandura's theory: a. has no data to support it b. has high applied value c. has low applied value d. is highly imprecise ANS: b

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COMPLETION 1. ______________ expectations are beliefs of individuals that they can produce certain behaviors. ANS: Efficacy 2. The belief that cognition, behavior, and the environment can operate interactively as determinants of one another is called ______________. ANS: triadic reciprocal determinism 3. The willingness to imitate the behavior of a model after observing that the model was reinforced for the behavior is called ______________. ANS: vicarious reinforcement 4. We acquire behavior through ______________ learning after we watch what others do and repeat their actions. ANS: observational

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5. Bandura believes that behavior is not caused solely by either personal dispositions or ______________ influences. ANS: situational 6. Based on our prior experiences, we learn to ______________ outcomes. ANS: anticipate 7. People with low efficacy expectations tend to expend ______________ effort on tasks and to give up trying after a short time. ANS: little 8. According to Bandura, efficacy expectations are rooted primarily in personal ______________ experiences. ANS: mastery 9. _____________ persuasion occurs when parents encourage their children to believe they can succeed on various tasks. ANS: Verbal 10. Bandura's social cognitive theory has very ______________ applied value. ANS: high TRUE/FALSE 1. Our behavior is regulated to a large extent by anticipated outcomes. ANS: T 2. We acquire behavior through observational learning when we watch the behaviors of others and then repeat their actions. ANS: T 3. Efficacy expectations are to be equated with people's actual skills. ANS: F 4. Verbal persuasion is the most influential source of efficacy expectations. ANS: F

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5. Test-anxious college students tend to perform poorly because they spend much of their time paying attention to relevant cues. ANS: F 6. The applied value of social cognitive theory is very low. ANS: F 7. The primary source of efficacy expectations is personal mastery experiences. ANS: T 8. Efficacy expectations influence people's choices of activities. ANS: T 9. Proximal goals help focus people's attention and provide them with feedback that sustains their efforts. ANS: T 10. Behavior is not always imitated accurately or completely and must be shaped by others through successive-approximation principles. ANS: T ESSAY 1. What are some of the major assumptions of Bandura's social cognitive theory? ANS: Answer not provided 2. How is modeling theory used to help people overcome their phobias? Cite specific research. ANS: Answer not provided 3. Describe current research on modeling and aggression. ANS: Answer not provided 4. In Bandura's view, what are some of the ways in which the public can act to control media violence? ANS: Answer not provided

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5. Assess Bandura's theory in terms of the six criteria for judging the worth of a scientific theory. ANS: Answer not provided 6. Why is Bandura's theory called a social cognitive approach to the study of personality? ANS: Answer not provided 7. Why does Bandura believe that media portrayal of violence can have a serious, harmful impact on people's behavior? ANS: Answer not provided 8. Describe Bandura's self-efficacy theory. ANS: Answer not provided 9. What is triadic reciprocal determinism? ANS: Answer not provided 10. What characteristics of models are likely to affect observers' imitative behavior? ANS: Answer not provided

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CHAPTER 18-THEORY AND RESEARCH IN CONTEMPORARY PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Heuristic Value of the Grand Theories in Five Important Areas A. Focus by investigators on the special impact of biological factors on human development and behavior. 1. behavioral genetics-scientific discipline that seeks to document the relative influences of heredity and environment on behavioral differences observed among individuals. 2. evolutionary theory-position that seeks to understand the development of human behavioral tendencies by focusing primarily on our animal heritage. a. broad-based temperaments (traits)-traits that we share with other primates. 1. emotionality refers to high physiological arousal and generalized negative affect. 2. fearfulness involves the tendency to be wary, run away, or cower, as well as the accompanying physiological arousal. 3. activity refers to total energy output, as expressed in vigor or tempo. 4. nurturance is the tendency to help others; it includes altruism. 5. sociability is a preference for being with others rather than remaining alone. 6. impulsivity is the tendency to act on the spur of the moment without pause or reflection. 7. aggressiveness consists of attacking or threatening. 8. dominance refers to seeking and maintaining superior status over others. b. evolutionary psychologists endorse an interactional temperament model, which states that environment and temperament traits mutually influence each other. c. differential parental investment hypothesis-the conjecture that males and females will employ different mating strategies because of their differential investments in parenting. B. Necessity of incorporating a multicultural perspective into personality theory and research and psychotherapy. 1. multiculturalism-effort by racial/ethnic groups to gain recognition and respect for their distinctive cultural identities from the larger society. a. individualistic societies-cultures which place heavy emphasis on inculcating the traits of independence, self-reliance, ambition, determination, aggression, competition, and the achievement of personal success in its members.

