Who Was Rosalind Franklin and The Marshmallow Test
What Was Her Contribution
Caroline Kollander ‘27 to Science? Pg. 13
Caroline Kollander ‘27
Pg. 3
Stem Cells
Mai Shashua ’26
Pg. 5
Technology Behind the Era’s Tour
Caroline Kollander ‘27
Pg. 15
Rats on the Move
Miniature Organs, Major Delilah Weiss ‘26
Breakthroughs: The Power of Pg. 17
Organoids in Healthcare
Racheli Voda ’26
Pg. 7
Genetically Modified Organisms In Food Production
Caroline Kollander ’27
Pg. 9
What Sleep Could Mean for Your Grades
Eleanor Goldfarb ’27
Pg. 11
Artificial Intelligence
Mai Shashua ‘26
Pg. 19
Who Was Rosalind Franklin and What Was Her Contribution to Science?
At some point in high school, you’ve likely encountered diagrams of both DNA and RNA. Aside from the endless curiosity those images may have inspired, have you ever put any thought into who exactly figured out what DNA and RNA look like? In this case, Rosalind Franklin is the genius behind the revelation. Franklin was born in London, England in July of 1920 and accomplished much in her short 37-year lifetime. She came from a prominent Anglo-Jewish family that valued education greatly. Throughout her childhood, she was reported to have been a gifted student who challenged her peers for concrete support on all of their intellectual claims. Rosalind Franklin became a physical chemist at Newnham College, University of Cambridge, and took a particular interest in DNA structure. She then went on to King’s College, London, and joined the Biophysical Laboratory as a research fellow.
Franklin’s goal was to understand DNA and used X-ray diffraction methods and mathematical computations as tools to do so. She discovered the density and structure (helical conformation) of DNA. Scientists James Watson and Francis Crick built off the foundation of Franklin’s remarkable discoveries. These two men ended up establishing that DNA is a double helix polymer in 1953. The last years of her life were spent studying ribonucleic acid's unique qualities at the Crystallography Laboratory at Birkbeck College, London. Unfortunately, Franklin was faced with extreme gender disparity and discrimination which played a large part in her work going unrecognized for roughly 50 years. Today Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science is named after her to honor, acknowledge, and admire Franklin's brilliance and key contributions to science as we know it today.
Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science. “Dr. Rosalind Franklin.” Rosalind Franklin University, Rosalind Franklin University, 2014, www.rosalindfranklin.edu/about/facts-figures/ dr-rosalind-franklin/.
Stem Cells
Stem cells are unique cells that benefit medicine in many ways. They can self-renew, meaning they can make more cells like themselves. Stem cells are found in almost all tissues; their job is to repair and maintain the tissue. They can also transform into other cell types in our bodies. For example, they can change into brain, heart, and bone cells. No other cell in the body is capable of doing this.
There are many different types of stem cells; they are divided into two subcategories: embryonic and adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are the most versatile and are used in research today. They can also develop into any cell in a developing fetus. Embryonic cells can turn into more than one cell type. However, adult stem cells can only turn into certain types of cells. For example, if an adult stem cell comes from the brain, it will only generate new brain cells.
There are also pluripotent stem cells, which are adult stem cells that were changed in a lab to be more like embryonic stem cells. According to scientists, these cells do not seem much different from embryonic stem cells. However, these cells can still not be generated in every cell and tissue.
Stem cells are very interesting and popular because they allow people to understand how diseases occur. They can also help generate new stem cells to cure those diseases.
Stem cells play a huge role in the medical field. Hematopoietic stem cells, which are blood cellforming adult stem cells, are the only stem cells currently being used to treat diseases. These stem cells are found in bone marrow and are used in bone marrow transplants. These transplants help people with cancer make new blood cells after their cells are killed by cancer treatments. They can also help people with Fanconi anemia, a blood disorder that causes the body’s bone marrow to not function properly.
Researchers also believe that stem cells can help create tissue, which can help develop new treatments. An example of this is that doctors can grow healthy heart muscles in a lab and transfer them to damaged hearts.
However exciting these stem cells sound, they need some more research. Scientists need to learn more about stem cells, how they are created, and how to control them before they put them into use. Furthermore, some clinical trials are available in the United States to try out stem cells. Overall, while stem cells sound interesting and can help so many people. More research needs to be done on them before they get incorporated regularly into medicine.
References
“Answers to Your Questions about Stem Cell Research.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 23 Mar. 2024, www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrowtransplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art-20048117.
