Engineering today issue 52 com

DECember 2015 ISSUE 52

Evolution of Electricity Generation in Malta

The Malta-Italy Electricity Interconnector page 18

page 06

Deployment of an Offshore PV System for the Maltese Islands page 28

Decarbonisation of the Electrical Energy Generation Sector in Malta page 12

Retrofitting a Mediterranean dwelling into a thermally comfortable, low energy home: A case study in Malta page 40

The IoT and its impact on building automation now and in the future page 48

An Evaluation of kWh/kWp values as the Standard to Adequately Differentiate between PV Technologies page 36

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december 2015 ISSUE 52

www.coe.org.mt

Contents 03 04 From the Editor

06

From the President

18

Evolution of Electricity Generation in Malta

28

The Malta-Italy Electricity Interconnector

40

54

Final Year Engineering Projects Exhibition 2015

Faculty of ICT Student Final Year Projects Exhibition 2015

Editor

Dr. Inġġ. Brian Azzopardi Eur. Ing.

Decarbonisation of the Electrical Energy Generation Sector in Malta

An Evaluation of kWh/kWp values as the Standard to Adequately Differentiate between PV Technologies

48

Retrofitting a Mediterranean dwelling into a thermally comfortable, low energy home: A case study in Malta

53

Cover Image

36

Deployment of an Offshore PV System for the Maltese Islands

12

Electricity generation in Malta is undergoing a major transformation. This is not something new for this industry which has being going through continuous changes since the establishment of a public electricity service, 121 years ago.

The IoT and its impact on building automation now and in the future

55 MCAST EXPO 2015

Editorial Board

Inġ. Norman Zammit Eur. Ing. Inġġ. Pierre Ciantar Prof. Dr. Inġ. Robert Ghirlando

56 IEEE Malta Section Public Presentations

Chamber of Engineers, Professional Centre, Sliema Road,Gzira, GZR 1633, Malta

Email: info@coe.org.mt Web: www.coe.org.mt

© Chamber of Engineers 2014. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Chamber of Engineers - Malta.

Opinions expressed in Engineering Today are not necessarily those of the Chamber of Engineers - Malta. All care has been taken to ensure truth and accuracy, but the Editorial Board cannot be held responsible for errors or omissions in the articles, pictographs or illustrations.

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Distribution: Maltapost Plc.

decEMBER 2015 ISSUE 52

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malta engineering excellence

2015

14th Edi�on

awards

and

The Best Final Year Engineering and ICT Students’ Projects Awards 2015 Shall be held under the Dis�nguished Patronage of H.E. Marie-Louise Coleiro Preca, President of Malta Tuesday 8th December 2015 6.30pm The Verdala Palace Event Programme: www.coe.org.mt Fees: Member & Guest €10 per person Student Member €5 (Student’s member guest €10) Non Member & Guest €25 per person Limited places available Dona�ons for the Community Chest Fund will be received on the night Dress: Lounge Confirma�on of a�endance via email: info@coe.org.mt by not later than the 3rd December 2015 The name/s of a�endee/s and a postal address are to be included in confirma�on email. Once payment is received a receipt card will be sent by postal mail. You will be requested to kindly present the card at the door.

Payment can be made via internet banking, full details can be found via www.coe.org.mt or by cheque payable to CoE – Addressed to CoE, 127, Professional Centre, Sliema Rd, Gzira - GZR 1633

Tel.: Mobile: Email: Website:

2133 4858 9933 4858 info@coe.org.mt www.coe.org.mt

Reg. No. VO/0167

Parking and Transport Parking available in the vicinity of the Verdala Palace main gate Shu�le transport service will be provided free of charge as follows: Palace main gate to the main entrance door from 6.15pm un�l 7.30pm Palace main entrance door to the main gate from 10.15pm un�l 10.45pm

From the Editor You may probably notice that last September you did not receive the Engineering Today. This is mainly due to the publishing house restructuring mechanism. I would like to reassure you that the Editorial board are doing all their utmost to issue the Engineering Today timely. In this issue we have therefore decided to place more content in articles for you to read during the festive season and over a hot drink!

This year, the 23rd Annual Engineering Conference was entitled Energy and Transport. Energy is a topical reference. A number of investments are happening in this field as well as new technologies are being supported worldwide. It is also good to bring to the attention of the readers the potential research funding opportunities by the European Union through its Horizon 2020 programme.

“Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be changed from one form to another” Albert Einstein. I believe that most of you remember this very same physics law and its energy association that this great man made in the 20th century.

In this issue seven articles are presented. The first article, “Evolution of Electricity Generation in Malta” demonstrates how Enemalta PLC, our national electricity utility, is gearing up for the next steps in the local industry's evolution. It also looks at the post-war period of this very important industry.

“Decarbonisation of the electrical energy generation sector in Malta” discusses the 2020 targets in accordance to the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) making reference to the 2009/28/EU Directive. A comprehensive review on large scale renewable energy projects for Malta is performed which highlights the resource limitations on the island.

The time has also come to get electrically connected with mainland Europe. Its inception is recorded in planning since the early 1990s, and during my time as executive engineer at Enemalta this theme was popular. The third article presented by leading author Dr Inġ. Joseph Vassallo covers this historic national milestone.

Keeping our offshore tone from the interconnector to offshore renewables, “Deployment of an offshore PV system for the Maltese Islands” presents the potential and challenges of a Malta Council of Science and Technology funded project which will install and test an 8kWp offshore photovoltaic (PV) array. Eventually, PVs are assessed through its kWh/kWp ratio. This parameter is depicted and introduced in this issue’s fifth article. The article looks into the consistencies related to modelling and PV databases.

Our sixth article presents practical and cost-effective working solution for retrofitting a Maltese dwelling into a thermally comfortable low energy home. A solution which is worth having a look into it! And finally article seven presents the Internet of Things within buildings and its relevance to energy utilisation.

Our “Social Sections” reports the various engineering related projects’ exhibitions, whose developers will be graduating during the coming days, hosted by the University of Malta and the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology. The IEEE Malta Section covers its contribution through a serious of invited lectures conducted by IEEE Distinguished Lecturer Dr Ing. Fulcieri Maltini. I also invite you to read the President’s address in this issue that covers an overview on our profession matters.

We are always on the lookout for authors to submit and report engineering and technology concepts as well as activities. In fact, I would like to take this opportunity to remind you about the 2016 Engineering Conference on Intelligent Buildings. These submissions are subject to an editorial board review process. I hope you enjoy reading this issue and I sincerely wish a very good academic year to all.

During December, we pay tribute to Engineering Excellence and our great minds. I am hoping to seeing you all at the 2015 Malta Engineering Excellence Awards. Finally, I would like to express my thanks to the Editorial Board, The Chamber of Engineers Council and its President Inġ. Norman Zammit for their continuous support, as well as our sponsors.

Wish you a very happy Christmas and New Year.

Dr Inġ. Brian Azzopardi Eur. Ing. The Editor, Engineering Today, Chamber of Engineers

decEMBER 2015 ISSUE 52

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From the President Dear Colleagues, It was only a few months back that Summer was over and the academic activities in our Universities, Colleges and schools started once again only to be approaching another festive season, Christmas. For many of us, holidays soon become a distant memory due to the pressures of work that never seem to leave us in solitude. Nevertheless we know that these pressures constitute an integral part of our professional life and hence the life of a person defined by law as an Engineer under Chapter 321 and to whom a warrant is awarded to enable him/her to exercise his/her duties towards society and peers in line with the Code of Ethics.

The Council of the Chamber met, for the last time in summer, towards the end of July and continued its regular meetings starting the first weeks of September. Nonetheless, August was still a busy month with various issues being raised and tackled both in the international sphere but also within the local scenario.

This included the finalisation of a joint reply between the Chamber and the Engineering Board to queries raised by the European Commission on certain aspects of the Engineering Profession Act. Some of the issues raised were considered as fundamental to the profession and therefore the Chamber, in liaison with the Engineering Board, took a firm stand on the matter. Further details will be given to our warranted members during the various meetings that might be organised from time to time by the Chamber.

Skill Cards for the construction sector in Malta.

On the 20th November, the Council met with the BICC where the main item on the agenda was the Consultation about The introduction of Skill Cards for the construction sector in Malta.

The Chamber forwarded its views on the matter and stated that the regulated professions that are subject to the attainment of a warrant as in the case of an ‘Inginier’ or ‘Perit’, should not require to be issued a Skill Card. This objection is being derived from the fact that the Chamber believes that in the case of a person who wants to work as an Engineer, it shall only be the mandate ( as per Chap 321) of the Engineering Board to determine his/her competence. Similarly the role of the ‘Perit’ is subject to the ‘Periti’ Act Chap 390.

BICC Chairman, Perit Charles Buhagiar explained that in the case of the ‘Inginier’ or ‘Perit’, this shall be a professional card which would indicate that the person has undergone health and safety training and would in no way determine competence. This was agreed to in principle by the Chamber.

The Chamber however agreed that a skill card should be issued to those professions both regulated (carrying the requirement of a licence such as an electrician) and unregulated within the Industry.

We always believed that certification or licencing is of utmost importance for all profession within the Construction Industry due to various issues especially related to health and safety.

Furthermore the Chamber stated that every Skill Card holder should have a basic Contractors’ All Risk insurance which would include third party liability. The BICC should hold a register of people who have attained the Skill Card in order to encourage other people in applying. This register should be made public and promoted.

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There should also be a system for the logging of complaints so that if there is a Skill Card holder who is abusing, BICC would be notified and if the person is found to be in breach of the basic ethical requirements for any profession, then the BICC would be able to revoke his/her card and have him/her struck-off the register. This implies that the BICC needs also to issue basic guidelines to all Skill Card Holders to ensure they would have an understanding of what are the basic ethical requirements.

The MALTA ENGINEERING EXCELLENCE AWARDS 2015 This year, the MEEA shall be held on Tuesday 8th December 2015 at the Verdala Palace under the Distinguished Patronage of the President of Malta, H.E. Marie Louise Coleiro Preca.

The awards were given in three categories: • • •

The Maurice Debono Lifetime Achievement Award Industrial Excellence Award Start-up Entrepreneur Award

This is the second year where the Chamber shall be giving the awards for the best projects from Final Year Engineering Students of the University of Malta during this ceremony.

Innovative Transport Systems for the Maltese Islands During my address at the 23rd Annual Engineering Conference of the Chamber of Engineers, focusing on Transport and Energy, I had stated that a national strategy should be developed that seeks to encourage alternative means of transport from point to point and that it is time that we should seriously consider the introduction of a surface railway system that would cover the south/central areas of the Island where the major industrial and commercial activity take place. Such an investment would bring in the private sector as the major player.

It is with great pleasure that we note that the Government had issued a request for proposals on new ways to improve transport links between Grand Harbour and the areas around Marsamxett.

Projects Malta said it was seeking to provide efficient transport options to passengers, particularly in traffic congested areas.

Projects Malta Ltd. was set-up by the Government of Malta to work on Public-Private Initiatives promoting, developing and facilitating sustainable private/public sector joint venture initiatives.

From official figures, it is estimated that 49% of the population lives in the harbour area. There are 335,249 licensed vehicles in all.

According to a report in the Times of Malta on the matter, the journal reported that ‘Energy Minister Konrad Mizzi said the government was looking forward to innovative proposals which could be funded through a public-private partnership. Transport Minister Joe Mizzi said the government wished to see a reduction of the dependence on private cars, reducing congestion and improving air quality’.

We all hope that this initiative will act as a catalyst towards finding a long lasting solution to our transportation problems.

Ethics and the engineering profession Aware of such illicit practices and conscious of the fact that some engineers are refusing to comply with the Code of Ethics, the Ethics and Disciplinary Committee conducted a survey regarding ethics within the profession and consequently presented its findings to the Council.

A subcommittee within the Council has been setup with Ing. Helga Pizzuto as the Chairperson and the members being Ing. Joe Camilleri (Chairman – MGPEI), Dr. Ing. Daniel Micallef and Prof Dr. Ing. Paul Micallef from the Chamber Council whilst Prof JeanPaul De Lucca was to be approached by Ing. Pizzuto to sit on the committee due to his academic experience in the field.

A seminar was organised on the 30th October at SmartCity Malta to discuss the findings of the survey and to give more information and guidance to our members on the interpretation of the Code.

We hope that the committee would achieve the target of completing the first draft of the white paper before the end of 2015 since apart from being a requirement for engineers in the Engineering Profession Act Chap 321, CPD is also a fundamental requirement defined under the Services Directive issued within the European Union.

Upon recommendations from the Ethics Committee, the Chamber shall start to look into introducing a more ‘user friendly version’ of the code as well as address issues on the ‘modus operandi’ of certain Authorities and where necessary approach Government at all levels to promote better Governance in our areas of competence. This is even more important where the management of the Authority lies within the hands of warranted engineers who should seek to uphold the ethics and interest of the profession at all times. When a Civil Servant is also an engineer, our Code of Ethics should compel that Civil Servant to behave more responsibly. No engineer should ever be heard uttering the words ‘this is not my problem!’

In parallel with the issues mentioned above, the Council shall continue to work to increase the presence of Engineers in relevant Authorities and to instil in people’s minds that having Engineers in key roles within Society is a guarantor of quality and integrity.

I wanted to once again give, as an example, the issue of having the ‘competent person’ that is clearly defined as being the Engineer when it comes to mechanical, electrical and IT engineering systems is already catered for in the main Occupational Health and Safety legislation. Subsidiary legislation and regulations should follow this main definition and the OHSA should audit its operations and create systems where certificates presented are regularly subjected to audits.

As a Council we once again solicit the attention of our members to ensure compliance with the Code of Ethics at all times and if ever in doubt on issues, to refer these issues in confidentiality to the Ethics and Disciplinary Committee or to the Council.

Engineering Degrees issued by University of Malta, MCAST and other Institutions The Chamber noticed with great concern that no interest was expressed for the tender to select a competent reviewer for the planned review process for the Engineering degrees issued by the various Universities and Institutions.

The Chamber shall look into the matter to see how it can be of assistance to the Ministry through its international connections especially with FEANI.

Conclusions I would like to conclude my address with indicating that there are a number of international activities that the Chamber of Engineers was involved in with the most critical being the FEANI General Assembly that this year was held in Lisbon, Portugal in October 2015. The assembly shall continue to discuss on various matters of utmost importance to all the Engineering professionals within the EU. The Assembly was attended by the Vice-President, Ing. Saviour Baldacchino and our Secretary for International Affairs, Prof. Dr. Ing. Paul Micallef.

The most important item on the agenda was the introduction of a Common Training Framework and whether FEANI should go ahead on this, especially since the EU was keen that some organisations promote this idea further.

Furthermore, on the 26th September, our Secretary for International Affairs, Prof. Dr Ing. Paul Micallef attended the General Assembly Meeting of the European Council of Engineers Chambers (ECEC).

We have also continued to follow the activities of the World Federation of Engineering Organisations (WFEO) of which we are associate members.

The Chamber is also participating in the Engineering Association of the Mediterranean Countries (E.A.M.C.) Finally on behalf of the Council I would like to wish you all the best for the upcoming festive season. May you have a blessed Christmas.

Yours Sincerely,

Inġ. Norman Zammit

As a Chamber, we sincerely hope that the Minister can intervene and reissue the call.

Professional development of Engineers As stated on various occasions, the Chamber of Engineers is planning to issue a white paper in relation to the implementation and promotion of Continual Professional Development in our profession in line with the initial guidance document issued by the Federation of Professional Associations following the introduction of the Services Directive by the EU. This white paper will set up the framework to be implemented by the Chamber as regards CPD for its members.

Inġ. Norman Zammit B. Elec. Eng. (Hons.), M.Sc. (Brunel), Eur. Ing., CBIFM, Eur. Ing President, Chamber of Engineers

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Evolution of Electricity Generation in Malta In치. Jonathan Scerri Executive Director (Generation and Distribution), Enemalta PLC jonathan.a.scerri@enemalta.com.mt

Electricity generation in Malta is undergoing a major transformation.

This is not something new for this industry which has being going through continuous changes since the establishment of a public electricity service, 121 years ago. However, the present scenario is an unprecedented one. Old fuel oil power plant is being decommissioned. New independent players are coming into the picture.

Cross-border electricity sources are becoming available and the consumer is itself taking the role of an electricity producer. Market forces are coming into play. The industry faces new challenges to coordinate all resources, provide adequate security of supply at an affordable price, give due regard to environmental issues and allow for the integration of renewable non-dispatchable technologies.

This paper aims to illustrate the developments in the electricity generation industry over its history and portray the new situations that it is now facing. It demonstrates how Enemalta, the National electricity utility is gearing up for the next steps in the local industry's evolution.

