Vocatio

VOCATI Published by the Regent College Foundation

VOL. 6, NO. 1, WINTER 2002

A publication of the Marketplace Theology concentration at Regent College, offering Christian reflection on the ministry of the whole people of God in the workplace.

GLOBAL ISSUES IN MARKETPLACE MINISTRY THIS ISSUE: Going Global R. Paul Stevens

Stuff: Towards a More Biblical View of Matter L.T. Jeyachandran . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Moral Business: Business Ethics for Hong Kong Simon Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

The Bible, Wealth, and Business: Part One Gordon Preece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

The Deal: Loyalty in a Short-term World Peter Curran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Reflections on the Experience of Redundancy Peter M. Heath . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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Going Global

A R. Paul Stevens Editor, David J. Brown Family Professor of Marketplace Theology and Leadership at Regent College VOCATIO—Winter 2002

few weeks ago I was in Belo-Horizonte and hunted for a Brazilian leather knapsack to replace the one I bought ten years ago, now rather tattered. After an hour or two I finally found one. But it was made in China! The owner of the store said, sadly, “We can’t compete any more.” Globalization is a fact of life in business today. A cartoon shows two people looking through a massive telescope. One says to the other, “A second Starbucks on Venus!” Unquestionably, business is a global phenomenon today, but our marketplace theology, if we have one at all, has been decidedly Western.

So last June, Robert Banks, of the Macquarie Christian Studies Institute (Sydney, Australia), and I convened a consultation of 35 people from 15 countries representing every continent. We attempted to have a thoughtful business person and an academic theologian from each country present.

It was not a conference (with a few high-powered speakers) but a working consultation with each person contributing. Some of the results will be shared in an abbreviated form in this and in the next two issues of Vocatio.

Many of the participants are Regent alums serving in the marketplace, or people Rob Banks and I have met in our international travels doing marketplace and everyday life teaching. In this issue we hear from India, Hong Kong, Australia, and the United Kingdom. Some of the articles are focused on a specific issue, such as redundancy and loyalty, while others deal with the calling of marketplace Christians more comprehensively in terms of biblical theology and ethics. In the next issue we will have articles from South America, Malaysia, Australia, Singapore, and Korea.

How should this magazine be read? Obviously we have not attempted to provide a comprehensive global marketplace theology. But a few questions may help to gain the maximum value from these articles. What are the specific cultural and spiritual issues that intersect with this person’s engagement for God in the marketplace? How do these issues, when reflected upon, open up new and unsuspected dimensions of Christian theology? What does it mean for this person to be engaged in doing ministry in the marketplace? What dimensions of my own grasp of the Bible’s message for marketplace Christians have been challenged?

The underlying reason for the consultation and these issues of Vocatio is that it is only “together with all the saints” that we can grasp “how wide and long and high and deep is the love of Christ” (Eph 3:18).

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Stuff: Towards a More Biblical View of Matter

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S. Lewis has remarked that if he had not turned to Christ from atheism, his other alternative was Hinduism. This comment is striking because he made it in the 1930s, long before Eastern religions and philosophies had come to be the influence they are today.

Concerning God, Lewis perceived only three possible options: There is no God; Christ is God; All is God. My plea in this essay is to identify the most plausible of these three views that would bring about the right perspectives on work. In rather paradoxical ways, both the atheistic and Hindu views deny hierarchy in matter. Atheism is reductionistic and therefore sees nothing other than matter in the entire universe.

Hinduism, on the other hand, elevates all of matter to the level of the divine. It will be clear as we go along that views that deny hierarchy in the nature of matter eventually end up introducing hierarchy in work and thus ultimately affect our attitude to work.

It is not an accident that the Bible begins with a not-so-religious theme—a world of matter! It seems to be preoccupied, not with the creation of the spirit-world, but with a world of matter to be ruled over by humans. A correct theology of matter and the material world must precede a correct theology of work within the confines of that world. The theology of matter as laid down for us in the Bible is thrown into relief as we contemplate the two competing views of matter.

The Atheistic Perspective The view that matter is all that exists—the atheistic perspective—does not actually do matter a great deal of honour. This view does present the world’s diversity in all its glory, but it lacks a unifying framework that provides the basis for the harmony and interdependence we see in nature. The atheistic perspective cannot explain the beauty of the world because humans, who alone are capable of appreciating this beauty, are “nothing but molecules in motion,” in the words of the late Cornell astronomer, Carl Sagan. No specific purpose or meaning to the mosaic of the universe exists, except in a purely utilitarian sense—manipulation for the use of humankind. The reason for looking after nature is purely

L.T. Jeyachandran Civil engineer, formerly working for the government of India, now retired and involved in the work of theological apologetics with Ravi Zacharias International Ministries in Singapore.

Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 1

utilitarian again, and is stated as the survival of the human race.

The Pantheistic Perspective

When workers ascribe to popular views of matter…. they worship instruments of work… but do not conscientiously commit themselves to work, or they talk about work itself being worship and end up as workaholics.

The New Age view holds that all reality— including the divine and the spirit—is of one essence; thus, there need be no distinction within the different manifestations of matter—say between vegetables and humans. The world of matter we inhabit and we, the inhabitants, are all seen to be extensions of the divine essence. Thus, because the world is one with us in every sense, we need to look after our environment. Here again, nature is deified and is considered outside the pale of responsible manipulation. In elevating matter to the divine, popular Hinduism encourages devotees not only to worship forces of nature but also to worship implements of work. September 17 is an important date in the calendar of the engineering community in India (of which for many years, I was a part), when the community celebrates a festival called Vishwakarma Puja.

This celebration involves worship (Puja) of the machines and other instruments.

Unfortunately, those who worship these instruments are not necessarily the ones who wield them most efficiently!

I must hasten to clarify the term responsible manipulation. Because of the hierarchy in creation, we, as humans, have the capacity to order and reorder matter in order to achieve productivity and efficiency.

However, we are to do it in a way that reflects the character of the Creator. In Genesis 2:15, the two verbs (in the NIV) work and take care can be translated more accurately (but not in the English idiomatic sense) as serve and guard or keep. The idea is that we must do so in respect of nature and not in a commercial sense.

In Contrast, the Trinitarian Perspective The Trinitarian understanding of creation

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straddles the truths in the two opposing views mentioned above. The real diversity in God—Father, Son and Holy Spirit as distinct persons—endorses the reality of the diversity in the universe. Similarly, the unity in the perichoresis, or total interpenetration within the Trinity, guarantees the underlying harmony and interdependence in the created order. Unity and diversity in the effect—creation—requires unity and diversity in the Cause—the Creator. Thus, the Nature of Ultimate Reality underwrites the nature of created reality: First, the doctrine of the Trinity emphasizes the real diversity in nature. At three points in the account of creation in Genesis 1, God divides existing reality—darkness from light, waters above the expanse from those below the expanse, dry land from the oceans. He calls light as day and darkness as night, dry land as earth, waters as seas. We can therefore conclude that the variety in creation is real, not illusory.

Second, diversity in nature is not one of purposeless confusion triggered only by the evolutionist’s infamous dictum: matter + time + chance. Behind the mosaic of variety is the ordered, purposeful, and aesthetic design of unity, harmony, and beauty. It is not without reason that the evolutionist has been piqued by beauty—“The sight of a peacock’s feather makes me sick,” (attributed to Darwin).

Third, the words transcendence and immanence upon the lips of the theologian acquire fundamental meaning when rooted in reality. Because of the sense of otherness within the Trinity—the Father is not the Son, the Son is not the Spirit, the Spirit is not the Father—the doctrine of the transcendence of God is implicit within the Godhead without it needing to depend upon creation to be actualized. Similarly, perichoresis ensures the immanence of the Creator in his creation.

When workers ascribe to popular views of matter, their views of the world and work are flawed. They tend to either deify or idolize work in two wrong types of

ways. Either they worship instruments of work—so common in India—but do not conscientiously commit themselves to work, or they talk about work itself being worship and end up as workaholics.

Results of an Atheistic Perspective on Matter First, one construes matter as a byproduct of a huge cosmic accident. Science has to make five major philosophical assumptions about the material world for its inception and development; however, none of these assumptions would really be possible in an unintelligent or purposeless world.

• There is a real world.

• The world functions in a reasonable way.

• Humans have enough reason to comprehend the world.

• Behind every finite event, there must be a cause.

• The same cause must produce the same effect under the same conditions.

Second, one’s approach to the world is not selfless. Whether regarding the environment or work, the motive is selfish— for the sake of descendants—and pragmatic. Accountability to a CreatorGod does not figure in the thinking of the technocrat who takes this outlook.

Third, one pursues unbridled growth with purely materialistic and economic considerations. Failure to believe in a Creator-God obviates the need for accountability in the management of his creation—the only standards are then provided by pure unbridled consumerism!

Results of a Pantheistic Perspective on Matter First, one fears the responsible manipulation of the material world. Advanced civilizations that cradled polytheistic or pantheistic views of matter could not birth modern science and technology.

Second, one adheres to a fatalistic approach to the world and carries a slothful and lackadaisical attitude to work. If matter is divine, we have to be under its authority, in some way. So, even the position of the planets—the basis for astrology—could influence our decisions. Thus we begin to lose a sense of moral responsibility. The next step is fatalism.

Third, one idolizes the instruments of work. Stewardship is only possible with a hierarchy in the world of matter—humans presiding over it as responsible stewards under their Creator.

