Psychology for Social Workers / Human Service Professionals / Nurses

Psychology for Social Workers Ψ

Compiled by

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The symbol Ψ for psychology represents the letter of the Greek alphabet, (Psi (uppercase Ψ, lowercase ψ; Greek: Ψι Psi) psi, which is also the first letter of the Greek word psuche, meaning mind or soul, from which the term psyche arose; which in turn gave us the name of the discipline psychology which is most commonly defined as study of the mind.

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Psychology for Social Workers The content covers the syllabus prescribed for Master of Social Work (MSW) course in India

1. Psychology - Introduction 2. Human Growth & Development 3. Learning, Memory & Forgetting 4. Intelligence & IQ-Intelligence Quotient 5. Personality, Personality Disorder, Personality Tests 6. Mental Deficiency, Mental Illness & Mental Health 7. Psychology of Motivation 8. Counseling 9. Psychological Testing S.Rengasamy 10. Social Psychology

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology – Introduction

Ψ S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers Psychology – Introduction

Definition Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior.

The discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience — from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental healthcare services, "the understanding of behavior" is the enterprise of psychologists S.Rengasamy

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Basic concepts of Psychology - Explanations Mind -The part or faculty of a person by which one feels, perceives, thinks, remembers, desires, and imagines.

Brain - The portion of the central nervous system that is located within the skull. It functions as a primary receiver, organizer, and distributor of information for the body.

Behavior - A response of an individual or group to an action, environment, person, or stimulus Consciousness - The condition of being conscious : the normal state of being awake and able to understand what is happening around Cognition.The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding Ψ through thought, experience, and the senses S.Rengasamy

Basic concepts of Psychology – Explanations …………

Attitude - A tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object, person, or situation i.e. a settled way of thinking or feeling about something. Attitude influences an individual's choice of action, and responses to challenges, incentives, and rewards (together called stimuli).

Perception - Perception can be defined as our recognition and interpretation of sensory information. Perception also includes how one respond to the information. Perception is a process through which one take sensory information from the environment and use that information in order to interact with the environment. Perception allows one to take the sensory information in and make it into something meaningful.

Emotion. Any strong agitation of the feelings actuated by experiencing love, hate, fear, etc., and usually accompanied by certain physiological changes, as increased heartbeat or respiration, and often overt manifestation, as crying or shaking.

Motivation. Internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually interested and committed to a job, role or subject, S.Rengasamy or to make an effort to attain a goal.

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Application & Fields of Psychology Industrial Organizational Psychology Counseling Psychology Clinical Psychology Developmental Psychology Experimental Psychology Educational Psychology Social Psychology School Psychology Physiological Psychology Environmental Psychology Health Psychology Family Psychology Rehabilitation Psychology Psychometrics and Quantitative Psychology Forensic Psychology Geropsychology / Psychology of Aging Sport Psychology Consumer Psychology S.Rengasamy

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Schools / Perspectives of Psychology

Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener (1875-1930)

Structuralism sought to analyze the adult mind (defined as the sum total of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find the way in which these components fit together in complex forms. உள அமைப்பியல் மன அனுபவத்தை அதையாளம் காணத்ைக்க கூறுகளாக பிரித்து ஒவ்வவாரு மன அனுபவமும் பிற அனுபவங்களுைன் வகாண்டிருக்கும் வைாைர்புகதள தவத்து மனைின் கட்ைதமப்தப புரிந்து வகாள்ள முயன்ற உளவியல் அணுகுமுதற

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Schools / Perspectives of Psychology

Functionalism Wiliam James, G.Stanley Hall, James Cattell (1890 -1930's)

This perspective concerned with not only what the mind is made of but also how and why it works as it does. It focused it interest to understand the mental process of "Adaptation", the process that helped the humans (and animals also) adapt to their environment Formed as a reaction to the theories of the Structuralism school Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead interested in the role that these processes play.

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Schools / Perspectives of Psychology

Gestaltism Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer

The school or doctrine holding that behavioral and psychological phenomena cannot be fully explained by analysis of their component parts, as reflexes or sensations, but must be studied as wholes.

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Schools / Perspectives of Psychology

Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Carl Jung Alfred Adler (1900 -present)

This view, most notably represented by Sigmund Freud, pays close attention to unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflicts in order to further our understanding of mental disorders.

Psychodynamic psychology says that our motivation comes from the energy of irrational desires created in our unconscious minds

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Schools / Perspectives of Psychology

Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov John B. Watson B.F. Skinner (1913 -present)

This view sees environmental stimuli as the cause of our actions, not mental processes. There is a focus on the way reinforcements (rewards and punishments) shape the way we act.

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Schools / Perspectives of Psychology

Cognitivism Jean Piaget Noam Chomsky Herbert Simon (1950's -present)

Deals with mental processes (cognition) like learning, memory, perception, and thinking of them as parts of information processing model. This perspective calls attention to how our actions are influenced by the way we process information streaming in from our environment S.Rengasamy

Schools / Perspectives of Psychology

Humanism Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow (1950's- present)

Focuses on the motivation of people to grow psychologically, the influences on a person's self-concept, and the importance of choice and self-direction in striving to reach one's potential

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Schools / Perspectives of Psychology

Developmentalism Ainsworth Emotional development Jean Piaget Intellectual development L. Kohlberg Moral development The study of age-related changes in behavior from birth to death. Developmental psychologists attempt to determine the causes of such changes. Most research has concentrated on the development of children, but there is increasing interest in the elderly, and to a lesser extent in other age groups

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Psychology for Social Workers 2. Human Growth & Development

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Psychology for Social Workers 2. Human Growth & Development

Human development is defined as the study of the normal and expected age related changes from conception to death. It describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from conception to death. Maturation is defined as the unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes

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Psychology for Social Workers 2. Human Growth & Development

Stages of Growth

Prenatal (sperm fertilizes egg-birth) Embryo - fertilization - 8 weeks Zygote - 8-10 weeks Fetus, -10th week of pregnancy - birth Childhood / Juvenile (Childbirth–12 yrs) Neonate (0–30 days) Infant (0-12 months) Toddler (1–3 yrs) Primary school age (4-12yrs) Play age (4–5 yrs) Primary school age (4-12yrs) Elementary school age (6-12yrs) Preadolescence (10–12 yrs) Adolescence & puberty (13–19 yrs)

Adulthood (20+yrs) Young adulthood (20–39 yrs) Middle adulthood (40– 59 yrs) Advanced adulthood / Senior citizen (60+ yrs) Death (occurs at various ages, depending on person) S.Rengasamy

Developmental Tasks – Havighurst Havighurst

Infancy & Early Childhood (0-6 yrs) 1.Learning to walk.

2.Learning to take solid foods 3.Learning to talk 4.Learning to control the elimination of body wastes 5.Learning sex differences and sexual modesty 6.Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.