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b. collectivistic societies-cultures which teach their members to be more harmoniously interdependent, to share resources, to see success as depending on help from others, and to focus largely on trying to fit in with the group and to place the needs of the group above their own personal needs. c. gender differences shaped by culture 1. Freudian view 2. Chodorow's view 3. Gilligan's view 4. looking to the future-confronting traditional masculine superiority and control model and replacing it with a more egalitarian view. d. sensitivity to gender differences in therapy e. racial/ethnic differences shaped by culture 1. majority group-most dominant and powerful group in a society whose members typically enjoy more privilege and advantages than members of minority groups. 2. minority groups-stigmatized groups of people who face negative stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination by members of the larger society because of their physical or cultural characteristics. f. sensitivity to racial/ethnic differences in therapy g. contributions of religion to personality 1. immature religious orientation-use of religion as a means to an end. 2. mature religious orientation-use of religion as an end in itself. h. sensitivity to religious differences in therapy C. Use of a trait taxonomy to increase our understanding of the role of traits within personality. 1. Big Five Factors-major, broad dimensions of personality, which have been derived largely from analyses of the language people use to describe themselves and others. a. Surgency (extraversion) b. agreeableness c. conscientiousness d. neuroticism e. openness to experience (intellect) 2. Criticisms of the Big Five factors a. more than five factors are needed. b. meaning of some of the Big Five are unclear.

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D. Emergence of a positive psychology which will help us to understand virtuous behavior better and to identify the conditions under which such behavior in people is facilitated. 1. Positive psychology-science of positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions that would attempt to improve the quality of life for everyone. It would be a science that seeks to promote human strengths and virtues-courage, humility, gratitude, loyalty, generosity, altruism, compassion, hope, optimism, social responsibility, politeness, forgiveness, and self-control. 2. Recent research on forgiveness and self-control. E. Increasing understanding of personality differences via Internet use analyses 1. Benefits and costs of Internet usage to individuals 2. Research with various personality types a. internals vs. externals b. introverts vs. extraverts c. non-neurotics vs. neurotics II. Future of Personality Psychology A. Personality psychology is currently a thriving discipline. Much of its foundation rests on, and will continue to rest on, the wisdom embedded in many of the current grand theories of personality. Personality psychology will continue to borrow knowledge, principles, and procedures from other disciplines within psychology, including cognitive psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology, clinical psychology, and biological psychology. By drawing on these sources, personality psychologists will continue to enjoy a much-needed infusion of energy and enthusiasm and to expand the range of ideas, issues, and phenomena that they study. B. This expansion has created many challenges for personality psychologists in their quest for a fuller understanding of personality development and functioning. For example, most researchers in personality psychology use primarily self-report data to study personality because it is convenient and economical. While the data collected using such a procedure are valuable, the method is limited because people are not perfectly trustworthy when it comes to describing themselves. There is a need to use other actual life-outcome techniques to gather data (e.g., health records, job performance evaluations, criminal records, peer reports, life story techniques like blogs and personal diaries, and direct behavioral observations) to supplement self-report data. These methods will help personality psychologists know what people actually do, think, or feel in various situations in their lives. Personality psychologists are already beginning to tackle this challenge as they use life-outcome techniques to obtain a broader and more valid understanding of human personality.