How Perspectives on Matter Affect Work Our view of the material world affects our outlook on work. If we adopt a deified idea of the world, we sink not only into idolatry but also into a patent disregard of the world. If we take the other idolatrous approach and believe the world is the only reality there is, we recklessly plunder our resources in the absence of the One to whom we are accountable.

Conclusion The world of matter is God’s gift to humankind. We have a responsibility to manage it—not only in the present world, but in the new heavens and the earth as well. A sound theology of matter has to be the bedrock of any involvement of God’s people in God’s world.

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Moral Business: Business Ethics for Hong Kong

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usiness ethics provide a solid ground for making right decisions in the business environment. Hong Kong companies are law abiding, and they generally operate in an ethical environment. Increasingly more companies are updating their management skills and participating in international quality systems—including total quality management and environmental management systems. Companies are also starting to look at social accountability. Many of these Hong Kong companies have not, however, documented their business ethics.

As business moves into the age of globalization, Hong Kong companies face the challenge of establishing business ethics that are workable in the Special Administrative Region [SAR] of China, which is a renowned international financial and trading center, and worldwide. As Christians in the marketplace, we can take this opportunity to think about creating God-pleasing and humanitarian business ethics for Hong Kong.

Three Christian Principles

Simon Lee Co-founder and president of Primatronix Ltd. in Hong Kong, also author of A Good Business Person: Making Money Graciously (his MCS thesis from Regent, published in Chinese).

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From a Christian perspective, we can agree on a few principles in approaching this issue.

First, we should not make quick judgments on people.1 We have to work together with people (Christians and non-Christians) to develop business ethics that will bring people to know our Christian values, and subsequently, to know God better. Therefore, we should have discernment of our culture, just as Solomon asked God to give him discernment for his people.

Second, business ethics are not law. It is important to let people see that unless business ethics come from their hearts, they will not work.

Third, business ethics can be proactive instead of prohibitive. Chinese people are quite used to Confucian teaching, “Don’t do to others as you don’t want to be done unto.” We are therefore brought up with a lot of “don’ts.” What we need is the Golden Rule given by Jesus, “Do to others as you would have them do to you” (Luke 6:31). Just as Jesus gave the two greatest commandments of love that cover a lot of the “don’ts” in the Old Testament laws, business ethics can take a positive form.

Working Business Environment in Hong Kong The working business environment in Hong Kong has four main characteristics.

Instrumentalism In Perspective on Hong Kong Society, Benjamin Leung observes that “Instrumentalism and the Hong Kong Dream” make up the work attitude of the Hong Kong people. According to his and others’ findings, Hong Kong people typically place a higher value on the income-gaining aspect of work than their other Asian counterparts.2 This instrumentalism—“an orientation which regards work as a means of acquiring the income necessary to support a valued way of life of which the work itself is not an integral part”—together with a “don’t rock the boat” mentality has brought on a relatively quiescent industrial relationship.

the basis for advancement. Often, less well-off families seek advancement by launching a business through pooled familial resources. Better-off families often place their trust in their immediate family members. Nepotism, giving important jobs to close members and less important jobs to distant members, exists, but often it is not all bad. This arrangement still allows family businesses to use outside employees for many different jobs. In familism, employees view employers as the head of the family and respond to them obediently. These familial forces initially help to build up businesses, though such businesses may begin to show signs of disintegration in the third generation. Nevertheless, familial entrepreneurship has been a vital force in Hong Kong’s economy.4

Hong Kong Dream Throughout the past few decades, the income bracket in Hong Kong has shifted significantly. In 1976, 69.4% earned a monthly household income of under $2,000 while 3.5% earned $8,000 and more. In 1991, 4.8% earned under $2,000 and 58% earned over $8,000 (an actual 18.8% earned $20,000 and over). In a place seemingly full of opportunities, a good proportion of the population believe in a “rags-to-riches” Hong Kong Dream. In research done by Lui Tai-Lok in the early ’90s, he found that 40% of respondents expressed a desire to start their own business (today there are close to 300,000 small and medium size businesses in Hong Kong). The research also suggests that people believe they will receive future rewards for investing time and effort in work through further study.3

Post ’97 Economy While these first three attitudes may be the backbone providing the drive of Hong Kong people, we should also note the identity change of Hong Kong businesses since 1997. Before 1997, Hong Kong had been a mix of the Eastern and Western cultures. The Eastern culture provided social familial trust and a hard-work ethic. The Western culture gave the opportunity for Hong Kong people to create and gain the materialistic benefits of capitalism. Since Hong Kong was the gateway between China and the West, both the East and the West provided a medium of harmony.

Since 1997, Hong Kong became part of China and people generally started to redefine their identity as Chinese. Also, after the Asian Crisis, with Hong Kong becoming another city in China, businesses found the environment changing rapidly.

A recent article in the South China Morning Post captures the current business environment rather well:

Familism One important consideration in socio-economic advancement is the traditional Chinese “familism,” in which families are

Yet the new message is very clear and has been repeated many times by, among others, business leaders, academics and those in government: Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 5

Hong Kong urgently needs to redefine itself in the context not only of the mainland’s entry to the World Trade Organization and as an increasingly integrated part of the Pearl River Delta Region, but also as a hi-tech hub where creativity and inventiveness flourish. Without wholeheartedly embracing this approach, the SAR and its people risk being left behind as the mainland’s economy attracts foreign investment and, therefore, more competition for Hong Kong businesses.5 Businesses definitely need to redefine themselves and find directives to help them make right decisions in the process.

Proposed Business Ethics for Hong Kong I would like to propose a set of business ethics based on the previously-mentioned three Christian principles.

A realistic goal should address the needs of Hong Kong people—their instrumentalism and dreams… and yet it should also direct people to work for a higher end or purpose.

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We should define our businesses with a goal or a purpose Although profit is important to a business, it should only be a means to keeping a company healthy. The end for a company should rather be its goal. Christians have an underlying goal to be pleasing to God. This goal can often be expressed in terms of good business done in response to God’s calling. Good business includes providing products and services, and building relationships.

Working out a mission statement often helps to define such a goal or purpose. For example, as a manufacturer, our company mission statement is to “design and manufacture quality and creative telecommunication products that meet the needs of our customers, thus providing profit for all parties, including our customers and our suppliers.” A realistic goal should address the needs of Hong Kong people—their instrumentalism and dreams (so far as

these do not create greed)—and yet it should also direct people to work for a higher end or purpose.

We should encourage creativity and integrity to fulfill our purpose As William Biehl describes, “Needs are the father of original creativity as necessity is the mother of invention.” He defines creativity as the ability to solve problems; an answer to solving a problem always becomes clear when more facts are revealed, and finding facts means asking the right questions.6 These activities rely on truthful relationships. When we genuinely see the need of others and help to solve their problems, we are doing business. Also, we rely on others to give us truth, and we tell others the truth, so that we can make the right decisions. Building trust with people outside their family is an important step for Hong Kong business people; such trust builds integrity in the long run. Therefore, the second proposed business ethic can be like this: Encourage the openness to seek and uphold truth with compassion; search for facts and build up trust in problem solving; and, thus, make right decisions and create good business solutions.

Good business builds on people and relies on empowering people In a recent article of Modern Leadership, Robert Banks said that leadership today is not about hanging on to power.7 Management is not “top-down” but rather “networking” and “team-building.”

It is often said that people are the greatest asset of a company. Peter Drucker once said that good managers are those who can motivate a group of mediocre workers. In fact, if we see that all people with whom we work are God’s creation (we are born as one family and we constantly pray for God’s salvation), we see the value of empowerment. However, empowerment is not only embracing and building up, but also disciplining and

discerning what is best for an individual and the team. Tough decisions and actions may sometimes be necessary.

Therefore, my third proposal is this: establish sound human resource policies, provide training opportunities, nurture good characters, and incorporate accountability of individuals and the company.

Accountability means commitment to doing good work A company has many areas of accountability. In a global market, business does not count on Guan Xie (the Chinese term of relationship) alone but also on quality products and services. As companies participating in a global arena (particularly as God’s stewards), we are also responsible for our actions and the environment.

We can work with management systems such as ISO9000 (international quality) and ISO14000 (environmental quality).

In regard to social accountability, we have SA8000 or Global Compact.8 In fact, The New York Times recently declared that “corporate America seems to be doing more than just paying lip service to standards of management behavior.” Fortyeight companies volunteered to respond to ethical guidelines drawn up by the Global Reporting Initiative.9 These organizations report voluntarily on the economic, environmental, and social dimensions of their activities according to globally applicable and sustainable reporting guidelines. Although these are international conglomerates (not all of their standards fit Hong Kong perfectly), Hong Kong companies can look at some of the standards that are being adopted globally.

The fourth business ethic, then, is this: establish a sound quality management system, taking resource and environmental management into consideration; apply a relevant social accountability program; and regularly report and review the economic, environmental, and social fulfillment of the company’s mission.

Concerns of the International Community In regard to accountability in the global village, three of the major concerns of the international community are corruption, labour, and environmental practices in Mainland China (most Hong Kong companies have some business activities associated with the mainland). We acknowledge that these problems exist. I personally think that extramarital affairs and relationships are also problems affecting family relationships of people who live in Hong Kong but often work in the mainland. My proposed business ethic principles tackle these areas in the following ways: Concerning anti-corruption, we have the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) in Hong Kong and anti-corruption laws in Hong Kong and the mainland. Most companies prefer to be viewed as law-abiding, and business ethics can help to improve the sincerity of their abiding by such laws. If business ethics are principles upheld by our hearts, my second proposed business ethic (upholding the truth) leads to transparency of conduct. Also, recognizing the importance of accountability will help people to turn away from corruption.

