Table of Contents Difference between Radiology and Medical Imaging Avital Sarao ‘24 Radionuclide Scanning Rebecca Paikin ‘23 Neonatal Imaging Sarah Kalimi ‘25 Neuroimaging and Interventions Alex Paul ‘23 Bone Scanning Aviva Schilowitz ‘24 Virtual Reality and the Future of Medicine Sarah Silverman ‘24 Nanomedicine Gabby Besharim ‘23 Endoscopy Aaron Green ‘23 Portable MRI Ashley Behm ‘24 AI and Cancer Detection Keren Teichner ‘25
Medical imaging vs. Radiology Avital Sarao ‘24 In the medical field, there are a plethora of tools and technologies that make diagnoses and evaluate symptoms. Medical imaging and radiology are two of the many terms used in the medical field to describe the technological ways in which doctors make diagnoses. But what are medical imaging and radiology to begin with? To begin, it is important to note that medical imaging is an umbrella term. Meaning that it covers more than one medical evaluation tool. Medical imaging is used to allude to many different ways that doctors can monitor and evaluate symptoms as well as make diagnoses. Including, but not limited to, MRIs, ultrasounds, and CT scans. Each type of technology within medical imaging gives a different set of data and information related to a patient. For example, you would use a CT scan to detect broken or fractured bones as well as detecting multiple types of cancer and you would use an MRI to take a good look at the brain and spinal cord. Medical imaging is used by radiologists to do their jobs in detecting any of these things. Radiology, on the other hand, is much more specific than medical imaging. Since medical imaging is a blanket term, it does not refer to specifics within it. Radiology is a specialty within the medical field which allows radiologists to take pictures and scans of a patient's body to assist in making a diagnosis. A radiologist will analyze the results of certain tests or scans and will use that data to match symptoms to a diagnosis. Radiology is a vital medical specialty as it is used in every single part of medicine. Cancer-care, obstetrics, surgery, pediatrics, and even infectious disease are all sects of medicine to which radiology is essential. In medicine, radiology and medical imaging, in general, are vital. The medical field would not be nearly as advanced and in-depth, as it is without them. They are life-saving and life-changing devices. It is important to understand the uses and differences in hospital settings and medical care to use the proper type of medical imaging to get the best look and best details that you possibly can to make a proper diagnosis. ● https://www.independentimaging.com/what-is-the-difference-between-radiology-and-me dical-imaging/ ● https://www.fda.gov/radiation-emitting-products/radiation-emitting-products-and-proced ures/medical-imaging ● https://rad-aid.org/resource-center/radiology-serving-the-world/what-is-radiology ● https://www.healthimages.com/what-is-radiology/ ● https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/153201 ● https://medlineplus.gov/mriscans.html
Radionuclide Scanning Rebecca Paikin ‘23 Radionuclide scanning is an imaging technique that can detect trauma, infarction, cancer, or other disorders. In a radionuclide scan, the tracer (a small dose of isotope) is either injected into the vein, inhaled, or swallowed. Once the tracer is in the body, it flows through the bloodstream until reaching its target organ. Each tracer can target a different organ, whether it be the thyroid, heart, or bones. Similarly to X-rays, the tracer emits gamma rays. The gamma rays are used to form an image of the targeted organ. They are identified by a gamma camera which is analyzed by a computer to create an image. The areas that appear as bright spots in the image are the more intense gamma rays. These rays indicate potential problems. Radionuclides are used to identify and label different substances that normally accumulate in specific areas of the body. There are areas in the body that are naturally concentrated by specific substances. For example, Iodine is produced when making thyroid hormones; hence, Iodine is heavily concentrated in the thyroid gland. Additionally, Diphosphonate accumulates when the bone is rebuilding and healing itself. Unlike Iodine and Diphosphonate, there are some abnormally concentrated substances within the body as well. When the intestines bleed rapidly, large amounts of red blood cells accumulate. Furthermore, white blood cells concentrate in areas with inflammation or infections. While the actual scanning portion of the test will usually span a 15-minute duration, once the tracer is in the body, they could either begin to move immediately or hours later. However, when multiple scans are necessary, scanning can take up to an hour. While being scanned, a person must lie