“Stem Cell Basics.” National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/stc-basics. Accessed 30 Dec. 2024.
“What Are Stem Cells?” Stanford Medicine Children’s Health, www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/ default?id=what-are-stem-cells-160-38. Accessed 30 Dec. 2024.
Mai Shashua ’26
Miniature Organs, Major Breakthroughs: The Power of Organoids in Healthcare
One of the biggest questions scientists have long tried to answer is how to cure diseases that affect vital organs, such as Alzheimer’s, cancer, and heart disease. Thanks to groundbreaking advancements in biotechnology, we’ve taken a major step forward. Think of learning to play a new game–understanding the rules and instructions is key. The same applies to treating a disease–every aspect of the disease must be studied and understood. This is where organoids come in. These small three-dimensional cell structures are used to mimic the complexity of human organs. Derived from pluripotent stem cells, cells with the potential to differentiate into any type of cell in the human body, organoids play a crucial role in advancing disease research.
The first question that pops up in my head, and probably yours as well, is how do you grow an organ? The process begins with the extraction of pluripotent stem cells, which can be sourced from either an embryo or adult somatic cells. These cells are then placed in a laboratory dish, where special conditions are applied to prevent them from rapidly differentiating into unwanted cell types. The cytokine LIF (leukemia inhibitory factor) and protein bFGF (basic fibroblast growth factor) are used to maintain their pluripotent state. LIF activates special receptors and pathways that support the expression of core pluripotency genes. bFGF binds to certain receptors which signal pathways that hinder differentiation. To guide the cells toward growing into the desired organ tissue, additional proteins and environmental factors are carefully introduced. Ultimately, the cells are closely monitored throughout this process to ensure they develop as intended.
What if we could grow miniaturized versions of our organs to better understand our personal cells and the diseases that affect us? This is the power of organoids in healthcare today. Organoids enable personalized medicine by using a patient’s own cells to create a mini-organ model. From there, a miniature version of their own organ can be studied to develop a specially made treatment plan. Not only that, but these miniature organs help us understand diseases that affect millions around the world. Organoids are not only advancing disease research but also paving the way for more personalized and effective treatments in the future.
References
Barbuzano, Javier. “Organoids: A New Window into Disease, Development and Discovery.” Harvard.edu, 7 Nov. 2017, hsci.harvard.edu/organoids.
ClevaLab. “Growing Organs | Stem Cells, Organoids and 3D Bioprinting.” Youtube, 2025, youtube/ jSWwDCNNtrE?si=uCnc3Cgm_XdUYrX-. Accessed 24 Feb. 2025.
Zieba, Jennifer. “What Are Organoids and How Are They Made?” The Scientist Magazine®, 11 Aug. 2022, www.the-scientist.com/mini-organs-in-a-dish-the-versatility-and-applications-oforganoids-70354.
Racheli Voda ’26
The Science of Vaccines
There is a large debate across the United States on exactly how to handle genetically modified organisms in food production. A GMO is a plant or animal whose genetic material has been altered using biotechnology. The purpose of doing this is to enhance desired traits. For example, improving nutritional content, or tolerance to environmental concerns; However, it’s not all good.
On the one hand, many popular crops today would not exist without this innovation, like corn, papayas, edamame, sugar, etc. Each of these crops had been on the brink of extinction before genetically modified organisms came into play. Without GMOs, farmers would resort to toxic chemicals like pesticides for insect and disease protection, herbicides for weed control, and fungicides for strength against poor weather conditions. These chemicals happen to be expensive and drive up the cost of the product. GMO crops are cheaper, therefore allowing farmers to either make more profit or increase their amount of buyers due to a cheaper price. Genetically modified products have also passed every safety evaluation as of 2025 and have proven to pose no greater health risks than a natural alternative.
On the other hand, unnatural inventions used for food consumption usually come with a price. Genetically modified organisms have sparked a lot of anxiety from buyers across the globe. This inspired scientists to further investigate using other animals like humans. French scientists conducted a study on GMOs using rats. Rats were given genetically modified corn and results showed horrifying side effects. The rats became terminally ill and grew large tumors. Although these results are jarring, this study does not provide enough evidence against GMOs, as rats possess other contributing factors to illness and tumors.
While some people might argue that organic and natural methods are always the healthiest option, others may say that the new more advanced systems make more sense economically and health-wise. It is important to consider both sides when on the topic of a potential ban because each makes very strong and educated arguments. At this point, the only way to regulate is to constantly update and adjust the production and usage of the dangerously controversial genetically modified organisms as more research surfaces.