Human rights is a complicated issue. For the purpose of this paper, I suggest our open discussion of this issue. Establishing sound human resource policies and having systems for management review are positive steps toward respecting rights of other people from our heart.

Concerning the environment, it seems that both the Hong Kong and Chinese government are keen to encourage environmental protection programs. Since most practices have not been implemented as laws yet, business ethics help people in the company see environmental issues as company priorities.

Finally, concerning extramarital relationships, we may shed a little bit of light by nurturing good characters through the Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 7

empowerment process. The familial relationship is an important aspect of Hong Kong and Chinese culture. When we stress that relationship lies in the heart of Christian values, we help to strengthen familial relationship treasured by Hong Kong people.

Conclusion In conclusion, my proposal of business ethics for Hong Kong lies in these four areas: establishing mission and purpose, upholding truth and integrity in giving solutions to businesses, empowering people, and maintaining accountability.

These ethics are drawn up after examining the Hong Kong working culture that exhibits instrumentalism, business dreams, familial relationships, and a mandate to adapt to the post ’97 economy. Based on Christ’s teachings of not judging, upholding commandments from the heart, and keeping “the Golden Rule,” these business ethics reflect principles of Christian thinking. Applying these ethics in the secular business environment of Hong Kong as Christians is a way to express our Christian values in the marketplace.

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Endnotes 1. Matthew 7:1–5.

2. Leung, Benjamin K. P. Perspective on Hong Kong Society (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press [China] Ltd., 1996), 57–58. Leung cites a study done

by Mitchell in 1969 that showed this attitude toward income was more prevalent than in Bangkok, Singapore, and Taipei. A study by Chaney in 1971 concluded that shop workers found their overall job satisfaction strongly associated with their level of satisfaction with their pay. In 1973, Carr found that workers at the Hong Kong Oxygen and Acetylene Company were willing to put up with any conditions to earn a certain wage. Most significantly, in Turner and his associates’ large-scale study in 1980, good pay was found to be the most important aspect of a person’s job.

3. Leung, Perspective, 10, 59–60.

4. Leung, Perspective, 87–89. Leung uses studies done by Wong Siu-lun and Joe England to illustrate the familial economic ethos of Hong Kong.

5. Author unknown, “Time for a Re-Awakening,” South China Morning Post, 25 February 2001.

6. Biehl, William. Master Planning (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1997), 27–32.

7. Banks, Robert. Unknown title, Modern Leadership (a Graduate Christian Fellowship Chinese newsletter), 2001.

8. Search for “Global Compact” on the internet to find the nine principles proposed by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, covering Human Rights, Labour and Environment.

9. “Taking Ethics Seriously,” Life@Work 4:1 (Jan/Feb 2001).

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The Bible, Wealth, and Business: Part One

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retired Protestant businessman told me recently how he had once spoken about business at an Anglican church only to be told by two young men that a Christian could not possibly be engaged in such a sordid activity. They would not be alone. A large number of Protestant Christians today would be uneasy with the claim that business can be an avenue of one’s Christian calling. Given the bad press that many transnational business corporations get, and some deserve, this feeling is understandable. Yet, I will argue, it is ultimately misguided, representing an amnesia about one of Protestantism’s great distinctives, the doctrine of the universal calling or vocation of all believers, in whatever biblically lawful places of service these believers find themselves.

For some, this dis-ease about business is justified rationally, drawing on a range of sources—Scripture, Aristotle, Anabaptism, Marx. Some others simply have a gut reaction that business is only about filthy lucre. Still others “may say that the pastors, teachers, physicians and social workers… may have callings but not the managers, marketers, financiers and accountants” (Lambert, 1). They are concerned that the title of “calling” may dignify a dirty business or perhaps offer a Christian blank cheque to a morally murky area. But are the former occupations intrinsically better than the latter? I think not. My aim in this paper is to retrieve the Protestant doctrine of vocation and the related concept of profession in order to affirm contemporary business and guide it in a more ethical and accountable direction.

Some may be skeptical of the relevance of religion in general and Protestantism in particular to a global business environment. Yet Samuel Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order argues that the major world conflicts today are increasingly religiously and culturally based. This is even more pertinent postSeptember 11. It is vital therefore to address this more explicit religious dimension in economic affairs and multinational corporations as we move out of our parochial Western, but implicitly religious, secularism into regions where religion matters much more publicly, such as Islamic nations (McCann, 3).

Gordon Preece Lecturer in ethics, Ridley Theological College and director of the Centre for Professional Ethics, Melbourne, also an ordained Anglican and author.

Note: Adapted from the above title in Samuel Gregg and Gordon Preece, Christianity and Entrepreneurship; Protestant and Catholic Thoughts.

(St. Leonards NSW: Centre for Independent Studies, 1999) printed here with permission.

All Bible references are NRSV unless noted.

Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 9

…people hunger for a sense of personal and public coherence in an increasingly fragmentary postmodern society that tears them apart.

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Many businesspeople are spiritually rudderless in navigating the sometimes treacherous waters of transnational commerce.

Increased secularization in public life has left the Protestant doctrine of vocation unacknowledged, and increasing work mobility has rendered the notion of one vocation for life rare (Volf 1991, 105–9; Preece 1998, 268–69). Yet people hunger for a sense of personal and public coherence in an increasingly fragmentary postmodern society that tears them apart. They want to connect their real, ongoing selves with their changeable working roles. Recovering and revising the doctrine of vocation for a mobile society provides a richer resource for this task than contemporary new age quests for a spirituality of work.

Currently, business people have difficulty connecting Sunday to Monday because they suspect their work is unspiritual and cannot be a calling (Lambert, 2; Preece 1995, 3–5; Diehl, v, vi). Recovering a sense of vocation helps make the Sunday-Monday connection real. In an effort to address this difficulty, I will begin with this article by engaging with our basic text, the Bible, concerning economics and business. In subsequent articles, I will address the development of the idea of vocation throughout church history and apply the concept to contemporary business and corporations.

person knows something about Scripture (Stackhouse, 37).

Differences Between Biblical “Wealth” and Contemporary Productive Capital Some people make a common assumption, backed by biblical texts, that engagement in wealth creation is not a valid biblical calling. Yet, we should beware of anachronistically reading back our economic structures into Scripture. Biblical anthropologist Bruce J. Malina notes how biblical and Mediterranean economies did not exist in themselves but were embedded in kinship and political contexts of belonging. Wealth and poverty, including the prohibition of interest for loans to Israelites (e.g., Deut 23:19–20), were evaluated by whether they brought honour or shame in kinship and political terms. Jim Halteman, an Anabaptist economist (a more anti-capitalist Protestant group), notes that: [A] no-growth subsistence orientation… leads naturally to strong admonitions against accumulated wealth and to a concentrated focus on income distribution questions rather than production questions…

Not until AD 1000 did capital inventions and innovative processes begin to expand production in ways that caused some to think of continued growth as a possibility (55–58).

The Bible, Wealth, and Business Protestants are people of the Book. We will therefore look at the Bible for light on business. For: anyone concerned with modern economic life who has not wrestled with the biblical materials that have shaped our society is not yet fully professional. The manager [etc.] who attempts to speak of business matters does not know whence certain of the deepest patterns in modern business derive unless that

Reformed theologian John Schneider (24) agrees. Ancient economic systems failed to create freedom and wealth for the majority. They were top-down, trickle up, autocratic systems, profitable for a few.

Poverty was seen as something always with us. The idea of arming people to eliminate it, rather than merely giving alms to alleviate it, is relatively recent. The new political order of democracy and economic order of capitalism gave many people unprecendented wealth and control of their circumstances, despite continuing deficiencies.

However, as Halteman (62–63) wisely notes, Western consumer junkies are not let off the hook: It would be inappropriate to downplay the sharp condemnation of wealth in Scripture simply because productive wealth is now more common than hoarded wealth. The danger of idolatry is present in all times.

However… it is inappropriate to condemn a wealthy business person today by using the anti-wealth passages of Scripture if his wealth is accumulated in productive tools for socially desirable output and he successfully resists the temptations of being rich…

In reaction to those who link today’s productive wealth to the hoarded wealth of the first century (and thus oppose it), the Christian businessperson often seeks scriptural texts, usually in Proverbs, to show that Scripture is not anti-wealth. In its extreme forms, this view becomes an individualistic “health and wealth” gospel (God wants you wealthy!) which brings about a consequent reaction from South American and other liberation theologians. Though understandable given their contexts, neither approach understands the whole biblical context in a balanced way. In determining whether we’re being productive for the kingdom or hoarding our wealth, a key question is, “What has God called us to?” It must be answered in a corporate not individualistic way, also considering our local and global context and connections.

Genesis—God’s Great Risk on Human Dominion Over Creation To understand the whole biblical perspective on business and wealth it is best to quickly work our way through its main forms of literature—law, prophets, wisdom, gospels, and epistles—from beginning to end. In Genesis, God is depicted in

personal, relational, almost entrepreneurial terms as “The God Who Risks” (Sanders).

God ventures on a partnership with humanity; He bets on humanity—above all, the humanity of Jesus. God risks by making a distinct creation and a free humanity to rule it, each with its own identity. Genesis 1 depicts God’s delight in the sheer extravagance of creation and creativity and his invitation to humanity to exercise “dominion with delight” (Schneider).