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Given the many exciting conceptual and methodological developments and tremendous research activity in the discipline in the past few years, the future of personality psychology looks promising indeed. CLASSROOM TOPICS FOR LECTURE, DISCUSSION, AND DEMONSTRATION The Role of the Internet in Helping Us to Understand Our Own Personalities and the Personalities of Others. The hottest area to emerge in personality psychology today focuses on the role of the Internet in shaping our lives and personalities and the lives and personalities of others. There are an incredible number of benefits that this wonderful technology affords us (e.g., It’s a learning tool that puts an unprecedented wealth of information on a myriad of subjects almost instantaneously at our fingertips. It also enables us to communicate quickly with people locally, nationally, and internationally for a host of purposes, including establishing and maintaining friendships with others who share common interests with us). On the dark side, the web can be used to exploit others, to defraud them of their possessions, to prey on them sexually, to bully others, and so forth. Discuss with your students the pros and cons of the Internet, as well as what they think will happen in the future to regulate it, so that crimes by the unscrupulous can be prevented. Positive Psychology for a Better Future. Another hot area in personality psychology these days is the one involving positive psychology-the science that focuses on human strengths and virtues and how to increase their presence in our lives. In the text, I review some of the research on forgiveness and self-control. You can note that there is exciting research in the beginning stages as well as in areas besides forgiveness and self-control. For example, the role played by gratitude (an emotional response to a gift) in facilitating our psychological well-being. In a study by Emmons and Crumpler (2000), undergraduates enrolled in a health psychology class were asked to complete a weekly log of their emotions, physical symptoms, and health behaviors. Students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) one third were asked to simply record up to five major events that most affected them during the week, (2) one third were asked to write down five hassles that occurred in their life in the last week, and (3) the final third were asked to write down five things in their lives for which they were grateful. Results showed that students in the gratitude condition relative to the other two groups felt better about their lives and were more optimistic regarding their expectations for the upcoming week. The thankful group also reported fewer physical complaints overall than the hassles group and spent significantly more time exercising than the other two groups. This study suggests that there are emotional and mental benefits of a thankful focus. Members of the thankful group also reported that they were making greater progress toward the attainment of their goals. This study provides some empirical support for the idea that gratitude is a source of human strength.

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Politeness is another virtue that is beginning to be examined by researchers. It is a human strength that binds us together and is an indicator of our social competence. Unfortunately, all too often in our society children are not taught this set of skills and later on in adolescence and adulthood, this deficiency may have some negative consequences for them and others. One study that demonstrates the negative consequences of being impolite is seen in a study by Jessmer and Anderson (2001). This study examined the effects of either a polite or impolite e-mail message on how the sender of that message is perceived by the recipient. The polite message read, as follows: "This is just a note to request that the main copiers and printers not be used for personal copies. Please make personal copies using only the copier in the break room. Unfortunately, there is a small charge for copies on this machine but in order to reduce costs within the office we need to try to maintain this policy. We are sorry to cause any inconvenience by the enforcement of these policies. I hope that this is the last time this issue will need to be addressed." The impolite message threatened "strict repercussions" and noted that "THIS IS THE LAST TIME THIS ISSUE WILL BE BROUGHT UP." When the e-mail message was polite, senders were perceived as more competent, more powerful, more friendly and more likable than when the sender was impolite. Finally, you can ask students to imagine individuals receiving persuasive messages from other people in a variety of areas (e.g., asking a passenger to move to another row on an airplane so that you and your girlfriend can sit together, asking for a loan at the bank, asking for a date, asking a professor's permission to miss an exam so you can attend your best friend's wedding) when their communications are impolite. It is clear that the recipients of such messages would be unlikely to comply. Politeness counts in a civilized culture and is not a sign of weakness, but of strength. References Emmons, RA., & Crumpler, C.A. (2000). Gratitude as a human strength: Appraising the evidence. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 56-69. Jessmer, S.L., & Anderson, D. (2001). The effect of politeness and grammar on user perceptions of electronic mail. North American Journal of Psychology, 3, 331-346. Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press. LEARNING GOALS At the conclusion of Chapter 18, your students should be able to: 1. discuss the contributions of evolutionary theory to our understanding of human personality.

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2. define a multicultural perspective and explain how its incorporation into personality theory and research can increase our understanding of human personality. 3. name the Big Five supertraits and discuss the research utilizing them. 4. understand the importance of incorporating a "positive psychology" viewpoint into the study of human personality. 5. discuss the advantages and disadvantages on using the Internet.

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to Ryckman, the theories covered in the text: a. have contributed very little to our understanding of personality functioning b. are all parsimonious and comprehensive c. have all made contributions to our understanding of personality functioning d. are all empirically valid ANS: c 2. According to Ryckman, most of the theories of personality reviewed in the text: a. are merely historical curiosities b. are obsolete c. still serve a vital heuristic function for contemporary personality psychologists d. are almost completely and consistently supported by empirical data ANS: c 3. In many individualistic, Western societies there is a tendency for people to acquire the traits of: a. ambition, cooperation, and altruism b. independence, ambition, and competition c. dependence, altruism, and competition d. ambition, nurturance, and cooperation ANS: b 4. In non-Western societies, the primary orientation of people is: a. competitive b. aggressive c. individualistic d. collectivistic ANS: d