Keywords: electricity generation history, interconnector, grid stability, dispatch.

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1. TIMELINE OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION IN MALTA 1.1 First Public Electricity Service Malta saw the first electric lighting in 1882 at the Royal Opera House. In the following decade, the Maltese government with the intervention of the British colonial office commissioned a feasibility study on the introduction of electricity supply in Malta. The study recommended a high-pressure alternating current system to provide power for 10,000 lamps in the areas of Valletta, Floriana, Hamrun, the Three Cities and Sliema.

This saw the Gozo power station ceasing to operate in 1959.

The prospects were implemented in 1894 when the first public electricity service in Malta inaugurated the Central Power Station at the foot of Crucifix Hill in Floriana. The station consisted of four generators having a capacity of 350kW operating at 100Hz single-phase.

The diversification of the Maltese economy in the 1960's required a further extension by the installation of a 5.7MW diesel-fired Fiat gas turbine in 1965. By this time, space in the underground tunnels was becoming a serious issue and further extensions were not possible. The Marsa "A" Station was decommissioned in 1994.

In the beginning of the twentieth century, the distribution system expanded and demand for electricity increased. In 1904, two 600kW units were added followed by a 500kW generator in 1915.

Gozo was served with electricity from a generation station built in Victoria in 1926. It had two 44kVA Diesel generators expanding to 94kVA by 1931. The supply was intermittent, mainly operating at night for electric lighting and on particular daytime occasions but by 1936, the installation in Gozo had been upgraded to a 50Hz three-phase system.

A new 120kW generator was installed in 1949 bringing the overall capacity to 180kW followed by an additional 200kW generator in 1951. These allowed the rural villages to be served with electricity by 1953.

1.2 The Post-War Period In the period prior to the second World War, there were several attempts to upgrade the electricity system in Malta, but these never materialised due to the high capital costs involved. Following the war, the Maltese government sought help under the Marshall Aid Scheme that was intended for the recovery of Europe. After more than a year of discussions, the Economic Administration of the United States of America approved the grant to construct a new power station to replace the old plant in Floriana.

The new power station, installed in the galleries excavated in the base of Jesuits Hill at Marsa, introduced three-phase supply at 50Hz to Malta. This necessitated a complementary upgrade of the distribution network. The ambitious programme, commonly known as the "changeover period" commenced in 1954 and lasted four years.

New 11kV three-phase cables were laid and 11kV overhead lines were erected. Substations were constructed and low voltage three-phase mains had to be stringed. In the late fifties, residents in the rural parts in the North of Malta continuously pursued with their demands to be served with electricity. The 11kV network became widespread. A feasibility study recommended that Gozo should be served from Malta by means of two submarine cables routed through Comino.

This underground station known as Marsa "A" Station had a total installed capacity of 15MW. It consisted of three 5MW Westinghouse steam turbines and associated oil fired Foster Wheeler steam boilers. In 1960, the power station was extended by another two Metropolitan Vickers steam turbines and two John Thompson boilers. Each of the two new units could generate 5MW.

1.3 Further Development at Marsa A new power station, better known as the Marsa "B" power station was inaugurated in 1964. It housed two 12.5MW Franco Tosi steam turbines and oil-fired John Thompson boilers. Water was becoming a scarce commodity at the time and the design included a one million gallon per day Aquachem desalination plant.

The first extension to the Marsa "B" Station occurred in 1970 when two 30MW Franco Tosi steam turbines, two oil-fired Franco Tosi steam boilers together with a three-million gallon per day Weir Westguard seawater distillation units were installed.

Demand continued to increase steadily and in 1982 the second extension was carried out. Two 30MW General Electric steam turbines which were decommissioned in Palermo, Sicily, were installed together with an oil-fired Mitsui boiler and a coal-fired Mitsui Riley stoker boiler. In 1984, another 30MW Ansaldo steam turbine was brought over from Palermo Sicily and a new pulverised coal-fired Foster Wheeler boiler was installed.

The third extension occurred in 1987 when a 60MW Parsons steam turbine was brought over from Little Barford, UK, and another pulverised coal-fired Foster Wheeler boiler was commissioned.

In 1990, the final extension to this Station was the addition of a 37MW diesel-fired GEC Alsthom gas turbine. By 1995, coalfired boilers were converted to burn fuel oil.

1.4 Corradino Station When the British Forces left the Maltese Islands in 1979, the Corradino Power Station which used to serve British military installations on the island through a dedicated distribution system was handed over to Enemalta. This became known as the "C" station.

This station was first commissioned in 1936 when two 5.5MW Parsons Steam Turbines and oil-fired John Thompson steam

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Evolution of Electricity Generation in Malta Continued

The latest addition to Delimara power station was commissioned in 2012 with a set of eight Wärtsilä oil-fired Diesel engines together with heat recovery steam generators and flue gas desulphurisation units. Steam from the heat recovery system is fed into a Dresser-Rand steam turbine to achieve a total plant output of about 144MW. The plant is also equipped with two fresh water generators that operate on the waste heat collected by the cooling water jackets of the Diesel engines.

1.6 Environmental Considerations Since 2001, Enemalta re-commissioned the electrostatic precipitators which were originally installed on the coal-fired boilers at the Marsa power station to reduce dust emission by 90%.

Later, in 2004, low sulphur fuel oil was introduced to reduce SOx emissions. Burner tips on oil-fired boilers were also replaced to reduce NOx emissions.

2. NEW OPERATIONAL CHALLENGES 2.1 Renewables and Intermittency In addition to conventional generation, at present, there are approximately 54MWp of photovoltaic generators connected to the grid. With the recent development of wind energy prospects being deemed to be unfeasible in the short term, penetration of photovoltaics is bound to increase significantly in order to meet the National 2020 targets.

boilers were installed. Two 960kW diesel-fired English Electric opposed piston diesel engines were later moved from the Drydocks to this station. This station was extended two more times in 1942 and in 1945 each time adding two more diesel engines bringing the total to six engines. This station continued to be used by Enemalta up to 1992 when it was decommissioned.

1.5 Delimara Power Station Once again, space had become an issue and further extensions to the Marsa "B" Station were not possible.

Another site was found at Delimara and in 1991 two 60MW BHEL steam turbines and oil fired Wagner Biro steam boilers were inaugurated.

The first extension was carried out in 1995 with two 37MW diesel-fired John Brown gas turbines and later in 1999 with a 110 MW combined cycle gas turbine plant consisting of two 37MW diesel-fired Nuovo Pignone gas turbines, two Stock heat recovery steam generators and a General Electric steam turbine.

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It is well known that due their intermittent nature, the capacity credit of photovoltaic generation is low. Additionally, due to the size of the Maltese islands, the geographical spread of the installations is very limited. Consequently, the effect of cloud cover cannot be averaged out. On days when the cloudiness is neither clear nor overcast, the effect of a large generator producing intermittently into the grid becomes evident.

In order to ensure security of supply, a larger spinning reserve capacity is required in operation. This comes at a considerable cost.

Furthermore, in winter, photovoltaic generation does not coincide with the daily peak demand. This means that photovoltaics are further accentuating the gap between the daily mean load and evening peak load with the consequence of having to operate more peaking plant rather than base load plant.

2.2 Grid Inertia and Frequency Stability The mechanical inertia in the rotating masses of synchronous generators is fundamental to maintain a stable grid frequency with respect to inequalities in the overall power balance.

When a sudden change in load or generation occurs, kinetic energy is injected into or absorbed from the grid to maintain a relatively constant frequency.

This is governed by the following equation:where PG- PL is the power unbalance between the generation capacity and the load, Jsystem is the overall system inertia and ω is the

angular velocity. The lower the system inertia, the higher the frequency fluctuations as a reaction to generation or load variations.

Compared to gas turbines operating at a speed of 5125rpm and steam turbines rotating at 3000rpm, recently commissioned Diesel engines have a much lower rotational inertia due to their medium speed of 1500rpm and their reciprocating nature.

In addition, photovoltaics are currently displacing rotational generators and their behaviour is significantly different from that of conventional power generation facilities. Besides being intermittent, photovoltaics provide no rotational inertia.

Loads are also developing. Up to a few years ago most motor loads were directly connected to the grid, possibly through a simple starting device, adding to the total system inertia.

In many applications using induction motors, the actual load is dynamic with frequency and if the frequency falls, their power demand falls also while the mechanical load is instantaneously supplied from the rotational inertia of the motor and load itself.

Modern motor loads are being connected via variable frequency drives consisting of a rectifier stage, a DC bus with minimal storage and an inverter. This setup effectively decouples the load from the grid and if the frequency falls, the inverter stage will continue to drive the load at a constant speed taking a constant power from the DC bus and the input.

The above developments in supply and demand are collectively contributing to reduce the grid inertia, making it a 'lighter' grid which has noticeable implications for frequency dynamics and grid frequency stability. Frequency control has become significantly more challenging.

3. NEW ENERGY SOURCES 3.1 Malta-Italy Interconnector For the first time in its history, the Maltese grid is now connected to the European grid by means of a high voltage alternating current Interconnector to Italy.

The project makes available an external source of electricity which is of appreciable magnitude when compared to the Maltese grid demand.

For the first time, electricity sources are being dispatched according to commercial priorities rather than to engineering and thermal efficiency considerations only. With fluctuations of energy prices over the time of day and season of year, correct forecasting of demand has become critical to ensure that the best overall sourcing prices can be achieved.

Market studies also show that the Interconnector will be almost exclusively used for importation of electricity from Italy. Although Malta will, in future, be able to generate

Figure 1:

Maltese Grid Frequency in synchronised (left) and islanded (right) modes.

electricity at a cheaper average price than the Sicilian market price, surplus generation capacity will be mainly available at times when Sicilian demand is low. Such market mismatch will bring about a situation where it would not be feasible to generate electricity for export.

3.2 Contribution of the Interconnector to Grid stability The Malta-Italy interconnector can mitigate the impact of intermittent renewables on the grid. It can also provide excellent frequency stability.

Figure 1 compares the grid frequency when the Maltese grid is synchronised to the European mainland (left) and the grid frequency when the Maltese grid is islanded (right).

Although the average grid frequency of 50Hz and excursion limits are maintained in any case, the islanded grid frequency is significantly less resilient to changes in demand and consequently less stable.

Besides, Sicily has a load profile which is quite similar to Maltese load profile with a high photovoltaic penetration. As a result, electricity spot market prices in Sicily tend to inversely follow renewable energy generation. Consequently, it would be relatively expensive to purchase balancing power when photovoltaics fail to produce.

3.3 Cheaper, Cleaner Fuel A momentous change in electricity generation is due to occur in the near future. Malta will have a new source of fuel for electricity generation. Heavy fuel oil will be phased out.

A new liquefied natural gas (LNG) floating storage facility is being constructed and will be available in the short term.

The W채rtsil채 oil-fired Diesel engines will be converted to run on natural gas. In addition, a new 200MW CCGT plant is under construction. These two plants will be the major source of electricity to the Maltese grid and both will operate on natural gas.

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Evolution of Electricity Generation in Malta Continued

3.4 Private Players in the Market Another important aspect of evolution of the Maltese electricity generation is one of commercial nature. In a liberalised electricity generation scenario, generation plant is no longer owned and operated by a single entity.

Generation has now been decentralised and independent power producers have been introduced. The Wärtsilä engine plant has been acquired by a majority private shareholder, namely Shanghai Electric Power which will also be responsible for the conversion to operate on natural gas. The new LNG facilities and CCGT gas-fired plant will be owned and operated by the private sector, namely Electrogas Ltd. The National utility company, Enemalta, is moving from the role of provider to dispatcher. It has opted to retain a number of machines for emergency backup but its main sources of generation shall be operated by the private sector.

In addition, sources of electricity from the Interconnector are bringing about an exposure to electricity markets for the first time. As mentioned earlier, commercial considerations are taking a high priority stance.

To cater for this new duty, Enemalta has established a Capacity Planning and Dispatch Unit within its Generation Department.

Among other preparations, it has commissioned software that aims to forecast demand in the short and medium term and to assess and recommend the best electricity source mix in order to ensure the cheapest possible price, taking into account any physical, network, availability or commercial constraints. Engineers responsible for dispatch are being trained on market matters.

Rather than the addition of more generation capacity, it is a system whereby consumers benefit if they regulate their consumption. This mechanism is typically easier and cheaper than procurement of additional generation capacity and takes various forms including time-of-day tariffs and peak shaving discounts.

4. CONCLUSION The Maltese electricity generation system is currently undergoing a huge transformation both from a technical and from a commercial perspective. The current developments are probably the largest revolution in its history and provisions for such changes are not trivial.

Furthermore, one is to expect that future evolution of demand will continue to modify the Maltese electricity generation scenario in the medium term.

Such changes have always been, and will continue to be, controversial. Notwithstanding the physical difficulties, the consumer expects to be served with a reliable supply of power at an affordable price without fail. The modern consumer also opts to participate in electricity generation adding further to the complexity of the system and its operations.

Modern grid operations need to take into account and balance all the influences on the system, be they related to engineering or to commercial activities. Just as the system evolves, the approach of the operator has to follow.

3.5 Future Developments Just as the electricity generation industry has been developing over the past century, it would be naive to assume that it has reached a level of maturity that would not require further development.

In future new sources of energy will need to be accommodated. Distributed generation is the newest trend.

Combined heat and power plant or tri-generation plant is being actively considered by customers.

Another source of energy will be energy from waste.

Generation using biogas from digestion of wastewater or municipal solid waste is already in place albeit at small penetration levels.

Demand will also develop. Electricity use in the transport sector will soar. Besides the charging of electric vehicles, should there be a development in mass transport, this is likely to be electricity operated.

Utilities have always been expected to provide sufficient power to meet the customer demands at all times. This involves the use of peaking power plant mentioned above.

However, there is a tendency to engage the customer into management of demand in order to smoothen the load profile. Demand side management, as it is known, works on the other side of the supply and demand balance.

Inġ Jonathan

Scerri

Inġ. Jonathan Scerri has graduated in Electrical Engineering in 1996 and has obtained a Masters of Science in Renewable Energy Technology from Loughborough University in 2013.

He has over 18 years experience in technical and management roles, particularly in plant operations and maintenance, within both the public and private sectors.

He has worked for nine years in the fields of electricity generation and distribution and in managerial positions within the manufacturing industry and the services sector.

Inġ. Scerri is currently Executive Director, Generation and Distribution, within Enemalta plc.

decEMBER 2015 ISSUE 52

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Decarbonisation of the Electrical Energy Generation Sector in Malta Nicole Grech, Andrew Zammit, Brian Azzopardi* Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology Institute of Engineering and Transport - Electrical and Electronics Engineering* *Corresponding Author: brian.azzopardi@mcast.edu.mt

ABSTRACT This paper discusses the 2020 targets in accordance to the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) making reference to the 2009/28/EU Directive. In this context, the electrical energy generation sector in Malta is reviewed together with the recent developments and the mechanism which may be used for decarbonisation which will eventually reduce the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions reaching the challenging targets of 2020, 2030 and 2050. Malta is a small state archipelago in the middle of the Mediterranean with warm summers and mild winters. A comprehensive review on large scale renewable energy projects for Malta is performed which highlights the resource limitations on the island. In fact technologies such as wind, solar, wave and waste to energy may be feasible for the decarbonisation of the electrical energy generation sector in Malta which may support sustainable development in the electrical energy generation.

12

1.. INTRODUCTION During the 15th Conference of the Parties, held in Copenhagen in December 2009, climate talks were held as to how the energy consumed by each member state can be cleaner. This was mainly focused on the use of renewable energy focusing on how this energy can be introduced together with the overall reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

In fact, the Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was created which was based on three pillars (i) security of supply, making sure there is a constant supply of resources for energy; (ii) economic impact, the cost required and sustainability; and (iii) the impact on the environment. Then, the Directive 2009/28/EU was created in which the member states were each given specific targets, aiming that more than one third of Europe’s energy would be produced from renewable energy by 2020. Malta’s renewable energy 2020 target is 10% of the gross energy consumption but Malta has to reach a 20% reduction in CO2 emissions.

When this directive was created Malta’s main electrical energy generation was from the two main power station working on fossil flues, mainly heavy fuel oil, while only having a 0.015% of energy produced from renewable energy, solar energy.

Thus a National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) was created to determine how the values set to Malta would be achieved [1].

The aim of the paper is to perform a comprehensive review on large scale renewable energy projects for Malta which highlights the resource limitations on the island.