7.Getting ready to read

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Developmental Tasks – Havighurst Middle Childhood (6-12 yrs) 1.Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.

2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism 3. Learning to get along with age-mates 4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating 6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.

7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values 8. Achieving personal independence 9.Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions S.Rengasamy

Developmental Tasks – Havighurst Adolescence (12-18 yrs) 1.Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes 2.Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 3.Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively 4.Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults 5.Preparing for marriage and family life Preparing for an economic career 6.Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior, developing an ideology 7.Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior S.Rengasamy

Developmental Tasks – Havighurst

Early Adulthood (18-30 yrs) 1.Selecting a mate 2.Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 3.Learning to live with a marriage partner 4.Starting a family 5.Rearing children 6.Managing a home 7.Getting started in an occupation 8.Taking on civic responsibility 9.Finding a congenial social group

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Developmental Tasks – Havighurst

Middle Age (30-60 yrs) 1.Achieving adult civic and social responsibility 2.Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living 3.Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults 4.Developing adult leisure-time activities 5.Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person 6.Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age 7.Adjusting to aging parents.

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Developmental Tasks – Havighurst

Later Maturity (60 +) 1.Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health 2.Adjusting to retirement and reduced income 3.Adjusting to death of a spouse 4.Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group 5.Meeting social and civil obligations 6.Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement

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Psychology for Social Workers 2. Human Growth & Development Growth - increase in quantity - multiplication of cells - anatomical & physiological changes generally refers to changes in size Development - increase in quality - expansion of cells - emergence of psychological attributes, ideas, & acquisition of motor and sensory skills Occurs through maturation of physical and mental capacities, and learning

As individuals pass through the various stages of life, Four main types of growth and development occur : Physical Mental Emotional & Social Physical refers to body growth; includes height and weight changes, muscle and nerve development, and changes in body organs.

Mental refers to development of the mind; includes learning how to solve problems, make judgments and deal with situations.

Emotional refers to feelings; includes dealing with love, hate, joy, fear, excitement, and other similar feelings.

Social refers to interactions and relationship with others.

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Psychology for Social Workers 2. Human Growth & Development Types of Developmental Theories Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe and explain human development. Some developmental theories focus on the formation of a specific quality, such as Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Other developmental theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

Grand Theories Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas often proposed by major thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget.

Mini theories Mini theories describe a small, very specific aspect of development. A mini theory might explain fairly narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem is formed or early childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the ideas established by grand theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain the whole of human behavior and growth.

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Sigmund Freud

Psychology for Social Workers 2. Human Growth & Development

Psychosexual Development Theory What is psychosexual development?

Freud believed that humans go through five stages of psychosexual development and that at each stage of development humans experience pleasure in one part of the body than in others.

What are erogenous zones?

Erogenous zones are parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at particular stages of development.

What is fixation?

Fixation is the psychoanalytic What is psychosexual development? Freud defense mechanism that occurs thought that our adult personality is determined when the individual remains locked by the way we resolve conflicts between these in an earlier developmental stage early sources of pleasure—the mouth, the anus because needs are under- or overand the genitals—and the demands of reality. gratified S.Rengasamy

Theories of Human Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

Oral Stage (0-1yr) The baby learns to suck (a bottle, breast or pacifier) and develops healthy oral habits. If these habits don't develop it is said that an adult will bite their nails or over eat or smoke later in life, etc

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Theories of Human Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

Anal Stage (1-3yrs) Toddlers learn how to hold and release their urine and feces.

They learn to move away from diapers by using the toilet. The way they are taught this important step can cause an adult to be normal or either too orderly or messy S.Rengasamy

Theories of Human Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

Phallic Stage (3-6yrs) At this stage, is it said, that preschoolers develop oedipus and electra conflicts (sexual desire for boys to mother and girls to father). This causes the child to take on characteristics of the same-sex parent. The children will suppress this desire to not scare away the opposite sex parent and thus the superego is formed

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Theories of Human Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development Latency Stage (6-11yrs) During this stage the sexual instincts hide away and a child learns new social values with peers (slumber party).

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Theories of Human Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

Genital Stage (16+) The phallic stage reappears and if the earlier stages were developed successfully than this will lead to marriage and mature sexuality

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Psychoanalytic Theories Development

Theories of Human Development

Eric Erikson’s

Erik Erikson

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Theories of Human Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development Eric Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Trust vs. Mistrust Infancy (0- 8 mns) Feeding.Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3 yrs)

Early Childhood Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failur results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 yrs) Preschool Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt S.Rengasamy

Theories of Human Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development

Eric Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 yrs) School Age School Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 -18 yrs) Adolescence Social Relationships Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-40 ys) Young Adulthood Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

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Theories of Human Development Psychoanalytic Theories Development Eric Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 ys) Middle Adulthood Work and Parenthood Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65-death) Maturity Reflection on Life Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

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Theories of Human Development Cognitive Theories of Development

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

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Cognitive Theories Cognitive theories are concerned with the development of a person's thought processes.

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development S.Rengasamy

Key Concepts Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Schemas-A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

Assimilation-The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schemas is known as assimilation.

Accommodation- Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.

Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration S.Rengasamy

Social Learning Theory - Albert Bandura Bandura’s theory Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, is a learning theory based on the ideas that people learn by watching what others do, and that human thought processes are central to understanding personality. This theory provides a framework for understanding, predicting and changing human behaviour.

The main tenets of Bandura’s theory are that: 1. people learn by observing others 2. the same set of stimuli may provoke different responses from different people, or from the same people at different times 3. the world and a person’s behaviour are interlinked 4. personality is an interaction between three factors: the environment, behaviour, and a person’s psychological processes.

Social Cognitive Theory revolves around the notion that learning correlates to the observation of role models. In everyday life, we meet / observe /interact with S.Rengasamy models directly or through media sources

Learning from models – Four Key Processes in Social Learning Attention.

In order to learn, one need to be pay attention. The more striking or different something is (due to colour or drama, for example) the more likely it is to gain ones attention. Likewise, if one regard something as prestigious, attractive or like ourselves, one will take more notice. Distraction will have a negative effect on observational learning.

Retention.

The ability to store information. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning Reproduction.

Acting over the retained information Practice of the retained / learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Motivation.

In order for observational learning to be successful, one has to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement (past reinforcement. promised reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement) and punishment play an S.Rengasamy important role in motivation.

Kohlberg’s Theory of moral development Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its previous stage.

Kohlberg observed that growing children advance through definite stages of moral development in a manner similar to their progression through Piaget's well-known stages of cognitive development.

Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's life time. The se are stages of thought processing, implying qualitatively different modes of thinking and of S.Rengasamy problem solving at each stage.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

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Stages of of Faith JamesDevelopment W. Fowler Stages Faith – James W. Fowler

Faith is defined as confidence or trust in a being, object, living organism, deity, view, or in the doctrines or teachings of a religion, as well as confidence based on no scientific, plausible, testable, demonstrable evidence whatsoever. The word faith is often used as a synonym for hope, for trust, or for belief.