Caroline Kollander ’27
References
Charles, Dan. “As Scientists Question New Rat Study, GMO Debate Rages On.” NPR.org, 20 Sept. 2012, www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/09/19/161424735/as-scientists-question-new-ratstudy-gmo-debate-rages-on.
Pflanzer, Lydia Ramsey. “Crops That Wouldn’t Exist without GMOs.” Business Insider, 27 Apr. 2016, www.businessinsider.com/crops-that-wouldnt-exist-without-gmos-2016-4#in-2005-the-usdaapproved-genetically-modified-sugar-beets-which-is-one-of-the-main-sources-of-sugar-5.
Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.
World Health Organization. “Food, Genetically Modified.” World Health Organization, World Health Organization, 1 May 2014, www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/foodgenetically-modified.
What Sleep Could Mean for Your Grades
We’re often told to get a good night's sleep before a test. We all know that good sleep refreshes and enhances our test-taking abilities. But what is the connection between our sleep and how much we remember? And, most importantly, at least for high school students, how does sleep affect the outcome of our grades?
Getting sufficient sleep is necessary before learning to absorb new facts and information. When you learn new information, it is stored in an area of your brain known as the hippocampus. It is hypothesized that the hippocampus has a limited capacity. When sleeping, you forget memories you made that day that are no longer useful. Weak neural connections are removed, creating more room for new information to enter. This allows the brain to function more efficiently. This means that you need to be rested even before you begin learning new material.
When you experience something in your environment, a network of neurons is activated, and the neurons are fired up in a sequence. New synaptic buds are formed. This allows the brain to encode and capture the components of the memory. However, this new information is fragile, and 40% of it is forgotten within the first twenty minutes. For information to be remembered, these connections must be strengthened and stabilized. These short-term memories are integrated into long-term memory in a process known as consolidation
Researchers believe that consolidation occurs during sleep. Scientists have seen through EEG machines the electrical impulses moving about the brain during sleep. There are four stages of sleep and some studies show that different types of memories are formed during different sleep stages. During slow wave sleep (SWS), memories relating to facts and events are reactivated over and over again. This information is connected to other neural pathways and then travels to the neocortex for long-term memory storage. In another stage of sleep called Rapid Blinking Movement, or REM sleep, brain waves are shorter, similar to when you’re awake. During this stage, many synaptic changes occur. This allows for procedural memories or learned skills like playing an instrument to be consolidated over time. Furthermore, research suggests that REM sleep strengthens critical thinking skills, a necessary skill for tests. In a study, participants were woken up a few times a night, some during non-REM sleep and some during REM sleep, to solve anagram puzzles. They solved 15-30% more puzzles when being woken up from REM sleep.
Sleep provides the ideal conditions for memory storage. While you’re sleeping, no external stimulation occurs, giving the brain time to regulate itself from heightened neural activity. In addition, an increased amount of neurotransmitters move between the hippocampus and the neocortex.
It’s important to get a consistent amount of sleep to keep your memory sharp and thrive in school. Instead of staying up late after a long tiring day of school, you should quit the late-night study calls and just go to bed.
References
Cappello, Kelly. “The Impact of Sleep on Learning and Memory.” Perelman School of Medicine, 21 Dec. 2020, www.med.upenn.edu/csi/the-impact-of-sleep-on-learning-and-memory.html.
Marcu, Shai. “The Benefits of a Good Night’s Sleep - Shai Marcu.” YouTube, 5 Jan. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=gedoSfZvBgE.
Sakai, Jill. “How Sleep Shapes What We Remember—and Forget.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 120, no. 2, 3 Jan. 2023, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2220275120.
Sisson, Jordan. “Sleep’s Crucial Role in Preserving Memory.” Medicine.yale.edu, 15 July 2020, medicine.yale.edu/news-article/sleeps-crucial-role-in-preserving-memory/.
Eleanor Goldfarfb ’27
The Marshmallow Test
In 1972 Stanford conducted a psychology experiment on young children to test their ability to delay gratification. A preschooler is given the choice between eating their less preferred snack immediately or waiting a certain amount of time to eat the snack they like better. The options were a pretzel and a marshmallow. The way the test worked was that a child would be presented with the two treats and asked to pick their favorite. Afterward, the experimenter would say that they are leaving and will be back shortly, but the kid needs to wait for him to come back in order to eat their favorite treat. They were informed that if they rang a bell, they could only eat the other snack.
