SPORTS / MOUNTAINEERING
9 T H ED ITIO N
£25.00
9 T H EDI T I ON
BY CL IM BERS. FOR CLIM BERS.
Pick up this seminal book—trusted by mountaineering communities around the world—and discover your own freedom of the hills.
Quiller
The Freedo m of t h e Hi lls
• Vetted by a team of more than 30 expert mountaineers and climbing instructors • Thoroughly revised and updated to reflect current best practices • More than 400 technical illustrations—many brandnew—depicting current gear and climbing skills • Wholly new chapter covering the basics of staying safe in avalanche terrain, evaluating snowpack, searching for companions if necessary, and other topics • Revamped chapters on clothing and camping • New belay instructions aligning with the American Alpine Club’s (AAC) nationwide universal belay standard • Pertinent sections reviewed by AAC, American Institute for Avalanche Research and Education (AIARE), Access Fund, and American Mountain Guides Association (AMGA) certified guides • Fresh approach to the classic Ten Essentials
9 T H E D I TI O N
MOUNTAINEERING
For more than half a century, Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills has endured as the classic mountaineering text. Available worldwide and translated into a dozen languages, it continues to inform and inspire both novice and veteran climbers today. From choosing equipment to planning an expedition, from basic rappelling techniques to tying knots and hitches, the acclaimed bible for climbers covers it all. This fully updated 9th edition reflects the latest developments in mountaineering equipment and techniques. Features include:
MOUNTAINEERING The Freed o m of t he H i l l s
an imprint of Quiller Publishing Ltd
Wykey House, Wykey Shrewsbury, SY4 1JA Tel: 01939 261616 Email: info@quillerbooks.com www.quillerpublishing.com
Outdoor books by the experts
Quiller
Quiller
CLIMBERS ON FREEDOM: “It is fair to say that Freedom is the definitive guide to mountains and climbing.” —Conrad Anker “Not long after I learned to read, I would grip the flashlight in my teeth and stay awake late into the night scouring my parent’s copy of the 3rd edition of Freedom of the Hills. . . . What this book captured, what it meant, what it hinted at that was so crucial to my fascination with mountaineering was this: Freedom, itself, was the most important thing. Freedom to explore who I am. Freedom afforded by learned skills to explore any mountain wilderness. Freedom to move, to climb. It’s what still drives me today.” —Steve House “Freedom is truly the Everest of mountaineering texts and a great preparation for a life wandering among high hills, including the big one itself.” —Tom Hornbein “Growing up in Southern California in the 1960s, I couldn’t find anyone who shared my passion to learn how to climb. So I bought an ice axe, crampons, and Freedom of the Hills and still remember being on a snow slope with axe in one hand, book in the other, trying to teach myself how to self-arrest. It worked: I’m still around and still climbing.” —Rick Ridgeway “For many generations of climbers, The Freedom of the Hills is more than just a book. It’s a passport to a rare and wild place.” —Andrew Bisharat “I have never felt more alive than when adventuring in remote mountains, dependent on a rope, a rack, and the partner that’s got my back. . . . Freedom of the Hills, risk’s best friend, is that partner.” —Timmy O’Neill “In my early years of heading into the mountains I used Freedom of the Hills to learn how to calculate fuel needs for the backcountry, to study crevasse rescue, and in general to just muse about the alpine craft. Everyone should have a copy of this standard tome.” —Kit DesLauriers
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“There is no substitute for learning to climb from a skilled and tested mentor. . . . But sometimes it’s nice to learn key skills at your own pace from the comfort of your own kitchen table. . . . For those times, there is no better book than the Mountaineers’ Freedom of the Hills.” —Bree Loewen “The lessons I learned in the Mountaineers climbing course in 1945 stood me on the summit of Mount Everest in 1963. To see that knowledge put into a book was wonderful. That it has evolved into the best book on climbing, updated by active climbers, is remarkable. I have told many people, including my sons, ‘If you want to climb mountains, read Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills. Then read it again so you know, for sure, how to get down.’ ” —Jim Whittaker “As chief guide for Rainier Mountaineering for over 30 years, I have trained hundreds of new guides. And Freedom of the Hills is the required textbook for their basic training on Mount Rainier.” —Lou Whittaker “The 2nd edition of Freedom of the Hills jump-started my climbing education. The manual’s content has kept pace with the evolution of the sport and should be considered mandatory reading for every mountain climber. This truly remarkable resource has no equal in any language.” —Mark Twight “A notorious reference for climbers and outdoor enthusiasts!” —Lynn Hill “Freedom does a remarkable job of staying not just current, but on the cutting edge. Turning on new climbers to this resource is one of the best things I can do to prepare them for life in the big hills.” —Dave Hahn “If the mountains are my church, then Freedom is my bible. . . . As a very young climber I read it cover to cover, then dug through it again and again for nuggets of wisdom. I still do.” —Will Gadd “A ‘must have’ for any aspiring mountaineer’s library.” —Ed Viesturs
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9 T H E D ITIO N
MOUNTAINEERING The Fre e d om of the Hills EDITED BY ERIC LINXWEILER AND MIKE MAUDE
Quiller
Copyright © 1960, 1967, 1974, 1982, 1992, 1997, 2003, 2010, and 2017 by The Mountaineers First published in the United States of America by The Mountaineers First published in the UK in 2018 by Quiller, an imprint of Quiller Publishing Ltd British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 9781846892622