Professor James W. Fowler proposes series of stages of faith development (or spiritual development) across the life span. It is closely related to the work of Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg regarding aspects of psychological development in children and adults.Fowler defines faith as an activity of trusting, committing, and relating to the world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to others and the S.Rengasamy world.

Stages of Faith Development – Stages of Faith Development – James W. Fowler James W. Fowler

James Fowler stages of faith Stage Stage I Intuitive-Projective Stage 2 Mythic-Literal Stage 3 Synthetic-Conventional Stage 4 Individuative-Reflective Stage 5 Conjunctive Faith Stage 6 Universalizing Faith

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Stages of Faith Development – James W. Fowler

Stage 1 Intuitive-Projective This is the stage of preschool children in which fantasy and reality often get mixed together. However, during this stage, our most basic ideas about God are usually picked up from our parents and/or society.

Stage 2 Mythic-Literal When children become school-age, they start understanding the world in more logical ways. They generally accept the stories told to them by their faith community but tend to understand them in very literal ways. [A few people remain in this stage through adulthood.]

Stage 3 Synthetic-Conventional Most people move on to this stage as teenagers. At this point, their life has grown to include several different social circles and there is a need to pull it all together.

When this happens, a person usually adopts some sort of all-encompassing belief system. However, at this stage, people tend to have a hard time seeing outside their box and don't recognize that they are "inside" a belief system. At this stage, authority is usually placed in individuals or groups that represent one's beliefs. [This is the stage in which many people remain.]

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Stages of Faith Development – James W. Fowler Stage 4 Individuative-Reflective This is the tough stage, often begun in young adulthood, when people start seeing outside the box and realizing that there are other "boxes". They begin to critically examine their beliefs on their own and often become disillusioned with their former faith. Ironically, the Stage 3 people usually think that Stage 4 people have become "backsliders" when in reality they have actually moved forward.

Stage 5 Conjunctive Faith It is rare for people to reach this stage before mid-life. This is the point when people begin to realize the limits of logic and start to accept the paradoxes in life. They begin to see life as a mystery and often return to sacred stories and symbols but this time without being stuck in a theological box.

Stage 6 Universalizing Faith Few people reach this stage. Those who do live their lives to the full in service of others without any real worries or doubts.

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Stable Period - This is the time when a person makes crucial choices in life

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Early Adult Transition ** S.Rengasamy

** Transitional Period - This is the end of a person's stage and the beginning of a new one. Life during these transitions can be either rocky or smooth

Age

Harry Stack Sullivan’s Developmental Epochs Sullivan found out that childhood experiences with other people are a large contributor to the adult personality. He differed from Freud in his belief that the primary significance of the parent-child relationship was not predominantly sexual, but rather an early quest for security by the child. He also believed that the personality can continue to develop past adolescence and even well into adulthood. Sullivan called these stages "developmental epochs," occurring in a particular order but with their timing determined by our social environment. The majority of Sullivan's focus revolved around the periods of adolescence, and he suggested that many adulthood problems arise from the turmoils of adolescence.

Our emotional life is not written in cement during childhood. Wewrite each chapter aswe go along Sullivan S.Rengasamy

Harry Stack Sullivan’s Developmental Epochs

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Summary of Developmental Stages Psychosocial Development (Erikson) Trust vs. mistrust = birth – 1 year Autonomy vs. shame and doubt = 1 – 3 years Initiative vs. inferiority = 3 – 6 years Industry vs. inferiority = 6 - 12 years Identity vs. role confusion = 12 – 18 years

Psychosexual Development (Freud) Oral = birth – 1 year Anal = 1-3 years Phallic = 3 – 6 years Latency = 6 – 12 years Genital = 12 + years Stages of Faith (Fowler) Prestage: undifferentiated faith = infant Stage 1: intuitive-projective faith = toddler/preschooler Stage 2: mythical-literal faith = school age Stage 3: synthetic-conventional faith – adolescent Stage 4: individuative-reflective – late adolescent S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Cognitive School

Behavioristic School

Humanistic School

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting

Definition Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information.

Learning theories Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed, and knowledge and skills retained.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

This school suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

Human beings learn behaviour through conditioning and interacting with the environment Social Learning Social learning theory explains how people learn new behaviors, values, and attitudes by observing the behavior of others and its consequences, and modify their own behavior accordingly. Social learning requires observing a behaviour, remembering the observed behavior, the ability to replicate the behavior, and a motivation to act the same way.

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Conditioning A process through which behavior is learned. The two major types of conditioning, respondent conditioning (classical conditioning) and operant conditioning Classical conditioning involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.

Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Cognitivism

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

Cognitive School is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. Learning as a Mental Process Cognition literally means “knowing”. In other words, psychologists from this approach study cognition which is ‘the mental act or process by which knowledge is acquired.’ Cognitive psychology focuses on the way humans process information, looking at how we treat information that comes in to the person (what behaviorists would call stimuli), and how this treatment leads to responses. In Response other words, they are interested Stimulus /output /input in the variables that mediate between stimulus/input and response/output. Cognitive learning is viewed as an psychologists study internal information processor processes including perception, perception, attention, language, memory & thinking attention, language, memory and thinking. A learner is viewed as an information processor S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Stages of Cognitive Development

1 The Sensorimotor Stage: During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.

The Preoperational Stage: At this stage, kids 2 learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people.

The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development begin to think more logically, but their thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

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The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of S.Rengasamy abstract ideas.

3

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory explains psychosocial functioning in terms of triadic (1. a model 2.cognitive and personal factors 3.environmental events) reciprocal causation.

1. By observing others (models), people acquire knowledge of rules, skills, strategies, beliefs, and attitudes.

Individuals also learn about the usefulness and appropriateness of behaviors 2. observing models and the consequences of modeled behaviors and they act in accordance with their beliefs concerning the expected outcomes 3.environmental events of actions S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Constructivism.

It is a learning theory views learning as the product of experience (building new knowledge by accessing past experiences - Cognitive constructivism) and social discourse (expanding understanding through social interactions - social constructivism) Knowledge is Constructed; the Learner is an Active Creator

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Discovery Learning Discovery learning is an inquiry based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned e.g. business games, simulations -Jerome Bruner

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Communities of Practice Community of Practice is a social learning process that occurs when people who have a common interest in a subject or area collaborate over an extended period of time, sharing ideas and strategies, determine solutions, and build innovations Jean Lave

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Problem Based Learning PBL is a way to organize learning around ill-structured problems so that students simultaneously acquire new knowledge and experience in wrestling with problems�

In PBL, a teacher present a problem, not lectures or assignments or exercises.

