procedural inadequacies in terms of consultation and transparency are also cited as key areas of concern in terms of the long-term impacts on consumers. As such, the authors argue that regulators have not sought a “social license” to make changes to privately-owned electricity assets [25]. It is argued that this might involve considering issues such as consumer compensation, exemptions for those unduly affected, and an openness to more cost-effective voluntary measures. Social research that examines household perspectives about curtailment is scarce. In late 2018, SAPN engaged an independent market research firm to conduct an online survey (1,004 respondents) to gauge community attitudes towards network investments to enable greater uptake of DER in SA [27]. The research indicates that 76% felt positively about SAPN investing in infrastructure upgrades to facilitate greater uptake of D-PV across the state, with just 4% expressing negative views about this. More specifically, the research also sought to gauge community sentiment towards three approaches to facilitating greater DER uptake in SA: static export limits (no change), capacity investment (comprehensive network upgrades) and dynamic export limits. This research offered explanations of these three options, including the overall cost and predicted bill impacts across a range of customer segments, including non-DV households [27]. The research identified dynamic export limits as being the most preferred option (54%), with 48% also considering it in the long-term interests of consumers. Interestingly, there was also moderate support for comprehensive investments in grid capacity to accommodate D-PV (33%), and 40% believed that it was in the long-term interests of customers, despite it being the most expensive option. Overall, our review of the limited prior work on the social aspects of curtailment indicate that it is an area that requires further investigation. In particular, the emerging literature suggests that there are several issues of fairness that relate to curtailment in an Australian setting. As such, an energy justice framework, which considers issues of equitable distribution, recognition (representation), and process (decision making) in energy systems, may be a useful normative and evaluative lens through which to examine the implications of curtailment [28].
2.5 Prior data-driven technical analyses of DER voltage control and curtailment Increasing uptake of D-PV and associated integration challenges has led to increased research attention in recent years. We firstly summarise previous research done in Australia, then move on to reviewing global research efforts. Several Australian studies have focused on the effectiveness of different D-PV power quality modes for managing LV network voltages. Carter et. al. [29] ran network modelling simulations for varying levels of D-PV VAr absorption and line drop compensation of transformers and observed their impact on the LV network voltages. The aim was to observe D-PV’s voltage control capabilities to facilitate higher DER penetration for the South-West Interconnected Network in Western Australia. Mallamo et. al. [30] conducted lab tests and field trials in collaboration with SAPN in South Australia to measure the impact of different V-VAr controls on local voltage conditions. Tests showed that the effectiveness of V-VAr control highly depends on the circuit’s X/R ratio. Condon & McPhail [31] carried out detailed investigation into inverter reactive power functionality through a desktop study, network modelling, laboratory tests and field trials in Townsville within the Ergon Energy network. Various inverter VAr modes such as constant power factor, VAr as a function of real power and V-VAr were modelled for different network classes and distribution transformers. The study found V-VAr mode to be the most effective reactive power function for regulating local voltages. Collins & Ward [32] tested different implementations of VVAr and V-Watt functions of D-PV inverters at sites located in Newcastle, New South Wales (NSW). The authors found that D-PV inverters were able to successfully regulate distribution network voltages and reduce associated network losses. Networks Renewed [11], an ARENA project led by the Institute for 10 | P a g e