The Ten Essentials list is a trademark (pending) of The Mountaineers, a 501(c)(3) corporation; all rights reserved. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form, or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in Canada
Quiller Quiller an imprint of Quiller Publishing Ltd
Wykey House, Wykey, Shrewsbury, SY4 1JA Tel: 01939 261616 Email: info@quillerbooks.com Website: www.quillerpublishing.com
Project editor: Laura Shauger Developmental editor: Kris Fulsaas Copyeditor: Erin Moore Design and layout: Jennifer Shontz Illustrator: John McMullen Cover design: Jen Grable Chapter opener illustrations: Heidi Smets Index: Rich Carlson Cover photographs: front: Conrad Anker climbs across a ridgetop near Ama Dablam, Khumbu Valley, Nepal. (Photo © Jimmy Chin); spine: A climber works her way up a route in Joshua Tree National Park. (Photo by Aurora Photos/Kyle Sparks); back: Climbers balance on a narrow moutain ridge in Switzerland. (Photo by iStock/dominikmichalek) Interior photographs: p. 4: A group of mountaineers head up Aiguille du Midi, Mont Blanc. (Photo by iStock/glogowski); p. 8: A climber concentrates on a frozen waterfall. (Photo by iStock/AlexSava); p. 13: Basecamp with a view (Photo by iStock/Lysogor); p. 149: A few quickdraws and a rope—some of the equipment rock climbers use (Photo by iStock/abstudio annaburek); p. 223: A lead climber focuses on her next move in a crack. (Photo by iStock/ericfoltz); p. 329: A climbing party ascends a snow-covered slope. (Photo by iStock/Georgijevic); p. 479: A leader breaks trail on a snowy ridge. (Photo by iStock/rcaucino); p. 539: View from the summit of Mont Blanc (Photo by iStock/MaRabelo )
CONTENTS Preface
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PART I. OUTDOOR FUNDAMENTALS Chapter 1. Chapter 2. Chapter 3. Chapter 4. Chapter 5. Chapter 6. Chapter 7. Chapter 8.
First Steps Clothing and Equipment Camping, Food, and Water Physical Conditioning Navigation Wilderness Travel Leave No Trace Access and Stewardship
14 17 46 79 90 128 138 146
PART II. CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS Chapter 9. Chapter 10. Chapter 11.
Basic Safety System Belaying Rappelling
150 172 202
PART III. ROCK CLIMBING Chapter 12. Chapter 13. Chapter 14. Chapter 15.
Alpine Rock Climbing Rock Protection Leading on Rock Aid and Big Wall Climbing
224 252 267 288
PART IV. SNOW, ICE, AND ALPINE CLIMBING Chapter 16. Chapter 17. Chapter 18. Chapter 19. Chapter 20. Chapter 21.
Snow Travel and Climbing Avalanche Safety Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue Alpine Ice Climbing Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing Expedition Climbing
330 366 390 419 448 463
PART V. LEADERSHIP, SAFETY, AND RESCUE Chapter 22. Chapter 23. Chapter 24. Chapter 25.
Leadership Safety First Aid Alpine Rescue
480 493 500 522
PART VI. THE MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT Chapter 26. Chapter 27. Chapter 28.
Mountain Geology The Cycle of Snow Mountain Weather
Appendix: Rating Systems Glossary Resources Index Brand Names and Trademarks
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540 548 558 569 577 583 591 603
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PREFACE “The quest of the mountaineer, in simplest terms, is for the freedom of the hills. . . .” —The first line of the first edition
Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills is much more than a book—it is a gateway to experiencing the joy of the outdoors. Whether you want to learn to camp and cook outdoors, hike in your local forest, climb hills, cross glaciers, scale rock walls, or summit the world’s highest peaks, Freedom is for you. Welcome to the community of climbers and mountaineers who count on Freedom as a critical part of their outdoor education. For this ninth edition in Freedom’s seven-decade history, each chapter has been critically reviewed, revised, and—where necessary—expanded. All illustrations have been updated, and most have been completely redrawn, allowing for fantastic detail in both printed and electronic media. These revisions reflect the ongoing rapid changes in mountaineering, including the development of safer techniques and improved equipment. In this edition, we continue to emphasize the responsibility we assume as climbers to practice good stewardship and to minimize our impact on the lands we pass through in order to leave no trace of our passage. In addition to leveraging the collective knowledge of The Mountaineers, this edition had unprecedented access to and input from experienced guides, organizations that teach climbing and avalanche safety, elite climbers, and outdoor equipment manufacturers. Whether this is your first copy of Freedom or you own every edition, this book offers the skills, confidence, and knowledge you need to be a safe, competent mountaineer.
SCOPE OF THE BOOK As did previous editions, the ninth edition of Freedom soundly covers the current concepts, techniques, and problems involved in the pursuit of mountaineering, and helps climbers grasp a fundamental understanding of each topic covered. In addition to informing the novice, this book can help experienced climbers review and improve their skills. Coverage of some topics, such as rock climbing, ice climbing, and aid climbing, is detailed enough to be useful to readers interested in those specific topics. This book is not intended, however, to be exhaustive. Some climbing disciplines are not comprehensively addressed in these pages. Gym and sport climbing (making use of artificial climbing walls or fixed-protection routes at developed climbing areas), for example, have become increasingly popular. Although many techniques related to both disciplines are interchangeable with those of mountain and rock climbing, there are differences—not all of which are discussed in these pages. Mountaineering cannot be learned simply by studying a book. However, books can be an important source of information and can complement solid instruction. Freedom was originally written as a textbook for students and instructors participating in organized climbing courses. The learning environment in a climbing course taught by competent instructors is essential for beginning climbers.