The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, an overview of the electrical energy sector mainly the Enemalta Utility company given. A review of large scale renewable energy projects is reviewed in Section 3. Followed by a small-scale renewable energy project discussion section in Section 4.

Finally, in Section 5, the main conclusions are presented.

2. ENEMALTA AND THE ENERGY SECTOR Enemalta PLC is the main provider for electricity generation and distribution. The Delimara central power station has a total generation capacity of 444MW. In April 2015 the Marsa central power station, commissioned in 1953, was official shutdown and decommissioning has already started while the 200MW interconnector with the EU grid through Sicily has been energized.

Recent developments in the electrical energy sector have seen 33% acquisition of Enermalta Corporation, now Enemalta PLC and the transfer of the 149MW generation capacity to Shanghai Electric. This was a major foreign investment in the Maltese islands so far in the Energy sector.

In addition, the Government is aiming to completely eliminate the use of heavy fuel oils. Therefore as part of the strategy to replace 120MW Delimara Phase 1 turbines, and increase the energy mix, a 200MW gas plant supplied by an LNG Terminal

is being built and developed by Electrogas consortium.

Eventually the LNG Terminal will also supply the 149MW Shanghai Electric combined cycle system.

3. LARGE SCALE RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS To reach the 2020 targets the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) had to be created, where different measure where seen and studied to determine what can be done to achieve the targets appointed. Apart from installing new smart meters in every house hold to monitor more accurately and remotely the electricity consumption, while introducing energy management, different types of renewable energy (RE) projects were studied together with grant schemes as to help the end user invest in these resources [2].

Currently around 40MW of RE projects are installed. These include household roof tops, industrial roof tops and a few Solar Farms. The main contribution in RE is solar energy.

However, other RE sources were studied such as the envisaged study in the NREAP of three wind farms.

The largest of these three wind farms was that of an offshore 95MW wind farm at Sikka l-Bajda. This wind farm was intended to contribute to 3.48% of the 2020 10% RE target.

However detailed studies concluded that this wind farm was not feasible in Malta [15].

The following subsections will describe large-scale RE sources both as installed or potential projects 3.1 Solar Energy Malta’s location is the best among all EU countries as it has the largest amount of solar energy received daily, during all seasons, even in the worst months of winter.

Today it is very feasible to install PV system in a household and the grants schemes are further encouraging end users.

However it is stated by the Malta Resources Authority (MRA), that a maximum of 16Amps is to be generated on the AC electrical side of the system. This puts a limitation on the house users who want to invest in a larger system.

Although Malta has this great resource available, it is lacking another important resources, such as land, which has restricted many projects. However, a large scale solar farm was recently commissioned at Medserv quarters at the Malta Freeport, shown in Figure 1.

This solar farm is composed of a total of 8,211 photovoltaic panels each having a capacity of 250W, 12 km of cables, a total of 6 inverters and a new substation. The grid-connected system is rated 2.01MWp, which is the largest so far.

The plant would produce enough energy to supply 350 Maltese households yearly with an annual energy production estimated at 3420MWh/yr. This translates to 3100 Tons/yr of CO2 emissions [3].

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guarantees the system life for over 50 years. It is combined with additives which allow to produce faultless pipes and pipe fittings, ideal for conveying potable liquids under pressure at both high and low temperatures, and such as to successfully pass the tests required by DIN standards and, above all, by DVGW regulations.

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Decarbonisation of the Electrical Energy Generation Sector In Malta Continued

Figure 1:

Medserv solar farm.

3.2 Waste To Energy The waste is a large contributor to the GHG emissions. In 2011 waste contributed to 4.2% of GHG emissions and it is wellknown that 88.5% of the gas emitted is methane. These GHG emissions may be reduced by converting the organic waste into bio-gas to obtain energy. Moreover since organic waste is used it is said that all the CO2 emission from any waste to energy plant is consider to be biogenic origin.

A €27M investment at Sant’ Antnin Waste Treatment Plant installed a waste to energy plant. After waste separation, bio-gas is produced through an anaerobic digestion of biodegradable municipal solid waste. The product of this process is then used to drive a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plant. The plant installed has the capability to produced heat energy, where most of this energy is used in the system itself to treat any noxious gasses which may occur. However in 2012 some of heat was also extracted to heat up an adjacent community pool at Inspire. This shows that with more investments in the plant we could also extract the heat generated and use it, thus reducing the amount of electricity needed to heat up system applications [4].

The plant is operated with respect to the requirements of the Environmental Permit EP 0021/09B and other laws and regulation of the European Union. The ambient air in the locality and neighbouring areas are measured frequently as to study the quality of the air.

Apart from waste reduction and separation the plant will also help reach the 2020 national targets having the greenhouse gasses reduced while producing an amount of electrical energy which is feed into the nation grid [5].

3.3 Wave Energy A potential non-intrusive large-scale RE project may use wave energy. Waves generated by winds may transfer kinetic energy to electrical energy. Malta, an island in the middle of the Mediterranean, provides a medium potential for this RE source. The energy stored in the wave is the square of the height. There are only few days in the year in which the waves would not have enough energy to generate electricity [6].

Figure 2:

1:10 scale mode.

DexaWave Energy Malta is ready to invest 5MW €42M in this technology following the deployment of a 1:10 scale model off Zonqor Point as shown in Figure 2. This would power 1600 household thus making this the first wave farm installed in the Mediterranean [7].

3.4 Wind Energy Malta has an average of about 7.7% days clam. The rest of the days have wind speeds ranging from 1.8 to 39km/hr, that is 1 to 21 knots. However, wind farm require a considerable large amount of area which is a limitation in Malta.

Two onshore locations were identified a 10.2MW at Wied Rini and a 4.2MW at Hal Far which would require a large amount of investment. However these wind farms would not contribute enough to the 2020 targets.

Hence, studies were turned to an offshore grid-connected wind farm which was proposed at Sikka l-Bajda. This proposed wind farm is composed of 19 5MW wind turbines with a total 95MW capacity, located about 1.5km away from the coast over an area of 11 square kilometers. Since the average depth of the area at Sikka l-Bajda is between 10m to a maximum of 30m, the wind turbines were suggested to be embedded into the sea bed. The average wind speeds at the chosen location us 7.18m/s. Hence, the system would have produced a total of 180GWh of RE annually translated to power up a total of 45,000 households in the northern part of Malta. This offshore wind farm would have contributed to reach very close value to that of the 10% RE target and a total of 185000 tons of CO2 emissions per year were calculated to be mitigated. In fact it was forecasted that this wind farm would have contributed to 7.5% energy consumption based on 2008 and a 5.5% share in 2020 [8]. However the feasibility of the project was not conclusive and MEPA have recently rejected the permit for this project.

Another possible wind farm technology is the Hexagonal floating wind platform also known as the HEXICON’s floating platform, shown in Figure 3. The floating wind platform may harvest wind, solar and tidal energy up to a total of 40MW. The project however was estimated at a cost of €3B, which

decEMBER 2015 ISSUE 52

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Decarbonisation of the Electrical Energy Generation Sector In Malta Continued

Figure 3:

HEXICON’s floating platform.

failed funding bid from the EU. This project proposal put froward by a Swedish company which was to use Malta and install the first hexicon system, which could be tested while in production. The benefits of this system was for the ability that the system rotates about it own axis. This means that the most power may be generated at all times [13].

In this section, the major installed and proposed renewable and clean energy sources from solar, waste, wave and wind, were reviewed. While all proposed projects had a significant contribution towards the electrical energy decarbonisation, there were a number of difficulties for the projects to materialise. However is it becoming more and more acceptable that Malta solar energy is the current major source for renewable and clean energy.

4. SMALL SCALE ENERGY HARVESTING As a small country, it is difficult to leave out small-scale energy harvesting on the island of Malta. In addition the consumption rates are being monitored and action is being taken towards low carbon emission buildings. In this section the small-scale energy harvesting projects are discussed.

Baxter Malta have installed 836KWp PV system which contributes to approximately 23% of plant’s electricity consumption. In addition, Baxter also installed a geothermal system which is used in the re-cooling of the plant’s cooling towers for the factories air-conditioning system.

This geothermal system reduces 500 metric tons of CO2 emissions and the running costs, with a possible 3oC drop in temperature from the underground levels [14].

Corinthia Hotel Attard made targets to reduce its energy consumption by 3% within the next 5 years. This was done by changing almost 95% of the light bulbs into LED technology. A Hybrid heating system was also installed and commissioned. The Hybrid heating system was installed as to replace a huge percentage of the energy consumed to

16

Figure 4:

Projection of total emission by gas.

heat pools and sanitary hot water. In the past Corinthia used heavy fuel to heat water nowadays Corinthia made significant improvements with the hybrid system and around 30% of the heating costs were reduced.

Other smaller scale initiatives include cooling by solar. This technology was used in the past where fridges used to work with petroleum. When ammonia is heated with the help of solar water heaters, the gasses produced will allow the cooling process to commence. In this application the hotter the water is the cooler water will be chilled. In the past various projects were tested at the Marsaxlokk University of Malta Institute for Sustainable Energy where cooling by solar was already in its final designs. Nowadays locally one may find 2 installations which are utilizing heating by solar via an absorption chiller.

Most of the PV systems installed in residential, industrrial, commercial and public building are small-scale. By 2014, a total of 15,086 systems were commisioned with a total installed capacity of 54MWp 5. CONCLUSION Apart from reaching 2020 renewable energy targets, Malta has to meet the 2020, 2030 and 2050 emmision targets.

In Figure 4 a projection of emissions by harmful gasses is depicted. The major GHG emission gas is CO2. However through the last few years Malta has seen a positive development in GHG emissions over previous years. It was seen that between 2012 and 2013 there was already a drop of 6.8% in CO2 emissions [9].

It is expected that further decrease in GHG emissions will happen through a number of policy measures and projects as seen in Figure 5. The trends represent the levels of CO2 emissions, which were constantly increasing in the past before measures were taken. The WEM represent the decrease of emission with the current measure while the WAM represent

Figure 5:

Projection of emission from the power sector.

the decrease of emission with addition measure which could to be taken [8].

Table 1 lists the five main large scale RE systems which various governments have placed hope to reach the 2020 targets.

Unfortunately some of these project have not yet or never will materialise leaving an empty gap and a significant room for other systems to take over.

Table 1: Considered / Installed Large Scale RE Systems

Date System Place

2014 PV system 1.05WMp Medserv

2006 Waste to energy Sant’Antnin

Waste Treatment

Plant.

Under proposal Wave energy 5MW Zonqor Point Under proposal Wind farm 95Mw Sikka l-Bajda Under proposal HEXICON’s Not specified

floating platform

40MW

Ref. [3] [5] [7] [8] [13]

Malta, as a small country, with limited space and a rich historic sites and natural landscapes, the most acceptable and resourceful RE source may well be solar energy. In fact the current political landscape puts this on the agenda. However one would have to emphasis the landscaping of retro fitting PV system to be harmonized with our buildings, something which Authorities have in the past put a blind eye to. In addition, the culture of grants may well be outdated when the cost of PV electricity have reached the high tariff grid parity on this island.

REFERENCES

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

D. Rosende, M. Ragwits, M. Klingel , G. Resch and C. Panzer, "Renewable Energy Idustry Roadmap for Malta," Malta, 2010.

T. o. Malta, "http://www.timesofmalta.com," 29th May 2013. [Online].

Available: http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20130529/local/ co2.471714. [Accessed 13th December 2014].

MRA, "Malta's National Renewable Energy Action Plan as Required by Article 4(2) of Directive 2009/28/EC," Malta, 2010.

L. Magazine, "www.lowtechmagazine.com," 03 March 2008. [Online].

Available: http://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2008/03/the-ugly-side-o. html. [Accessed 13th December 2014].

[5] Medserc, "www.medservmalta.com," 2014. [Online]. Available: http://www.

medservmalta.com/medserv-and-the-environment. [Accessed 13th

December 2014].

[6] Windfinder, "www.windfinder.com," June 2001. [Online]. Available: http://

www.windfinder.com/windstatistics/luqa. [Accessed 14th December 2014].

[7] M. f. R. a. R. Affairs, "A Proposal for an Offshore Windfarm at Is-Sikka

L-Bajda," Malta, 2009.

[8] MRA, "Malta's Biennial Report on Policies and Measyres and Projected

Greenhouse Gas Emissions," Malta Resources Authority , Malta, 2013.

[9] WasteServ, "www.wasteservmalta.com," Krystal Content Management ,

[Online]. Available: https://www.wasteservmalta.com/index.aspx. [Accessed

14th December 2014].

[10] DexaWave, "oceania.research.um.edu.m," MCST, 2010. [Online].

Available: http://oceania.research.um.edu.mt/cms/blueocean/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11:mcst-funded-wave-

project-kicks-off&catid=7&Itemid=125. [Accessed 14th December 2014].

[11] DexaWave, "www.dexawave.com," DexaWave, 2010. [Online]. Available:

http://www.dexawave.com/projects.html. [Accessed 14th December 2014].

[12] T. o. Malta, "www.timesofmalta.com," 7th May 2014. [Online]. Available:

http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20140507/local/malta-saw-68-

drop-in-carbon-dioxide-emissions-last-year.518047. [Accessed 14th

Decmeber 2014].

[13] Hexicon, "The Power of Offshore Winf," Hexicon, 2013. [Online]. Available:

http://www.hexicon.eu/. [Accessed 24th March 2015].

[14] Baxter, "sustainability.baxter.com," Baxter, 2014. [Online]. Available: http://sustainability.baxter.com/resources/case-studies/2012-report/

environmental-initiatives.html. [Accessed 26th March 2015].

[15] H. S. Freehills, A Survay of th eLegal Framework and Current Issues in the

European Energy Sector, EU: European Counicle , 2014.

Ms Nicole

Grech

Ms Nicole Grech is an MCAST-BTEC Higher National Diploma student at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology.

Her research interests are energy generation and renewables.

Mr Andrew

Zammit

Mr Andrew Zammit is an MCAST-BTEC Higher National Diploma student at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology.

His research interests are energy management and renewables.

Dr Inġ. Brian

Azzopardi

Eur.Ing.

Dr. Inġ. Brian Azzopardi Eur. Ing. is Senior Lecturer II at the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST). He has over 15 years’ industry-led academic experience.

Worked for Enemalta Corporation high voltage network development and as Consultant on award-winning energy projects. His multi-disciplinary works were acclaimed internationally.

Since 2011, he was appointed as senior faculty member and retained visiting status in the United Kingdom and Lithuania.

decEMBER 2015 ISSUE 52

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The Malta-Italy Electricity Interconnector Joseph Vassallo1, Karen Vella Mulvaney1, Joseph Cassar, Patrick Gauci2, Alistair Camilleri1 1 Enemalta plc, 2 Engineering Resources Ltd.

18

1. INTRODUCTION The feasibility of an electricity interconnection between Malta and Sicily had been considered since the early 1990s.

Enemalta commissioned EdF in 1995 and then Terna, the Italian transmission system operator (TSO) in 2007 to consider amongst other issues, the capacity of such an interconnector, the technology to be used, and its operation. Malta secured â‚Ź20 million EU funds for the interconnector project, and a further c. â‚Ź5 million for the Kappara distribution centre through the European Energy Programme for Recovery (EEPR). Following a call for tenders, a contract was awarded in December 2010 to Nexans Norway for the turnkey supply and installation of a 200MW, extra-high voltage 50Hz synchronous interconnector operating at a nominal 230kV. The Enemalta interconnector was energised for the first time on 15th March 2015 and the Maltese network was synchronised to the Italian network on 24th March 2015. The interconnector was operated at nearly full load on 7th May 2015.

2. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM A simplified single line diagram is shown in Fig.1. The connection to the nearest substation on the Italian extrahigh voltage (EHV) grid is at 230kV in the Terna substation in Ragusa (Ragusa SE) where the existing outdoor substation was extended. Enemalta constructed its own outdoor substation (Ragusa SSE) within the Terna substation boundary, and equipped it with shunt reactors, EHV switchgear, protection and control, energy metering, and low voltage (LV) equipment.

The three-phase shunt reactors in Ragusa are equipped with a de-energised tap changer and could be varied in 6 steps between 195 and 240MVAr at 245kV to optimise the value of reactive compensation based on the final length and reactive power of the cables between Malta and Sicily. Although one shunt reactor is connected in Ragusa, a second similar shunt reactor was installed to serve as spare. The connections to the 230kV busbars are made with outdoor oil-air bushings.

The EHV circuit breaker is of single-pole construction made

by Siemens and uses SF6 as the breaking medium. Closing and opening commands of the breaker are controlled by a synchronised switching device to minimise energisation and de-energisation transients.