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5. In Western cultures people explain their successes by attributing them to: a. luck b. ability c. fate d. powerful others ANS: b 6. Individuals in Western cultures tend to strive toward ______________, whereas the members of non-Western societies are oriented toward ______________. a. self-criticism; self-enhancement b. self-love; self-enhancement c. self-enhancement; self-criticism d. self-enhancement; self-love ANS: c 7. A trait associated with an idealized masculine role involves being: a. dependent b. cooperative c. caring d. determined ANS: d 8. A trait associated with an idealized feminine role involves being: a. independent b. rational c. caring d. logical ANS: c 9. Chodorow's theory of development for boys and girls states that: a. boys, but not girls, see their mothers initially as primary sex objects b. girls form a more intense attachment to their mothers than do boys c. boys identify more strongly with their mothers than do girls d. boys and girls are equally likely to adopt the personal traits of their mothers ANS: b

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10. According to Chodorow, girls tend to: a. focus on their fathers as a sexual object b. focus on their fathers as an additional person in the family whose needs have to be considered and met c. sever the emotional ties to their mothers as they seek the affection of their fathers d. focus on their mothers as a rival for the sexual affections of their fathers ANS: b 11. In Chodorow's view, masculine identification stresses: a. commitment to emotion-based relationships b. separation from others c. acceptance of everything that is feminine d. nurturance of others ANS: b 12. In discussing the personal development of males and females, Chodorow: a. accepts the Freudian ideal of male superiority and female inferiority b. concludes that both sexes eventually have the same interests, values, and goals c. thinks that females should adopt only masculine values in order to be psychologically healthy d. concludes that both genders have strengths and weaknesses ANS: d 13. In presenting her ideas of the development of males and females, Gilligan maintains that: a. females tend to emphasize personal relationships more than males b. females tend to emphasize separation from others more than males c. both males and females tend to emphasize separation from others d. males tend to emphasize personal relationships more than females ANS: a 14. Research cited by Philpot, Brooks, Lusterman, and Nutt shows that between ______________ of male therapists see women as inferior and have exploited them sexually. a. 5 and 12% b. 20 and 30% c. 50 and 60% d. 70 and 80% ANS: a

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15. In a study by Berry, Worthington, O'Connor, Pattott, and Wade on forgiveness, college students who reported greater tendencies to forgive others who had harmed them were found to: a. love all people except greedy people b. be less controlling and honest than students who were less forgiving c. have smaller increases in self-esteem than students who were less forgiving d. be less depressed than students who were less forgiving ANS: d 16. The term which refers to shared culture and background is: a. politics b. population c. ethnicity d. census ANS: c 17. According to 2008 United States Census Bureau data, there were: a. 46 million Hispanics in the United States b. 20 million Whites in the United States c. 40 million Asian Americans in the United States d. 10 million Afro-Americans in the United States ANS: a 18. Jensen-Campbell and her colleagues examined the Big Five traits in school children and found that: a. agreeable students tended to like others, but others did not like them b. agreeable people were cheerful, yet hostile c. neurotic students tended to be agreeable and even-tempered d. agreeable students were able to avoid the bullying of other children ANS: d 19. In a study by Gosling, Ko, and Mannarelli on using cues from the physical environment to draw inferences about people's personalities, it was found that: a. the more neat, clean, and organized the room, the less Conscientiousness the occupant b. the more distinctive and varied the room, the more Open to Experience the occupant c. the more colorful and tidy the room, the more Neurotic the occupant d. the more cluttered and dirty the room, the more Extraverted the occupant low selfesteem ANS: b

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20. The term coined by Seligman and Czikszentmihalyi to indicate the science that seeks to improve the quality of life of everyone is called: a. positive psychology b. transcendental meditation psychology c. human psychology d. behaviorism ANS: a 21. Sutton and Broken Nose's study on clients' understanding of the meaning of listening in therapy found that: a. listening is interpreted as resistance by Native American clients b. listening is valued highly by Native American clients c. listening is devalued by Native American and Hispanic clients d. listening connotes passivity and disrespect in Native American culture ANS: b 22. If White therapists step back or away from their Hispanic clients, these clients may interpret their therapists' behavior as being: a. respectful b. cooperative c. aggressive d. aloof ANS: d 23. The study by Kay and his colleagues on the impact of religion on people’s development and behavior shows clearly that strong religious conviction can: a. only be an impediment to people’s mental health b. only facilitate people’s mental health c. under certain circumstances either impede or facilitate people’s mental health. d. never have destructive consequences for true believers. ANS: c 24. Mature religious orientations are associated: a. with excessive self-interest b. with high blood pressure in patients c. positively with physical health d. with a decrease in genetic defects in children ANS: c