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PREFACE Climbing requires continual situational and environmental awareness. Conditions, routes, and individual abilities and skills vary, and the individual climber and climbing team must apply their knowledge, skills, and experience to the circumstances before them and then decide how they will proceed. To reflect this process, Freedom presents a variety of widely used techniques and practices, and then outlines both their advantages and limitations. Material is presented not as dogma or the definitive word but as the basis for making sound decisions. To adventure safely, climbers must realize that mountaineering is about problem-solving, not merely applying techniques. The type of climbing described in this tome is frequently experienced—and many people would say, best experienced—in the wilderness. Wilderness mountaineers take responsibility for helping to preserve the wilderness environment for present and future generations. Preserving wilderness is crucial to protecting the health of our ecosystem.
ORIGINS OF THE BOOK A synopsis of Freedom’s evolution presents a capsule history of The Mountaineers. From its beginnings, Freedom has been the product of the concerted effort of a team of volunteer leaders. For each edition, the team of contributors has sprung forth from across the organization’s membership, representing the best the organization has to offer. It has always been an honor to work on this project. When The Mountaineers was founded in 1906, one of its major purposes was to explore and study the mountains, forests, and waterways of the Pacific Northwest. Freedom’s direction and emphasis originated from the nature of climbing in this region. The wild, complex character of these particular mountains, with their abundance of snow and glaciers throughout the year, furthered the mountaineering challenge. Access was inherently difficult. There were few roads, the terrain was rugged, and initial explorations of them were essentially expeditions, often requiring the assistance of Native American guides. As interest in mountaineering grew in the region, so did a tradition of, and commitment to, education. Increasingly, experienced climbers took novices under their wings to pass on their knowledge and skills. The Mountaineers formalized that exchange by developing a series of climbing courses. Prior to the publication of the first edition of Freedom in 1960, The Mountaineers climbing courses had used
a number of European textbooks, particularly Geoffrey Winthrop Young’s classic Mountain Craft. These books, however, did not cover the various subjects unique and important to American and Pacific Northwest mountaineering. To fill the gaps, course lecturers prepared outlines, which they distributed to students. First fleshed out and compiled as the Climber’s Notebook, these outlines were subsequently published as the Mountaineers Handbook. By 1955, the tools and techniques had changed so drastically, and the climbing courses had become so much more complex, that a new, more comprehensive textbook was needed. The first edition of Freedom was published in 1960 (work on it had begun in 1955), with an eight-person editorial committee coordinating the efforts of more than seventy-five contributors. Chief editor Harvey Manning was the primary individual responsible for establishing the scope of the book. It was his idea to add the distinctive subtitle “The Freedom of the Hills.” An outgrowth of more than a century of teaching mountaineering, the first edition of Freedom included 430 pages, 134 illustrations, and 16 black-and-white plates organized into 22 chapters. In comparison, this ninth edition features 608 pages, more than 400 illustrations, and more than a half dozen black-andwhite photos organized into 27 chapters.
LEGACY OF THE PRECEDING EDITIONS This book embodies the collective wisdom and experience of thousands of climbers and mountaineers. The previous editions of Freedom represent a tradition of compiling, sorting, and integrating the knowledge, techniques, opinions, and advice of many practicing climbers. Both in training sessions and on climbs, students have always been a pivotal sounding board and testing ground for advancements in techniques, equipment, and methods. Each new edition has been carefully built on the foundation of the preceding editions. The first edition editorial committee included Harvey Manning (chair), John R. Hazle, Carl Henrikson, Nancy Bickford Miller, Thomas Miller, Franz Mohling, Rowland Tabor, and Lesley Stark Tabor. A substantial portion of the then relatively small Puget Sound climbing community participated (including such mountaineering icons as Dee Molenaar, Jim and Lou Whittaker, and Wolf Bauer)— some seventy-five were writers of the preliminary, revised, advanced, semifinal, and final chapter drafts, and an additional one hundred to two hundred were reviewers,
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PREFACE planners, illustrators, typists, proofreaders, financiers, promoters, retailers, warehouse workers, and shipping clerks. In fact, most Mountaineers climbers were involved somehow with the book. Those members donating their time and effort were rewarded by how well the book was received, and those donating their money were repaid from the success of the book. Freedom became the first title published by the now very productive Mountaineers Books. The second edition revision committee included John M. Davis (chair), Tom Hallstaff, Max Hollenbeck, Jim Mitchell, Roger Neubauer, and Howard Stansbury. Work on the second edition began in 1964. Even though much of the first edition was retained, the task force was, again, of impressive proportions, numbering several dozen writers and uncounted reviewers and helpers. Members of the first committee, notably John R. Hazle, Thomas Miller, and Harvey Manning, provided continuity to the effort. As with the first edition, Harvey Manning once again edited the entire text and supervised production. The second edition was published in 1967. The third edition revision committee, which was formed in 1971, included Sam Fry (chair), Fred Hart, Sean Rice, Jim Sanford, and Howard Stansbury. Initially, the planning committee analyzed the previous edition and set guidelines for its revision. Once again, many climbers contributed to individual chapters; the reviewing, revising, editing, and collation of chapters and sections were a true community effort. Peggy Ferber edited the entire book, which was published in 1974. The fourth edition revision committee included Ed Peters (chair), Roger Andersen, Dave Anthony, Dave Enfield, Lee Helser, Robert Swanson, and John Young. Published in 1982, this edition of Freedom involved a major revision and included complete rewrites of many chapters, most notably the entire section on ice and snow. A team of hundreds was guided by the revision committee: numerous climbers submitted comments to the committee, and small teams of writers prepared a series of drafts for review by the technical editors. In addition to the substantial contribution such writers made, many others provided valuable help through critiques of subsequent and final drafts, not only for technical accuracy and consistency, but also for readability and comprehension. The fifth edition revision committee, which was chaired first by Paul Gauthier and later by Myrna Plum, included section coordinators Marty Lentz, Margaret Miller, Judy Ramberg, and Craig Rowley, and editorial coordinator Ben Arp. Work on the fifth edition began in late 1987, involved another major revision, and was published in