2.1 Land route in Sicily The route between Ragusa SSE and the submarine cable landing point in Marina di Ragusa passes through secondary, mostly rural provincial roads and is approximately 19.25km in length. A detailed survey of the land cable route was carried out to determine the presence and position of underground services including mostly electrical cables, storm water pipes, irrigation pipes, and even the presence of oil and gas ducts. The land cable circuit is composed of 245kV single core 1000mm2 XLPE cables. The cable conductor is made from aluminium, the metallic sheath is longitudinally welded aluminium and the outer sheath is made from HDPE with a semiconducting layer. The mass of the land cable cores is approximately 9.5kg/m. The cables are directly buried in trefoil for most of the route although they were pulledthrough ducts at several road and bridge crossings. The land cable

Figure 1 is generally placed at a depth of 1.6-1.7m below the road surface and is protected by reinforced concrete slabs throughout. The rating of the land cable is calculated to be approximately 750A, although this depends on the specific conditions of installation.

The land cable was manufactured in Belgium by Nexans and was installed in 18 sections with an average length of 1070m. The metallic sheaths were cross-bonded to minimise losses and sheath voltage limiters were installed in the link boxes along the route. Once the necessary permits and authorisations were in place, trenching works, laying, jointing, reinstatement and commissioning of the land cables lasted approximately 12 months. The oversheath of each section was tested with 10kV DC after laying and following road reinstatement, prior to jointing.

Two fibre optic (FO) cables were installed along the cable route in Ragusa. One is used for control and protection purposes, whilst the second forms part of the distributed temperature monitoring system (DTS) and is used to determine the temperatures of the cables along the route.

The FO cables were spliced every alternate joint bay (c. 2km). A number of spare fibres are available for future data exchange applications.

2.2 Submarine cable landing point in Sicily The land cable route ends at the limits of the seaside resort of Marina di Ragusa in an area between a tourist beach and a nature reserve. A land-sea transition joint was made approximately 50m inshore. The submarine cable was pulled onshore through a 480m horizontal directional drilling (HDD) duct which became necessary to avoid an area of seabed that could be subject to coastal erosion. The HDD duct exited at a location devoid of posidonia oceanica and other seabed flora, and at a depth of more than 5m. This type of drilling is costly and not risk-averse, but it has clear environmental benefits.

All drilling fluids used were bio-degradable and recycled during the works, and measures were taken to ensure that any fluids that flowed into the sea when exiting for the first time, would be recovered. The HDD hole was drilled in four stages. In the first, a pilot hole was drilled, and a first reamer passed inwards. A second and third reamer were then passed to increase the hole diameter to c. 750mm. The duct is made of HDPE and was delivered in 12-13m sections which were welded together to form the 480m, 500mm OD pipe which was floated prior to pulling it through the hole with a 100t pulling machine. Installing a long cable through a duct at the extremities is also not the best technical solution, but projects

decEMBER 2015 ISSUE 52

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The Malta-Italy Electricity Interconnector Continued

are also designed to take into account environmental and other permitting matters.

2.2.1 Submarine Cable The submarine cable is made of three individually leadsheathed XLPE insulated cores with 630mm2 copper conductors, bound together by galvanised steel wire armour to form one three-core cable. The submarine cable rating is approximately 650A although this depends on the conditions of installation. The external diameter of the submarine cable is approximately 23.5cm and its mass in air is c.96kg/m.

The submarine cable includes two fibre optic cables each with 36 fibres. The fibre optic cables have an outside diameter of 1cm and the fibres are placed in a steel tube covered in a PE sheath. Two fibres are used to monitor the temperature of the cable sheath along its length.

2.2.2 Subsea Route The subsea route between Sicily and Malta is approximately 98km long. Following a desktop study, in total, three marine surveys were carried out to determine the final route. The first was a preliminary survey that identified a 500m-wide corridor largely free from obstacles and other adverse conditions for submarine cable installation. The survey consisted in a geophysical (using echo-sounding and side-scanning sonar equipment) and geotechnical (with core samples) analysis of the seabed including sub-bottom profiling, detection of cables and other metallic objects using a magnetometer and an environmental survey of the seabed along the route.

The second survey followed a route designed by the cable contractor, inside the 500m-wide corridor, and analysed it in greater detail to determine an optimal 80m-wide corridor in the which the submarine cable would be installed. This detailed survey by MMT from Sweden, included not only more accurate geophysical and geotechnical analyses, and cable detection, but also included visual identification of obstacles including possible unexploded ordnance (UXOs) using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) equipped with cameras and magnetometer.

A third survey became necessary when Enemalta was informed by the Ministry of Economic Development in Italy that the submarine cable route was passing through a hydrocarbon concession area that was to be developed by an Italian joint venture in the near future with the installation of the Vega B platform. This meant that the submarine cable route had to be deviated for approximately 30km so that the distance from the new oil well was increased by 3km. The third survey was therefore carried out to find the most benign seabed conditions for the new part of the route. The final result was that a safer route was found and the overall length of the submarine cable route did not vary from the original surveyed route. This was critical because of the need to limit the reactive power contribution of the cable circuit.

The chosen route of the submarine cable consisted of an 8km section near Malta with significant stretches of rocky seabed and a reasonable gradient, followed by a long (67km) section

with soft seabed material, continuing onto a 5km section with stretches of hard material and then back to a gentle sandy slope to Marina di Ragusa. The deepest point of the route was found to be 156m below the mean sea level.

2.3 Landing Point In Malta And Cable Installation The submarine cable was installed between Malta and Sicily in three campaigns using the specialised cable-laying ship Nexans Skagerrak. In Malta the submarine cable was pulled onshore at Qalet Marku through a 218m HDD duct into a 1.5m wide, 850m-long reinforced concrete culvert leading to the new terminal station at Maghtab. This was a 16h operation needing perfect coordination of more than 20 cable pulling machines, two winches, the cable laying ship, divers, and crews on board small vessels. The cable laying ship entered Qalet Marku bay as close as possible to the coast, and started floating the submarine cable up to a point above the HDD duct entry from where divers directed it into the duct through a bellmouth. The HDD duct was required in Malta to avoid trenching inside an environmentally sensitive area at Qalet Marku bay, and to avoid trenching the Coast Road with the inevitable massive disruption to traffic. As in Sicily, the HDD duct has 5cm thick walls and outside diameter of 50cm.

2.3.1 Laying Campaigns The submarine cable was manufactured by Nexans Norway in a number of sections at their factory in Halden lying in a fjord close to the water's edge. The cable batches were then jointed (factory joints) in the factory to form two continuous lengths, each approximately 50km long. The limiting factor in the cable length was the mass that could be placed on the ship's turntable and which was 7,000t. This meant that the entire 100km length could not be transported in one campaign, but had to be done in at least two. Two campaigns were planned initially, but a third became inevitable due to delays in the issue of the authorisation by Italian authorities. a. First And Second Campaigns The first 50km length was laid on the seabed in 8 days and the cable laying ship returned to Malta for a change of crew and to take on the necessary supplies. The burial process then commenced with the jetting crew and lasted approximately 12 days. The weather was generally good, even though it was in January, and little time was spent waiting on weather.

The cable laying ship then returned to the factory to start the second campaign by loading the second length and then setting sail to Malta.

Before the second length was laid, the end of the first length was recovered from the seabed at a depth of c.150m at approximately KP50 and jointed to the second length on board the Skagerrak. The jointing process lasted for 4 days with two teams of jointers working in 12h shifts. The second length was then laid towards Sicily. At that time, not all permits were in place on the Italian side and this meant that the landing point preparations could not be completed in time and the submarine cable could not be pulled ashore in Marina di Ragusa. For this reason, the submarine cable was

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The Malta-Italy Electricity Interconnector Continued

laid in a loop off the Italian coast and buried at 0.5m so that it would facilitate recovery later whilst affording a good degree of protection from benthic trawling equipment. During laying and trenching operations in the second campaign, Enemalta employed the services of marine mammal observers on the cable laying vessel to monitor the effects of cable installation activities on such fauna. It should also be noted that when the submarine cable was on the seabed, guard vessels were employed round the clock to monitor sea traffic and to warn seafarers of the presence of the cable. b. Third Campaign The third cable installation campaign was carried out when the preparatory works at the landing point in Marina di Ragusa were completed and the 480m HDD duct had been pulled in to the shore. The cable laying ship returned, this time to recover the looped cable which had been buried in the previous campaign, and then install it in its final position.

Recovery of the cable required the deployment of the jetting machine to de-bury the 3.1km long stretch of looped cable and then recover it onto the turntable of the cable laying ship. It was then floated and laid onto the seabed along the determined route, and cast iron shells were installed starting from 2km offshore to protect the cable whilst minimising damage to the posidonia oceanica. Once the submarine cable was pulled ashore, and the land cable was installed, a transition joint to the land cable was made, and the optic fibres were spliced together. Like all other joint bays, the transition joint pit was buried and has a very low visual profile.

2.3.2 Submarine Cable Protection The submarine cable is protected throughout the route between Malta and Sicily. It was buried at 1.5m wherever the seabed material was loose enough along the subsea route by a process called jetting. Burial depth was less whenever the seabed was harder, making it difficult to trench but would offer the same degree of protection. With this method, the cable was first laid on the seabed after which a trenching ROV (CAPJET) equipped with a high pressure water jet system was directed along the cable whilst liquidising the material beneath the cable which then sank into the seabed. In the process the cable would also be covered with the seabed material. The method is used in several similar projects and has minimal environmental impact.

In environmentally sensitive areas in shallow waters near Maltese and Italian shores where the (protected species) posidonia oceanica fields in rock areas were unavoidable, the cable was protected with cast-iron shells. The shells were installed on the cable-laying vessel whilst the submarine cable was being lowered into the sea. In other areas where jetting was not possible because hard material or rock seabed was encountered, or at crossings with other submarine cables where the cable was clad in plastic sleeves to avoid galvanic corrosion from contact with the armour of other cables, the cable was protected by a berm of small rocks placed using a ROV using a specialised rock transporting and laying ship, the Simon Stevin.

22

This ship was equipped with two large hoppers for the storage of rocks and a system which extended a pipe from the ship to the seabed where the rocks were placed. The rocks had a diameter of approximately 8cm and were brought from Norway and Agusta in Sicily. An important aspect was their chemical composition to avoid any contamination due to leeching of chemicals. Their mass was low enough not to damage the submarine cable, but sufficiently high to prevent them from being washed away by the sea currents.

2.4 Temperature Monitoring System The submarine and land cable sheath temperatures are monitored along their length with a monitoring system DTS manufactured by Omnisens in Switzerland which uses a stimulated Brillouin scattering technique capable of measuring temperatures (and strain) up to a length of 70km using 2 optic fibres in close proximity to the object. Due to the overall length of the cables, approaching 120km, two DITEST interrogators were used, one on each side, in Maghtab and Ragusa. The information gathered from each measuring unit was then combined and used to estimate the conductor temperatures along the route using algorithms and models prepared by Aventi and Nexans for their dynamic rating system (DRS). The temperature monitoring system has a resolution of 5m, and is used to determine the location and temperatures of the hottest points along the route.

The presence of a hot-spot will limit the extent of loading the cable so as to avoid damaging the insulation or reducing its lifetime. The DRS provides the possible amount of overload that can be sustained by the cables for specific time periods, (e.g. 30min. or 1h). This system will enable the network operators to maximise the load applied to the interconnector in a safe manner whilst avoiding long-term effects to the asset. The combined DTS/DRS system is an essential element to ensure that one of the main features of a 50Hz interconnection, i.e. the possibility of significant overload for short periods, can be exploited safely. The Malta-Italy electricity interconnector is designed to provide a 70% overload for 1h assuming that it was operating at 90% of full load previously. Overloading could become necessary in case of a local generating unit failure. In this case its load is picked up by the interconnector until a local backup generating unit is started or ramped up, without affecting consumers.

2.5 Maghtab Terminal Station The equipment at the Maghtab terminal station consists in 230kV and 132kV GIS, 230/135kV autotransformers, 245kV shunt reactors, control and protection equipment, and LV switchgear and equipment including backup systems. The EHV and control & protective equipment were manufactured

by Alstom in their various plants in France, Switzerland and Turkey, and by Siemens in Germany.

The submarine cable is terminated directly in the 230kV GIS, and is connected to a shunt reactor. Unlike the one in Ragusa, the shunt reactors in Maghtab can be varied on load with a range of 60-120MVAr using on-load tap-changers. The scope

Figure 2 of having a variable shunt reactor is to be able to import reactive power generated by the cable capacitance whilst minimising reactive power transfer with the Italian grid.

A spare shunt reactor is also installed at Maghtab.

The decision to have asymmetric ratings of the shunt reactor compensation at Maghtab and Ragusa was taken so that the currents at the submarine cable ends at full load (200MW+60MVAr) are equalised at near-maximum value, whilst also exploiting the higher current carrying capability of the land cable (see Fig. 2). The shunt reactors are connected to the GIS with cables, and use oil-oil bushings inside a separate cable box for each phase.

Two 230/135kV autotransformers with on-load tap changers have been installed at Maghtab and have a 250MVA capacity each. In order to reduce their physical dimensions and mass, the autotransformers are equipped with oil pumps and a separate oil cooler with ventilators (ODAF cooling).

All transformers and reactors in Maghtab and Ragusa are equipped with online DGA (dissolved-gas analysis) facilities and tap-changer condition monitoring. Autotransformers and shunt reactors in Malta are equipped with AVRs (automatic voltage regulators) for the control of voltage and reactive power respectively.

The transformers and reactors in Maghtab are placed in threewalled enclosures with a louvred roof to ensure adequate ventilation and in view of fire fighting necessities. Each transformer and reactor bay has an oil sump in case of a massive loss of oil.

The 230kV GIS uses an isolated phase busbar construction with horizontal circuit breakers and has synchronised switching controllers in order to minimise transients when energising the transformers and spare reactor. The 230kV GIS is equipped with built-in couplers to monitor internal partial discharge activity. The 132kV GIS uses a conventional threephase construction with vertical circuit breakers and with compact dimensions. Both 230kV and 132kV GIS are doublebusbar with bus-section and bus-couplers for operational flexibility. The GIS is also prepared for future expansion.

Cables are used to exchange power between Maghtab terminal station and the distribution centre at Kappara where the interconnector is connected to the 132kV distribution system.

2.6 Protection And Control Protection of the 230kV equipment including the interconnector cables, reactors and transformers is provided by a redundant Main 1/Main 2 scheme with relays provided by different manufacturers (Alstom/Siemens). Slightly different implementations of protective functions were applied in Ragusa and Maghtab because of different philosophies used by Terna as TSO in Italy and Enemalta. Distance and differential protections are employed for the interconnector cables, whilst unit differential protection is applied as main protection for the other EHV equipment. Protection of the 132kV feeders is implemented according to the Enemalta standard of using two main differential protections from the same manufacturer. The 230kV and 132kV GIS are protected by a busbar protection system.

The control system at Maghtab is based on a number of bay control units installed in the 230kV and 132kV switchgear and connected on two separate redundant self-healing fibre optic rings operating with IEC 61850 protocol. A station LAN is installed for the connection of redundant servers, operator interfaces, gateways and other protective systems. The various protection IEDs are connected to the BCUs using an IEC 60870-5-103 protocol. Other devices are connected using Modbus and IEC 61850. The control systems in Maghtab and Ragusa are connected. Operations and monitoring of both substations are carried out from Enemalta's network control room (NCC) in Marsa either through SCADA or using a remote operator interface integrated in the Maghtab control system. The Enemalta network control room is also in direct contact with the Terna control centres in Bari and Palermo to coordinate operational activities.

2.7 Connection To Kappara Three 132kV cable circuits were installed between Maghtab and Kappara through a purposely built 6.5km tunnel. The power and control circuits were completed, tested and energised from Kappara by mid-February 2015. Each circuit is composed of single core XLPE insulated cables with 800mm2 aluminium conductors, with a mass of 7.6kg/m. The metallic sheath is longitudinally welded aluminium and the outer sheath is a high density flame-retardant polyethylene to minimise the fire risk in the tunnel, with a very thin film of graphite used for sheath testing. The cable circuits are placed in trefoil and in air on cable trays and on concrete platforms depending on the cross-section and dimensions of the tunnel bore.

An RTTR (real time thermal rating) system made by AP Sensing has been employed to monitor the cable conductor temperatures. A fire detection system based on a fibre optic sensor was also installed. Optic fibres are also being used for the differential protection scheme for the new cable circuits.

Both power and fibre optic cables were manufactured by Prysmian in Italy. During the IEC 60840 HV test, the 132kV cables were checked for the presence of partial discharge at the joints and the terminations.