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25. Therapists who become familiar with the religious backgrounds of their clients: a. can sometimes utilize the clients' beliefs to facilitate their personal growth b. find that this familiarity often impedes personal growth in their clients c. find that they often convert to their clients' religious orientation d. find that they often start to attend church ANS: a 26. Studies in use procedures to assess the relative contributions to personality functioning of both genetic and environmental influences. a. classical conditioning b. conditioning genetics c. behavior genetics d. environmental conditioning ANS: c 27. According to evolutionary theorists, humans share with the great apes: a. the same thought processes and level of imagination b. the same language c. identical levels of self-awareness and self-reflection d. the same sense organs and many facial expressions ANS: d 28. According to Buss, some of the broad-based temperament traits we share with other primates are: a. activity, intelligence, exhibitionism, and tactfulness b. decency, intelligence, exhibitionism, and aggressiveness c. impulsivity, fearfulness, activity, and aggressiveness d. exhibitionism, tactfulness, consideration, and aggressiveness ANS: c 29. According to evolutionary theorists, human beings and the great apes: a. do not share a circadian rhythm of activity b. both have little capacity for aggressiveness c. share a circadian rhythm of activity d. are dissimilar in all respects ANS: c

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30. According to evolutionary theorists, one component of fear is probably: a. assertiveness b. aggressiveness c. sociability d. shyness ANS: d 31. Many behavior geneticists endorse the idea that the environment and temperament traits are mutually influential. The theoretical model which uses this idea is the: a. interactional temperament model b. instinctive temperament model c. unilateral conditioning model d. temperament and ability model ANS: a 32. According to evolutionary theorists, aggressiveness may become differentiated as: a. physical aggression, shyness, and irritability b. passive aggression, shyness, and irritability c. verbal aggression, physical aggression, and irritability d. passive aggression, cooperativeness, and irritability ANS: c 33. Research indicates that primate males tend to be: a. more active than female primates b. less aggressive than female primates c. smaller than most female primates d. more cooperative than female primates ANS: a 34. Females are choosier about a mate's traits than are males. This difference is explained in terms of the: a. differential competitive hypothesis b. competitive choice axiom c. cooperative mating hypothesis d. differential parental investment hypothesis ANS: d

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35. According to evolutionary theorists, males in evolutionary history: a. preferred to mate with older, more experienced females b. preferred to mate with young, healthy females c. showed no preferences in regard to the physical characteristics of females d. never wanted to marry their female companions ANS: b 36. Research which focuses on the kinds of mates preferred by males and females shows clearly that: a. females are more concerned than males with their prospective marriage partner's looks b. females are more concerned than males with their mate's earning capacity and social status c. males are more concerned than females that their mates wanted children following marriage d. females are less concerned than males that their mates be ambitious ANS: b 37. According to evolutionary theorists, primate males: a. do not compete amongst themselves for access to females b. are raised to be submissive in their interactions with females c. compete amongst themselves for access to females d. are more likely to exercise selectivity in their choice of mates than females ANS: c 38. Broad-based temperament traits like fearfulness and aggressiveness are: a. less likely to be adaptive at moderate levels than at extreme levels b. not adaptive at all c. more likely to be adaptive at moderate levels than at extreme levels d. are adaptive at all levels ANS: c 39. Research by Ellis examining differences between males and females in heterosexual dating relationships found that: a. women provided more physical protection for their partners than did men b. women provided more monetary resources to their partners as part of their investment to make the relationship work than did men c. men reported being more supportive of their partners than did women d. women were less likely to seek sexual partners outside of the relationship than were men ANS: d