1992. Content was brought up to date, and the layout and illustrations were made more contemporary and readable. Professional editor and writer Don Graydon blended the volunteers’ efforts into a consistent, approachable style. The sixth edition revision committee included Kurt Hanson (chair), Jo Backus, Marcia Hanson, Tom Hodgman, Myrna Plum, and Myron Young. Don Heck coordinated the illustrations, while Don Graydon again edited the text. The committee began work in the autumn of 1994 and the sixth edition was published in 1997. Three new chapters were added: “Mountain Geology,” “The Cycle of Snow,” and “Mountain Weather.” The seventh edition revision committee included Steven M. Cox (chair), Ron Eng, Jeremy Larson, Myrna Plum, Cebe Wallace, John Wick, and John Wickham. Jeff Bowman and Debra Wick oversaw the preparation of the illustration materials. Kris Fulsaas edited the text. Planning for the seventh edition began in autumn of 2000, and the book was published in 2003. It included a new chapter, “Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing,” and many new illustrations. The eighth edition celebrated 50 years of Freedom. Its revision committee included Ron Eng (chair), Peter Clitherow, Dale Flynn, Mindy Roberts, Mike Maude, John Wick, and Gretchen Lentz. Jeff Bowman oversaw the preparation of the illustration materials. The staff of Mountaineers Books, particularly project editor Mary Metz, freelance editors Julie Van Pelt and Kris Fulsaas, and illustrators Marge Mueller and Dennis Arneson, also contributed their time and talents.
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NINTH EDITION Over the course of its 110-year history, The Mountaineers has taken pride in its volunteer spirit of getting people outside through both exploration and education. Through the organization’s efforts, countless people have been introduced to the outdoors and then, as volunteers, have found ways to give back to our collective community. The contributors to this ninth edition, listed below, are a special group of our volunteers, who selflessly gave of their time, intellect, and expertise to help make this new edition possible. What you hold in your hands represents more than simply what one or two (or twenty) people could put down on paper. It is, rather, the collective knowledge of an organization that, for more than a century, has been dedicated to celebrating and sharing the freedom of the hills.
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PREFACE
Cochairs, 9th Edition: Eric Linxweiler, Mike Maude Part I: Outdoor Fundamentals: John Ohlson (Chair) Chapter 1: First Steps: John Ohlson Chapter 2: Clothing and Equipment: Steve McClure Chapter 3: Camping, Food, and Water: Steve McClure Chapter 4: Physical Conditioning: Courtenay Schurman Chapter 5: Navigation: Bob Burns, Mike Burns, John Bell, Steve McClure Chapter 6: Wilderness Travel: Helen Arntson Chapter 7: Leave No Trace: Katherine Hollis and Peter Dunau Chapter 8: Access and Stewardship: Katherine Hollis and Tania Lown-Hecht Part II: Climbing Fundamentals: Cebe Wallace (Chair) Chapter 9: Basic Safety System: Erica Cline Chapter 10: Belaying: Deling Ren, Yinan Zhao Chapter 11: Rappelling: Alex Byrne Part III: Rock Climbing: Loni Uchytil (Chair) Chapter 12: Alpine Rock Climbing: Loni Uchytil Chapter 13: Rock Protection: Loni Uchytil Chapter 14: Leading on Rock: Loni Uchytil Chapter 15: Aid and Big Wall Climbing: Holly Webb and Jeff Bowman
Several other professionals played noteworthy roles in the book’s development and production process, particularly staff and contractors affiliated with Mountaineers Books. Managing editor Margaret Sullivan laid the groundwork for the revisions. Jeff Bowman played a crucial role in the early stages of illustration evaluation and notes. Kris Fulsaas deftly performed a developmental edit, and Erin Moore skillfully copyedited the materials. Production manager Jen Grable designed the covers and managed the book design and illustration process. Jennifer Shontz refined the book design and pieced together the puzzle that is text and illustrations. John McMullen expertly tackled the monumental task of vectorizing all the existing figures and of drawing many illustrations from scratch, as well as editing much of the existing artwork; his deep climbing knowledge informed his work. Editor Laura Shauger kept the project moving forward
Part IV: Snow, Ice, and Expedition Climbing: Anita Wilkins (Chair) Chapter 16: Snow Travel and Climbing: Tab Wilkins Chapter 17: Avalanche Safety: Nick Lyle Chapter 18: Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue: Anita Wilkins, Gregg Gagliardi, Steve Swenson, and Mike Maude Chapter 19: Alpine Ice Climbing: Anita Wilkins, Gregg Gagliardi, Steve Swenson, and Mike Maude Chapter 20: Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing: Anita Wilkins, Gregg Gagliardi, Steve Swenson, and Mike Maude Chapter 21: Expedition Climbing: Jenn Carter Part V: Leadership, Safety, and Rescue: Doug Sanders (Chair) Chapter 22: Leadership: Doug Sanders Chapter 23: Safety: Doug Sanders Chapter 24: First Aid: Doug Sanders, Eric Linxweiler Chapter 25: Alpine Rescue: Doug Sanders Part VI: The Mountain Environment: Eric Linxweiler (Chair) Chapter 26: Mountain Geology: Scott Babcock Chapter 27: The Cycle of Snow: Sue Ferguson Chapter 28: Mountain Weather: Jeff Renner
from rough draft on, despite the inevitable hurdles. For help with the significant updates to the clothing and equipment and camping and food chapters, contributors wish to thank individuals at several companies for their technical assistance: Owen Mesdag and Zac Gleason at MSR; Jim Boswell, Jim Giblin, and Brandon Bowers at Therm-a-Rest; the crew at Outdoor Research; and Brant Broome at REI. Thank you to the following individuals for their contributions to this project: Dale Remsberg, Ronnie Parker, Ron Funderburke, Matt Schonwald, Jim Nelson, Wayne Wallace, and Mike Libecki. This tome will introduce you to the skills and knowledge you need to embark on adventures for a lifetime. Absorb these instructions and wise tips, study the technical illustrations, and then go out into the hills to practice and see where it all can take you.