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The Malta-Italy Electricity Interconnector Continued

3. ENERGISATION AND COMMISSIONING The submarine cable installation was completed in September 2014 and all land cable works including jointing and reinstatement were concluded in December 2014 as was the installation of all equipment in the Ragusa SSE. All major works in Maghtab terminal station necessary for energisation had been completed by mid-2014. The period from January to March 2015 was dedicated to finishing the control and protection commissioning in Ragusa SSE and applying finishing touches and updating protection settings in both terminal stations in close collaboration with Terna and Alstom.

Because of the length of the cable circuit and the resulting capacitance, it was not possible to test the submarine and land cables using EHV test equipment in situ. Such tests had been carried out in the factories prior to transport. Therefore TDR (time domain reflectometry) tests were carried out in the factory to establish a 'fingerprint' of each cable and were repeated after installation to confirm that they were undamaged. Routine OTDR tests were made for the optic fibres. The high voltage test would be done according to IEC 62067 by energising the cables at nominal voltage for 24h.

Hot testing commenced in Ragusa on 12th March in close collaboration with Terna Rete Italia who energised the Enemalta substation at 230kV. Each shunt reactor was energised in turn (at reduced rating) to ensure correct switching and operation. The 120km interconnector cables were then energised on 15th March 2015 together with a shunt reactor in Ragusa and Maghtab. In the days that followed, focus was turned to activities in Maghtab, starting with energisation of the 230kV GIS busbars, spare reactor, and the two autotransformers. The 132kV GIS had already been energised from Kappara distribution centre.

An important milestone for Enemalta was achieved on 24th March 2015 when the Maltese network was synchronised to the Italian network and to the ENTSO-E grid. The operation is normally initiated from the Marsa control room (NCC) and makes use of a synchronising relay in Maghtab which transmits phasor (synchroscope) and voltage information to the NCC and to Delimara Power Station control room where the necessary frequency adjustments are made.

Synchronisation of the two networks is made at 132kV level.

After a testing period with low loads, the load transfer with the interconnector was gradually increased until full load was transferred for the first time on 7th May 2015. Efforts are currently addressed to optimise its operation from a technical and financial perspective, and to finalise all remaining small works.

4. CONCLUSIONS The technical challenge of the project was to be able to transfer 200MW across a distance of 120km using cables operated at 50Hz. Studies and publications showed that, provided adequate reactive compensation was installed, the conductor of modern XLPE cables operated at 245kV could

be efficiently utilised to transfer such a power [1-5]. For this project, detailed studies of load flow, short circuit, transient stability, insulation coordination, switching, safe operating area, resonance and ferroresonance were undertaken before tendering stage and during the engineering phase of the project to ensure the selection of correct parameters before implementation. So far the results achieved in practice have satisfied theoretical expectations. The Malta-Italy electricity link is currently the world's longest 245kV, 50Hz, XLPE cable interconnection in the world, especially the submarine section, and its implementation and operation has demonstrated the successful use of EHV cable technology even for long distances, making it a viable solution for far-offshore windfarms or for inter-island applications.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Apart from the various technical issues to be resolved during the project, the main stumbling block encountered was to obtain the necessary authorisations and permits in Italy. Enemalta is grateful to the Maltese government for intervening several times with Italian counterparts to ensure that authorisations were not unduly withheld and so that the project could be completed and inaugurated on 9th April 2015 by the prime ministers of both countries.

REFERENCES

[1] S. Lauria, F. Palone, "Operating envelopes of the Malta-Sicily 245kV 50Hz cable"; IEEE International Energy Conference and Exhibition (ENERGYCON),

2012, pp. 287-292.

[2] G.M. Giannuzzi, F. Palone, M. Rebolini, J. Vassallo, R. Zaottini, "The Malta-

Sicily EHV-AC interconnector", Power Generation, Transmission,

Distribution and Energy Conversion (MEDPOWER 2012), 8th

Mediterranean Conference on; 01/2012.

[3] S. Lauria, F. Palone, "Optimal operation of long inhomogenous AC cable

lines: The Malta Sicily Interconnector", IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,

vol. 29, issue 3, pp. 1036-1044, 2013.

[4] L. Colla, M. Gabrieli, P. Grima, A. Iliceto, S. Lauria, M. Rebolini, J. Vassallo,

A. Venturini, B. Zecca, “HVAC submarine cable links between Italy and

Malta. Feasibility of the project and system electrical design studies”,

CIGRE General Session 2010, Paris, August 2010, paper B1-104.

[5] R. Benato, A. Paolucci, "EHV AC Undergrounding Electrical Power -

Performance and Planning", Springer, 2010.

Dr Inġ. Joseph

Vassallo

Dr Inġ. Joseph Vassallo graduated in electrical engineering at the University of Malta, and after reading for a Master degree and working within the power generation sector at Enemalta, proceeded with his studies reading for a doctorate at the University of Nottingham, specialising in power electronics for high voltage, high power multilevel converters. He has contributed in generation and distribution projects such as the combined cycle plant at Delimara, 132kV cable network extensions, distribution centres, and in the last years, as project manager, has been actively involved in the electricity interconnection project between Malta and Sicily.

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20/11/2015 12:42:07

INVESTING TO GROW YOUR INVESTMENT

In 2012, Bank of Valletta launched its first pilot Investment Centre. Today there are six regional Investment Centres spread across the Bank’s retail network. Roberta Bellizzi, Manager Investment Centres Operations is responsible to coordinate these Centres. She speaks about their operation three years later.

Why did Bank of Valletta feel the need to set up Investment Centres?

Bank of Valletta envisaged these Investment Centres as centres of excellence, bridging the gap between investment services offered at branches and the Bank’s Wealth Management arm.

The transfer of the relationship from the Branch to the regional Investment Centre is undertaken in line with the progressive growth of the client’s portfolio. Once the clients’ portfolio reaches a given threshold, they are then moved on to Wealth Management Unit. This is in line with the Bank’s Brand Promise, and customer-centric vision, which pivots on sound knowledge of the client, and nurturing of long-term mutual customer relationships.

Investment Centres were introduced concurrently with the re-categorisation of the BOV Group’s investment products, which classifies all products in terms of their risk and volatility levels. Clients requiring investment advice and others who are interested in more complex investment products, are referred to one of the regional Investment Centres, where qualified personnel are able to provide them with all the necessary information, and advise them accordingly.

How is an Investment Centre structured?

Typically, a BOV Investment Centre is made up of 6 to 8 Financial Advisors and one Portfolio Administrator led by a manager who is responsible for the general overseeing of the Centre ensuring smooth operation at all times.

The Bank's Investment Centres are supported by a specialised unit which seeks to provide them with necessary resources and backup whilst ensuring that all Investment Centre staff receive the required training and are continuously updated with the latest market information. The Bank leaves no stone unturned in ensuring that its Investment Centre staff are enabled to provide a premium level of service to all its customers.

What type of relationship can a client expect from these Investment Centres?

Every Financial Advisor is responsible for a number of client relationships with whom s/he meet on a regular basis, in line with the exigencies ofevery client. Regular discussions with customers enable our Financial Advisors to better understand their individual requirements and to be in an optimal position to identify the right product to match the particular risk profile.

When a client holds a relationship with an Investment Centre, does it mean that s/he needs to refer to the Investment Centre whenever s/he requires anything from the Bank?

At Bank of Valletta, we work very hard to offer our clients an integrated service that includes options of both self-service and face-to-face banking. Clients can reach out to any channel

of their choice, be it physical like visiting the Branch of the Investment Centre or utilising the Bank’s state-of-the art virtual channels like Internet Banking or BOV Mobile.

Due to the varying degree of complexity and unique characteristics of every individual, clients’ investments would be taken care of by the Investment Centre. In order to ensure a seamless experience, constant liaison is maintained between the Bank’s Branch Network and the respective Investment Centres with both front office units enabled to meet the clients’ day-to-day requirements through a structured approach.

In what way are the Investment Centres ‘Centres of Excellence’, as you referred to them earlier on?

Bank of Valletta considers its people as its most important resource and to this end we continually invest in the training and development of all our employees.

All our Financial Advisors are fully qualified and authorised by the MFSA to provide investment advice on a wide range of products. They are well versed and keep themselves constantly updated, not only on the extensive range of products they sell, but also on the macroeconomic environment and financial markets, which could have a major impact on the performance of client investments and on the level of financial advice that they give to their customers. They attend regular training programmes organised by the Bank’s Training Centre as well as market and product seminars organised both internally and externally by investment specialists. In this manner they are able to offer a customised and personalised service to their clients, based on in-depth knowledge of the markets.

What has clients’ reaction been so far?

Since the introduction of the Investment Centres in 2012, over 25,000 clients have visited one of our Centres at some point or other during the term of their relationship with the Bank.

We are very pleased to state that the continuous feedback received by the Bank indicates that customers utilising the services of its Investment Centres are satisfied with the level of service received. Clients have expressed their satisfaction with the holistic experience when visiting the Centres in particular, the high level of privacy and confidentiality which they are afforded.

Reactions are also positive with respect to the timeliness of appointments and the execution timeframes within which, instructions received from customers are executed. We remain committed to continue enhancing the level of service offered through the BOV Investment Centres, ensuring that customers availing themselves of our services obtain the maximum benefit they so rightly expect and deserve.

Bank of Valletta p.l.c. is a publicly limited company licenced to conduct Banking and Investment Services business by the Malta Financial Services Authority.

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Deployment of an Offshore PV System for the Maltese Islands Stephen Sammut1, Patrick Attard2, Ray Vassallo3 Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST) 1 MCAST Technical College 2 Institute of Engineering and Transport - Electrical and Electronics Engineering 3 Institute of Engineering and Transport - Mechanical Engineering

ABSTRACT The sea provides a vast area which can be harnessed as a platform on which to install energy harvesting technology. This is especially relevant for a small country such as Malta with a very small landmass when compared to the vast area of the surrounding sea.

The proposal is for the installation and testing of an 8kWp rated floating photovoltaic array to be deployed off the coast of the Maltese islands.

Keywords: Photovoltaic systems, thin film, inverter, floating, alternative energy.

28

1. INTRODUCTION THIS paper is a review of literature relevant to the various facets involved in the deployment of an offshore thin film PV system.

2. PROPOSED EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The proposal is for the design of a pilot project intended to investigate the viability of having offshore floating photovoltaic electrical generation by the installation and testing of an 8kWp rated floating flexible photovoltaic array to be deployed off the coast of the Maltese islands.

1 shows a typical thin film flexible solar panel. A 1kWp array would be installed on shore as control.

Figure 1:

A thin film flexible solar panel [1].

This research project will study the behaviour of the solar panels when deployed in the sea as compared to a land deployment.

The deployed system would make use of flexible thin film panels as shown in 2. This would allow the panel to yield and move with the wave motion, thereby inducing less mooring strain when compared to rigid polycrystalline panels are used.

Figure 2:

Schematic of thin film floating PVs [2].

It would be expected that some aspects of marine deployment, such as the cooling effect which the sea water has on the PVs, would positively affect the electrical power output. Others such as algal growth, and salt caking would be expected to negatively affect electrical power output.

This research project will therefore test the performance of PV thin film panels when deployed floating in the sea, and compare this performance to a shore deployed version made up of similar thin film PVs. The shore based system shall be deployed in the same geographical area, thereby ensuring that it is exposed to similar general conditions such as incident solar radiation intensity.

Figure 3 shows the proposed conceptual framework which outlines the variables and describes the relationship between them. The Independent Variables of this study will be Salt Caking, Biological Growth, Submersion Depth, Temperature, Water Turbidity and Incident Angle. The Dependent Variable is the Electrical Power Output. There are two Moderating Variables namely PV Material (amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe) or copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS)) and deterioration.

Figure 3:

The Conceptual Framework.

The project will also involve research into test loading of the solar panels including the use of micro inverters, off grid inverters and direct resistor loading of the system. There will also be research into sensors, telemetry and data transmission shows a conceptual proposal of the system.

The installation can be set up in various configurations. Prior studies have reviewed various structures. An example of such a structure is shown in 5 which shows an idea derived from the structure of a spider web [2].

Figure 4:

A concept block diagram of the proposed system.

decEMBER 2015 ISSUE 52

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Deployment of an Offshore PV System for the Maltese Islands Continued

Figure 5:

Schematic of the 2MWp Sundy concept, the hexagonal design consisting of 4,200 individual panels [2].

Figure 6:

Current-Voltage characteristics of a solar cell [8].

3. Thin Film Photovoltaic Panel Technology Thin film PVs are what can be termed as the Second Generation of semiconductor development and are considered as a technology which is quasi mature. [3] Thin film solar cells are made by depositing thin layers of material on a flexible substrate [4].

Multi junction solar cells can be fabricated using amorphous silicon solar cells, by using a stacked structure. Due to the fact that there is no need for lattice matching as is required for crystalline junctions amorphous materials are quite successfully used to produce such multi junction Solar Cells [7].

Thin film PVs are improving in both their long term stability and also their efficiency. Their cost is decreasing with large scale production. Flexible thin film panels are lighter and can also be manufactured at a lower cost than crystalline silicon PVs. Disadvantages of thin film include discontinuous transportation pathways and poor phase morphology control [5].

3.1.3 Performance And Operational Characteristics A-Si cells need less material to construct and are much simpler and faster to produce than crystalline PVs. However a-si cells have a lower efficiency than c-Si.

There are different types of thin film Solar Cells. The discussion below will centre on the principle technologies being used, namely amorphous silicon, copper indium gallium diselenide (Cu(InGa)S2 referred to as CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) [6]. There are also other materials used but will not be discussed in this paper as their use is still peripheral.

6 shows how the current and the voltage vary and the values of current and voltage which yield maximum power.

The maximum power can be read on the Current-voltage characteristic. The point with the rectangle having the largest area would be the point yielding the maximum usable power.

Under illumination the I-V curve of a PV is strongly effected by temperature. In a-Si PVs, Voc and Pmax degrade rapidly with temperature increase while Isc displays a lower temperature dependence.

3.1 Amorphous Silicon (A-Si) 3.1.1 History And Background Semiconductors which are based on crystalline structures are widely used and well known. These include silicon Si, germanium Ge, gallium arsenide GaAs and cadmium sulphide CdS. In such crystalline structures the atoms are arranged in lattices which are near perfect regular arrays [7].

Thin film solar cells have lower temperature coefficients than c-Si and therefore demonstrate a better performance at higher temperatures [4].

Non-crystalline semiconductors use materials where the bonding of the atoms is similar to crystals. However, there is a fairly small disorderly variation in the angles between the bonds which eliminates the regular lattice structures. Such semiconductors have fairly good electrical properties [7].

A-Si PVs are affected by the Staebler-Wronski effect (SWE).

This effect describes how during the first six months of operation the efficiency of an a-Si thin film solar cells drops.

Stabilised efficiency may decrease by 10 to 30%.

In 1973, it was discovered that amorphous silicon has good electrical properties.

3.1.2 Construction Of A-Si Cells The amorphous silicon based solar cell is made up of a fundamental photodiode structure. This is deposited in either p-i-n or n-i-p sequence.

Crystalline photovoltaics consist of crystal structures which have cleavage planes and are hence brittle. a-Si thin PVs do not have cleavage planes and hence can be made to be flexible.

3.2 Cadmium Telluride 3.2.1 History and Development Development of cadmium telluride (CdTe) technology is rapidly expanding with major impact on solar energy [9].

It is possible to dope both n and p type CdTe. CdTe has a good optical bandgap, which is better than that of a-Si, and has properties which allow the material to be deposited in thin film form.

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Deployment of an Offshore PV System for the Maltese Islands Continued

In the early 1970s, CdTe cells achieved efficiencies of more than 7%. [9] Nowadays, established CdTe thin film technologies have efficiencies of 10-17% [10].

the transparent and contacting oxide (TCO) window bilayer which includes intrinsic zinc oxide (ZnO) and AZO (aluminium doped ZnO) [14].

3.2.2 Construction Of Cdte Cells There are wide variety of processes used to produce CdTe cells. Normal plate glass (Borosilicate or soda lime) is used as the 1st layer together with a conductive layer. Usually tin oxide, indium tin oxide or cadmium tin oxide (Cd2SnO4) are used to create this conductive layer.

3.3.3 Performance And Operational Characteristics The best CIGS panels have reported near 20% cell efficiencies.

CIGS is in fact today, the most efficient solar cell technology available [14].

The next layer to be deposited is a CdS layer. This can be deposited in various ways. This layer is normally between 30 to 80nm thick. Open circuit voltage increases with CdS thickness while the short circuit current decreases [11].