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40. The Big Five factors were derived largely from analyses of: a. classical conditioning experiments b. the natural language terms people use to describe themselves and others c. the defense mechanisms used by people to cope with their problems d. translations of words listed in Far East dictionaries ANS: b 41. The Big Five Factors consist of: a. Extraversion , Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Aggressiveness, and Nurturance b. Neuroticism, Aggressiveness, Emotionality, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience c. Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Openness to Experience d. Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Openness to Experience, Emotionality, and Competitiveness ANS: c 42. Advocates of the five-factor model for personality description maintain that: a. some version of the Big Five factors is at least necessary for an adequate description of personality b. there are at least seven more factors that need to be added to the five-factor model to make it completely adequate c. five factors are absolutely sufficient to describe personality adequately d. the five-factors need to be reduced to two factors in order to simplify and adequately describe personality ANS: a 43. A generally accepted taxonomy of traits: a. would actually hinder communication among investigators b. would reassure personality psychologists that they had not inadvertently omitted consideration of some important trait in their study of some problem c. would permit investigators to predict accurately all of our behavior d. would hinder progress in understanding human personality ANS: b 44. According to Ryckman, the Big Five factors: a. represent a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits b. do not represent a comprehensive taxonomy of traits c. are all clearly defined and understood by personality psychologists d. were created and defined exclusively by physiological psychologists ANS: b

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45. Which one of the following Big Five factors has nearly universal acceptance among personality psychologists? a. agreeableness b. conscientiousness c. intellect d. neuroticism ANS: d 46. According to Goldberg's research, the trait, temperamental, is associated with the negative factor pole of: a. emotional stability b. agreeableness c. openness to experience d. conscientiousness ANS: a 47. In addition to the traditional Big Five factors, Paunonen and Jackson identified 10 additional factors. Two of these new factors are: a. introversion, extraversion b. conscientiousness, agreeableness c. openness to experience, neuroticism d. religiosity, honesty ANS: d 48. In a by John, Caspi, Robins, Moffitt, and Stouthamer-Loeber examining the relationship between the Big Five factors and juvenile delinquency, it was found that delinquent males who had committed severe crimes were: a. lower in Extraversion than their nondelinquent peers b. higher in Conscientiousness than their nondelinquent peers c. lower in Agreeableness than their nondelinquent peers d. higher in Openness to Experience than their nondelinquent peers ANS: c 49. In a study concerned with the Big Five factor profiles of juvenile delinquents and nondelinquents, Graziano and Ward found that the two primary predictors of students' healthy adjustment to school were: a. Extraversion and Neuroticism b. Extraversion and Openness to Experience c. Neuroticism and Openness to Experience d. Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience ANS: d

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50. D.M. Buss examined the use of manipulation tactics by married couples as they related to differences on the Big Five factors and found that: a. husbands high in Neuroticism used a pleasure induction tactic to convince their wives of the legitimacy of their arguments b. husbands high in Neuroticism tended to use hardball tactics to get their way c. wives high in Neuroticism tended to use reason to get their way d. husbands high and low in Neuroticism both used repression as a tactic to get their own way ANS: b 51. The Big Five factor that is defined in terms of a person's receptiveness to new ideas is called: a. introversion b. agreeableness c. conscientiousness d. openness to experience ANS: d 52. According to Ryckman, an adequate understanding of human personality will have to: a. ignore the role played by unconscious factors in the determination of behavior b. account for the roles played by both conscious and unconscious factors in the production of behavior c. be based only on research that generates hypotheses about the biological roots of behavior d. ignore the roles played by social and cultural factors in the shaping of human personality ANS: b 53. Stigmatized groups of people who face negative stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination are called: a. majority groups b. temperament groups c. minority groups d. competitive groups ANS: c

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54. For self-control efforts to succeed, people: a. should set up conflicting goals and keep trying to meet them. b. keep their goals vague and flexible. c. must set up clear goals and monitor them to see how well they are doing. d. should always let others set their goals for them. ANS: c 55. Forgiveness means that people: a. must reconcile with the person who has injured them, take them back, and love him or her forever. b. must excuse the harmdoer’s behavior. c. need always to love the harmdoer. d. should take back control of his or her life, stop dwelling on the past, and start acting in a more constructive and healthy way. ANS: d 56. Research by Chak and Leung on Internet addiction has shown that: a. both internals and externals are completely addicted to the Internet. b. neither internals nor externals are addicted to the Internet. c. internals are more addicted to the Internet than externals. d. internals are less addicted to the Internet than Externals. ANS: d 57. A maladaptive technique in which people physically injure themselves in order to experience short-term relief from a host of negative self-feelings is called: a. psychotic maiming b. self-cutting c. emotional fun d. adjusted slicing ANS: b 58. In his research on Internet use, Amichai-Hamburger has found that: a. neurotic men use the Internet primarily for blogging b. neurotic women use the Internet primarily for playing video games. c. conscientious men never use the Internet d. neurotic women, but not neurotic men, use the Internet for blogging. ANS: d