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PART I
O U T D OO R FUN DAMENTALS 1
FIRST STEPS
5 NAVIGATION
2
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
6
WILDERNESS TRAVEL
3
CAMPING, FOOD, AND WATER
7
LEAVE NO TRACE
4
PHYSICAL CONDITIONING
8
ACCESS AND STEWARDSHIP
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T E C H N I C A L K N OWLE DGE AND SKILLS • P HYSIC AL PREPA RATION • MEN TA L PREPA RATION • JU D G MEN T A N D E X P E R I E N C E • C AR ING FOR T HE WILDE R NE SS • PRESERV IN G WILD ERN ESS • A CLIMBIN G COD E • G A I N I N G T H E F R E E DOM OF T HE HILLS
CHAPTER 1
FIRST STEPS Mountaineering is many things: climbing, breathtaking views, and wilderness experience. It can be the fulfillment of childhood dreams or an opportunity to grow in the face of difficulty. Mountains harbor adventure and mystery. The challenge of mountaineering offers you a chance to learn about yourself by venturing beyond the confines of the modern world and to forge lifetime bonds with climbing partners.
In the words of British climber George Leigh Mallory, “What we get from this adventure is just sheer joy.” To be sure, you will also find risk and hardship, but despite the difficulties climbers sometimes face—or maybe because of them—mountaineering can provide a sense of tranquility and spiritual communion found nowhere else. But before you find joy or freedom in the hills, you must prepare for the mountains by learning technical, physical, mental, and emotional skills. Just as you must take a first step in order to climb a mountain, you must also take first steps to become a mountaineer. And though becoming skilled in the mountains is a process that continues as long as you spend time there, you have to begin somewhere. This book can serve as your guide and reference in acquiring those skills and, as such, your passport to the freedom of the hills.
TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS To travel safely and enjoyably in the mountains, you need skills. You need to know what clothing, basic equipment, and food to bring into the backcountry and how to spend
the night outside safely. You need to know how to cover long distances while relying on only what you carry in your pack, navigating without trails or signs. You need technical climbing skills, including belaying (the technique of securing your rope partner in case of a fall) and rappelling (using the rope to descend), to competently scale and descend the mountains you reach. And you must have the specific skills for the terrain you choose—whether it is rock, snow, ice, or glacier. Mountaineers strive to minimize risks, but mountain travel can never be completely predictable. Thus, every mountaineer should be trained in safety, wilderness first aid, and rescue with the goal of becoming truly self-reliant.
PHYSICAL PREPARATION Mountaineering is a physically demanding activity. Nearly every type of climbing has become increasingly athletic, especially at the higher levels of difficulty. Climbers today accomplish feats that were once considered impossible. In rock, ice, and high-altitude climbing, new standards are set regularly. Limits are being pushed not only on the way up peaks but also on the way down. Steep routes once
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FIRST STEPS
n
Preserving Wilderness
considered difficult or impossible to ascend are now also descended on skis and snowboards. Among the changes to the landscape of climbing, notable are the advances in and increasing popularity of steep ice climbing and “mixed” climbs, those that include a combination of rock and frozen water. Although most people appreciate such extreme achievements from the sidelines, higher standards at these maximal performance levels of climbing often result in increased standards at all levels. Whatever your skill level and aspiration, good physical conditioning is critically important. The stronger you are, the better prepared you will be to face the challenges of climbing mountains, whether your outing goes as planned or includes unexpected difficulties. You will have a wider choice of mountains to climb, and you will be more likely to enjoy trips rather than to simply endure them. More important, the safety of the whole party may hinge on the strength—or weakness—of one member.
accidents, as well as internal factors including fear, exhaustion, and desire. As climbers experience challenging situations, they become better decision makers, gaining judgment and experience that can help them in the future. Mountaineering, however, tends to provide many new situations that require careful judgment rather than automatic responses. Although you may use past experience to make decisions in the mountains, you will never face the same exact situation twice. To be sure, this uncertainty can be scary, but it also creates the allure and challenge of mountaineering. Many situations similarly involve risk, challenge, and accomplishment. As Helen Keller observed in 1957 in The Open Door, “Security is mostly a superstition. It does not exist in nature, nor do the children of men as a whole experience it. Avoiding danger is no safer in the long run than outright exposure. Life is either a daring adventure, or nothing.”
MENTAL PREPARATION
CARING FOR THE WILDERNESS
Just as important as physical conditioning is mental attitude, which often determines success or failure in mountaineering. The ability to keep a clear, calm mind helps in everything from deciding whether to stay home because of a weather forecast to pushing through a difficult technical climbing move or rescuing a climbing partner after a crevasse fall. Mountaineers need to be positive, realistic, and honest with themselves. A can-do attitude may turn into dangerous overconfidence if it is not tempered with a judicious appraisal of the circumstances and environment. Many a veteran mountaineer says the greatest challenges are mental. Perhaps this is one of mountaineering’s biggest appeals: while seeking the freedom of the hills, we come face-to-face with ourselves.