On top of the CdS layer, a CdTe film is deposited in a 2 to 12 µm thick layer. The back electrode forms the final layer.

Typically it is made of a thin tellurium layer followed by a copper layer. After etching, it is then covered in a gold, molybdenum or nickel layer [11].

3.2.3 Performance And Operational Characteristics CdTe polycrystalline, CdTe/CdS solar cells accounted for approximately half of the polycrystalline product produced in United States.

Flexible CdTe/CdS solar cells, based on polyimide films where the light passes through the polyimide substrate, have been tested [12].

However to date, this technology is still in R&D phase and there are no manufacturers producing flexible CdTe flexible PVs on an industrial scale. Also, the toxicity of Cd containing compounds is a concern [13].

3.3 Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (Cigs) 3.3.1 History And Development Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), which was first synthesised in 1953 is a semiconductor material composed of copper, indium, gallium, and selenium, CuInGaSe2.

Its use as a PV material was suggested in 1974, and the first commercial CIGS solar cell was available in 1998, [14], [15].

3.3.2 Construction Of Cigs Cells The first layer is the substrate which can be glass, or flexible materials such as Polyimide. A layer of molybdenum comes next. This layer is selected as it can form an electrical contact with CIGS and also tolerate the high temperatures and harsh environments of the selenization process.

The next layer is the absorption layer which is the CIGS p type thin film. The ratios of Cu, In, and Ga need to be well controlled.

The buffer layer is made up of CdS which is usually deposited by chemical bath deposition. The front contact (final layer) is

32

However CIGS cells have a higher moisture sensitivity than Si modules [13].

To counter moisture sensitivity, research is being undertaken in two critical areas. On the one hand, research is being undertaken to make the module more moisture tolerant while on the other hand, research is also following the path of making the package`s water transmission rate lower.

Efforts are also being undertaken to replace rare elements such as indium and also perhaps gallium by more abundant materials such as zinc. The Efficiency for such cells is however, much lower than standard CIGS cells [13].

It is envisaged that CIGS technology will lead the flexible PV market in the near future [14].

4. VARIABLES WHICH EFFECT THE OUTPUT OF PVS The PV system´s performance depends on the environment in which they are installed.

4.1 Irradiance Solar irradiance is the intensity of solar electromagnetic radiation which is incident on a surface of 1 square meter. It is measured in kW/m2.

Solar energy which is incident from the solar nuclear fusion reaches the outer earth`s atmosphere with an average irradiance of about 1,367 W/m2±3%. This value changes as the earth to sun distance varies and also as a result of solar activity such as sunspots.

This variation in extra atmospheric radiation is due to the elliptical orbit of the earth around the Sun. Due to the orbital shape the earth is the least distance from the sun at the Perihelion (December) and the farthest from the Sun at the Aphelion (June/July) [16].

The solar radiation diminishes in intensity as it passes through the atmosphere. Part of it is reflected, and a part is absorbed by gases such as water vapour. Some of the radiation which passes through, is diffused by the air and suspended particles.

In winter, the diffuse component would be greater than the direct one especially when the sky is overcast. The reflected radiation would depend on the albedo coefficient of the surface and is dependent on the material which makes up the surface, such as road, concrete, grass etc [16].

Figure 7:

Shows the current versus voltage curve at various irradiance levels and the corresponding maximum power point [17].

The I-V curves change as a function of the irradiance. 7 shows how the I-V curve changes with irradiance and also how the Maximum Power Point shifts.

4.2 Temperature An increase in temperature of PVs decreases the power producing performance of PVs. The current produced by the solar panel remains constant but the voltage decreases [16].

4.3 Quantum efficiency Energy is emitted from the sun over a range of wavelengths.

8 below portrays how the different PVs respond to different wavelengths of electromagnetic spectrum. CIGS for example responds to a wider spectrum of wavelengths than a-Si. The External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) plotted in 8 is the ratio: Equation 1 [19].

4.4 Shading If PV panels are shaded from sunlight, the PVs energy production is stopped. The shaded panel acts as a diode and blocks the whole production of the entire module. Also the panel may be damaged (perforated) through overheating because the panel would be subjected to the voltage of the other panels in the string.

A technique, which is used to remedy issues with shading, is the use of bypass diodes which are used to bypass the panels which are shaded. This would allow the module to function albeit with a lower efficiency. To limit the expense, 2 to 4 diodes are installed for each module.

5. PV PANELS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENt 5.1 Why install thin film PVs directly floating in the sea There are various reasons for taking the decision to deploy thin film PV panels in the sea.

One of the main reasons is that alternative energy sources such as solar energy are highly intensive in the use of land which many times is in very short supply. Island states and countries with large bodies of water can deploy power generation systems on these bodies thereby freeing up land for other uses.

Figure 8:

The external quantum efficiency of the different types of photovoltaic cells considered [18].

Another reason for deploying a thin film floating array is that notable increases in efficiency can be obtained due to the cooling effect of the water. Since the thin film PVs are in direct contact with the sea, the water provides a heat sink for the panels to assume the temperature of the water. This results in a higher efficiency without the need of any pumps and associated pipework. If the panels are mounted on rigid structures such as pontoons this advantage is negated [2].

5.2 Difficulties with Marine deployment of thin film PVs. 5.2.1 Fouling and accumulation of material on the PV surface Energy production in a PV panel is dependent on the number of photons which reach the cells. Algal growth as well as material deposits on the panels` surface reduce the number of photons and hence the energy produced.

Anti-fouling and self cleaning solutions will therefore need to be looked at in the experimentation which will be conducted.

5.2.2 Lower efficiency when submerged Water absorbs photons and hence attenuates the incident light intensity when the PV is submerged.

6. ELECTRICAL LOADING OF PV PANELS The loading of the PV panels will be a very important component of the project. Through loading the system can be effectively operated and benchmarking of the various parameters such as power output and efficiency would be possible. This section deals with the various options available.

6.1 Inverter The inverter is used to convert the Direct Current (DC) produced by the PV into Alternating Current (AC). On the market, both off grid and also grid tie inverters may be found.

This allows inverters to be used in any scenario. The inverter is also responsible to keep the operating point of the PV at the maximum power point.

The use of Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms for Photovoltaic Applications is important due to the fact that PVs have a non-linear voltage current characteristic. This means that there is a unique point in which power production would be at a maximum.

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Deployment of an Offshore PV System for the Maltese Islands Continued

6.3 Electronic Load AC or DC electronic loads can be used to test PVs by simulating the loading behaviour of inverters. The electronic load can either be used to directly load the DC output of the PVs or else to load the AC output of the inverter.

Electronic loads can also be used in conjunction with Electronic AC sources to simulate the grid and successfully operate and load grid tie inverters. Such systems would give highly accurate results but will be very expensive to set up and difficult to waterproof and install on site.

6.4 Solar Battery Charger The Solar Battery Charger is a DC-DC converter. As described previously for the inverter, the Solar battery charger needs to operate the PV at the maximum output power point (MPP).

The solar energy is stored in the batteries [22].

6.5 Resistors When a resistor load is used, there is no way to implement maximum power point tracking. However through a study over a ten year period, it was established that fixed resistive loads can be used for monitoring PV performance with good results [23].

7. CONCLUSIONS This literature review gives an insight on the conditions and equipment which should be further investigated in the research project. For the reasons mentioned in this paper CIGS PVs should definitely be appraised for this application.

The cooling effect of the sea water should be investigated, in view of improving the panel efficiency. Shading may also affect the panels in a negative way, however the use of microinverters will help in this area.

The PVs can be connected to the inverter in various configurations [20].

6.2 Micro Inverter The Micro inverter is a recent innovation which makes it possible, to have a dedicated inverter for every solar panel. 4 shows an arrangement whereby micro inverters are taking the power from the PVs and feeding the current directly to an AC trunk cable which delivers the combined power of the micro inverters into the grid.

It has been established that micro inverters make the system more efficient by making it less prone to partial shading.

On the other hand, systems utilising micro inverters could experience a cost penalty and also may need more maintenance due to having more inverters [21].

Micro inverters normally operate in grid tie configuration and are not able to operate in off grid mode. A system similar to that outlined in the circuit shown in Figure 4 can be utilised to operate the Micro inverters when a grid connection is not available. This is done by utilising an off grid inverter to simulate the grid thereby allowing the micro inverters to operate.

34

The validity of the conceptual framework, must be examined and verified during this project. This framework would establish the interrelatedness of the variables. Means of mitigating the negative impacts of variables such as salt build up, marine growth, panel movement and solar light absorption need to be explored.

Other aspects need to be considered in this project such as the design of the sensors and data logging systems, waterproofing of electrical systems and system reliability in the rough marine environment.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research project is being funded by a grant from the Malta Council for Science and Technology. The partner companies carrying out the research are the Malta College of Arts Science and Technology (MCAST), Econetique Ltd., Malta Mariculture Ltd., Mining Innovation, Rehabilitation and Applied Research Corporation (MIRARCO).

9. REFERENCES

[1] Global Solar, PowerFLEX™ BIPV - 90/100/185/200/275/300W - Data Sheet

Doc No. 1000635 rev A, Arizona: Global Solar, Hanergy, download 2015.

[2] K. Trapani, Flexible floating thin film photovoltaic(PV) array concept for

marine and lacustrine environments, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada: Laurentian

University, 2014.

[3] R. Guerrero-Lemus and J. M. Martinez-Duart, Renewable Energies and CO2,

London: Springer, 2013.

[4] A. Sahay, V. Sethi and A. Tiwari, “A comparative study of attributes of thin

film and crytalline photovoltaic cells.,” VSRD International Journal

of Mechanical, Civil, Automobile and Production Engineering, vol. III, no. 7,

pp. 267-270, July 2013.

[5] S.-S. Sun and H. O` Neill, “Sunlight Energy Conversion,” in Handbook of

Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, UK, Wiley, 2011, p. 688.

[6] S. Hegedus and A. Luque, “Achievements and Challenges of Solar Electricity

from Photovoltaics,” in Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering,

Second Edition, Wiley, 2011, p. 6.

[7] E. A. Schiff, S. Hegedus and X. Deng, “Amorphous Silicon-based Solar Cells,” in Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, Second Edition,

Wiley, 2011.

[8] C. Honsberg and S. Bowden, “PVeducation,” [Online]. Available: http://

pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operation/short-circuit-current.

[Accessed 25 04 2015].

[9] B. E. Mc.Candless and J. R. Sites, “Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells,” in

Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering., UK, Wiley, 2011, pp.

600-641.

[10] M. C. D. Piazza and G. Vitale, Photovoltaic Sources Modeling and

Emulation, London: Springer, 2013.

[11] K. W.Böer, Handbook of the Physics of Thin Film Solar Cells, Heidelberg

New York Dordrecht London: Springer, 2013.

[12] A.N.Tiwari, A.Romeo, D.Baetyner and H.Zogg, Flexible CdTe Solar Cells on

Polymer Films, Zurich: John Wiley and Sons, 2001.

[13] B. v. Roedern, What is Happening with Regards to Thin Film Photovoltaics?,

United States: National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 2011.

[14] BATR, Development of Cu(InGa)Se2 (CIGS)Thin-Film Solar Cells, Hong

Kong: Bulletin of advanced technology research.

[15] R. Noufi, CIGS PV Technology: Challenges, Opportunities, and Potential,

USA: National Renewable ENergy Laboratory, 2013.

[16] A. SACE, “Technical Application Papers no 10 Photovoltaic plants,” ABB,

Bergamo Italy, 2014.

[17] P. Arjadhara1, A. S.M2 and J. C. 3, “Analysis of solar PV cell performance

with Changing Irradiance and Temperature,” International Journal of

Engineering and Computer Science, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 214-220, 2013.

[18] B. Minnaert and P. Veelaert, “A Proposal for Typical Artificial Light Sources

for the Characterization of Indoor Photovoltaic Applications,” Energies, no.

7, 2014.

[19] R.Ellingson and M.Heben, “Solar cell performance characterisation: current voltage, and quantum efficiency,” PV materials and device physics lab,

The University of Toledo, 2011.

[20] D. S. Morales, “Maximum power point tracking algorithms for photovoltaic

applications,” Aalto University, School of Science and Technology,

Aalto, 2010.

[21] D. M. Lee and B. W. Raichle, “A side by side comparison of micro and

central inverters in shaded and unshaded conditions,” Appalachian State

University, Boone.

[22] A. M. M. José António Barros Vieira, “Maximum Power Point Tracker

Applied in Batteries Charging with Photovoltaic Panels,” in Solar Collectors

and Panels, Theory and Applications, Rijeka, Croatia, InTech Europe, 2010.

[23] C. R. Osterwald, J. Adelstein, J. A. d. Cueto, W. Sekulic, D. Trudell, P. McNutt,

R. Hansen, S. Rummel, A. Anderberg and T. Moriarty, Resistive Loading of

Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays for Long-Term ExposureTesting,

Colorado: Wiley InterScience, 2006.

[24] K. Zweibel, Thin Films: Past, Present, Future, National Renewable Energy

Laboratory, 1995.

[25] C. Vita-Finzi, The Sun - A User`s Manual, London: Springer, 2008.

[26] “altE store,” [Online]. Available: http://www.altestore.com/store/Inverters/

Micro-Inverters/ABB-300W-High-Voltage-Micro-Inverter-MICRO-03HV-I-

OUTD/p11192/. [Accessed 22 02 2015].

[27] Chroma, Artist, Grid Connected PV inverter test block diagram. [Art].

chroma ate inc.

[28] GSL Eectronics, “1700W Solar Battery Charger Maximum Power Point

Tracker,” GSL Electronics, NSW, Australia.

[29] M. Jones and P. Scott, “Fundamentals of Physical Geography (2nd Edition),”

2014. [Online]. Available: http://www.physicalgeography.net/. [Accessed 23

11 2014].

[30] R. Siddiqui and U. Bajpai, “Deviation in the performance of Solar Module

under Climatic parameter as Ambient Temperature and Wind Velocity in

Composite Climate,” International journal of renewable energy research, vol. 2, no. 3, 2012.

Inġ. Stephen

Sammut

Stephen Sammut received the B.Eng.(Hons.) degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Malta in 2000 and the MBA from the Edinburgh business school in 2013. He is also warranted as an Electrical Engineer by the state of Malta. Throughout his career he has worked in the fields of microelectronics, electrical power, project management and engineering contracting. Currently Ing. Sammut lectures at the Malta College of Arts Science and Technology and has also been appointed as Deputy Director of the Institute of Mechanical Engineering.

Dr. Inġ. Patrick

Attard

Patrick Attard obtained a Bachelor in Engineering from the University of Malta in 2001 and obtained a Ph.D. from the same University in 2005. The entire research work for the doctorate was carried out at the DaimlerChrysler research facility in Stuttgart Germany. The work led to 11 international patents. He has also worked in various countries including the UK, Australia and Argentina on automotive control systems and aerospace systems amongst others. He is a senior member of the IEEE and is currently employed as Deputy Director at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering at MCAST.

Inġ. Ray

Vassallo

Ray Vassallo has a B.Mech.Enġ. (Hons) from the University of Malta. Inġ.

Vassallo also obtained an MBA from Brunel University. He is an elected Associate Member of the Institute of Marine Engineers. Ing. Vassallo has worked at the Malta Drydock where he worked on various projects that included ship repair, plant procurement commissioning operations and maintenance, and an enterprise wide ICT system.

He has also worked in the Island Hotels Group as Chief Engineer. As of October of 2011, Ing. Vassallo has been Deputy Director of the Institute of Mechanical Engineering at MCAST.

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An Evaluation of kWh/kWp Values as the Standard to Adequately Differentiate between PV Technologies Mark Zammit*, Chris Scicluna, Brian Azzopardi Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST) Institute of Engineering and Transport - Electrical and Electronics Engineering *Corresponding author: mark. zammit@mcast.edu.mt

ABSTRACT A variety of PV module manufacturers have claimed significantly higher kWh/kWp energy yields when using their products, sometimes up to 30% better than what is offered by their competitors. Independent comparisons carried out in recent years [1-3] show a much more similar kWh/kWp when the properly declared stabilised maximum power values (Pmax) are utilized, with the experimental error frequently contained within ±4-5% and no bias towards a particular technology or manufacturer. A number of parameters used to differentiate PV technologies by more than ±45% are presented and quantified in this paper. Some inconsistencies were met in the kWh/kWp modelling of certain sizing programmes since the PV databases did not always correspond to manufacturers’ measurements with respect to low light efficiency changes (LLEC) and thermal coefficient variations, these being normally measured to international standards such as EN61215[4] and EN50380[5].