Since the "content" related to the problem is not handed out, learning becomes active in the sense that one is motivated to discover the relevant content necessary to solve the problem.

In PBL, a teacher acts as facilitator and mentor, rather than a source of "solutions."

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Humanism ‘Humanism is a paradigm / philosophy /

pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfil one’s potential. Emotions and Affect Play a Role in Learning Some of the major ideas and concepts that emerged as a result of the humanist movement include an emphasis on things such as: Hierarchy of needs Self determination Self-actualization Emotional intelligence S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

Emotional Intelligence Learning is to prepare children's and adults to develop competencies to meet the demands life. Learning includes not only the subjects but also to learn to identify, assess, and control one's own emotions, the emotions of others and that of groups. Learning to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

Hierarchy of Needs Humanistic learning theory emphasizes on the individual needs in learning. When all levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs are met, students are at their full potential for learning. Student’s with empty stomach, students who are not accepted and loved by their teachers and peers face serious problems in learning S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting

Experiential Learning Experiential learning is the process of making meaning from direct experience, i.e., "learning from experience". Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Learning takes place in four stages 1.concrete experience or doing 2. reflective observation or observing 3. abstract conceptualization or thinking 4. active experimentation or planning S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory /Forgetting Self Determination Humans are often motivated to act by external rewards such as money, prizes, and acclaim (known as extrinsic motivation), SelfDetermination Theory (SDT) focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation such as a need to gain knowledge (competence) or independence (autonomy) or to relate (known as intrinsic motivation). If the learner experience competence when challenged and given prompt feedback, experience autonomy and support to explore, to take initiative and develop solutions for the problems and experience relatedness when listened and responded by others, the learner feels salification of intrinsic needs and motivated and engage in learning actively.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Definition Learning Disabilities refer to a number of disorders which may affect the acquisition, organization, retention, understanding or use of verbal or nonverbal information. These disorders affect learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate at least average abilities essential for thinking and /or reasoning.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Dyslexia (reading-based or print-based) A condition in the brain that makes it hard for a person to read, write, and spell

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Dysgraphia is a writing disability, which means a child may not have the complex set of motor and information processing skills to be able to write his or her own thoughts down on a piece of paper. They struggle with writing complete and grammatically correct sentences, and often have poor handwriting.

Dysgraphia (writing-based) Impairment of the ability to write, usually caused by brain dysfunction or disease.

Main symptoms of Dysgraphia Difficulty holding or gripping a pen and pencil Inconsistent spacing between letters, words and sentences Using a mix of upper case and lower case letters and a mix of cursive and print writing Sloppy, illegible writing Omitting letters or not finishing words when writing S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting

Dyscalculia (Arithmetic math -based) Dyscalculia is a math-based learning disability, which results in a child having trouble recognizing numbers and symbols and understanding basic math concepts. For adults, they often have problems related to reasoning.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Dyspraxia (Motor based) Dyspraxia is a disorder that affects motor skill development. People with dyspraxia have trouble planning and completing fine motor tasks. This can vary from simple motor tasks such as waving goodbye to more complex tasks like brushing teeth.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting

Central Auditory Process Disorder (auditory-based) Central Auditory Process Disorder (CAPD) is an auditory disability, which means a child has difficulty processing information he or she hears and interpreting speech. A child with CAPD does not necessarily suffer from hearing loss, instead he or she has a hearing problem where the brain does not interpret information heard.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities /Memory/Forgetting

Aphasia, Dysphasia or Global Aphasia (language-based) People who suffer from language-based disorders such as aphasia, dysphasia or global aphasia have a hard time expressing themselves using words as well as understanding spoken or written language.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Meaning

Stages of memory Encoding

Storage Retrieval

Memory is the process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information from the outside world to reach the five senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli and changed into a usable form. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that information is maintained over periods of time.

Finally the third process is the retrieval of information that has been stored. The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories which lies outside of our awareness most of the time into conscious awareness.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Sensory Memory

Iconic Memory

Echoic Memory

Haptic Memory

Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended.

Types Iconic Memory Echoic Memory Haptic Memory

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Short Term / Working Memory Short-term memory, also known as primary or active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. The information found in short term memory comes from paying attention to sensory memories

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Long Term Information stored in the brain and retrievable over a long period of time, often over the entire life span of the individual

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting

Explicit Declarative

Semantic

Episodic

Implicit Non Declarative

Procedural

Conditional

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Emotional

Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting Rote Memory Rote memory is verbal repetition of a learnt material mechanically; it is somewhat similar to habit memory and it is possible without understanding the learnt material. For example, learning the addition or multiplication tables.

Habit Memory Habit memory means memory of an object or idea resulting in a mechanical repetition of the activity. A habit is formed by doing a particular activity repeatedly over a period of time; for example, playing a musical instrument.

Habit memory becomes more a physical activity.

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Psychology for Social Workers 3. Learning /Learning Disabilities/Memory/Forgetting

Logical memory involves proper understanding of the material learnt. When the content of a lesson is understood, then one can retain it in mind for a longer period and can reproduce it, whenever required, in future. It does not depend on the mechanical verbal repetition.

Forgetting / Retention Loss/ Memory Loss

Retention Loss Memory Loss

Meaning Forgetting (retention loss) refers to 1. apparent loss of information already encoded (memory) has disappeared - it is no longer available or 2. the memory may be stored in the memory system but, for some reason, it cannot be retrieved. These two answers summaries the main theories of forgetting developed by psychologists. The first answer is more likely to be applied to forgetting in short term memory (Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting), the second (interference and lack of consolidation) to forgetting in long term memory.

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Types of Forgetting / Problems with memory Transience: 1 storage decay over time (after we part ways with former classmates, unused information fades) Misattribution confusing the source of information (putting words in someone else's mouth or remembering a movie scene as an actual happening)

3

5 Bias When retrieving a memory, one's mood and other biases at that moment can influence what information one actually recall.

Distortion An imperfect image is recalled from long term-memory(Still remember the memory, but is no longer what it originally stored 7 S.Rengasamy

2 Blocking inaccessibility of stored information (seeing an old classmate, we may feel the name on the tip of our tongue, but we experience retrieval failurewe can't get it out)

4 Suggestibility Suggestibility is the vulnerability of your memory to the power of suggestion , the lingering effects of misinformation 6 Fading When we can no longer recall information from our memory because of disuse(once a clear memory, now faded)

Interferences: 1.Proactive interference, Proactive interference(forward-acting)disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information and 2. Retroactive interference (backward-acting) New learning disrupts the recall of old 8

Forgetting / Retention Loss/ Memory Loss Theories of Forgetting

Decay Theory Retrieval failure theory Motivated forgetting Interference theory

Decay Theory The decay theory suggest, simply, that our memories may biologically degenerate over time. Forgetting occurs because as time passes, the memory trace gradually fades away.