As Tolkien says, we are “sub-creators,” imaging God by developing and keeping the earth (Gen 1:26–28; ch. 2).

In Genesis, the image of God and dominion is ascribed to all. Without this democratized dominion, modern technologies or economies are inconceivable.

The dominion or cultural mandate unleashes the universal creativity and initiative of every man and woman. However, this God-given sense of initiative is soon directed away from creation in a futile quest for infinite, divine prerogatives (Gen 3:1–7). Work and birth both became literally hard labour (Gen 3:16–19). And yet the mandate to develop the earth is renewed, though modified, through Noah (Gen 9:1–17). Humans were made to be enterprising, entrepreneurial beings, in partnership with God and each other, even if fallen.

The Exodus and Jubilee Laws of Economic Liberation Unfortunately, unlike Israel, Egyptian rulers believed dominion was only theirs.

Like most ancient civilizations, theirs was built on the backs of slaves (in this case, Hebrews). God’s demonstration of dominion over the Nile and the Red Sea in liberating Israel from Egypt ended their exploitation and opened up the possibility of true dominion over creation again in an Edenic “land flowing with milk and honey” (Exod 3:8 NRSV).

Israel’s laws are extrapolations of the Exodus, the enshrining of freedom and democratic dominion into the very fabric Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 11

The common romantic picture of Jesus as a rustic Galilean peasant, possibly even a Che Guevera or Zealot revolutionary, does not fit the evidence.

12 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

of its social and economic life. However, forms of economic domination over others’ means of production or land soon arose. But the Jubilee laws were developed to counter it. While neither socialistic nor capitalistic, their vision of justice, individual liberty, irrevocable property rights and banking, lending, and productivity probably has more in common with democratic capitalism, at its best, than proposed alternatives. The problem is that capitalism has still to be properly democratized, according to jubilee principles.

God liberated Israel into a life of extravagant productivity. He was the Creator God, but if they forgot God and their less fortunate fellows in their newfound prosperity, and worshipped wealth and other gods, their prosperity would soon vanish (Deut 8:7-20). This loss happened; they were exiled into landlessness for forgetting God as the source of their salvation and its outward sacrament—land and material blessing.

is good, though tempting, while poverty is bad and tempting. “Give me neither poverty nor riches;… or I shall be full, and deny you, and say, ‘Who is the Lord?’ or I shall be poor and steal, and profane the name of the Lord my God” (Prov 30:8–9 NRSV).

It is dangerous, however, to develop a rigid retributive scheme which turns generally descriptive proverbs into prescriptions claiming that honesty and hard work always pay. Job’s friends pushed this literalistic line—Job’s suffering was due to sin.

Satan the utilitarian claimed Job only feared God for what he could get. Job, however, held to his integrity and was finally rewarded: first, with a vision of God’s transcendence and creative and spontaneous delight in the diversity of creation with all of its inherent riskiness, mystery and freedom to flout rigid rules; and second, with much more than he lost before (Job 38–42). Job’s story illustrates God’s holistic, relational covenant with humanity, not a rigid utilitarian contract.

Prophets and Profits Many today assume that Israel’s prophets were against profits. Numerous texts, especially in Amos, thunder God’s wrath at the oppression of the poor. Yet Amos does not condemn delight in the good things of life in themselves, but rather the people’s narcissism and callous indifference to the poor (Amos 6:1–7). Instead of practising Exodus principles of material and social liberation and solidarity, they adopted an Egyptian way of life; thus, they were to be judged and exiled. However, God’s people would return, refined, to unprecedented fertility and abundance (Amos 9), and the liberty and justice of the Jubilee laws would be proclaimed (Isa 61:1–2).

Jesus and Wealth The common romantic picture of Jesus as a rustic Galilean peasant, possibly even a Che Guevera or Zealot revolutionary, does not fit the evidence. Jesus’ birth was not only attended by the poor shepherds but also by the well-off Eastern astrologers bringing expensive gifts (Mt 2:1–12). Jesus belonged to a small business family of builders (Mk 6:3), part of the Galilean middle class of skilled workers (Hengel, 26–27). While not rich, he probably had ample work on the big construction projects at the sophisticated Greco-Roman city of Sepphorus a few kilometers away (Batey). Jesus’ middleclass-ness probably helped him to move inclusively across classes, to identify with the poor crowds and the rich tax collectors alike.

John Schneider (112–13) highlights the implications of the locus of Jesus’ incarnation, unappreciated by many contemporary ethicists and church leaders:

Proverbial Wisdom Perhaps the most business-friendly biblical traditions are found in Proverbs. Proverbs provides a strong middle-class ethic of family loyalty, hard work, and honesty grounded in respectful fear of God. Wealth

Jesus’ chosen place in his society as a tradesman reflects a certain goodness on property, on creative, productive work and on the sort of personhood that goes with it. The commercial system is thus, in a way, redeemed through his economic person…. He was a builder and a businessman, and this was apparently part of what expressed his perfection as a human being.

Jesus “benefitted from the stability of peace, legal order, good road systems, stimulated cash flow and building projects… that improved standards in his own region” (Schneider, 115). But the evil structures of Roman power included totalitarianism, militarism, slavery, extortionate taxation, and occasional genocide. To think that Christians must stand somehow outside the system of sinful economic structures, while taking sin seriously and the West’s complicity in such structures, downplays two key facts: we cannot, and Jesus did not, simply slip out of the system; and the Creator God still sustains and blesses the sinful world.

This observation of the life of Jesus discredits a rigid rule of perfectionism or withdrawal as a criterion for Christian economic and vocational life.

Yet having earthed Jesus economically in the Galilean construction industry, it is important to stress that he primarily constructed God’s kingdom and his main business was God’s business (Lk 2:49).

This fact relativizes all earthly activities, entrepreneurial or socially activist, even revolutionary, in the light of what Karl Barth calls “the revolution of God” against all unrighteousness (544-5). Business is good, but it is not God. Jesus’ First Followers Many assume that Jesus’ followers were mainly poor. Though Jesus announced a Jubilee upon the Jewish and Gentile poor (Lk 4:18), his followers came from all

walks of life. The first group, the disciples, included middle-class fishermen with their own boats and servants—one of the biggest businesses on the lake—and a wealthy tax collector (Lk 5:29). To follow Jesus they left behind relative wealth and security.

The second group who followed Jesus supported him and his disciples from their relatively well-off positions (Hengel, 27).

These include “Peter’s mother-in-law, Lazarus and his sisters Mary and Martha, wealthy men like Joseph of Arimathea, and the wealthy women ‘who provided for them [Jesus and his disciples] out of their resources’” (Lk 8:3).

A third group, the crowds, included poor and rich. The latter, tax collectors like Zacchaeus (Lk 19), were people of high status inconsistency—high in economic but low in social status. This opened them up to Jesus. Jesus took both the relatively privileged and underprivileged and created a rich and vibrant Jubilee community (Mk 10:28–31).

But if Jesus did not condemn the material world as evil, how should we interpret his life of poverty and his blessings upon the poor and woes to the wealthy (Lk 6:20–27)? Catholics distinguish between the counsels of perfection for an elite, like Jesus and the disciples, who take vocational vows (of poverty, chastity and obedience) and ordinary Christians in “secular” jobs with families to support. However, Jesus’ commands are to be taught to all baptized disciples (Mt 28:20). Protestants often limit Jesus’ poverty to the unique circumstances of his mission. His poverty is “not for us to imitate, but to venerate, and more loosely to emulate.” They see Gospel ethics as descriptive then, more than prescriptive now. Liberation theologians working with the poor rightly question these two groups’ means of voiding Jesus’ demands. Yet they catch themselves in a paradox if the poor are blessed and yet Jesus comes to bring them out of their economic poverty or “blessing” (i.e., if poverty Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 13

But if Jesus did not condemn the material world as evil, how should we interpret his life of poverty and his blessings upon the poor and woes to the wealthy?

14 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

is so blessed why take them out of it?)

(Schneider, 129–30).

An alternative reading sees Jesus as the true human who fulfils the dominion mandate to rule creation, now gone wrong, with delight and compassion. He miraculously calms storms, feeds the hungry, heals blind eyes. He spends much of his time feasting. Jesus was crucified even for the way he ate and who he ate with. He was condemned as “a glutton and a drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and ‘sinners’” (Luke 7:34 NRSV). While Jesus challenged his followers to disinvest in this world’s ways and invest their resources and talents in his reign, we often confuse the means disinvestment and self-denial—with the end, an extravagant experience of God’s abundance for all (Lk 18:28–30).

Jesus does not deny the principle of “profit,” but radically relocates it in relation to one’s whole life and his kingdom.

“What does it profit them if they gain the whole world, but lose or forfeit themselves?” (Lk 9:25 NRSV). His reign is the best risk, the best investment, the best bet. The calling to be disciples of Jesus in the business world involves great tension between these different principles of profit, but no more than in any other area of life.

Conclusion Probing the biblical text for its insights into wealth and business provides the first step toward recovering a sense of vocation.

In studying how this sense has travelled through the centuries, and how the church has understood it, we will lay a greater foundation of knowledge and insight from which to present a contemporary case for vocation in the workplace. This is the agenda for the next article I will present in Vocatio.

Editor’s Note: See the August 2001 edition (5:1) of Vocatio for more exploration of these themes: Jubilee and economic justice (Ron Sider), wealth in the Old Testament, particularly Proverbs (V. Philips Long), and wealth in the New Testament (R. Paul Stevens).