completely still and may remain fully clothed. Post-scan patients should drink additional fluids in order to flush out the radionuclide. This form of imaging is not always ideal. The amount of radioactive exposure varies greatly depending on which radionuclide was used and the amount. Additionally, the timing is not predictable or precise. Computed tomography (CT), x-rays, and magnetic resonance imaging are usually the preferred route. Sources: ● https://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/radionuclide-scanning ● https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/special-subjects/common-imaging-tests/radionucli de-scanning ● https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/cardiovascular-test s-and-procedures/radionuclide-imaging-of-the-heart
Neonatal Imaging Sarah Kalimi ‘25 In July of 2017, the FDA approved the use of visual imaging on infants. Doctors routinely use an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scanner to photograph the inside of the human body. This technique was approved for adults over the age of 30 but it only recently became available for newborns. The machine is made up of four main parts; the magnet, gradient coils, radiofrequency transmitter and receiver, and a computer. The magnet of the MRI causes the magnetic hydrogen protons in the body’s water to align the same way. The next step to creating the picture is done with the use of radio waves. The extra energy exerted changes the direction of the magnetic vector. The action of the magnetic vector settling down after the radiofrequency has been turned off produces precise images of internal organs. This type of picture can help diagnose babies with certain diseases early and try to figure out a course of treatment for them. It can detect if an infant will have any severe neurological damages such as a walking, hearing, or vision impairment or cerebral palsy. By detecting these conditions early on, doctors can inform the childs’ parents of their condition, and figure out a long term plan to better treat them. Thankfully, MRIs — unlike CT scans (computed tomography scans) — are more safe for children because they do not use radiation. Radiation, especially in children, increases a person's chance of getting cancer in the future. CT scans are still used for infants when need because neonatal MRI scanners are only for the brain and a CT scan can also be used for the body.
Sources: ● https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-clears-first-neonatal-magneti c-resonance-imaging-device ● https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1121941/ ● https://source.wustl.edu/2006/08/mri-scans-in-premature-infants-can-predict-future-devel opmental-delays/ ● https://www.abclawcenters.com/practice-areas/diagnostic-tests/hypoxic-ischemic-enceph alopathy-and-brain-imaging/overview-of-imaging-types-for-neonatal-encephalopathy/
Neuroimaging and Interventions Alex Paul ‘23 Before brain imaging existed, physicians had to wait until autopsy to examine the brain of a patient. Now, neuroimaging and neuro-intervention allow for doctors to examine the brains of patients while alive. Neuroimaging and neuro-intervention is a subspecialty of radiology that is centered on recognizing and diagnosing irregularities of the central and peripheral nervous system. This subspecialty allows for the ability to treat disorders and abnormalities within the brain. Neuroimaging is not just useful for spotting problems within the brain. Doctors and scientists can take three-dimensional scans of the brain and use those to understand general brain functions as well as more specific tasks, thoughts, and emotions. Psychologists, for example, utilize neuroimaging in a myriad of ways. An experiment was conducted in which White Americans, including those who claimed they had no prejudice, were shown pictures of people belonging to different races. Using neuroimaging, the psychologists were able to observe reactions within the amygdala, the part of the brain that processes fear and threats. Neuroimaging has also been used to examine the development of the brain from birth until old age. Circumstances within or outside the control of a maternal carrier in utero can cause later issues with brain development. This can lead to events such as dyslexia, attention deficit disorder, and more. Neuroimaging can highlight the structural deficit of a child’s brain and early neuro-intervention such as cognitive training can lead to a restructuring of the brain, thereby reducing the potential functional impact of the deficit. Another way that this can be accomplished is through the use of medication. Overall, imaging is a very useful tool to physicians, scientists, neuropsychologists, and biomedical researchers, but most importantly, to the patient themselves.