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Forgetting / Retention Loss/ Memory Loss

Interference theory

Retroactive interference refers to newly-encoded memory interfering with the retrieval of a less recently encoded memory.

Proactive interference refers to a previously-encoded memory interfering with the retrieval of a more recently encoded memory.

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Psychology for Social Workers Forgetting / Retention Loss/ Memory Loss Retrieval failure theory The retrieval failure theory refers to one’s incapacity to utilise internal or external cues to retrieve previously-stored information. That is, whilst the information is stored in memory and is, theoretically, available, the necessary prompts are not present. This is often exemplified by the ‘tip-of-the-tongue’ phenomenon.

Motivated forgetting Motivated forgetting refers to the process consciously or unconsciously blocking out negative, painful or threatening memories by using repression (unconscious) and suppression (conscious).

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Psychology for Social Workers Intelligence

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Psychology for Social Workers Intelligence

Meaning Capacity for learning, reasoning, understanding, and similar forms of mental activity; aptitude in grasping truths, relationships, facts, meanings, etc.

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Verbal - Finding the right words to express what one's feel

Psychology for Social Workers Types of Intelligence

Musical - Discerning sounds, their pitch, tone, rhythm and timbre

Mathematical Quantifying things, making hypotheses, and proving them Interpersonal Sensing people's feelings and motives

Naturalistic Understanding living things and reading nature Visual - Visualizing the world in 3D

Physical - Coordinating one's mind with one's body S.Rengasamy

Existential - Tackling the questions of why we live and why we die

Psychology for Social Workers Types of Intelligence

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Psychology for Social Workers Types of Intelligence

IQ-Intelligence Quotient IQ-Intelligence Quotient –

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Intelligence Quotient is a measure of a person's intelligence as indicated by an intelligence test; the ratio of a person's mental age to their chronological age (multiplied by 100) Mental Age/Chronological Age = Mental Quotient A 6-year-old able to do only what a 3-year-old can do has a Mental Quotient of .5 or ½ (3 divided by 6).

Mental Age/Chronological Age X 100 = Intelligence Quotient The 6-year-old with the Mental Quotient of ½ has an IQ of 50. An I.Q between 90 and 110 is considered average; over 120, superior.

Psychology for Social Workers Personality

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Psychology for Social Workers Personality

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Psychology for Social Workers Personality Definition Personality is the sum total of the physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristics of an individual. But these characteristics are “consistent as well as intrapersonal processes originating within the individual�. People possess characteristic traits that are relatively stable, across both time and situations, thus accounting for the consistency element of personality. It is intrapersonal in the sense that it influences, how people think, feel, and behave in a unique way hence relating to the individuality of the personality.

Personality is the set of emotional qualities, ways of behaving, etc., that makes a person different from other people It also means attractive qualities (such as energy, friendliness, and humor) that make a person interesting or pleasant to be with S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality

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Personality Theories of Personality

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Type Theories Hippocrates identified four types of Personalities or temperaments, each associated with a different bodily fluid, or "humor."

The sanguine, or optimistic, type was associated with blood; The phlegmatic type (slow and lethargic) with phlegm; The melancholic type (sad, depressed) with black bile; & The choleric (angry) type with yellow bile.

Individual personality was determined by the amount of each of the four humors.

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Personality Theories of Personality

Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality Type Theories

William Sheldon (1940) Classified personality into three categories based on body types: the endomorph (heavy and easy-going), mesomorph (muscular and aggressive), and ectomorph (thin & intellectual or artistic).

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Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality Type Theories

Type A and Type B personality theory.

According to this theory, impatient, achievement-oriented people are classified as Type A, whereas easygoing, relaxed individuals are designated as Type B S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality Type Theories

Introvert Energized by self Inward & Quiet Thinks, then act Deep Experience

Extrovert Energized by outer world, Outgoing & Talkative, Act Then think , breath experience

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Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality Type Theories

INFP: introversion (I), intuition (N), feeling (F), perception (P)

ESTJ: extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T), judgment (J)

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Personality Theories of Personality Type Theories

ESTJ Extraversion (E), Sensing (S), Thinking (T), Judgment (J)

INFP Introversion (I), Intuition (N), Feeling (F), Perception (P)

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Myers Briggs Sixteen Personality Types Personality Theories of Personality Type Theories

ESTJ Extraversion (E), Sensing (S), Thinking (T), Judgment (J)

INFP Introversion (I), Intuition (N), Feeling (F), Perception (P)

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Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality Trait Theories

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Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality -Trait Theories

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Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality Trait Theories

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Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality Trait Theories

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Structure of the Personality

Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality

Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic theory placed great importance on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality. Psychoanalytic theory of personality argued that human behavior was the result of the interaction of three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. Dynamic interactions among these basic parts of the mind were thought to carry human beings through five psychosexual stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Each stage required mastery for a human to develop properly and move on to the next stage successfully.

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Behavioural Theories

Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality

Behavioural theory postulates that personality is acquired through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that human responses to environmental stimuli condition human learning which in turn shape behavior and personality. Thus personality is neither an inborn character nor unconscious response but a learned one

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Psychology for Social Workers Theories of Personality

Social Cognitive Theories Social-Cognitive Theory emphasizes cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging in the development of personality. These cognitive processes contribute to learned behavior that are central to one's personality, not just the environmental influences such as rewards and punishments. By observing an admired role model, an individual may choose to adopt and emphasize particular traits and behaviors.

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Psychology for Social Workers Personality Theories of Personality

Humanistic Theories

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Humanistic theory postulates that personality is shaped by hierarchy of needs and striving of self actualization. For a person to "grow", they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self -disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Psychology for Social Workers Personality Theories of Personality

Bio-psychological Theories Bio-psychological theory of personality explains that personality is influenced by the biology of the brain. This theory emphasis on the biochemistry of the behavioral systems of reward, motivation, and punishment. It hypothesized two systems controlling behavioural activity and shaping personality, the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioural activation system (BAS).The BIS is thought to be related to sensitivity to punishment as well as avoidance motivation, while the BAS is thought to be related to sensitivity to reward as well as approach motivation.

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Psychology for Social Workers Personality Disorders Definition Personality disorders are a class of mental disorders characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience, exhibited across many contexts and deviating markedly from those accepted by the individual's culture. These patterns develop early, are inflexible and are associated with significant distress or disability

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Psychology for Social Workers Personality Disorders

(odd disorders)

Schizotypal PD: a pattern of extreme discomfort interacting socially, and distorted cognitions and perceptions

Paranoid PD: characterized by a pattern of irrational suspicion and mistrust of others, interpreting motivations as malevolent

Schizoid PD: lack of interest & detachment from social relationships, apathy, and restricted emotional expression.