Bibliography Barth, K. Church Dogmatics III/4, ed. G.W. Bromiley and T.F. Torrance. Edinburgh: T.&T. Clark, 1961.

Batey, R.A. Jesus and the Forgotten City. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992.

Diehl, W. E. God and Real Life. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976.

Halteman, J. Market Capitalism and Christianity.

Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988.

Hengel, M. Property and Riches in the Early Church, trans. J. Bowden. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1963.

Huntington S. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. London: Pocket Books, 1998.

Lambert, L. Called to Business: Management as a Profession of Faith, Princeton Theological Seminary Ph.D. dissertation ms., Princeton Theological Seminary, 1997. Available from UMI, Ann Arbor, MI. Malina, B.J. “Wealth and Poverty in the New Testament and its World,” Interpretation 41:4 (October 1987): 354–66 and in M. Stackhouse, M. ed. On Moral Business.

McCann, D.P. “A Word to the Reader,” in On Moral Business, ed. M. Stackhouse et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.

Preece, G.R. “Everyday Spirituality: Connecting Sunday and Monday,” Zadok Paper S76, 1995. __________. The Viability of the Vocation Tradition in Trinitarian and Reformed Perspective. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1998.

Sanders, J. The God Who Risks: A Theology of Providence. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1998 Schneider, J. Godly Materialism: Rethinking Money and Possessions. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1994.

Stackhouse, M.L. et al., ed. On Moral Business: Classical and Contemporary Resources for Ethics in Economic Life. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.

Volf, Miroslav. Work in the Spirit: Toward a Theology of Work. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

MARKETPLACE CONNECTION 2002–2003 Integrating Christian faith with full-time ministry in the marketplace with theological reflection and spiritual formation

SPRING SCHOOL 2002 (see also Spring School announcement, pp. 16–17) May 7–10, 2002—Pastors’ Conference: The Church and the Marketplace with Gordon Fee, Laura Nash, Leith Anderson, Bill Pollard, Harry Heintz, Pete Hammond, Jenny McDermid, and Bill Palmer.

June 2–9: Marketplace Connection—an international cohort meeting from Sunday afternoon, June 2–Saturday morning, June 9 including participation in Monday to Friday June 3–7 course with Steve Brinn and Jan Meyers on “Success, Failure and Faith” (1:00–3:30 pm), morning case studies and dinner together.

May 27–31: Marketplace Ministries with Paul Stevens and Peter Mogan May 27–June 7: Marketplace Ministries and Applied Theology Seminar with Paul Stevens June 3–7: Success, Failure and Faith with Steve Brinn and Jan Meyers June 10–14: Business, Technology and Christian Values with David Gill and Al Erisman

SUMMER SCHOOL 2002 Friday June 14–Sunday June 16 Vocational Discernment and Prayer Weekend at Rivendell, the new retreat centre on nearby Bowen Island Friday July 19–Sunday July 21 Vocational Discernment and Prayer Weekend at Rivendell, the new retreat centre on nearby Bowen Island Tea and Marketplace Talk—during Summer School on Tuesdays

FALL 2002 Friday, October 4–Sunday, October 6: Mission and Spirituality course with Charles Ringma and Paul Stevens at Rivendell retreat centre on nearby Bowen Island Friday, October 25–Sunday, October 27: Spirituality in Leadership Prayer and Reflection Retreat (available as a one credit hour course—theology and spirituality of Executive Leadership) at Westminster Abbey, Mission BC Marketplace Supervised Ministry Experience (to complete requirements for the MCS

in Applied Theology or as a guided study at the completion of a short immersion in the Christian Life course or Christian Education and Equipping: 1, 2 or 3 credit hours (APPL 692) Marketplace Community Group—meeting weekly on Tuesdays 1:00–2:00 pm

WINTER 2003 Saturday, February 8, 2003— Christian in the Marketplace Conference. Theme: Mission in the Marketplace (proposed) Thursday evenings: Marketplace Ministries and Applied Theology Seminar with Paul Stevens and Peter Mogan Friday, March 28–Sunday, March 30: Vocational Discernment and Prayer Weekend at Westminster Abbey, Mission BC (available as a one credit hours course in Vocation, Work and Ministry: Discovering Your Personal Mission); Paul Stevens and others

SPRING SCHOOL 2003

FACULTY ASSOCIATE

May 26–30: The Ethics of Grace with Tim Dearborn

The faculty invites persons active in the marketplace or professional life to assist them in the task of integration. In the 2001/2002 year Janet Anderson has been appointed to be the faculty associate.

June 2–6: Entrepreneurship and the Soul with Ralph McCall Marketplace Cohort: Sunday May 27 to Saturday May 31 (including The Ethics of Grace course plus case studies and meals together)

OTHER RESOURCES Marketplace Immersion—a sabbatical opportunity for 1–6 months for business and professional people to come to Regent for a guided period of reflection, renewal and theological integration Business Person in Residence—Winter and Fall 2002: Dr. Uli Chi. This program allows an experienced business person to relate to the faculty and student body in a learning and ministering capacity, attending lectures, networking with students from the marketplace, hosting learning groups based on various occupations, interacting with faculty to facilitate integration.

MARKETPLACE COHORT Each spring a group of 12 people active in the marketplace gather for six days (usually around a Spring School course) to facilitate integration and learning through case studies, prayer and teaching.

For more information contact us by e-mail at <marketplace@regent-college.edu> or Paul Stevens, Regent College, 5800 University Boulevard, Vancouver BC V6T 2E4.

www.regent-college.edu Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 15

Give Me a Break Regent College offers you a break from your work to think about your faith and your calling. In Spring School 2002 we have the Pastors’ Conference and courses that deal with faith and the marketplace.

Take a break.

Phone: 604-224-3245; or toll free: 1-800-663-8664 Website: www.regent-college.edu E-mail: marketplace@regent-college.edu

Pastors’ Conference 2002

The Church and the Marketplace: Partners in Kingdom Ministry

Gordon Fee Professor, New Testament Studies, Regent College.

BA, MA (Seattle Pacific University), PhD (University of Southern California).

Leith Anderson Senior Pastor, Wooddale Church, Eden Prairie, MN. MDiv (Denver Seminary), DMin (Fuller).

Also featuring: Paul Stevens, Laura Nash, Pete Hammond, Harry Heintz, Darrell Johnson, Jenny McDermid, Bill Palmer and William Pollard.

16 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

This conference/course will explore how pastors and businesspeople can be mutual equippers, how teaching in the church can address the issues faced by people in the marketplace, how business and professional people can become theologically and biblically formed for their full-time service for God and how local churches can become “marketplace friendly.”

The resource people will include pastors with experience in business and professional life, pastors who teach, preach and lead in ways that empower God’s people for their out-of-church service, and biblical expositors who will use God’s life-giving Word to provide the theological framework for establishing this Kingdom partnership.

Gordon Fee Vocation, Work and Ministry in Pauline Perspective Paul and the Concept of Vocation; Paul and the Meaning of Work 1 & 2; Paul and the Concept of Ministry

Leith Anderson Developing a Marketplace-Friendly Church In four lectures, Leith Anderson will focus on how changes in North American culture have impacted the life of the church, how churches can deliver an unchanging message with a constantly changing method and how to develop effective leadership within the church.

Available as a conference or course.

Conference: May 7–9, 8:30 am–5:00 pm, May 10, 8:30 am–12:45 pm Course: May 6, 9:00 am–4:00 pm, May 7–10, 8:30 am–6:00 pm Daily assignments required.

For graduate credit, the Pastors’ Conference is part of a 1- or 2-credit hour course, APPL 518.

Free Public Lectures (8:00 pm) Tues., May 7 William Pollard (Chairman of the Board, ServiceMaster Company) Wed., May 8 Leith Anderson Thurs., May 9 Laura Nash (Senior Research Fellow, Harvard Business School)

Spring School: Marketplace Connection (May 27–June 14)

Success, Failure and Faith

Marketplace Ministries: Equipping the Saints for Ministry in the Workplace

Paul Stevens BA, BD (McMaster), DMin (Fuller).

This course will help people develop a biblical foundation for their life in the marketplace whether they are in leadership or not.

Integrating values into everyday life, developing governing commitments, developing a framework for ethical decision-making and discovering spiritual disciplines for the marketplace, are themes that will be explored.

Participants will gain transferable concepts and ideas that can help them make a difference in the work world.

Steve Brinn BA (Stanford), JD (Yale). .

APPL 588: June 3–7, 1:00–3:30 pm 1 or 2 graduate credit hours Steve is the Chief Operating Officer of BootJack Management Co., which is developing a 3000acre ranch in Colorado as a centre for spiritual rest and re-creation.

APPL 571: May 27–31, 3:30–6:00 pm 1 or 2 graduate credit hours

Peter Mogan Partner, Access Law Group.

LLB, DipCS.

and Janet Anderson

Paul Stevens is David J. Brown Family Professor of Marketplace Theology and Leadership, Regent College.

Jan Meyers BA (Biola), MA (Colorado Christian).

Jan interned under Larry Crabb and Dan Allender, and is the author of The Allure of Hope.

Peter is a Regent graduate and sessional lecturer.

Mentor in Marketplace Ministries, Regent College.

Business, Technology and Christian Values Applied Theology Seminar: Marketplace Ministries

Paul Stevens

Success is a paradox. Some truly “successful” people are actually failures, and sometimes success may be a symptom of dysfunctionality.