The mountaineering skills in this book are tools that allow you to visit and enjoy remote areas of the world. But remember that the beauty of wilderness often becomes its undoing by attracting visitors—leaving the landscape touched by human hands and eventually less than wild. People are consuming wilderness at an alarming rate— using it, managing it, and changing it irreparably. For this reason, The Mountaineers and many other outdoor enthusiasts have adopted a set of principles and ethics referred to as Leave No Trace. Mountains owe climbers nothing, and they ask nothing of climbers. Hudson Stuck, a member of the first team to ascend Denali (formerly Mount McKinley), fervently described this attitude in The Ascent of Denali: the summit party felt they had been granted “a privileged communion with the high places of the earth.” All mountaineers who travel in the wilderness can consider their minimum charge for this privilege to be leaving the hills as they found them, with no sign of their passing.
JUDGMENT AND EXPERIENCE Essential to mountaineering is the ability to solve problems and make good decisions. Sound judgment, perhaps a mountaineer’s most valued and prized skill, develops from integrating knowledge with experience. This book outlines equipment and techniques ranging from the basic to the advanced, but the goal of every mountaineer is to determine how best to use that learning to answer the sometimes unpredictable challenges faced in the mountains. Much of what mountaineers need are coping skills and problem-solving skills—the ability to deal with external factors such as adverse weather, long hikes, and mountain
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PRESERVING WILDERNESS The privileges climbers enjoy in the mountains bring the responsibility not only to leave no trace but also to help preserve these environments they love. The facts of mountaineering life today include permit systems that limit access to the backcountry, environmental restoration projects, legislative alerts, clashes among competing interest
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OUTDOOR FUNDAMENTALS groups, and closures of roads, trails, and entire climbing areas. In addition to being vigilant in treading softly in the mountains, mountaineers must now speak loudly in support of wilderness preservation, access, and sensitive use of public wildlands. Climbers can no longer assume that they will have access to explore the vertical realms of Planet Earth. In addition to being mountaineers, climbers, and adventurers, everyone must be active wilderness advocates if they want to continue to enjoy what was once taken for granted.
A CLIMBING CODE The Mountaineers have devised a set of guidelines to help people conduct themselves safely in the mountains. Based on careful observation of the habits of skilled climbers and a thoughtful analysis of accidents, these guidelines have served well not only for climbers but, with slight adaptation, for all wilderness travelers. (See the “Climbing Code” sidebar.) This Climbing Code is not a step-by-step formula for reaching summits or avoiding danger, but rather it is a set of guidelines for encouraging safe mountaineering. It is recommended especially for beginners, who have not
CLIMBING CODE Leave the trip itinerary with a responsible person. Carry the necessary clothing, food, and equipment. n A climbing party of three is the minimum, unless adequate prearranged support is available. On glaciers, a minimum of two rope teams is recommended. n Rope up on all exposed places and for all glacier travel. Anchor all belays. n Keep the party together, and obey the leader or majority rule. n Never climb beyond your ability and knowledge. n Never let judgment be overruled by desire when choosing the route or deciding whether to turn back. n Follow the precepts of sound mountaineering as set forth in books of recognized merit. n Behave at all times in a manner that reflects favorably upon mountaineering, including adherence to Leave No Trace principles. n n
yet developed the necessary judgment that comes from years of experience. Seasoned mountaineers often modify these guidelines in practice, making judgments based on an understanding of the risk as well as the skill to help control that risk. Climbers sometimes question the need for such standards in a sport notable for the absence of formal rules. However, many serious accidents could have been avoided or minimized if these simple principles had been followed. This Climbing Code is built on the premise that mountaineers want a high probability of safety and success, even in risk-filled or doubtful situations, and they want an adequate margin of safety in case they have misjudged their circumstances.
GAINING THE FREEDOM OF THE HILLS “Freedom of the hills” is a concept that combines the simple joy of being in the mountains with the skill, equipment, and strength to travel without harm to yourself, others, or the environment. The hills do not offer this freedom freely—but only in trade for your training, preparation, and desire. This is an age that requires a conscious choice to avoid civilization with all of its technologies and conveniences. In the modern digital world, many people are accessible by phone or email every minute of every day. With the right equipment, this can be true anywhere on the planet. Although you do not have to leave these things behind to go to the mountains, for those who want to step out of—if only briefly—this mechanized, digitized world, the mountains beckon. They offer a place of richness and communion with the natural world that is now the exception rather than the rule. Mountaineering takes place in an environment indifferent to human needs, and not everyone is willing to pay the price for its intense physical and spiritual rewards. But those who dream of climbing mountains can use this book to follow that dream. And if you learn to climb safely and skillfully, body and spirit in tune with the wilderness, you too can heed the inspiration of John Muir. “Climb the mountains,” he wrote in Our National Parks, “and get their good tidings. Nature’s peace will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees.” Like Muir, you too can “walk away quietly in any direction and taste the freedom of the mountaineer.”
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C L O T H I N G • FA B R IC S • LAYE R ING • C LOT HING C ARE • FOOTWEA R • PA CK S • ESSEN TIA L EQU IPMEN T • P R E PA R I N G F O R T HE FR E E DOM OF T HE HILLS
CHAPTER 2
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT Packing everything you might need to keep you safe, dry, and comfortable on a wilderness trip can paradoxically lead to danger, chill, and misery. The challenge is to limit the load enough to allow for fast and light travel while still having the gear essential for success and survival. Each onerous ounce limits how far, fast, or high you can climb and how speedily you can retreat to safety.