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Psychology for Social Workers Personality Disorders

Cluster B (dramatic, emotional or erratic disorders)

Borderline PD: pervasive pattern of instability in relationships, selfimage, identity, behavior and affects often leading to self-harm and impulsivity.

Histrionic PD: pervasive pattern of attentionseeking behavior and excessive emotions.

Narcissistic PD: a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and a lack of empathy.

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Antisocial PD: a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, lack of empathy, bloated self-image, manipulative and impulsive behavior.

Psychology for Social Workers Personality Disorders

(anxious or fearful disorders)

Avoidant PD: pervasive feelings of social inhibition and inadequacy, extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation.

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Dependent PD: pervasive psychological need to be cared for by other people.

Obsessive-compulsive PD (not the same as obsessive-compulsive disorder): characterized by rigid conformity to rules, perfectionism, and control to the point of satisfaction and exclusion of leisurely activities and friendships.

Psychology for Social Workers Personality Tests Definition Personality tests are standardized series of questions / inventories or tasks used to describe or evaluate the thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and behavioral traits that comprise personality. The results of these tests can help determine ones personality strengths and weaknesses, and may identify certain disturbances in personality, or psychopathology.

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Psychology for Social Workers Various Types of Personality Tests

Personality Tests are self-report inventories involve having test-takers read questions and then rate how well the question or statement applies to them 1.Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) 2.The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire 3.California Personality Inventory 4.Common Inventories 1. Anger Test, 2.

Stress Test, 3. Neurotic Test, 4. Personality Type Test 5. Memory Test, 6. Openness to Experience Personality Test, 7. Agreeable Test 8. Consciousness Test, 9. Extrovert? Test S.Rengasamy 10. Five Factor Test

Projective tests involve presenting the test-taker with a vague scene, object, or scenario and then asking them to give their interpretation of the test item.

The Rorschach Inkblot Test The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

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Psychology for Social Workers Mental Deficiency / Mental Illness & Mental Health

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Psychology for Social Workers

Definition Mental Deficiency is no longer in technical use. Now it is called as mental retardation that means something is wrong or lacking in a person's brain, thought process or ability to think and learn.

Mental retardation (MR), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired intellectual and adaptive functioning which is defined by an IQ score below 70 as well as a delay in general daily living skills.

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Psychology for Social Workers Down Syndrome

Down' Syndrome Down syndrome (trisomy 21) is a genetic disorder caused when abnormal cell division results in extra genetic material from chromosome 21.

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Psychology for Social Workers Cretinism

Cretinism Cretinism is a condition of severely stunted physical and mental growth due to untreated congenital deficiency of thyroid hormones (congenital hypothyroidism) due to maternal nutritional deficiency of iodine.

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Psychology for Social Workers Cranial Anamoly

Cranial Anamoly Cranial Anamoly is an irregular head because of a congenital flaw.

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Psychology for Social Workers Microcephaly

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Psychology for Social Workers Hydrocephaly

Hydrocephaly Hydrocephaly is a medical condition in which there is an abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the ventricles, or cavities, of the brain.

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Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness

Mental Illness Mental Illness is a medical condition characterized by impairment of an individual's normal cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning, and caused by social, psychological, biochemical, genetic, or other factors, such as infection or head trauma. Also called emotional illness, mental disease, mental disorder. e.g.Mood Disorder, Depression, Anxiety, Psychotic Disorders, Bipolar Disorder, Dementia/Alzheimer’s Disease S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness - Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety Disorders

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Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by feelings of anxiety and fear e.g. Panic disorder, Social anxiety disorder, Specific phobias, Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness - Anxiety Disorders

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Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness Anxiety Disorders

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Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness - Mood Disorders

Mood Disorders

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Mood disorder is a psychological disorder characterized by the elevation or lowering of a person's mood, such as depression or bipolar disorder. e.g. Depressive disorder, Bipolar disorder, Substance-induced mood disorder

Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness Mood Disorders

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Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness - Psychotic Disorders

Psychotic Disorders

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Psychotic disorders are severe mental disorders that cause abnormal thinking and perceptions. e.g. psychotic disorder, schizotypal personality disorder, delusional disorder, catatonia, substance/medicationinduced psychotic disorder

Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness – Eating Disorders Eating Disorders Eating disorders are psychological illnesses defined by abnormal eating habits that may involve either insufficient or excessive food intake. e.g. Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, Anorexia is an eating disorder in which a person is obsessed with losing weight and often refuses to eat as they fear it will cause them to gain weight.

Bulimia - People with bulimia may eat large amounts of food - and then purge, trying to get rid of the extra calories in an unhealthy way.

Binge Eating Disorder is characterized by compulsive overeating in which people consume huge amounts of food while feeling out of control and powerless to S.Rengasamy stop.

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Psychology for Social Workers Mental Illness Impulsive Control & Addiction Disorders

Impulsive Control & Addiction Disorders Impulse control disorders are a new class of personality disorders characterized by an ongoing inability to resist impulses to perform actions that are harmful to oneself or others. e.g alcohol / drug addiction, eating disorders, compulsive gambling, paraphilia, sexual fantasies, compulsive hair pulling, stealing, intermittent explosive attacks of rage.

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Psychology for Social Workers Mental Health

Mental Health Meaning A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life.

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Psychology for Social Workers Characteristics of Mentally Healthy Not overwhelmed by emotions, such as fear, anger, love, jealousy, guilt, or anxiety.

Feeling comfortable with other people.

Ability to laugh at themselves and with others.

Maintain lasting and satisfying personal relationships.

Ability to make their own decisions.

Ability to shape their environment whenever possible and adjust to it when necessary.

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Psychology for Social Workers Promotion of Mental Health Promoting mental health means preventing mental illness and increase the number of people who enjoy good mental health by developing their ability to adapt to mental stresses and reduce to the greatest extent possible, the number of people whose mental health is poor, who experience the symptoms of mental health problems or illnesses, or who die by suicide.

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Psychology for Social Workers Promotion of Mental Health

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

It involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. "The term motivation refers to factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior... Motives are the "whys" of behavior - the needs or wants that drive behavior and explain what we do.

We don't actually observe a motive; rather, we infer that one exists based on the behavior we observe."

Motivation derived from Latin word movere , which means to move

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Psychology for Social Workers Importance of Motivation Motivation is very important both for individuals and organizations for the following benefits it provides:

It Improves level of efficiency Leads to achievement of personal organizational goals

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

Need - A physiological or psychological imbalance leads to creation of need

Individuals believes in certain manner Drive /Motive

Drive/Motives propel individuals to attain their goals or satisfy their need

Search Behaviour

Physiological / Psychological Deficiency Unsatisfied Need

Tension

Motivation Process

Culture Experience Learning Cognitive process

Satisfied Need Achieves a Particular Goal

Reduction of the Tension

Incentives - anything that can mitigate a need and decrease the intensity of a drive

An unsatisfied need creates tension that stimulates the drive within an individual to generate search behavior to achieve particular goals, if attained, will satisfy the need and reduce the tension

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation Motivation Theories (Content vs. Process) Motivation theories can be classified broadly into two different perspectives: Content and Process theories.