Keywords: System Performance, Energy rating, PV modelling

1. KWH/KWP PERFORMANCE MODELLING For several years, kWh/kWp values have been used to compare and rate the various PV technologies available. With modules typically advertised in €/Wp and producing a stated quantity of kWh per year in terms of energy, it would appear that the kWh/kWp value is a valid parameter by which to determine the cost-effectiveness of using a PV array. System

36

behaviour may be predicted through the use of sophisticated modelling software, usually by following the ensuing steps: • Using measured or generated tilted plane weather distributions (ambient temperature, wind speed, irradiance) • Obtaining modeled PV parameters from a database • Modelling of the Pmax value for a particular module under the given weather distributions previously mentioned

• Estimation of the ‘DC’ losses, catering for solar angle of incidence, dirt, mismatch, shading, etc.

• Estimation of the ‘AC’ losses, such as MPP voltage tracking, inverter efficiency, wiring resistance, etc.

• Summing the PV power over time to estimate a final energy yield in kWh per kWp per year A PV array that is performing optimally would have low losses at all stages, including the DC and AC loss stages. Modelling accuracy for the complete system would necessarily depend on each stage, with particular relevance to the discrepancy between modelled and measured PV performance. If the margin of difference between the two is too wide, then the system modelling would inevitably be incorrect. The predictions used in some commercially available models (such as module efficiency or insolation against irradiance) have been proved inaccurate on repeated occasions. In addition, the uncertainties concerning degradation, dirt, shading and mismatch might mean than any perceived “accurate” energy yields could be the result of sheer coincidence, as opposed to an accurate prediction.

2. KWH/KWP PERFORMANCE CLAIMS Various manufacturers have claimed superior kWh/kWp values for their products, mostly owing to the performance under low light levels, high module temperatures or diffuse light conditions. It is frequently the case that the measurements presented by said manufacturers show better yields than what they would have measured when compared to their competitors’ similar technologies. Uncertainties in reference module calibrations could cause the energy yield prediction to vary by as much as ±4-5%. Assuming that a particular module technology by a certain manufacturer really did perform much better the competition, the results should be measurable and repeatable at any possible test site.

3. SUMMARY OF CURRENT KWH/KWP MEASUREMENT APPROACHES • Outdoor yield results are usually given without quoting inaccuracies or the necessary corrections made for downtime, measurement errors, glitches or unusual weather conditions • If a certain module yields a higher kWh/kWp value compared to another module, are the differences attributable to just the two modules, all modules made by the respective manufacturers, or all modules of the technologies involved?

• The earliest energy yield tests appear to suggest

that differences of ±20% or more could exist between technologies, however the results were heavily dependent on measurement errors, incorrect Pmax declaration (caused by over/under optimistic ratings, reference calibration and allowances made for the module to retain end-of-lifetime power above 80% after 25 years) and modules with a shunt resistance worse than that of more recent devices.

• Surveys carried out more recently often yield kWh/kWp values that are within ±4-5%, most likely due to better Rshunt performance with more accurate Pmax definitions and a lower allowance for degradation.

• Indoor measurements performed to demonstrate the dependence of efficiency with light level are frequently inaccurate since outdoor effects are correlated with each other (such as temperature level increasing with light level) The choice of irradiance sensor will inevitably affect the measured performance of a PV module since the sensitivity of the incident angle and spectrum would differ between sensor and module.

4. PERFORMANCE VS. LIGHT LEVEL Opting to plot module efficiency against irradiance would make low light level performance appear more important than it truly is. During indoor measurements (low light conditions), the low light level efficiency will diminish due to shunt resistance and Vmax drop effects. Figure 1 overleaf depicts the outdoor measured efficiency/nominal vs. irradiance for a crystalline-Si (c-Si) module (shown in blue) and two thin film modules (shown in red and green respectively) for seven days of variable weather in central Germany. The data points appear fairly distinct from each other, specifically the c-Si module has a higher drop in efficiency with temperature (reflected in the quicker drop at high irradiance) but rises quicker at low irradiance levels.

Figure 2 is a replot of Figure 1 but as a DC yield in W/Wp. In this instance, the curves for all 3 modules appear much closer together than before. At high irradiance level, they all fall away from the nominal line, with the c-Si dropping about 20% at 1 sun and the better of the thin films falling by around 15%. Even though there are more points at lower light level, the performance is dominated by the higher powers obtained through high irradiance. This trend is visible in all 3 modules.

5. WHAT OTHER PARAMETERS MAY BE USED TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN PV TECHNOLOGIES? Various other parameters apart from the kWh/kWp rating could be employed in evaluating different PV technologies.

The technologies up for consideration are high efficiency

Figure 1:

DC efficiency/nominal vs. Irradiance for 3 different module technologies in central Germany.

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An Evaluation of kWh/kWp Values as the Standard to Adequately Differentiate between PV Technologies Continued

crystalline-Si, polycrystalline-Si (pc-Si), thin film amorphous-Si (a-Si) and organic/plastic PV (OPV) arrays. Parameters worth comparing with include, but are not limited to: • Cost in €/Wp [6] • Lifetime providing >80% Pmax (typically 20-25 years except for OPVs where 5-10 years is the expected norm) • Transparency (usually possible in all cases, requires adequate cell to cell spacing in glass-glass laminates for c-Si and pc-Si) • Option of a flexible substrate (c-Si and pc-Si will achieve this once the cell thickness drops to less than 100µm) • Aesthetic appearance/visual impact (Square/rectangular blue or black cells in c-Si and pc-Si, monolithic with narrow parallel cuts in thin film a-Si and OPVs) • Shading tolerance • Wp/kg • System area to mass ratio (further subdivided according to whether the system is framed, frameless or flexible) • Initial degradation (small for c-Si and pc-Si, up to 30% for thin film, unknown for OPV) • Steady degradation per year in service (approximately 0.5% for c-Si and pc-Si, less than 1% quoted for thin film) • Certifications (conformity to standards as set by IEC/UL/TUV/CE etc.)

• Max. System Voltage (500-1000V for all except OPV) • Max. module size in m2 (around 2.5m2 for c-Si and pc-Si, 5.7m2 for thin film) • Imax and Vmax (>5A and approximately 0.5V per series cell for c-Si and pc-Si, generally lower current limit and higher voltage per cell for thin film) 6. CONCLUSIONS • kWh/kWp measurements frequently carry an experimental error of ±4-5% for different technologies when properly declared stable Pmax values are utilised • Low light level performance is not as important as is generally believed • Since kWh/kWp values do not differentiate certain technologies, other parameters are being recommended for comparison instead • Sizing programmes provide databases to calculate the temperature coefficient for Pmax and low light level efficiency change (LLEC), however the values derived do not always agree with the data supplied by manufacturers.

• The energy yields predicted by such programmes depend on the values utilised. There is a tendency for pessimistic predictions where crystalline-Silicon is concerned, whereas thin film gets mostly optimistic estimates.

• Module technologies or manufacturers with optimistic coefficients will predict better energy yields than those actually measured.

• It is essential for module manufacturers, sizing programme designers and users to understand the modelling and calculations behind the errors.

7. REFERENCES

[1] S. Ransome, “Modelling Inaccuracies of PV Energy Yield Simulations”, 33rd

PVSC IEEE Conference, San Diego, 2008.

[2] D. Chianese et al. “Direct Performance Comparison of PV modules”, 22nd

EPVSEC, Milan, 2007.

[3] Makrides G. et al. “Two year performance evaluation of different grid

connected photovoltaic systems”, 34th PVSC IEEE Conference, Philadelphia, 2009.

[4] EN 50380:2003 “Datasheet and nameplate information for photovoltaic modules” [5] EN 61215:2005 “Crystalline Silicon terrestrial photovoltaic (PV)

modules-Design qualification and type approval” [6] Solarbuzz website http://www.solarbuzz.com

Mr Mark

Zammit

Mr Mark Zammit is a Senior Lecturer at the MCAST Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, where he has been employed since 2008. His main delivery is in the fields of Electrical Technology, Power Electronics and various topics dealing with Renewable Energy. His research interests are in the application of smart technologies to grid-connected systems, optimisation of power converter circuitry, and the design of electro-acoustic systems. His most recent work includes a book review that treats critical questions about the use of renewables, together with local research publications on the performance criteria adopted in establishing PV system performance.

Mr Chris

Scicluna

Mr Kris Scicluna has graduated with a Bachelor of Engineering (Hons.) in Electrical Engineering in 2011. He carried out research on Sensorless Control applied to Wind Energy applications as part of his M.Sc. degree at the Department of Industrial Electrical Power Conversion at the University of Malta. Currently he is following an M.Phil research degree in Sensorless Control applied to automotive applications with the same department. He has been employed as a Lecturer with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering at the Malta College for Arts Science and Technology since October 2014. His research interests include renewable energy, automotive electronics and power converters.

Dr Inġ. Brian

Azzopardi

Eur.Ing.

Dr. Inġ. Brian Azzopardi Eur. Ing. is Senior Lecturer II at the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST). He has over 15 years’ industry-led academic experience.

Worked for Enemalta Corporation high voltage network development and as Consultant on award-winning energy projects. His multi-disciplinary works were acclaimed internationally. Since 2011, he was appointed as senior faculty member and retained visiting status in the United Kingdom and Lithuania.

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Retrofitting a Mediterranean dwelling into a thermally comfortable, low energy home: A case study in Malta S. De Marco1, V. M. Buhagiar2 * Energy Consultant ing.stefan@gmail.com 2 Department of Environmental Design, Faculty for the Built Environment, University of Malta, *Corresponding author: vincent.buhagiar@um.edu.mt 1

ABSTRACT The present local built environment has a common thermal comfort problem namely that most dwellings have a great reliance on electricity for environmental control indoors. The main objective of this research work was to offer a practical and cost-effective working solution to this problem. The feasible energy–saving measures that can be retrofitted to an existing dwelling were designed and applied to an existing building; a top third floor flat in Birkirkara, Malta, thus converting it into a thermally comfortable minimum energy home.

Compared to its microclimate and the mirror apartment, the results show that the subject flat managed to keep a constant and very comfortable indoor climate across both the hot and cold seasons.

This case study also shows that the combined energy saving retrofit measures had a payback period of 15 years, which eventually pays off with a surplus of over â‚Ź700.

Keywords: Energy Retrofitting, Thermal Comfort, Low Energy Home, Payback Period.

40

1. INTRODUCTION The present local built environment has a common thermal comfort problem as most dwellings lack passive measures and thus have a great reliance on electric means that come at a cost to both the individual and the government. In addition such poor thermal comfort conditions imply health problems, leading to another problem – an escalating national health bill [1]. The reality is that electricity was considered a social commodity and passive design solutions were therefore put aside for ‘modern’ inefficient homes.

Building new energy efficient homes is not going to solve the existing building stock problem. In fact both EU and local relevant policy tend to only focus on new buildings and renewable energy sources. Thus unless policy and legislation look into the possibility of energy retrofitting such existing building stock, the EU targets will not be achieved to effectively reduce the evident problem of greenhouse gas emissions [2]. Such a situation, if unchanged, will continue to increase the fossil energy demand problem. The solution is therefore to look into retrofitting, deploying energy– saving measures that are cost-effective and adaptive to a Mediterranean climate.

Thus considering the above scenario, the main objective of this work was to offer a practical working solution to this problem. The idea was to analyse and point out what are the feasible energy–saving measures that can be actually retrofitted to an existing dwelling without affecting the occupant’s lifestyle and daily schedule. Such energy–saving retrofit measures must be based on our climatic conditions and existing building fabric to effectively reduce energy consumption.

Such analysis was then transferred into a heat transfer model (HTM) that yielded the following results – Figure 1.

Figure 1: HTM of the Original Subject Flat.

After a cost–effective analysis (based on the available project budget) and site considerations, the following design changes were applied to the HTM – these yielded the respective Heat Transfer Savings (HTS): 1. 75mm of expanded polystyrene (EPS) to the roof – 82% HTS 2. 50mm of rigid polyisocyanurate polyiso foam to the external walls – 74% HTS on double walls and 81% HTS on single walls 3. Existing aluminium apertures replaced with PVC doubleglazed and argon-filled windows – 81% HTS 4. All ventilators sealed – 90% HTS 5. Following the results obtained, Figure 2, the respective energy–saving retrofit measures mentioned above, including adjustable louvers on the south and west apertures were applied to the subject flat.

The first step that needs to be taken before looking into how to design, build or alter a home in any country is to have a detailed look at its microclimate [3], [4].

Once this data is collected and analysed, the relevant passive measures suitable for such a climate can be designed accordingly.

2. PROJECT METHODOLOGY 2.1 Design of a Heat Transfer Model The chosen methodology for this research work was to investigate various options for retrofitting to implement them onto an existing dwelling, thus potentially converting it into a low energy home. An existing building (a top third floor flat in B’Kara), referred to as the subject flat, was used as a test bed for such conversions.

Before applying any energy–saving retrofit changes to an existing building, the said dwelling needs to be thoroughly analysed to expose the main areas of heat losses and gains.

This can be done by analysing the heat transfer process (HTP) of the building. Such a HTP must be carried out because the outside part of the building shell is strongly thermally influenced by outside air [5].

Figure 2: HTM of the Retrofitted Subject Flat.

2.2 Design of the Thermal Comfort Zone within a Psychrometric Chart Thermal comfort (TC) is quite an extensive subject and thus requires a quantitative approach to verify if the energy–saving retrofit measures that were applied to the subject flat have managed to contain the indoor climatic conditions inside the standard thermal comfort zone (TCZ). The method of analysis adopted was to utilise the bioclimatic approach via a psychrometric representation [6], [7]. This was applied by first delineating the relevant local TCZ on the psychrometric

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Retrofitting a Mediterranean dwelling into a thermally comfortable, low energy home: A case study in Malta Continued

Figure 3:

Figure 4:

MET for TCZ with 90% Acceptability.

Temperature Comparison

chart and then superimposing the apartment’s indoor climate parameters onto it to verify how many data points plotted were actually contained by such a defined TCZ.

subject flat’s and flat 5’s indoor temperatures, together with the B’Kara microclimate outdoor temperature, following renovations to the subject flat.

A Microsoft Excel Tool (MET) was programmed with the necessary psychrometric chart parameters and a combination of Szokolay’s and Givoni’s algorithms for the TCZs were utilised based on the local climate. [10]. It was decided to use the 90% acceptability TCZs throughout the project as it reflects the best thermal comfort conditions needed for our local climate – Figure 3

The subject flat doesn’t make use of air conditioners (ACs), unlike flat 5 that makes extensive use of ACs. In flat 5 the Lascar temperature / humidity sensor was placed in an unoccupied room (spare bedroom) that does not make use of ACs.

2.3 Climate Data Collection The pre-requisite to quantify if such energy–saving retrofit measures are effective from a thermal comfort point of view included a detailed analysis of the indoor climatic data, to check whether the temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) readings fell within the defined TCZs. The hourly mean values of such T and RH readings need to be analysed to sum up the number of hours in the year when each specific value of T and RH occurs. Such data can then be plotted in a psychrometric chart with the number of hours (24 / day across a whole year) at each co-ordinate point [6].

Unfortunately, before the retrofit changes were applied to the subject apartment, the indoor climatic data (for one year) was not recorded. However in order to have a good simultaneous comparison between the retrofitted subject flat and one that is standard, it was decided to also monitor the adjacent apartment (Flat 5) that happened to be a mirror image of the subject flat. As previously stated it was also important to monitor the B’Kara microclimate simultaneously with the subject’s apartment readings. Thus T and RH hourly mean readings over a period of one year (June 2013 – May 2014) were recorded by using Lascar EL-USB-2 USB data loggers for both apartments and the B’Kara microclimate.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Temperature Comparison Figure 4 is a direct temperature comparison between the

42

Summer analysis: The subject flat was carefully controlled during most of the period July - August 2013 by: 1. Blocking off all sun rays via the adjustable louvers / shutters.

2. Windows were kept closed during most of the day (10:00hrs – 20:00hrs).

3. Night time ventilation was used accordingly to favour the prevailing climatic conditions offered during this period.

4. The result was that the apartment’s inside temperature mirrored the lowest part of the microclimate during this period. On the other hand during the months of June, September and October 2013 the apartment was left unattended (closed up) and as predicated from various studies, it’s inside temperature followed the microclimate mean temperature. In addition a fan had to be used for an evaporative cooling effect on the occupant (the author) during the heat wave periods.

Winter Analysis: Once the outside temperatures started falling (November) the subject flat indoor climate was controlled as follows: 1. The adjustable louvers were opened and retracted to allow the incident sun rays build up the internal solar gains.