To strike a balance between too much and too little, monitor what you take on a trip. After each trip, determine what was used, what was genuinely needed to achieve a reasonable margin of safety, and what items were unnecessary. When buying equipment, go for lightweight, lowbulk alternatives that offer sufficient performance and durability. If you are new to mountaineering, wait until you have experience before spending too much money on clothes, boots, or packs. Rent, borrow, or improvise during early outings, gaining hands-on experience before you invest. Get advice from seasoned climbers, window-shop at outdoor stores, and scout mountaineering magazines and online sources. The latest and greatest products or most expensive items are not always best overall. Neither is the cheapest gear necessarily the most economical since certain gear features justify a higher cost. This chapter provides information on basic and essential wilderness gear, including guidelines on what constitutes good equipment, and though it does not recommend brands, it will help you select high-quality items that work flexibly together. Additional gear for eating and sleeping in the great outdoors is covered in Chapter 3, Camping, Food, and Water.
CLOTHING Clothing helps a person stay comfortable by creating a thin insulating layer of air next to the skin. The enemies of comfort—precipitation, wind, heat, and cold—work against this protective air layer. The right clothes protect that layer. “Comfort” is a relative term for mountaineers. Inclement weather often forces climbers to endure conditions that deteriorate far below most people’s definition of comfort. Still, in climbing, the key to maintaining relative comfort is to stay dry—or, after getting wet, to stay warm and dry out quickly. Safety is the primary concern. When venturing into remote territory, climbers need layers of clothes and a layering system that helps them deal with difficult conditions for however long those conditions last. Prolonged periods of dampness, even in moderately cool temperatures, can cause your body’s core temperature to fall, possibly triggering hypothermia, a frequent cause of death in the mountains. Failure to protect yourself from wind exposes you to windchill and can contribute to hypothermia or lead to frostnip or frostbite. (See “Cold-Related Conditions” in Chapter 24, First Aid.) Carefully select the clothes you will layer to ensure that you can survive sustained exposure to cold and wet conditions.
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F O R C E S T H AT C RE AT E WE AT HE R • T HUNDE R AND LIG H TN IN G • LOCA LIZED WIN D S • FIELD FORECA STIN G IN T H E M O U N TA I N S • C R E AT ING C UST OM WE AT HE R BRIEFIN G S • A PPLY IN G TH E IN FORMATION
CHAPTER 28
MOUNTAIN WEATHER It is no accident that many of the world’s grandest monuments and temples—the pyramids of Egypt and Mexico, for example—mimic mountains. Mountains exude massive strength and permanence, their summits frequently assailed by storms that the ancients believed were signals of divine presence and power. Approaching the summit of such a peak was an act thought to risk the disfavor of the gods.
Today most climbers believe that a disastrous encounter with severe weather is the result of insufficient respect for the elements or bad luck, rather than the work of an angry god. There is no question that a trip into the mountains can expose people to more dangerous weather than most other environments on earth. Refuge can be harder to find, and major peaks can manufacture their own weather. Despite improvements in weather forecasting, knowledge of exactly how the atmosphere works, particularly in mountainous regions, is still incomplete. The wise climber not only carefully checks weather forecasts and reports before a trip but also develops an ability to assess the weather in the field.
THE SUN
FORCES THAT CREATE WEATHER
AIR MOVEMENT
Understanding weather forecasts and reports requires a basic grasp of the forces that create weather. Such knowledge will not only help mountaineers better digest such information before leaving home, it will also help climbers detect important changes on the trail or climbing route as the weather changes over time.
The horizontal movement of air (what is called wind) is all too familiar to anyone who has pitched a tent in the mountains. However, air also rises and descends. When air cools, it becomes denser and sinks; the air pressure increases. But when air warms, it becomes less dense and rises; the air pressure decreases. These pressure differences,
The sun does far more than simply illuminate Planet Earth. It is the engine that drives the earth’s atmosphere, providing the heat that, along with other factors, creates the temperature variations that are ultimately responsible for wind, rain, snow, thunder, and lightning—everything known as weather. The key to the sun’s impact is that the intensity of the sun’s radiation varies across the earth’s surface. Closer to the equator, the sun’s heat is more intense. The extremes in temperature between the equator and the poles come as little surprise; however, those differences in air temperature also lead to air movement, which moderates those temperature extremes.
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MOUNTAIN WEATHER
polar front 60°N
30°N
30°S
60°S
F9_ Fig 28-01_V-02
Fig. 28-1. The earth’s air circulation patterns: movement from areas of high pressure at the poles toward areas of low pressure at the equator, deflected in the middle latitudes by the earth’s rotation.
the result of temperature differences, produce moving air. Air generally moves from an area of high pressure to one of low pressure (fig. 28-1). Remember, wind direction is defined as the direction the wind is coming from, not the direction it is moving toward. Air moving from high to low pressure carries moisture with it. As that air moves into the zone of lower pressure, then rises and then cools, the moisture may condense into clouds or fog. The reason is that, as the air cools, its capacity to hold water vapor is reduced. This is why you
Forces That Create Weather
can “see” your breath when the air temperature becomes cold: the water vapor in your mouth condenses into liquid water droplets as you breathe out. The process of cooling and condensation operates on a large scale in the earth’s atmosphere as air moves from high-pressure systems into low-pressure systems, where it rises. Because Arctic and Antarctic polar air is colder and therefore denser than air closer to the equator, it sinks. The zone where it sinks and piles up is a region of high pressure. As the air sinks and its pressure increases, its temperature warms a bit. The effect is similar to what happens to football or rugby players caught at the bottom of a pile: they get squeezed the most, and their temperature (and possibly temperament) heats up. In the atmosphere, this warming within a high-pressure area tends to evaporate some of the moisture present. That is why the Arctic receives very little precipitation. Although this sinking motion heats the air enough to evaporate much of the moisture in it, the air does not heat up enough to transform the poles into the tropics!