Like many psychological assessments, different factors were added or removed with each trial to obtain different data. Some kids had to wait with both snacks right in front of them and others did not. Subjects with the treats in view were often seen looking in the mirror, closing their eyes, or talking to themselves. These kids were able to wait about 3-5 minutes, while the other group would wait 5-8.
There was another group of preschoolers who dealt with resisting playing with toys instead of food. They were told the same thing–that the experimenter would return but until then, they must refrain from playing. They were advised to think about other things in the meantime. The children in the food group ended up being able to wait much longer due to there being an actual reward for it. The results were presented in a graph.
Another three groups of kids who all had the treats in view the entire experiment were each told different things to think about during the waiting time and even given examples; the treats, sad things, or fun things. The children who were told to think about the treats performed the worst (Group C below), the sad things didn’t entertain the kids so they performed second (Group B below) to the best results which were those asked to think of something fun (Group A).
A conclusion that was made was that the preschoolers successful in their test were the ones not shown the treats and distracted themselves with only pleasant or entertaining things. This data teaches a lot about the young mind and the limitations of its selfcontrol.
The last three groups had the treats covered and again were each told different things to think about. Fun things, the treats, or given no instruction. Interestingly enough, the children not told to think about anything in particular had very similar results to the ones who were told to think about fun. Yet again, the ones told to think about the treats did not perform well (Group A below).
Caroline Kollander ’27
References
Marshmallow Test Experiment and Delayed Gratification. 3 Nov. 2022, www.simplypsychology.org/ marshmallow-test.html#The-Stanford-Marshmallow-Experiments.
Technology Behind the Eras Tour
Taylor Swift’s “The Eras Tour” is widely known for being the highest-grossing concert tour in history. Not only is it famous for the three consecutive hours of singing and dancing, but also for the intricately designed stage, sets, and wristbands woven together to create an exhilarating, interactive experience. To understand the appeal of the concert, it is useful to focus on the attention to detail by Taylor and her team. Starting with her involvement in the show, Swift doesn’t actually get to hear any of the music while the crowd sings along to her voice. In her earpiece, all that plays is a metronome which sounds like clicking on beat for the entirety of the three-hour show. At the appropriate times, a generated voice will say things like “Chorus in 3… 2…1”. Part of what makes the concert amazing is that everybody in the crowd participates somehow. Unless you are selected for receiving the 22 hat, you are just like the rest of the fans and participate through your wristband. As you enter the stadium, you will be given a bracelet containing an LED light equipped with a signal receptor and a tiny computer, which processes the signals into colored light. Wristbands can switch to different colors and perfectly timed flashing sequences, thanks to the operator working with a control board behind the scenes. In concerts, sound is the most important aspect. Ensuring a pleasant, yet powerful, volume is a tricky job. For the U.S. shows, the sound was controlled with SD7 Quantum Consoles. Digital Signal Processing is used to fine-tune at each different venue. There is so much that goes into “The Eras Tour” that makes it the phenomenon that it is, especially the technology that the show was built on.
Caroline Kollander ’27
References
“Li, Yunqi. “The Tech Behind Taylor Swift Concert Wristbands | WIRED Middle East.” WIRED Middle East, 23 Oct. 2023, https://wired.me/technology/the-tech-behind-taylor-swift-concertwristbands/.
Rayment-Ward, Ella. “What Taylor Swift Will Hear in Her Earpiece for Three Hours Straight at the Australian Eras Tour Concerts.” Celebrity, 15 Feb. 2024, http://celebrity.nine.com.au/latest/ taylor-swift-earpiece-sound-revealed-during-eras-tour-set/f0f0bf37-ab58-4ac2a08e-4a0a35a46828.
“This Night Is Sparkling: The Enchanting AV Technology Behind Taylor Swift’s Eras Tour.” ISE 2025, 30 Oct. 2024, http://www.iseurope.org/news/night-sparkling-enchanting-av-technology-behindtaylor-swifts-eras-tour.
Rats on the Move
Who knew that rats could actually drive cars? While it might seem impossible, a research team at the University of Richmond, led by Kelly Lambert, is teaching these critters to drive. The results show that rats enjoy driving and are eager to get behind the wheel. This study can help us understand the capabilities of rats, often underestimated animals.
Lambert and her team train these rats to drive for food, often a Froot Loop, triggering a Pavlovian response. The rats’ excitement could be attributed to food reward, but it might be something else. Lambert wonders that maybe the rats genuinely enjoy the ride and that perhaps it relieves stress.