Sources: ● Neuroimaging & Neurointervention (Neuroradiology). https://med.stanford.edu/neuroimaging/about.html ● “Scanning the Brain.” American Psychological Association, American Psychological Association, https://www.apa.org/topics/neuropsychology/brain-form-function
Bone Scanning Aviva Schilowitz ‘24 Bone scanning, a form of nuclear bone imaging, has increased in popularity in recent years. It diagnoses a wide range of bone issues – from rare bone cancers to fractures invisible to CAT Scans. Bone scans are also useful for tracking the progress of bone treatments while being extremely safe and comfortable for the patient. In bone imaging, a small amount of radioactive dye, called radionuclide, is injected to a site on a patient’s body. The radionuclide then naturally collects in parts of the bone tissue where there is an unusual amount of chemical or physical deformity. The radionuclide lets out gamma radiation which is then identified by the scanner scanning the bone. An image is taken that specifically shows concentrations of the radionuclide in the body. If there is a lot of buildup of radionuclide in an area, that tells doctors that there's an issue with the bone metabolism, which is how our bones break down and repair themselves, in that area. The medical term for an area where radionuclide builds up is a “hot spot.” Bone scans are useful for a number of medical issues, such as diagnosing cancer, arthritis, and fractures because they show up as hot spots. They can also see bone infections and pick up issues with joint replacements. Currently, they are most frequently used to assess the spread of cancer, both in terms of whether bone cancer has spread or whether a cancer from elsewhere has spread to the bone. Bone scans do not carry significant risks. There is the small exposure to radiation but it’s small enough that doctors and scientists feel it is only worrisome for pregnant women. Some people could have an allergic reaction to the tracer, but that is extremely rare. Another benefit of bone scanning is that little preparation is required, although some people opt to take a sedative before the actual scan. Unlike many other procedures and tests, the patient does not have to fast beforehand. In practice, the procedure works as follows. The patient puts on a hospital gown and receives an IV in their arm to inject the tracer for the scan. The tracer has to concentrate for around three hours before the scan. While the patient waits for the tracer to concentrate, they will be asked to drink a lot of water to flush out any excess tracer. Once the tracer has had enough time to concentrate, the patient will be asked to clear their bladder and then will go to the scan. The patient lies on a scanning table and the machine will move around them trying to detect the gamma rays that the tracer emits. The scan itself typically takes between 30 and 60 minutes and is painless. After the bone scan patients should try to move around because they might be dizzy from lying down for a long time. A patient will be instructed to drink a lot of fluids in order to get rid of the leftover tracer from their system. Then the patient will be sent on their way and receive their results within the next few days.
● https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/bone-scan ● https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/bone-scan ● https://www.healthline.com/health/bone-scan ● https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-scan/about/pac-20393136
Virtual Reality and the Future of Medicine Sarah Silverman ‘24 In life, some things are better shown than explained through words. The use of Virtual Reality in the medical sphere is a bolstering field, with many doctors proclaiming it is a vital part of the future of medicine. Even in the early days of technology, virtual reality had exciting potential to revolutionize the way people interact with the world. When people think of VR, most imagine a person playing a video game or walking across an imaginary tightrope, but it can also be much more. Many medical experts are excited that the technology can distract patients from what is going on around them. A 2011 study with 54 children in burn units saw a 44 percent decrease in pain when playing a VR game during a procedure. Virtual Reality, and other types of interactive innovations, are hitting the medical community by storm and helping patients find relief in ways they couldn't before. Besides distracting patients, VR can also be an explanatory guide to understand the procedures they will be having or what is going on inside them. A doctor can show a patient a brain and point to the issue, but patients could understand their ailments much better if they could see the scarred brain tissue or a blockage by their heart. A play-by-play-up-close model has been shown to be more effective and less nerve-racking for an inpatient since it is easier to understand and does not require extensive medical knowledge as, say, interpreting diagrams would. This technology is being explored when it comes to treating mental health disorders. If someone is scared of an event, social interaction, or experience in their past, having them live through it visually can train them not to be as triggered when thinking or experiencing it in life. This mode of thought has been used on 9/11 and Iraq war veterans who suffered from PTSD. Having them go back to the place that gave them trauma through VR and with a trusted professional guiding them has cured their maladies more than other conventional procedures. Although not widely used, many doctors advocate for the practice, and with the physical machinery becoming ever cheaper and Covid-19 causing a reduction of in-person appointments, this dream may become a reality. If you can dream it, code it, and design your world, it can be used in medical practice. With the intersection between the medical and technological sectors only becoming more pronounced in recent years, who's to say we won't all soon be using VR headsets for more than just playing Mario Bros.
● Martin, Sam. “Virtual Reality Might Be the next Big Thing for Mental Health.” Scientific American Blog Network, Scientific American, 24 June 2019, https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/virtual-reality-might-be-the-next-big-th ing-for-mental-health/. ● Setzer, Joshua. “How Virtual Reality (VR) Is Reshaping Patient Care - Lucid Dream: Virtual and Augmented Reality for Healthcare & Life Sciences.” Lucid Dream | Virtual and Augmented Reality for Healthcare & Life Sciences, Lucid Dream | Virtual and Augmented Reality for Healthcare & Life Sciences, 27 May 2020, https://www.luciddreamvr.com/blog/how-virtual-reality-is-reshaping-patient-education. ● Spiegel, Brennan. “Virtual Reality and the Covid Mental Health Crisis.” Scientific American, Scientific American, 15 Nov. 2020, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/virtual-reality-and-the-covid-mental-health-cr isis/.