At the same time, failure can be an especially fruitful experience. This course will explore success and failure in the context of Christian reflection, in particular, what is the place of ambition, inventiveness and initiative for people who follow and serve a “humble” God.

Building on the first week (APPL 571, May 27–31), participants will present papers on contemporary issues in the marketplace from a biblical theological perspective for discussion and critique by others. Because this course is a seminar, it is required that the major paper of the course be written before the commencement of class. Subjects to be explored include matters relating to success, failure, integrity, mission, integration, relationships and priorities.

APPL 740: May 27–June 7, 3:30–6:00 pm 3 graduate credit hours Maximum Enrollment: 12 students.

Paul’s books include Liberating the Laity, The Equipper’s Guide to Every-Member Ministry, and The Other Six Days: Vocation, Work and Ministry in Biblical Perspective.

David Gill BA (California, Berkeley), MA (San Francisco State), PhD (Southern California).

Albert M. Erisman BS (Northern Illinois University), MA, PhD (Iowa State University).

Business—understood in a broad sense to include not only corporations but all for-profit product and service enterprises—is a powerful and growing force in our lives. Technology, especially information technology, continues not just to enable but sometimes even to require radical change in the world of business. The entire globe is in ferment these days, not just because of political and religious conflict but because of world trade and technology-enabled business. There is much in today’s business and technology to give us hope—but there are also challenges to face responsibly.

In this course we will search for authentically Christian ways of understanding and positively influencing this emerging world. No previous experience or expertise in business, technology or ethics will be assumed.

INDS 523: June 10–14, 1:00–3:30 pm 1 or 2 graduate credit hours Daily assignments required.

David Gill and Albert Erisman are co-directors of the Institute for Business, Technology, and Ethics.

Dr. Erisman is also the Executive in Residence at the School of Business and Economics at Seattle Pacific University.

Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 17

V • o • c • a • t • i • o

The Deal: Loyalty in a Short-term World

I

n a bygone era of stable work structures, when the public sector held many jobs and industries looked invulnerable, loyalty was a two-way street. Many large organizations offered the deal of job security in exchange for loyalty and hard work. If you were loyal to the company by doing your job consistently and conscientiously, doing as you were asked, going the extra mile when necessary, then the company would reciprocate loyalty through security—continued employment, career progression, and the benefits of lengthening service.

Usually a formal contract defined the employment relationship. It clarified obligations and provided a framework to ensure that these obligations were honoured. Important as formal agreements were, organizations and their employees also engaged in another kind of contract.

The wider “psychological contract” comprised a set of unwritten expectations indicative of a trust relationship that serves the well-being of individuals and the organization. This unwritten contract was a reflection of our humanity—our need to relate to others, our need to belong, our need to be fulfilled, and our need for some security. It was also a recognition by those who ran organizations that they needed the commitment of their employees, not only their consent. So, working was not just about contracting labour, goods, and services for pay, but also about a relationship with implicit obligations on both sides. But things have changed.

Peter Curran Project manager for consultancy and training in Angola with British Petroleum, spending two weeks of every month in Britain and two weeks in Angola, also author of All the Hours God Sends.

18 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

Loyalty at work—an outdated notion?

In a world of ever fiercer competition, employee loyalty is even more crucial to organizations. So organizations want employees to be committed and cope with ever increasing demands, work longer hours, and do more with less. In return, individuals expect the organization to provide some job security, career prospects, a sense of belonging, and fair treatment. But what happens if organizations continue to require loyalty but cannot reciprocate in the old ways? Is loyalty at work an outdated concept? Should we come up with new models or new deals?

Changing work patterns The world of work has experienced huge change over the last decade or so. As Herriot and Stickland describe: “The globalization of business, its deregulation and the consequent opening up of new markets, the advances in information technology, and the growth of consumerism have all added to the competitive pressures which commercial organizations face” (465). While organizations may not control these factors, they need to find ways to handle them if they are to survive. They have to be able to compete on costs and do things better, produce new products and services and get them to market more quickly. The pace of change in organizations has thus accelerated, which has also impacted the relationships between organizations and the people they employ.

In contrast to earlier generations, this working generation has to handle the constant fear of redundancy and the reality of mind-boggling change, including perpetual reorganization, continual re-engineering of processes, and the introduction of new technology. People are continually asked to do the impossible, and many are under pressure to work excessively long hours without being paid overtime.

What is the effect on people and the deal they thought they had with their companies? For many, it has meant the experiences of restructuring, redundancy, and loss of job security or career, which have dented faith in the old deal. Employers who have had to make big changes to adjust to the new reality verge on dishonesty if they continue as if the old deal were still in place.

Observing trends in the US in 1996 (which have spread to Europe and elsewhere), Mills comments: “The old bond between employer and employee has largely disappeared in America; an arms-length contract is replacing it. Employment used to be a relationship; it’s now an exchange.

It used to be a sort of marriage—it’s now a transaction like those which occur in the

product market.” Whereas the old basis was long-term self-interest for employees and employers, Mills contends that now it is short-term self-interest, with security found in the marketplace rather than the workplace.

Thus people and organizations are forced to rethink the whole concept of “career.” It used to mean progression within a corporate structure (“up the ladder”); for many people it is now, at best, a series of interesting assignments with one or more employers. This new concept requires that the individual keep up-todate and employable and choose each employer carefully.

Consequently, the psychological contract is imbalanced: organizations’ expectations have not changed (if anything, they want or need the loyalty and commitment of employees in greater measure), but they are less able to meet the expectations of employees as implied in the old deal.

Unless some adjustments are made, the psychological contract will remain out of balance.1 Recent surveys and papers have highlighted the burgeoning dilemma of loyalty. Since relationships (including employment relationships) are healthiest if based on both parties fulfilling their mutual obligations, new approaches need to be found.

How the psychological contract is changing Security, career, belonging, respect

Commitment, flexibility, loyalty

My expectations

Organization’s expectations

Less security, career, belonging, respect What organization can deliver me

Increased commitment, more flexibility, loyalty Organization’s expectations

Reacting to the new workplace contract Organizations are reacting to this dilemma in a variety of ways, ranging from attempting

…working was not just about contracting labour, goods, and services for pay, but also about a relationship with implicit obligations on both sides.

But things have changed.

Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 19

to carry on as before (i.e., making the old promises), to introducing new employment practices alongside old company culture, to bold attempts at culture change and being explicit about new deals.

Many companies have developed strategies to facilitate flexible expansion and contraction of the organization to suit its needs, such as differentiating between core and periphery employees; offering shortterm contracts, part-time working, shiftworking, non-standard hours; outsourcing; or using contractors and consultants.

Alongside these strategies are remnants of the traditional ways of working, designed to promote some stability.

Some organizations, recognizing that they cannot meet all the expectations of employees, seek to change these expectations in line with what the company needs to do to remain competitive. Therefore, many culture-change initiatives focus on customer/business needs, and the need for employees to become more flexible.

Employees have reacted in different ways, from continuing to believe that the company will take care of them, to becoming more transactional in their dealings with the company, to taking advantage of the new opportunities that may be on offer.

Employees may experience a range of different deals in their working life, combining elements of stability and flexibility.

“This menu of new deals, on the whole, focuses on career as a series of developmental opportunities. This has changed the balance and the substance of the psychological and emotional adjustments required of remaining employees” (Doherty, 475). To those who put great store on the security and benefits of the old deal, this change can be threatening. To those who see it as a move away from the paternalistic patterns of the past, it can be refreshingly adult, more realistic, and more honest.

The new contract can mean that employees themselves are more aware of what is going on in the company, and also have a greater drive to affirm their own 20 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

rights. “Reality has hit and people are dealing with it. They have a lot of energy for their jobs, but they want more in return.

They’re committed, but they’re offering a different kind of commitment: highimpact performance for rewards that are meaningful to them (what they want rather than what their company thinks they need)” (Laabs).

Mills (453–454) summarizes the new social contracts as one of four types: The “employability” commitment—We cannot guarantee employment, but we will help you get another job if we let you go. Join our company for a while and we will add to your skills.

The opportunity arrangement—We offer the opportunity for you to earn and advance, but it is up to you to work out how to do this; we no longer sponsor a career plan. If you do not figure out how to advance and at the same time make money for us, the arrangement ends.

The openness or “adult” understanding—We keep you if it is financially useful, and we equally expect you to leave if a better job comes up. We are honest and open about the future, and we expect you to give notice if you are going to leave.

The hired gun—You are hired for a particular task and then let go, usually with an explicit short-term contract.

The psychological contract clearly needs to find a new balance. The reactions above give some clues as to how this might be done. Given that some aspects of the psychological contract touch fundamental aspects of humanity—ongoing relationships, mutual commitment, some security—we can examine how the biblical revelation can guide us.

Christian perspectives on loyalty The Bible’s pages tell of relationships between individuals, groups, nations, and between people and God. A key biblical concept is the covenant, which refers to a morally binding and obligatory kind of social relationship, or to the transaction that brings it about. This “binding, enduring relationship of mutual loyalty” (Allen, 136) comes about through making explicit mutual promises (e.g., marriage), or through entrusting and accepting trust implicitly. Unlike contracts, covenants strongly affirm each member in the relationship, since they focus on the relationship, not just on the stipulated obligations.

They stress mutual faithfulness and trust, rather than what each party can gain from the other.