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59. Regularly updated and personalized web pages that allow people to express themselves on a variety of topics and issues are called: a. news programs b. blogs c. media anchors d. reality show divas ANS: b 60. Employees’ non-work related use of company-provided e-mailing, mobile cell phones, and the Internet while working is called: a. cyberborgs b. Avatars c. funtime d. cyberloafing ANS: d 61. John is often described by his friends as carefree, energetic, and talkative. In terms of Goldberg's research, we would say that John is: a. high in neuroticism b. high in conscientiousness c. low in emotional stability d. high in extraversion ANS: d

MSC: WWW

62. According to evolutionary theorists, primate males tend to: a. poke, pry, and stir things up b. be more fearful and nurturant than primate females c. be very lazy and lethargic almost all day d. be more cooperative and less fearful than primate females ANS: a

MSC: WWW

63. According to evolutionary theorists, primate males have more ______________ than females, and this hormone has been implicated in the aggressiveness and dominance of males. a. estrogen b. adrenalin c. testosterone d. serotonin ANS: c

MSC: WWW

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64. According to D.M. Buss' research, couples high in Openness to Experience tend to use two kinds of tactics to get their own way: a. hardball and reason b. pleasure induction and reason c. hardball and regression d. silent treatment and hardball ANS: b

MSC: WWW

65. According to evolutionary theorists, females generally prefer: a. males as mates who are a few years older because their age provides an important cue about their fertility b. other females as mates because of their greater physical attractiveness c. males as mates who are a few years older because their age provides an important cue to their access to resources d. males as mates who are a few years younger because their age provides an important cue to their sexual prowess ANS: c

MSC: WWW

COMPLETION 1. Much of Africa, Asis, and Latin America are ______________ cultures. ANS: non-Western 2. Females often judge themselves as unable to live up to the standards embodied in an ______________ society like ours. ANS: individualistic 3. According to Chodorow, traditional males have trouble ______________ their emotions. ANS: expressing 4. In Gilligan's view, males and females respond to their experiences in "different ______________." ANS: voices 5. Biologically based individual differences that influence children’s unique behavioral styles and the ways in which they experience and interact with the environment is called ______________. ANS: temperament orientation

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6. Academics are largely______________. ANS: nonreligious 7. Negative stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against any minority group is rejected by individuals with a ______________ orientation. ANS: multiculturalist 8. People's ability to alter their own cognitive processes, feelings, and behavior to achieve healthier functioning is called the ______________. ANS: self-control 9. People with an ______________ tend to be more authoritarian, rigid, and prejudiced. ANS: immature religious 10. The major dimensions of personality which are derived largely from analyses of the language are called the ______________ factors. ANS: Big Five 11. ______________ theories are those that seek to understand human development by focusing primarily on our animal heritage. ANS: Evolutionary 12. The genetic material whose sequencing specifies how and when to build proteins is called ______________. ANS: DNA 13. ______________ is the effort by racial/ethnic groups to gain recognition and respect for their distinctive cultural identities from the larger society. ANS: Multiculturalism 14. When people are unable to control, cut back, or stop using the Internet, with irritability and depression as consequences, they are said to be suffering from ______________. ANS: Internet addiction

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15. The______________ of Americans are now using the Internet. ANS: majority TRUE/FALSE 1. In Western cultures people explain their successes in terms of luck. ANS: F 2. Individuals in Western cultures are not very competitive. ANS: F 3. Feminist scholars have developed models of psychological health based on values that emphasize the importance of relationship and nurturance. ANS: T 4. Chodorow believes that girls turn away from their mothers to their fathers in search of a love object. ANS: F 5. Men are generally socialized traditionally to value separation from others. ANS: T 6. Between 5 and 12% of male therapists have exploited their female clients sexually. ANS: T 7. Many feminists have criticized family therapists for encouraging their clients to adopt traditional roles. ANS: T 8. The population of Asian-Americans is approximately 35 million. ANS: F 9. White undergraduates report stronger beliefs in a just world than do members of various minority groups. ANS: T