Content Theories deal with “what” motivates people and it is concerned with individual needs and goals. Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg and McCelland studied motivation from a “content” perspective.

Process Theories deal with the “process” of motivation and is concerned with “how” motivation occurs. Vroom, Porter & Lawler, Adams and Locke studied motivation from a “process” perspective.

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation A group of theories that places emphasis on needs that motivate people

Maslow

Herzberg

McClelland

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Herzberg’s Two-factor theory McClelland’s Acquired needs theory Alderfer’s ERG theory Alderfer Victor H. Vroom

Expectancy theory Equity theory Goal setting theory

A category of theories that explain how people select behaviors to meet their needs S.Rengasamy

John Stacey Adams

Edwin Locke

Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs When motivation theory is being considered the first theory that is being recalled is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs which he has introduced in his 1943 article named as “A Theory of Human Motivation”. According to this theory, individual strives to seek a higher need when lower needs are fulfilled. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a source of motivation. Needs are motivators only when they are unsatisfied.

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation Malow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation ERG Theory In 1969, Clayton P. Alderfer, simplified Maslow’s theory by categorizing hierarchy of needs into three categories: Physiological and Safety needs are merged in Existence Needs, Belonging needs is named as Relatedness Needs, Self-esteem and Selfactualization needs are merged in Growth Needs S.Rengasamy

Hierarchy of Needs & ERG

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Frederick Herzberg, introduced his Two Factor Theory in 1959. He suggested that there are two kinds of factors affect motivation, and they do it in different ways: Hygiene factors involve the presence or absence of job dissatisfiers. When the hygiene factors are present, the individual is not dissatisfied; however when they are absent the individual is dissatisfied. In any case hygiene factors do not motivate. Hygiene factors are extrinsic and include factors such as salary or remuneration, job security and working conditions Motivators are factors that influence satisfaction and consequently motivate the person from within as he or she achieve the higher-level needs of achievement, recognition, and personal growth. Motivators are intrinsic factors such as sense of achievement, recognition, responsibility and personal S.Rengasamy growth.

Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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McClelland’s Acquired needs theory

Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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Acquired-Needs Model

Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

The basis of the model is that needs are acquired or learned from the life experiences in the culture in which we live. The acquire needs model focuses on three important needs in the work environment: 1. Need foe achievement (n-ach) 2. Need for power (n-pow) 3. Need for affiliation (n-affil) n-ach – the drive to excel, to accomplish, and to achieve a standard of excellence. n-pow – the need to influence and control one’s environment; may involve either personal power or institutional power. n-affil – the need for friendly and close interpersonal relationships Implication Acquired-need model provides managers with the understanding of the underlying needs that motivate people to behave in certain ways. This model does not explain why people choose a particular way of behaviour.

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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Psychology for Social Workers Summary of Content Theories of Motivation

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation Process Theories about Motivation Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory argues that humans act according to their conscious expectations that a particular behavior will lead to specific desirable goals.

Victor H. Vroom, developed the expectancy theory in 1964, producing a systematic explanatory theory of workplace motivation. Theory asserts that the motivation to behave in a particular way is determined by an individual’s expectation that behaviour will lead to a particular outcome, multiplied by the preference or valence that person has for that outcome.

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation Process Theories about Motivation

Goal Theory Edwin Locke proposed Goal Theory in 1968, which proposes that motivation and performance will be high if individuals are set specific goals which are challenging, but accepted, and where feedback is given on performance.

The two most important findings of this theory are: Setting specific goals (e.g. I want to earn a million before I am 30) generates higher levels of performance than setting general goals (e.g. I want to earn a lot of money).

The goals that are hard to achieve are linearly and positively connected to performance. The harder the goal, the more a person will work to reach it.

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

Adams’ Equity Theory Developed by John Stacey Adams in 1963, Equity Theory suggests that if the individual perceives that the rewards received are equitable, that is, fair or just in comparison with those received by others in similar positions in or outside the organization, then the individual feels satisfied. Adams asserted that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others.

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

Theory X and theory Y Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book 'The Human Side Of Enterprise'.

Theory X assumes that employees are naturally unmotivated and dislike working, and this encourages an authoritarian style of management.

Theory Y assumes that employees are happy to work, are self-motivated and creative, and enjoy working with greater responsibility.

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Psychology for Social Workers Psychology of Motivation

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Psychology for Social Workers Counselling

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Psychology for Social Workers

Nature of Counselling The branch of psychology that focuses on personal problems not classified as serious mental disorders, such as academic, social, or vocational difficulties of students. This is similar to clinical psychology, except that most of the issues addressed by counseling psychologists are less "serious". For example, a clinical psychologist would be more likely to deal with schizophrenia and other "serious" psychological disorders than a counseling psychologist

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Psychology for Social Workers Counselling

Counselling - Definition Direct face-to-face conversation between two people. It is a scientific process of assistance extended by an expert in an individual situation to a needy person. Counselling involves relationship between two persons in which one of them (counselor) attempts to assists the other (counselee or client) in so organizing himself as to attain a particular form of happiness, adjusting to a life situation, or in short ,self actualization

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Psychology for Social Workers Counselling

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Psychology for Social Workers Counselling X Coaching

Counseling

Coaching

Discipline, Instructing

Asking, Guiding

PAST

NOW

FUTURE

Recovery

Growth

Seeking Healing Correcting Belief System Establishing Healthy Thinking & Behaviours Discovering What We were created to BE

Choosing Goals, Action Steps Making Commitments Going to next Level Maximizing Potential Discovering & Pursuing What We were created to DO S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers Counselling X Guidance • Guidance is broader comprehensive • Guidance is more external, helps A person understand alternative solutions available to him & makes him understand his personality & choose the right solution.

• Guidance is mainly preventive & developmental • Intellectual attitudes are the raw material of guidance • Decision making is operable at an intellectual level in guidance • Guidance is generally education & career related & may also be for personal problems

• Counselling is in-depth & narrow • Counselling helps people understand themselves & is an inward analysis.

• Alternative solutions are proposed to help understand the problem at hand.

• Counselling is remedial as well as preventive & developmental • Emotional rather than pure intellectual attitude are raw material of the counselling process.

• Counselling operates at an emotional level • Counselling is mostly offered for personal & social issues.

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Psychology for Social Workers Counselling Stages

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Psychology for Social Workers Counselling

Counseling is Not    

Giving advice.

Judgmental.

Attempting to sort out the problems of the client.