Covenant loyalty The concept of covenant has central importance to both Old and New Testaments. In the Old Testament, God initiated the covenants between his people and himself and remained steadfast and faithful in them. The obligations for the people were sometimes explicit (Gen 17, Exod 34), and sometimes implicit (Gen 9).

Either way, the covenant required faithfulness. The people were not to view obedience as a painstaking task grudgingly undertaken, but as a loving response to a gracious God who had initiated the relationship (Exod 34:6–7). Hosea pictured Israel’s covenant-breaking as a wife’s prostitution, and God as wooing Israel back (Hos 2:14–15; 3:1). Following disaster and exile, the faithful servant of Isaiah’s Servant Songs symbolized the hope of a new covenant, one written on people’s hearts (Jer 31:31–34; Ezek 36:24–28).

In the New Testament, Jesus fulfilled God’s promises to Israel (2 Cor 1:19–20).

Whereas the Old Covenant exposed people’s sin and their inability to keep the covenant, the New Covenant, through Christ’s sacrificial death, brought forgiveness of sins on repentance. People were

then to be faithful to this covenant, through allegiance to Christ, and grow in holiness.

Although employment contracts are not strictly covenants, at the fundamental level of loyalty and respect, the covenant principles of faithfulness and mutual trust are good foundations for thinking about relationships. Covenant forms the highest ideal for our human relationships, including the employer-employee relationship.

Service, justice, and enduring relationships In addition to what the Bible teaches about covenant relationships, these are other Christian perspectives on work and change that can help to rebalance loyalty in employment relationships: • Despite changing work patterns, it remains a Christian’s duty to work as serving Christ (Col 3:23). There can be no sell-out to irresponsibility with regard to work.

• The biblical purposes of work (sustenance, satisfaction through using skills, service)2 remain relevant. It is important that people can make a reasonable living, develop and use their skills, and render service to others and to God. • Christians are to work for justice in employment relationships so that people are rightly treated and organizations rightly served. Interestingly, Mills (454) gives some criteria for measuring fairness in the new deals: a) Is a person told honestly of the likelihood of continued employment (this is not the case where companies pretend the old deal is still in place when it is defunct)? b) Does an employee receive more than pay (skills or experience) useful to them when job ends? If there is no opportunity for personal growth or development, this is unfair in a world where up-to-date skills are required.

Given that some aspects of the psychological contract touch fundamental aspects of humanity— ongoing relationships, mutual commitment, [and] security… the biblical revelation can guide us.

Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 21

• In a short-term world, Christians are not to lose sight of the long-term, since this is the territory of character building, friendship, and enduring relationships.

Rebalancing loyalty?

Applying these biblical perspectives to the written and unwritten workplace contract leads to some positive actions that organizations and individuals can take.

When all is said and done, it is unrealistic for employers to expect employees to give the commitment necessary for the organization’s survival in today’s globally competitive world without recognizing the employees’ need for employment security.

22 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

What organizations can do First, by law, organizations must keep formal employee contracts. The covenant principles of faithfulness and mutual trust, and of service and justice are good foundations for the unwritten psychological contracts.

During and following periods of change, people often lose trust. Rebuilding trust can be done through demonstrating honesty, commitment, and consistency. The bossemployee relationship can express honesty through open and realistic communication, commitment through making realistic promises and fulfilling them, and consistency through proving reliable.

New psychological contracts should not shy away from commitments but express them realistically. An organization may no longer be able to promise long-term security or a career, but it can demonstrate faithfulness in other ways. When redundancy threatens, it can make every effort to keep employees in jobs with meaningful work. The organization can help employees to keep their skills current to enhance future employment prospects if needed.

Where redundancy is the only option, the organization can ensure people are treated with care and respect so that they can say, “It was a shock to be made redundant, but the company did well by me.”

When all is said and done, it is unrealistic for employers to expect employees to give the commitment necessary for the organization’s survival in today’s globally competitive world without recognizing the

employees’ need for employment security.

This security may not be a “job for life,” but it must attempt to create a future for those whose commitment is needed for the business venture. Offering such security is only just and expressive of the mutual faithfulness necessary for a positive relationship. It is also common sense. When people have a positive perception of their psychological contract, they will enjoy the sense of belonging in their work and be more committed to its success.

What individuals can do Individuals also need to recast their relationship with the organization. They will still give commitment and conscientious work, but like the organization will retain the right to be more flexible in relation to future opportunities. They will need to continually update their portfolio of skills, in preparation to move at their own volition or if redundancy strikes. They may expect to have more varied and mobile careers, with perhaps periods of employment, selfemployment, and unemployment.

The relationship with the organization may not be characterized by the loyalty of the past (which was often unquestioning), but it is likely to be less paternalistic, and perhaps more open and honest. Loyalties may be more focused on one’s team, colleagues, and boss, and therefore represent relationships on a more human scale.

Doing deals Another way of expressing rebalanced loyalty is by a variety of deals: A fair deal—balanced and just, with clear expectations on both sides, fair reward for work done, and some mutual commitment to an ongoing relationship. Job security as it used to be understood may be a thing of the past, but there are ways organizations can show good faith in providing some security. People made redundant can be treated in an equitable way.

A mutual deal—some mutuality can be regained by working with an employer to increase marketability, both of the employer and employee. Alison Hardingham uses the term “ability security” to describe a person’s skills and what they have to offer.

Ability security increases when the employee learns new skills, undergoes new experiences, or even changes jobs. And it is more in their control than job security was: “Whereas job security implies ‘I’ll work hard for you if you’ll look after me,’ ability security implies ‘I’ll increase your marketability if you’ll increase mine’” (107).

A contracted deal—since organizations are being more flexible with employees because of their changing needs, it is only fair that employees are also more flexible and reach a deal to reflect their needs.

Herriot, Hirsh, and Reilly offer a model of career contracting which recognizes the rights and needs of both sides of the employment relationship. Whereas not all work situations lend themselves to individual negotiation, the principle of being able to contract a deal that meets the needs on both sides is important.

A portfolio deal—for people who can offer a product to a range of clients, Charles Handy’s notion of a portfolio career can be helpful. What we sell is our produce, not our time, so that “What now matters is how we use our time, not how much of that time we use” (Handy, 1994: 177). Such a way of working gives greater freedom since individuals are “Self-managers of [their] own assets” (Handy, 1996: 28). But this deal has its own pressures such as attracting and maintaining sufficient work to earn a living—a fact that those who are selfemployed or run their own businesses know only too well.

Summing up Changes in the global environment have resulted in organizations making many

changes that affect the working patterns of their employees to remain competitive.

The old deal between organizations and employees of job security for hard work and loyalty has become less valid.

Organizations are finding it increasingly difficult to keep their side of the deal.

Organizations and individuals are responding in various ways to redress the imbalance of loyalties. Christian perspectives on relationships and work offer some insights on how employment relationships might be rebalanced, particularly taking note of faithfulness and trust, justice, the importance of enduring relationships, and the concept of covenant.

While organizations may not be able to offer jobs for life, they can still create some security, help employees build and keep up-to-date skills for future marketability, behave honestly and fairly, and, if redundancy strikes, give sympathetic treatment.

With a reworked balance in the employment relationship, employees can still be committed to their work, colleagues, and organization; strike a fair deal; take more responsibility for their skills and learning; and be open and flexible to transfer company or skills as the need arises. In these and other ways, we may see the employment relationship again achieve a balance of loyalties.

References Allen, Joseph L. “Covenant,” in John Macquarrie and James Childress, eds. A New Dictionary of Christian Ethics. London: SCM Press Ltd., 1986.

Curran, Peter. All the Hours God Sends?: Practical and Biblical Help in Meeting the Demands of Work.

Leicester: IVP, 2000.

Doherty, Noeleen. Unknown article title.

European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 5:4 (1996): 471–478.

Guest, David, Rob Briner, Neil Conway, and Michael Dickman. “The State of the Psychological Contract in Employment,” Issues in People Management 16 (IPD: 1996).

Handy, Charles. The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future. London: Hutchinson, 1994. ________. Beyond Certainty: The Changing Worlds of Organizations. London: Arrow Books Limited, 1996.

Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 23

Hardingham, Alison. Making Change Work for You. London: Sheldon Press, SPCK, 1992.

Herriot, Peter, Wendy Hirsh, and Peter Reilly.

Trust and Transition: Managing Today’s Employment Relationship. Wiley Series in Strategic HRM. Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 1998.

Herriot, Peter and Rob Stickland. “Career Management: The Issue of the Millennium,” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 5:4 (1996): 465–470.

Kessler, Ian and Roger Undy. “The New Employment Relationship: Examining the Psychological Contract,” Issues in People Management 12 (IPD, 1996).

Laabs, Jennifer. “The New Loyalty: Grasp it. Earn it. Keep it,” Workforce (November 1998): 34–39.

Mills, Daniel Quinn. “The Changing Social Contract in American Business,” European Management Journal 14:5 (October 1996): 141–46.

24 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

Endnotes 1. Two research studies by the Institute of Personnel and Development gave different pictures of how employees perceive the loyalty of their employers. A study of employees during a period of job insecurity (Kessler and Undy, 1996) concluded that organizations still need their people to be loyal and committed, but they are finding they are less able to reciprocate such loyalty in the old ways (through job security and career). The other study of more secure employees (Guest et al, 1996) showed otherwise. Nevertheless, the combination of studies reinforces the need for security in an ongoing commitment that cuts both ways as an important element of the psychological contract.