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10. Ninety-five percent of psychologists believe in God or some higher power. ANS: F 11. Evolutionary theorist endorse an interactional temperament model, in which environmental and situational factors contribute separately to personality development and functioning. ANS: F 12. According to evolutionary theorists, females prefer to mate with males who are a few years older than themselves. ANS: T 13. The trait, kind, is associated with the positive factor pole of agreeableness. ANS: T 14. The trait, sloppy, is associated with the negative factor pole of conscientiousness. ANS: T 15. The majority of Americans used the Internet. ANS: T ESSAY 1. In what ways is our understanding of personality increased by incorporating a multicultural perspective into our theorizing and research? ANS: Answer not provided 2. Compare and contrast Chodorow's theory of male and female development with the classic Freudian position. ANS: Answer not provided 3. Explain why the incorporation of religious phenomena into our current theorizing and research about personality can be useful. ANS: Answer not provided

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4. Define evolutionary theory and discuss its role in personality development and functioning. ANS: Answer not provided 5. What is the differential parental investment hypothesis? ANS: Answer not provided 6. Why is it important for personality psychologists to create a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits? ANS: Answer not provided 7. What are the Big Five factors? What are the limitations of claiming that they represent a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits? ANS: Answer not provided 8. What are some problems associated with assuming that all religious phenomena cannot be studied scientifically? ANS: Answer not provided 9. Why do we need to account for both conscious and unconscious factors in the production of behavior? ANS: Answer not provided 10. Give specific instances of the ways in which some of the current personality theories have served a heuristic function for contemporary personality psychologists. ANS: Answer not provided 11. What are some of the key advantages for personal growth of being able to use the Internet in an expert fashion? Describe the dark and dangerous side of the Internet. ANS: Answer not provided

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Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank

Theories of Personality TENTH EDITION

Richard M. Ryckman University of Maine

Table of Contents Preface ........................................................................................................................... iv PART I

INTRODUCTION TO THE DISCIPLINE

Chapter 1 Personality and the Scientific Outlook............................................... 1 PART II

PSYCHOANALYTIC AND NEO-ANALYTIC PERSPECTIVES

Chapter 2 Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory ........................................................ 21 Chapter 3

Jung's Analytic Psychology ............................................................. 43

Chapter 4 Adler's Individual Psychology......................................................... 63 Chapter 5

Horney's Social and Cultural Psychoanalysis .................................. 81

Chapter 6 Erikson's Psychoanalytic Ego Psychology ..................................... 101 Chapter 7 Kohut's Self Psychology ............................................................... 115 PART III

TRAIT PERSPECTIVES

Chapter 8 Allport's Trait Theory ................................................................... 135 Chapter 9 Cattell's Structure-based Systems Theory ...................................... 151 Chapter 10 Eysenck's Biological Typology .................................................... 169 PART IV

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES

Chapter 11 Kelly's Theory of Personal Constructs .......................................... 191 PART V

HUMANISTIC-EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVES

Chapter 12 Maslow's Self-Actualization Position ........................................... 207 Chapter 13 Rogers' Person Centered Theory .................................................. 225 Chapter 14 May's Existential-Analytic Position.............................................. 245 PART VI

SOCIAL-BEHAVIORISTIC PERSPECTIVES

Chapter 15 Skinner's Operant Analysis .......................................................... 263 Chapter 16 Rotter's Expectancy-Reinforcement Value Model ........................ 283 Chapter 17 Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory .............................................. 303 PART VII THE ROLE OF THE GRAND PERSONALITY THEORIES IN CONTEMPORARY PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 18 Theory and Research in Contemporary Personality Psychology ..... 323

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PREFACE This Instructor's Manual with Test Bank, which accompanies the Tenth Edition of Theories of Personality, is designed to meet the needs of a variety of instructors--from the most inexperienced to those who have been teaching the course for many years. Each chapter in the manual corresponds to a chapter in the text and includes the following sections: * A detailed Chapter Outline to help you prepare lectures. * A number of Classroom Topics for Lecture, Discussion, and Demonstration. These materials expand on materials in the text and in many instances offers new journal articles and books that will help you generate stimulating classroom discussions. * A set of Learning Goals for each chapter. * A set of 60 Multiple-Choice items, the last 10 of which are marked as MSC: WWW, available to students on the book’s companion website. * A set of 10 Completion items * A set of 10 True-False items * A set of 10 Essay Questions.