THE EARTH’S ROTATION If the earth did not rotate, the cold polar air would just continue to slide toward the equator. However, the air sinking and moving from the poles toward the equator and the air rising from the equator do not form a simple loop moving from north to south (or from south to north) and back again. The rotation of the earth around its axis deflects this air. Some of the air rising from the equator descends over the subtropics, creating a region of high pressure. In turn, part of the air moving from these subtropical highs moves north into the air moving south from the north pole (or moves south into the air moving north from the south pole). The boundary between these two very different air masses is called the polar front (see Figure 28-1). When this boundary does not move, it is called a stationary front. It often serves as a nursery for the development of storms.
a
Fig. 28-2. Fronts: a, cold front displaces warmer air; b, warm front displaces colder air.
n
b
col df ro nt warmer air
t m fron war
colder air colder air
F9_ Fig 28-02_V-02
28
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THE MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT COLD FRONTS AND WARM FRONTS Because of the great contrast in temperatures across the polar front, together with imbalances caused by the rotation of the earth and differing influences of land, sea, ice, and mountains, some of the cold, dry air from the north slides south (or, in the southern hemisphere, air from the south slides north). That forces some of the warm air to rise. The zone where cold air is replacing warm air is referred to as a cold front (fig. 28-2a), and the zone where warm air is gradually replacing cooler air is referred to as a warm front (fig. 28-2b); both types of fronts appear as a “wave” or bend on the stationary front. An occluded front combines characteristics of warm and cold fronts and is typically found near the center of a mature low-pressure system. Both cold and warm fronts are marked by unique clouds, which help the mountaineer distinguish one type of front from the other. Clouds seen ahead of, along, or just behind a cold front include cumulus (fig. 28-3a), altocumulus (fig. 28-3b), cumulonimbus (fig. 28-3c), and stratocumulus (fig. 28-3d). These clouds are puffy, resembling cotton candy. The name cumulus refers to their “pile” or “heap” shape. Stratocumulus clouds are sheetlike layers of cumulus clouds; the name stratus refers to the “sheetlike” or “layered” characteristics of these clouds. Clouds seen ahead of or along a warm front include a halo (fig. 28-3e), lenticular (fig. 28-3f), stratus (fig. 28-3g), cirrocumulus (fig. 28-3h), cirrostratus (fig. 28-3i), altostratus (fig. 28-3j), and nimbostratus (fig. 28-3k). Overall, lowering and thickening clouds signal the approach of precipitation and lowered visibility.
The “wave” or bend that develops along what started out as a stationary front may develop into a low-pressure system, with air circulating counterclockwise around the low (the opposite direction of air moving around a high)— again, a consequence of the earth’s rotation and friction.
THUNDER AND LIGHTNING Thunderstorms can be set off by the collision of different air masses when fronts move through or by the rapid heating of air when it comes in contact with sun-warmed mountain slopes. Once this air is warmed, it becomes buoyant and tends to rise. If the atmosphere above is cold enough, the air tends to keep rising, producing what are called air-mass thunderstorms. A single lightning bolt can heat the surrounding air up to 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit (approximately 25,000 degrees Celsius). That heating causes the air to expand explosively, generating earsplitting thunder. Thunderstorms in the mountains can and do kill (fig. 28-4)—and not just from lightning strikes, although lightning is the biggest killer, claiming an average of 200 lives in the United States alone each year. Lightning can also spark dangerous wildfires, and even a moderate thunderstorm may release up to 125 million gallons (473 million liters) of rainwater. The resulting flash floods can quickly inundate streambeds and small valleys, sweeping away entire campgrounds. The growing popularity of canyoneering, particularly rappelling in deep slot canyons, increases climbers’ exposure to flash floods and drowning. Thunderstorms can
TABLE 28-1. CLOUD-COVER CLUES IF
THEN
CHECK FOR
High cirrus clouds, halo around sun or moon
Precipitation possible within 24–48 hours
Lowering, thickening clouds
High cirrus clouds forming tight ring or corona around sun or moon
Precipitation possible within 24 hours
Lowering, thickening clouds
“Cap” or lenticular clouds forming over peaks
Precipitation possible within 24 to more than 48 hours; strong winds possible near summits or leeward slopes
Lowering, thickening clouds
Thickening, lowering, layered flat clouds
Warm or occluded front likely within 12–24 hours
Shifting wind; dropping pressure
Breaks in cloud cover closing up
Cold front likely within 12 hours
Shifting wind; dropping pressure
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MOUNTAIN WEATHER
a cumulus: with continued upward growth, these suggest showers later in the day
c cumulonimbus: cumulus producing rain, snow, or thunder and lightning
e halo: commonly seen 24 to 48 hours ahead of precipitation
n
Thunder and Lightning
b altocumulus: high-based clouds often indicate potential for thunder and rain showers
d stratocumulus: lumpy,
layered clouds often following a cold front suggesting showers
f lenticular: lenslike clouds over mountains often suggesting precipitation within 48 hours
28
Fig. 28-3. Identifying cloud types: a, b, c, and d, cloud types seen ahead of, along, or just behind a cold front; (continued on next page)
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