Nanomedicine Gabby Besharim ‘23 In the International System of Units, the term “nano” means one-billionth of a meter. A sheet of paper is about 100,000 nanometers thick. The use of nanotechnology in medicine is an interdisciplinary field that involves science, engineering and technology. Nanomedicine offers the ability to precisely target a location in the human body for diagnostic and imaging purposes, implants, screening exams, the delivery of life-extending medication, and the development of vaccinations. It involves the use of biological, nonbiological, and synthetic materials that mimic biochemical processes. Nanomedicine provides precision treatment for tumors, limiting the harm caused to other tissue by radiation. It has the potential to improve disease detection and diagnosis. Nanoparticles are used to deliver medication. They can “enter tumors via their localized leaky vasculature and are retained due to poor lymphatic drainage in the tumor microenvironment.” After nanoparticles deliver the medication, it is unclear whether all nanoparticles will be expelled from the body by being filtered through the renal system, or if they build up in different organs in the body. Nanoparticles are used in computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET). In these applications, nanoparticles are used to provide high contrast with tissue to better locate and identify foreign bodies such as nodules, masses, or nephrolithiasis (kidney stones). Gold nanoparticles are now being effectively deployed as contrast agents, and their small size allows them to pass through the renal system after their use. Gold has a high atomic number and electron density compared to iodine, which is traditionally used as an X-ray contrast agent.
● Pelaz, Beatriz et al. “Diverse Applications of Nanomedicine.” ACS nano vol. 11,3 (2017): 2313-2381. doi:10.1021/acsnano.6b06040
Endoscopies Aaron Green ‘23 An endoscopy is a procedure where an endoscope (a thin, flexible tube with a light and a tiny camera on the end) is inserted into one's mouth to examine their upper digestive system. An endoscopy, typically performed by a gastroenterologist (a doctor who specializes in diseases of the digestive tract), is the main tool in diagnosing and treating upper digestive tract symptoms. Prior to an endoscopy, a patient may be given a local anesthetic to numb a specific area of their body. Once the procedure begins, the doctor will insert a long flexible tube with a camera and a light on the end, also known as an endoscope, into the patient's mouth. He will continue to gently push the tube into the patient's throat, followed by the esophagus, stomach or the upper part of the small intestine. The camera projects the view of the endoscope onto a screen in the examination room. If the doctor notices anything unusual, surgical tools will be used through the endoscope to remove a tissue sample for closer examination. Once the procedure is complete the endoscope will be removed from the patient. There are many reasons to get an endoscopy. An endoscopy is often used as a diagnostic tool to treat symptoms including trouble swallowing, heartburn, feeling full quickly, coughing, or vomiting blood.
Endoscopies can also be used in a procedure called an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). During this procedure, an endoscopy is used with an x-ray to diagnose and treat problems in the liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, and pancreas. Endoscopies are often used to investigate possible tumors on the esophagus, stomach, or small intestine that may present as cancer. This is done by passing long thin forceps through the center of an endoscope to collect a biopsy sample. The earliest sighting of an endoscope-like device goes as far back as the ancient Greek and Roman Period. Devices often referred to as a “prototype” of the modern-day endoscope have been found in the ruins of the ancient city, Pompei. The first recorded attempt to internally examine a living human body was in 1805, using a device called the Lichtleiter (light guiding instrument), invented by Phillip Bozini, though the first mention of the word “endoscope” was not until roughly 50 years later, in 1853. This was an instrument made by Antoine Jean Desormeux, who is now known as the “father of endoscopy,” specifically to examine the urinary tract and bladder. For the first time, in 1868, Dr. Adolf Kusman succeeded in observing the inside of a stomach of a living human. This was performed on a sword swallower using a metal tube that was 47-centimeters long and had a diameter of 13 millimeters, a device based on Antoine Jean Desormeux’s endoscope. Then in the late 1870s doctors Max Nitze and Josef Leiter invented a specialized type of endoscope called cystourethroscope used to examine the bladder and urethra. Though it wasn't until 1881 that a gastroscope was available for practical applications, it was later modified in 1932, when the first flexible gastroscope was invented which could perform examinations even with a bent tube. In the past 40 years, major innovations have been and continue to be made in the field of endoscopies. The latest and most prominent innovation in this field is the capsule endoscope. This is used in a type of endoscopy where a pill capsule with a camera is swallowed by the patient, in place of an endoscope. In the next ten years, largely driven by patient comfort, capsule endoscopy has been anticipated to serve as the main form of endoscopy, possibly replacing colonoscopies (a procedure where a colonoscope is inserted into the rectum to examine the large intestine).