Expecting or encouraging a client to behave in a way in which the counsellor may have behaved when confronted with a similar problem in their own life.  Getting emotionally involved with the client.  Looking at a client's problems from counselors perspective, based on counselors value system.

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Psychology for Social Workers Counselling & Psychotherapy Counselling is a helping approach that highlights the emotional and intellectual experience of a client, how a client is feeling and what they think about the problem they have sought help for.

Psychotherapy, however, is based in the psychodynamic approach to counselling - it encourages the client to go back to their earlier experiences and explore how these experiences effect their current ‘problem’.

A psychotherapist, therefore, helps the client to become conscious of experiences which they were previously unaware of. Counsellors, however, are less likely to be concerned with the past experiences of the client and are generally trained in a humanistic approach, using techniques from client-centred therapy.

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Psychology for Social Workers Areas of Counselling

Areas of Counselling School and career/work adjustment concerns.

Making decisions about career and work, and dealing with school‐work‐retirement transitions.

Relationship difficulties‐including marital and family difficulties.

Learning and skill deficits.

Stress management and coping with negative life events.

Organizational problems.

Dealing with and adjusting to physical disabilities, disease or injury.

Personal/social adjustment. The development of one’s identity.

Persistent difficulties with relating to other people in general. Mental disorders.

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Directive Counseling

Psychology for Social Workers Types of Counselling

Directive Counseling (prescriptive counselling) • E.G Williamson is the chief exponent in this viewpoint • It is Counsellor -centred. the counsellor direct the client to take steps in order to resolve his conflicts • It is based on assumption that the client cannot solve his own problems for lack of information.

Non-directive Counselling Carl. R.Roger is the chief exponent in this viewpoint • This school of thought is just reverse to that of directive counseling • It is a client-centred process • In this, the counselee is the pivot of the whole counselling process • The main function of the counsellor is to create an atmosphere in which the client can work out his problem.

Eclectic Counselling The chief advocate of this type of counselling is ‘Thorne’ • Eclectic counselling is a type of counselling which is neither counsellor-centred nor client centred; but a combination of both • Here the counsellor is neither too active as in directive counselling nor too passive as in non-directive counselling, but follows a middle course.

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Psychology for Social Workers Types of Counselling

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Psychology for Social Workers Types & Areas of Counselling Process of Counseling Step 1: Relationship Building Step 2: Problem Assessment Step 3: Goal Setting Step 4: Intervention Step 5: Evaluation, follow up, Termination or Referral

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Psychology for Social Workers Qualities of a Counselor Qualities of a Counselor Patience, Good Listening, Observant, Warm, Knowledgeable, Having empathy with the patient/client, Maintaining a therapeutic relationship with a patient, Confidentiality, Personal integrity, Spiritual maturity

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Psychology for Social Workers Qualities of a Counselor

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Psychology for Social Workers Social Psychology

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Psychology for Social Workers Social Psychology Social Psychology Definition Social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods "to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other human beings S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers Subject matter of Social Psychology

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Group Dynamics: Interaction of complex intra- and inter-personal forces operating in a group which determine its character, development, and long-term survival.

Psychology for Social Workers Subject matter of Social Psychology Prosocial Behavior: Voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals Propaganda: Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view.

Ergonomics: The applied science of equipment design, as for the workplace, intended to maximize productivity by reducing operator fatigue and discomfort

Persuade: Induce (someone) to do something through reasoning or argument.

Health Psychology: Applying psychological principles to healing physical illness and medical problems Environmental psychology: It is an Social Psychology: The branch of interdisciplinary field focused on the interplay psychology that deals with social between individuals and their surroundings. interactions, including their origins and The field defines the term environment their effects on the individual. broadly, encompassing natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning Prejudice: Preconceived opinion that is not environments, and informational based on reason or actual experience.

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Aggression : Feelings of anger or antipathy resulting in hostile or violent behavior; readiness to attack or confront. the action of attacking without provocation

Psychology for Social Workers Subject matter of Social Psychology

Violence: Behavior involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something.

Social Control: Social control is the regulation of individual and group behavior in an attempt to gain conformity and compliance [disambiguation needed] to the rules of a given society, state, or social group.

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Cult: A system of religious veneration and devotion directed towards a particular figure or object.

Diversity: The condition of having or including people from different ethnicities and social backgrounds Discrimination: The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex.

Leadership: The action of leading a group of people or an organization, or the ability to do this

Consumer Psychology: The study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society."

Social Activism: Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, or environmental change, or stasis.

Domestic Violence: Domestic violence (also domestic abuse, spousal abuse, intimate partner violence, battering or family violence) is a pattern of behavior which involves violence or other abuse by one person in a domestic context against another, such as in marriage or cohabitation Advertising: Advertising is the non personal communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through the various media

Psychology for Social Workers Subject matter of Social Psychology

Gender: Gender is a person's sexual identity, regardless of the person's biological and outward sex.

Social Networking: The use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users, or to find people with similar interests to one's own Personal advertisement: A private advertisement or message placed in a newspaper, especially one from someone seeking a sexual or romantic partner.

Marketing: The action or business of promoting and selling products or services, including market research and advertising.

Sustainable Future: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to satisfy their needs' S.Rengasamy

Psychology for Social Workers Subject matter of Social Psychology Matchmaking: It is the process of matching two or more people together, usually for the purpose of marriage, but the word is also used in the context of sporting events, such as boxing, in business, and in pairing organ donors.

Family relationship: (Anthropology) relatedness or connection by blood or marriage or adoption Social marketing : It seeks to develop and integrate marketing concepts with other approaches to influence behaviors that benefit individuals and communities for the greater social good.

Volunteerism: The principle of donating time and energy for the benefit of other people in the community as a social responsibility rather than for any financial reward Conflict : A serious disagreement or argument, typically a protracted one.

Sexuality: An organism's preparedness for engaging in sexual activity.

Conflict Resolution: Intervention aimed at alleviating or eliminating discord through conciliation

Selling: To give up or surrender in exchange for a price or reward

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Psychology for Social Workers Subject matter of Social Psychology

Psychology of Gender Gender" (masculinity/femininity) refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. In comparison, 'sex' (male/female) denotes biologically determined, thus unchangeable, difference between them. Lesbian, Bisexual, and Gay, Other Gender S.Rengasamy

Community Psychology

Psychology for Social Workers Community Psychology

Community Psychology is that branch of applied psychology that deals with mental health and social welfare issues within the community setting.

Community psychologists try to involve the community members in proposed solutions to those problems. According to Oxford (1992), community psychology is about understanding people within their social worlds and using this understanding to improve people's well-being. Topics addressed in community psychology include substance abuse and prevention, addressing poverty issues, school failure, community development, risk and protective factors, empowerment, diversity, delinquency, and many more.

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