The miniature cars were constructed out of clear plastic bottles with an aluminum floor. Their steering wheel was a copper bar, and when they gripped it, it propelled them forward through an electrical circuit. The rats were able to steer by touching different bars on various sides of the car. By placing the Froot Loops in different locations (some farther than others) the rats learned to steer themselves to wherever the reward is.
The scientists also learned that this activity helped reduce stress levels in the rats. The team measured two types of stress-related hormones: corticosterone (marks stress) and dehydroepiandrosterone (counters stress). Levels of dehydroepiandrosterone were significantly higher over the course of the experiment. This finding, Lambert says, suggests that rats are satisfied when they learn a new skill, similar to humans.
This study shows the complexity of rat’s brains. Lambert says, “I do believe that rats are smarter than most people perceive them to be and that most animals are smarter, in unique ways, than we think.” According to Lambert, scientists can use this experiment to check for serious issues such as the effects of Parkinson’s disease and depression.
Delilah Weiss ’26
References
Klein, Alice. “Scientists Have Trained Rats to Drive Tiny Cars to Collect Food.” New Scientist, New Scientist, 31 Oct. 2019, www.newscientist.com/article/2220721-scientists-have-trained-rats-todrive-tiny-cars-to-collect-food/.
McCormack, Caitlin. “Scientists Teach Rats to Drive Tiny Cars and ‘Unexpectedly’ Discover the Rodents Enjoy Revving Their Engines.” New York Post, New York Post, 18 Nov. 2024, nypost.com/2024/11/17/science/scientists-teaching-rats-how-to-drive-discover-that-therodents-have-a-need-for-speed/.
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence has reshaped the world and people's lives in the last few years. It is used and is everywhere. Artificial intelligence, also called AI, is a branch of computer science that creates machines and mechanisms capable of doing tasks that humans can. These tasks include giving recommendations, making art, and translating languages. AI is reshaping our lives and continues to grow day by day.
The ultimate goal of AI is for it to perform and think like humans. It is also capable of doing things humans can't. AI works by imitating human intelligence using data and algorithms.
There are multiple types of AI programs, one of which many know is ChatGPT. AI has implemented itself into social media, music, and editing platforms. There are also different subsets of AI, such as machine learning, neural networks, game-playing/robotics, and natural language processing (NLP). Machine learning lets devices do what they are supposed to do through data without being told exactly what to do. Neural networks are systems that try to think like the human brain, which allows them to recognize complex patterns. Robotics allows machines to do tasks in the real world. NLP helps computers interpret and respond to human language.
There are two kinds of artificial intelligence: weak AI and strong AI. Weak AI is also known as narrow and cannot think beyond its programming. Some examples of this AI are Siri, Amazon Alexa, self-driving cars, and chatboxes. Strong AI is more general and possesses a human-like intelligence. This type of AI is found in science fiction movies and novels and does not exist in real life.
Artificial intelligence itself is evolving every day. However, it also helps develop our world today. AI is implemented in many curricula and workplaces. It revolutionizes the ways businesses operate and is implemented to transform healthcare. AI is also used for entertainment, such as forming new content for video games and improving the experience of using a streaming device.
Many think AI is “taking over the world”; however, this is not true. Humans can do so much that AI can merely not replicate. AI will not invade our privacy; instead, it will make it easier. AI is also not replacing humans in the workforce. Instead, AI will be implemented into people’s jobs to make them more efficient. Overall, AI is growing rapidly and is not here to replace humans but to help us work smarter and live better.
Mai Shashua ’26
References
Ashenden, Pauline. “Will Ai Take Over the World? Will Ai Take oOverCustomer Service?” Enghouse
Interactive, 25 Mar. 2024, www.enghouseinteractive.com/blog/will-ai-take-over-the-worldwill-ai-take-over-customer-service/.
Kelley, Karin. “How Does AI Work? A Beginner’s Guide.” Caltech, 12 Sept. 2024, pgp.ctme.caltech.edu/blog/ai-ml/how-does-ai-work-a-beginners-guide.
“What Is (AI) Artificial Intelligence?” What Is (AI) Artificial Intelligence? | Online Master of Engineering | University of Illinois Chicago, meng.uic.edu/news-stories/ai-artificialintelligence-what-is-the-definition-of-ai-and-how-does-ai-work/. Accessed 25 Nov. 2024.
“The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing.” - Albert Einstein
This publication, which encourages science research, is generously sponsored by The Harriet H. Cohen and Paul Milberg Science Research Program.