lichtleiter
Endoscope by antoine
Capsule endoscopy
Endoscope in use
● “Origin of Endoscopes: Endoscopes: History of Olympus Products: Technology.” OLYMPUS,https://www.olympus-global.com/technology/museum/endo/?page=technolog y_museum. ● “UpperGiEndoscopy.”Johns Hopkins Medicine, https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/upper-gi-endoscoy . ● “Upper Endoscopy.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 27 Aug. 2020, https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/endoscopy/about/pac-20395197.
Portable MRIs Ashley Behm ‘24 One of the most critical tools used by hospitals today is Magnetic Resonance Imaging, commonly known by its abbreviation, MRI. Doctors use MRIs to get a picture of the inside of a patient's body which can be used to find different types of abnormalities, cancers, and diseases. An MRI machine appears as a large tube with a table inside, for the patient to lie down. The table moves through the tube as the MRI machine uses a magnetic field and radio waves to develop an image of the inside of the body. A magnetic field almost 60,000 times stronger than that of the Earth allows the hydrogen atoms in the body to align in the same direction. Then, radio waves are sent to move the atoms. Finally, the radio waves turn off and the atoms return to their original places while sending radio signals the computer uses to generate an image. A typical MRI machine weighs over five tons and needs to be in a special room due to its powerful magnets and radioactive effects. The MRI room must be clear of metal objects that the MRI machine could attract, which could put both the machine and the patient in danger. Sometimes patients are too sick to be transported for an MRI, which could delay their possibly
urgent treatment. Fortunately, Hyperfine, a company based in Connecticut, is testing out their portable MRI that can be easily wheeled to a patient's bedside. Hyperfine’s portable MRI, appropriately named Swoop, due to its swift transport can get an image of the patient's brain and head from virtually anywhere with an electrical outlet. This device costs substantially less money than a stationary MRI machine and does not require a special room. Doctors are able to get pictures of the head and brain almost immediately, allowing them to make a quick diagnosis. Many hospitals around the world do not have MRI machines because of their high price tag. Portable MRIs could fill this gap as they are a much cheaper alternative and do not require a special room. Portable MRIs could also be beneficial in emergency situations out of the hospital. How does Hyperfines’ Swoop work? While a lot of its technology has been kept under wraps, little is known about its design. The portable machine uses artificial intelligence to convert signals picked up by the magnet into a clear picture of the head and brain. Artificial intelligence compensates for the lack of a strong magnet. The ability to use a weaker magnet allows the machine to be used anywhere and does not confine the MRI to a special room. Hospitals trying out the portable MRI have found it incredibly helpful for finding the cause of a patient's recent stroke. Understanding the reasons behind a stroke within a short period of time after it happens can help doctors come up with a treatment plan that may save the patient's life. Hospitals have also been using portable MRIs to look at the brains of patients sick with COVID-19. Often these patients are too sick to move, or moving them can put others at risk. Luckily, the MRI can be brought to them. Using the Swoop, some COVID-19 patients were discovered to have brain irregularities, and were treated accordingly. Hyperfine is not the only group working on portable MRIs; researchers from the University of Hong Kong are drawing up plans for MRIs using weaker magnets that don’t require surround shielding. While the images would be lower resolution, they could be used in critical moments when images of the brain are needed quickly. The researchers are also working on an algorithm that can help make the images more accurate. This one is set to cost half the price of Hyperfine’s. Portable medical machinery has the potential to be the future of medical machinery. With these machines often costing less than their stationary counterparts, they are more accessible and can be used in hospitals with limited resources. Testing on Swoop is showing promising results and the machine will hopefully be found in more hospitals in the next few years. ● ●
Hathaway, Bill. “Portable MRI Can Detect Brain Abnormalities at Bedside.” YaleNews, 10 Sept. 2020, https://news.yale.edu/2020/09/08/portable-mri-can-detect-brain-abnormalities-bedside. Hathaway, Bill. “Portable MRI Provides Life-Saving Information to Doctors Treating Strokes.” YaleNews, 3 Sept. 2021, https://news.yale.edu/2021/08/25/portable-mri-provides-life-saving-information-doctors-treatingstrokes.