2. See Peter Curran, All the Hours God Sends?: Practical and Biblical Help in Meeting the Demands of Work (Leicester: IVP, 2000).

V • o • c • a • t • i • o

Reflections on the Experience of Redundancy

It is no small pity, and should cause us no little shame, that through our own fault, we do not understand ourselves, or know who we are—as to what good qualities there may be in our souls, or who dwells within them, or how precious they are—those are things which we seldom consider and so we trouble little about preserving the souls’ beauty. ~ Teresa of Avila

I

n this article, I explore the reflections I had on my work life, its meaning, and its purpose, which followed my experience of redundancy. This exploration affirms a workplace vocation and crafts a renewed purpose.

What sustained and nourished me in this transition most significantly, while challenging my faith beliefs, was a three-month experience of fulltime clinical pastoral education (CPE) at the Royal North Shore Hospital in Sydney.

The questions I faced through my CPE experience prepared me for life after leaving the company. Some of these questions were: • Where is God to be seen in the workplace, when there is so much distrust, widespread use of fear, economic-determined redundancy, and environmental damage?

• Where is the dignity of humankind found?

• In discovering meaning to one’s life, who are the real “poor” people: the less well-off or the affluent?

• Are my responses nice-sounding-but-inadequately-thoughtthrough platitudes or do they convey an authentic life-affirming Christian meaning?

• Does our conversation remain on the comfortable and secure surface, or do I reach a personal depth that challenges my beliefs, assumptions, and idealizations with discomfort and risk?

Peter M. Heath Formerly senior manager in a multinational corporation, now commercial management consultant in infrastructure development and support, also involved with the NSW College for Clinical Pastoral Education in New South Wales, Australia.

Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 25

• Who is exercising power and authority in the conversation? Is there a real attentiveness to God’s Spirit?

with The Mystery, with myself, others, and creation. More particularly, this meaning is found in the issues that arise in my daily work.

Responding with deepening care to these questions informed me about my relationship to The Mystery, to who I am and my purpose in life, and to my relationship with others and creation.

Self and God In my prayers, meditations, and other everyday activities, I seek to encounter God—not my performance—and to discern a new revitalized way of being.

When I discovered and then reflected on my prejudice in a remote mining community toward the indigenous Australian people, I found that the unconscious metanarrative of my life seemed to contain many items of Western cultural baggage that hindered my attunement with God. We seem to be culturally subdued from encountering a God who has an immense power to reveal divine qualities of wisdom, humility, gentleness, mercy, and compassion, and who redeems us of our failings and affirms new life in and for us.

My sense of vocation in the workplace

In the workplace, it is vital to ask, “Am I becoming captive with those around me? Am I becoming so depersonalized that I am losing my creative self?”

In the past, when I had reflected on my direction in life, I consistently felt a pull to being in the workplace. I continue to feel that pull today, but with increased reason.

First, I am concerned for the continuous manifestation of the de-humanizing effects of industrial capitalism. As I see it, globalizing business enterprises treats the world as one marketplace, as one human resource base, and as one supply base.

Thus the homogeneity in global markets endangers the richness of human livelihood found in cultural diversity.

Second, Christians now more greatly acknowledge and support the role of the lay Christian businessperson. I find increasing recognition that “the other six days”1 is where life is lived out. Paul Stevens explores what is required to liberate the laity, in equipping all the saints for ministry.2 Others explore the role of the Christian faith community in relation to ministry in the workplace. Loren Mead, based on his thorough research, writes about the important place of community and concludes, “Your congregation is where you touch the worldwide set of challenges. Engage them [in conversation] there.”3

Driving my vision for vocation in the workplace In a broad context, the meaning of life for me is found in the relationships I have

26 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

Self and self Attending to my own situation seems pivotal to me. Out of a godly attentiveness to understanding myself, new creativity emerges for outworking in all my other relationships. In the workplace, it is vital to ask, “Am I becoming captive with those around me? Am I becoming so de-personalized that I am losing my creative self?” If in our mind, soul, and body we become so discomforted at workplace wrongdoings, in God’s Spirit we are invited to reflect on and create alternative ways of being in the workplace. This is our call to metanoia — to awaken our consciousness of sin, our contribution to it, our forgiveness, and our vision for creative renewal.4 That invitation requires a personal struggle, or even extreme difficulty, in holding life’s tensions together for probing examination.5 Self and others If I attend to myself in the Spirit, like Teresa of Avila suggests, I will be more able to relate to others successfully with

an open rapport and to converse with them on deeper issues in a life-affirming way. I must draw on their diverse experience to enhance my own, engaging in a conversation that leads to conversion of myself and others.

My vocation in workplace relationships is gift and grace rather than conquest and prize. I feel I am being gently nudged to particularly seek out and be with those voices searching for a life-affirming engagement in the physical world, perhaps with those suffering quietly in pain at what they observe. In a deepening relationship with The Mystery, enabling me to cut through my ego patterns and fixations, I seek an emergence and unfolding in conversations with them, not an imposition of my solutions. Relationships with others based on these values in the Spirit can then become authentic and distinguishable by grace and freedom.

Self and creation With others who respect human dignity and seek co-operative solidarity, I hope we might explore in some small way the creation of new solutions to the deeper systemic concerns arising from the mechanistic modern age. This exploration might follow what J. B. Metz suggests, that we “mobilize that critical potency that lies in… [the] central tradition of Christian love.… [This means not] restrict[ing] love to the interpersonal sphere,… [nor] understand[ing] love as charitable work,… [but having] the unconditional determination to bring justice, liberty, and peace to the others.”6 This task is a serious challenge for us affluent middle-class people.

The creativity of humans in business has brought prosperity and vast improvements to Western health and education.

Disappointingly, however, this achievement has not been shared equitably and sometimes has led to systematic exploitation of those living in the less-developed nations. We should be concerned when the

means of pursuing a privileged global business are at variance with Christ’s manner, which reflects the integrity of all God’s creation.

It is an ongoing, never-ending search to know and foster those relationships of The Mystery, self, others, and creation in an integrated and integrating way. For me, this turning around of my whole self in the Spirit is my being redeemed.

Specific guidelines within these challenges I have developed for myself a set of guides for workplace practice and conversation, according to this vocational vision.

First, I acknowledge that everyone—even the most determined non-believer—is on a spiritual journey of one or another kind.

Second, as a Christian, I need to be “in the world” but not “of the world”—that is, to be engaged in a meaningful way with worldly issues. I would like to empathize with the reality of what is happening and also look back on myself and my response to these issues with some objectivity.

Then, I am reminded of my need simply to be the kingdom, not to assume responsibility for creating the kingdom (that is God’s role).

Fourth, I need a faith community for support. I need one that is prophetic, sacramental, prayerful, and empowering of its lay people; one that uses language that builds bridges; and one that engages the questions arising in life’s tensions, taking seriously the experience of others, and respecting the dignity within which these have been formed.

Of necessity, then, this faith community needs to overcome intellectual laziness.

“Accommodationist apologetics… [lead] secular intellectuals [to] feel no obligation to read theology.”7 Our faith community will need to study and recover the original meanings of Scripture, rather than defend a threatened tradition by relying on prior tenets of belief.

Winter 2002—VOCATIO • 27

28 • VOCATIO—Winter 2002

Conclusion

Endnotes

This personal reflection of my life-meaning, arising through my experience of redundancy, emphatically re-affirms my workplace vocation. The opportunity to reflect upon and capture in writing the unexamined assumptions in my work life as a senior manager has been a valuable experience for me.

Our society faces very interesting and challenging times of major ecological, political, economic, scientific, and human crises which one author suggests “are all symptoms of a deeper malady—a cultural crisis rooted in our perception of reality.”8 In these times, business “has now become ‘the fountainhead of values in our society,’ largely suppressing in the process ‘that mysterious inner life,’ what we refer to as ‘the spiritual life.’”9 My hope is that in bold theological probing we can draw powerful analogies for our own generation. We can find a gospel imperative to bring God’s kingdom of love and freedom to the world, to create integrity in creation, with justice and peace to all humankind.

1. See Stevens, R. Paul. The Other Six Days: Vocation, Work, and Ministry in Biblical Perspective.

Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.

2. See Stevens, R. Paul. Liberating the Laity; Equipping All The Saints For Ministry. Vancouver: Regent College Publishing, 1985.

3. See Mead, Lauren. The Once and Future Church: Reinventing the Congregation for a New Mission Frontier (Washington DC: Alban Institute, 1991); Transforming Congregations for the Future (Washington DC: Alban Institute, 1994); Five Challenges for the Once and Future Church (Washington DC: Alban Institute, 1996).

4. See Lk 1:17 (John’s prophetic task in the Spirit, of turning the people in repentance); Lk 3: 3–4 (John baptizes for repentance); and Acts 2:37–41 (Christian proclamation of the Spirit gift in repentance).

5. See Lk 13: 22-25 (the narrow door); 18: 18-25 (rich ruler and the eye of a needle).

6. Metz, J.B. Theology of the World. New York: Herder & Herder, 1969, 118.

7. Dorrien, Gary. Soul In Society. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995, 352 (paraphrasing Stanley Hauerwas, On Keeping Theological Ethics Ethical ).

8. Savari Raj, Anthony. A New Hermeneutic of Reality: Raimon Panikkar’s Cosmotheandric Vision.

Berne: Peter Lang, 1998, 5.

9. Wheelan, Michael. Without God All Things Are Lawful. Sydney: Catholic Theological Union, 1994, 1.

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