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“Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).” Johns Hopkins Medicine, https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/magnetic-resonance-imagi ng-mri. Makin, Simon. “A Portable MRI Makes Imaging More Democratic.” Scientific American, Scientific American, 16 Dec. 2021, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-portable-mri-makes-imaging-more-democratic/?prin t=true. Portable MRI Machine Opens a World of Possibilities for M Health Fairview Patients. https://mhealthfairview.org/blog/m-health-fairview-trials-portable-magnetic-resonance-imagingmri-machine. “SWOOP® Portable MR Imaging System™: Bringing MRI to the Patient.” Hyperfine, 9 Dec. 2021, https://hyperfine.io/.
AI and Cancer Detection Keren Teichner ‘25 Detecting cancer isn't easy. Cancer is misdiagnosed 10-20% of the time. Artificial Intelligence (or AI) is a technology that is now being used in order to lower those numbers. Mirriam-Webster defines AI as “the power of a machine to copy intelligent human behavior”. AI helps doctors accurately diagnose cancer patients and treat them appropriately. The type of cancer that is more commonly being diagnosed and treated by AI is breast cancer. Breast cancer occurs on average in 255,000 American women per year. It is typically diagnosed by one or two radiologists reading a woman's mammograms. When using AI technology, the rate of correctly diagnosed cancers is equal to that of two doctors. Compared to one doctor there were 1.2% fewer false positives and 2.7% fewer false negatives. For reference, this would mean that per year in the U.S., through the use of AI, there would be over 3,060 less false positives and 6,885 less false negatives. This enhanced accuracy could increase cancer survival rates. MammoScreen is an AI tool created by the company Therapixel. It works by improving mammography accuracy by identifying regions that are suspicious for breast cancer. It also predicts the cancer’s malignancy (the likelihood of the cancer spreading to other parts of the body and destroying other cells). Once these suspicious areas have been identified, doctors can focus on these areas and determine what the next step should be. Not only does AI detect cancer, but it also assists doctors in developing a treatment plan for the patient. It finds the correct dosage of medication and can store and alter information easily, allowing for adjustments to the treatment plan. These information and organization capabilities of AI greatly aid doctors when treating a patient. The goal of AI in the detection of breast cancer is not to replace doctors, but rather, to assist them. The human eye can only see so much and detecting cancer is no easy feat. As science becomes more advanced, the tools available to doctors do as well. AI can improve
outcomes by lowering the workload of doctors, and producing more accurate results and treatments. AI is bringing us one step closer to conquering this disease. Sources: ● Artificial Intelligence. National Cancer Institute. (2020, August 31). Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.cancer.gov/research/areas/diagnosis/artificial-intelligence ● Cancer statistics - facts on cancer. Paul & Perkins. (n.d.). Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://paulandperkins.com/cancer-statistics/ ● Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, October 18). Basic information about lung cancer. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/lung/basic_info/index.htm ● Jackson, C. (2020, November 5). Artificial intelligence may potentially improve breast cancer screening. GEN. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.genengnews.com/news/artificial-intelligence-may-potentially-improve-breas t-cancer-screening/ ● Jackson, C. (2021, September 28). Artificial Intelligence System Improves Breast Cancer Detection. GEN. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.genengnews.com/news/artificial-intelligence-system-improves-breast-cancer -detection/ ● Joseph, A. T. (2021, April 30). This startup uses A.I. to detect breast cancer early. Fortune India: Business News, Strategy, Finance and Corporate Insight. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.fortuneindia.com/enterprise/this-startup-uses-ai-to-detect-breast-cancer-early /105450 ● Kauffman, M. (n.d.). Benefits of AI in radiation oncology. Society for Radiation Oncology Administrators. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.sroa.org/blog/benefits-of-ai-in-radiation-oncology/ ● Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Artificial Intelligence Definition & meaning. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/artificial%20intelligence ● Rsna. (2020, November 4). AI tool improves breast cancer detection on mammography. EurekAlert! Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/664428 ● U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2021, November 30). Malignancy: Medlineplus medical encyclopedia. MedlinePlus. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002253.htm#:~:text=The%20term%20%22malignan cy%22 %20refers%20to,changes%20in%20their%20genetic%20makeup. ● Walsh, F. (2020, January 2). Ai 'outperforms' doctors diagnosing breast cancer. BBC News. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.bbc.com/news/health-50857759