2. All windows were kept closed at most times. They were only opened occasionally at noon to ventilate the apartment when the outside temperature was prevailing.

3. No form of artificial heating was used.

4. Internal humidity was kept to a minimum.

5. The results showed that the subject flat managed to keep quite a constant and very comfortable temperature of approximately 18°C throughout the whole cold season – as a matter of fact the occupant noted that unlike other dwellings, the clothing level was kept to a simple long sleeve top and trousers. On the other hand, during the month of January the apartment was left unattended (with closed shutters and louvers). A detailed look at the temperature hourly readings showed that the insulation helped to contain the internal solar gains within the subject flat for an 18-hour period. Once the solar gains were cut off (January), the apartment’s temperature started falling towards the microclimate mean temperature.

Figure 4 also shows that flat 5 practically followed the highest temperature section of the B’Kara microclimate and when compared to the subject flat, the inside temperature swings are more frequent. This means that flat 5’s thermal mass is very poor, as it did not offer sufficient dampening effect – unlike the subject flat (due to its insulated walls).

The occupants of flat 5 (a middle aged couple) stated that both summer and winter are unbearable without the continuous use of ACs for cooling and gas heating, respectively. Statistical analysis of flat 5 (room without any airconditioning) showed that the internal temperatures reached up to 33 °C in summer and went down to 13.5 °C in winter.

The apartment block featured the standard building practices of the 1950s that lead to a very poor thermal comfort. Apart from some plastering modifications, flat 5 is still in the original state as the subject flat was – both structurally and building fabric wise.

Figure 5:

The selected energy saving retrofit measures that were applied to the subject flat are very effective with an overall 3 °C (7 °C maximum) temperature difference in extreme hot and cold seasons. This difference comes at a cost; either via using ACs or by investing in such energy saving retrofit measures, thus one would need to analyse the cost effectiveness.

Figure 6:

3.2 Psychrometric Chart Analysis The measured climatic data was processed accordingly and inputted in the MET. The following plots are the results obtained – each black dot represents an average hourly reading of temperature and corresponding humidity ratio, the latter derived from the T, RH and atmospheric pressure (AP).

Figure 5 shows that at most times, the indoor climate is by far out of the TCZs and this means that flat 5 needs a considerable amount of heating and cooling – the latter being the greater load. In addition the humidity in winter is high – this might be due to the fact that the occupants use gas heating and they keep the apartment closed due to cold temperatures.

Similarly the actual measured hourly indoor climatic data of the retrofitted subject flat was inputted in the MET and the respective psychrometric chart is shown in Figure 6.

Flat 5 Indoor Climate Data

Retrofitted Subject Flat Indoor Climatic Data With regards to Figure 6, apart from a few data points that fell out of the TCZs, most of the indoor climate is contained and this means that the energy–saving retrofit measures have successfully served their purpose.

Most of the points that fall out of the TCZs are the ones when the subject apartment was intentionally left unattended in winter (no solar and internal gains during the period between December 2013 to January 2014) and in summer (when the apartment was closed up during June, all of September and October 2013).

In fact it is only for this small portion (a total of 9 out of 122 days – 7% in summer and 16 out of 121 days – 13% in winter) that the energy–saving retrofit measures failed to satisfy the TCZ limits.

3.3 Payback Periods of Energy–Saving Retrofit Measures The most sought-after question of such energy–saving retrofit measures is when they will eventually pay off. The advantage of this project was that the subject flat and flat 5 were identical in size and layout.

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Retrofitting a Mediterranean dwelling into a thermally comfortable, low energy home: A case study in Malta Continued

Retrofit Measure

Actual Installed

(UA-Value %)

Cost (€)

Roof Insulation (45%) External Insulation (21%) PVC Double Glazing (34%) Aperture shades Air Tightness and Humidity Control

2,033.26

AC Cost Ratio (€)

Subtracted Cost (€)

1,366.20

667.06

1,170.00

637.56

532.44

3,450.69

1,032.24

2,418.45

2,276.20

–

2,276.20

55.90

–

55.90

Yearly Cost Savings

Discounted

Retrofit Alteration

Subtracted Cost (€)

Roof Insulation

667.06

190.86 (45%)

3.9

External Insulation

532.44

89.07 (21%)

7.3

2,418.45

79.93 (19%)

35.9

PVC Double Glazing Aperture shades Air tightness and Humidity Control

2,276.20 55.90

(€)

Payback Period

147.51 (Solar gains) 63.10 (15%)

Table 1:

Table 3:

Energy-Saving Retrofit Measures Costing, in Euros.

Energy-Saving Retrofit Measures Pay Back Period.

Thus it was decided to utilise the subject flat and flat 5’s electricity bills for such a payback calculation exercise. The subject flat electricity bills amounted to an average of 2,439 kWh (€266.41) while Flat 5’s were 7,837 kWh (€1,023.88) per year. The cost breakdown was calculated utilising the Enemalta electricity residential tariffs as of April 2014.

The cost of each energy–saving retrofit measure was calculated in detail – Table 1. These costs reflected the actual installed.

In order to carry out the right financial comparison, the cost of the installed AC units in flat 5 had to be calculated (3 AC Units at €1,012 each => € 3,036) and subtracted from the energy saving retrofit measure costs.

This was done by dividing the AC cost in a ratio equivalent to the UA–value percentages (Figure 1) and then subtracting it from the corresponding retrofitted measure as shown in Table 2.

Since the air tightness measure’s cost is very low, it was decided to shift its ratio to the apertures cost as these are 100% draught-proof. In addition, since the aperture shades cannot be presented as a UA–value, no AC ratio cost was subtracted from the actual retrofit costs.

It stands to reason that only the cost of the heating and cooling section of flat 5 (4,104kWh) has to be used to calculate the energy–saving retrofit measures paybacks. This part amounts to a cost of €589.49 per year. However for a proper payback period calculation the subject apartment’s heating and cooling part (164 kWh – €21.32) has to be subtracted from this amount. Thus this falls to €586.17.

Rather than working out a simple payback period, a discounted payback period was utilised with a discount rate of 5%, as suggested by various financial institutions [9], [10], [11], [12]. The respective payback periods are shown in Table 3 It is evident that the most effective energy saving retrofit measure is the air tightness and humidity control one, followed by the cost effective insulation (roof and external) measures. The last (yet most sought) is the double glazing one. Actually, this exercise shows that such a double glazing

(Years)

17.3 0.92

measure is not worth investing in. As a matter of fact, locally, there is a misconception that the best form of insulation measure is double glazing. In fact, such a measure comes at a high cost and with a very long payback period as opposed to the other beneficial measures. The shades, with a 17.3 year payback period (quite a long one) are still a more cost effective measure than the double glazing one. Thus it would make more economic sense to perhaps change single glazed windows to draught-proof ones as air tightness is more crucial than actual double glazing and install external shades.

Considering these payback periods, it would make more sense (from an economic point of view) for government to increase subsides on roof insulation and introduce a grant for external wall insulation – rather than the ongoing double glazing scheme. It is important to state that for the right economic analysis, only the discount rate was applied to this payback periods exercise. In reality; even though recently (March 2014) the electricity tariffs were revised downwards, the long-term tendency for energy prices is to rise up. Such an outcome would decrease the payback periods and thus make them even more attractive.

Once the payback periods were calculated and would eventually be reached by time, it would be interesting to use the same discount rate method to determine the additional cost savings (revenue) that one can get for the lifetime of the dwelling. Table 4 shows the obtained cumulative results of such an exercise.

This case study showed that after 15 years the combined energy saving retrofit measures pay off with a surplus of €730.29. Considering the thermal comfort status achieved and the energy-cost analysis, stating that such energy saving retrofit measures aren’t feasible, as most people think, is simply not correct. One has to appreciate that the study did not include any social benefits that may be enjoyed by the application of such retrofitting measures, such as better health and well-being. In fact this project has succeeded to achieve its objectives and its results can be used to aid policy direction and propose incentives regarding 20-20-20 targets for energy efficiency.

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Retrofitting a Mediterranean dwelling into a thermally comfortable, low energy home: A case study in Malta Continued

Retrofit Alteration Roof Insulation External Insulation PVC Double Glazing Aperture shades

5 Years

10 Years

15 Years

20 Years

25 Years

159.27

806.72

1,314.01

1,711.49

2,022.93

-146.82

155.83

392.06

577.55

722.89

-2,027.34

-1,655.20

-1,301.12

-964.23

-643.70

-1,577.12

-911.98

-279.12

323.03

895.95

219.54

435.36

604.46

736.95

840.76

-3,372.47

-1,169.77

730.29

2,384.79

3,838.84

Air tightness and Humidity Control Totals

Table 4: Future Income of Energy–Saving Retrofit Measures, following the break-even point. Figures are in Euros.

Retrofit Alteration

4 CONCLUSION When considering the temperature distribution across a whole year (Figure 4), the psychrometric representation with the TCZ parameters (Figure 6) and the cost effective analysis carried out (Tables 3 and 4), this case study clearly showed that retrofitting our existing building stock via energy saving measures is indeed an achievable target and the outcome is a winning and positive situation from all aspects – such as: 1. A substantial reduction in energy use – both for the consumer and the national energy grid load.

2. A financial investment worth considering – especially if the payback period is surpassed thus making the investment render a profitable return for the remaining years.

3. A more thermally comfortable lifestyle in our existing dwellings and better well-being.

It is only for this small portion (a total of 9 out of 122 days – 7% in summer and 16 out of 121 days – 13% in winter) that the energy–saving retrofit measures fell outside the TCZ criteria.

The analysis also showed that if such a dwelling is left unattended or wrongly used, the tendency is that it will follow the mean outdoor temperature, thus the occupants would still have to rely on active measures such as the use of ACs to reach a thermal comfort level – the latter loads won’t be as large yet still considerable.

Hence retrofitting of existing dwellings into low energy homes could be a potential for resuscitating the building sector. Apart from creating such an opportunity that will help increase our local economy due to new or modified skills and job take up, it will also help in reaching the EU energy efficiency targets.

5 REFERENCES

[1] Ghirlando R., Fsadni M, “Traditional Building Features in a Passive House Concept for Malta.,” Energy Efficiency in the Mediterranean: 1st Passive House Conference, Malta, 2011.

[2] V. G. V. B. Hens H., “Impact of energy efficiency measures on the CO2 emissions in the residential sector, a large scale analysis,” Energy and Buildings 33, p. 275–281, 2001.

[3] Fergus N., “Adaptive Standards for Comfortable Buildings,” LEARN, London Metropolitan University – Commoncense project supported by the EU intelligent Energy Europe programme, 2009.

[4] Buhagiar V., “Energy Efficiency in Building Design,” BICC report, 2001.

[5] G. Z. Y. L. Y. L. Junli Zhou, “Coupling of thermal mass and natural ventilation in buildings,” Energy and Buildings 40 , 2008.

[6] Fsadni M, “Thermal Mass in a Bioclimatic Approach to Building Design in Malta,” PhD Thesis, Hertfordshire University, UK, 2007.

[7] M. Tahbaz, “Psychrometric chart as a basis for outdoor thermal analysis,” International Journal of Architectural Engineering & Urban Planning, pp. 95 - 109, 2011.

[8] A. A. Szokolay S. V, Thermal Comfort, Plea: Passive and Low Energy Architecture International, in association with Department of Architecture, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, 2007.

[9] R. S. S. Chunekar A, “Discount Rates and Energy Efficiency,” 2012.

[10] S. R. N. Jaffe A B, “The Energy-Efficiency Gap,” Energy Policy, pp. 804-810,

1994.

[11] M. T. P. I. W. D. Isaacs N, “Benefit-cost Analysis of Thermal Insulation in

Australian Dwellings,” ICEC Conference, Melbourne, p. No. 103, 2002.

[12] D. B. L. G. K. B. M. Audenaerta A, “The inter-relation between heating

systems, ventilation systems, insulation, energy price growth rates and

discount rate for different dwelling types in Flanders (Belgium): a cost and

E-level analysis,” HUB Research Papers – Economics & Management, 2012.

Dr Inġ. Stefan

De Marco

Ing. De Marco recently pursued a M.Sc in Sustainable Energy with the ISE – this paper is an extract of his final year project. He is now a Freelance Energy Consultant on Zero Energy Homes, an EPC Assessor and also carries out Energy Audits.

Prof. Vincent

M. Buhagiar

Professor Vincent Buhagiar, an architect & civil engineer by profession, holds a PhD in energy efficiency in buildings. Through his post as Head of Department of Environmental Design, at the Faculty for the Built Environment, he is currently coordinating an MSc in Environmental Design, also conducting research in his speciality and allied fields in sustainability. Prof. Buhagiar has published extensively in the field of energy conservation in the built environment.

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The IoT and its impact on building automation now and in the future Author/s*: Trevor Buhagiar Main Affiliation of Each Author: Business Development Manager ESI Malta *Corresponding author: trevor.buhagiar@esimalta.com

ABSTRACT This article looks at developments in the Internet of Things (IoT) and how they will impact on building automation.

It also considers the impact of the IoT on engineers and the work they do in designing, operating and maintaining buildings. The IoT is a driver in enabling better understanding of how buildings perform. It will not only provide data but also the technology to monitor and manage energy use, making buildings more comfortable for occupants and more energy efficient in the long-term.

48

1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNET OF THINGS The Internet has touched all our lives at home and work in ways that, twenty years ago, many of us would not have predicted. Now we are all connected to our colleagues and customers via the Internet and mobile devices. The rising phenomenon known as the Internet of Things (IoT) is perhaps the most current, high profile concept that demonstrates the growing influence of the Internet on our home and business life.

Coined in 1999, the term IoT is based around the premise that devices can be connected to the Internet and accessed from desktop or mobile devices. Home automation has already been influenced by IoT technology, through services such as Honeywell’s Lyric, which allow consumers to manage their heating and hot water via smartphone apps.

Transfer this Internet of Things into the commercial building landscape, and it takes on even greater significance. Machineto-Machine (M2M) communication has been around for some time in this field. It is a term that refers to softwarecontrolled automation devices that are able to communicate autonomously.

Their original application was mainly in remote buildings such as mobile phone sites, or for clients with a large and widespread property portfolio. M2M gave the customer a standardised approach to acquiring data on energy consumption and other aspects of building performance, including response to alarms for better maintenance.

we are now seeing is the merging of the physical building with the virtual world, with building integrated intelligence moving away from a central PC back into the network – also known as distributed intelligence.

Speaking at the 2015 Niagara Forum in London, Tridium Managing Director (EMEA) Roger Woodward estimated that in five years wireless controls technologies will be the standard rather than the exception. What’s more, the controls protocols that are so well known, such as BACnet, are very likely to be replaced by Internet protocols (IP) in a decade or so.

Currently there are millions of M2M devices installed globally, but this is expected to become billions by the end of this decade (2020). This spread of connectivity has been made possible by a change to the IP addressing system.

To make the IoT work, each device that is connected must have its own unique IP address. Thanks to the creation of a new, longer standard format of address known as Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) this is now possible. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long compared to its predecessor’s 32 bits and there are enough addresses for every atom on the planet to have one. Enough, in other words, for your building’s sensors, HVAC plant, lighting and more to have their own IP address.

Historically, these devices were connected over the Public Switched Telephone Network’s (PTSN) lines via a modem.

The lines were slow, and data use limited so it was important to be efficient in your management of data traffic – or face excessive charges.

3. BIG DATA AND ANALYTICS One of the main outcomes of the IoT is a proliferation of data, often referred to as Big Data. This is something that many businesses are still coming to terms with. At the 2015 Niagara Forum, Alison Vincent, Chief Technology Officer for CISCO (UK & Ireland) commented that currently, 96 per cent of data being gathered and communicated through the IoT is not being analysed. But the data generated by buildings is highly valuable because it can support long-term energy efficiency and optimise operational costs.

The advance of network technology means that we now see much higher data speeds. Rather than moving data at 48kb/ second, we can now send information at 300kb/second (or faster with the advent of 4G). And rather than charging by the megabyte, service providers offer unlimited data charges.

This has created a significant increase in both the amount and speed of data transmission, while also lowering the cost.

Analytics is fundamentally about the discovery and communication of meaningful patterns in data. Other industries such as finance and manufacturing make full use of data to support business development and planning, and there is no reason why data collected from building services such as heating, ventilation, air conditioning and lighting cannot be used in the same way.

2. AUTOMATED COMMUNICATION The benefits of this automated communication are that alarms and operational information can be sent directly to a maintenance team. These messages can specify what is faulty, ensuring that the repair engineer arrives with the right part – saving time, travel and money for the client and maintenance provider.

Take the example of chilled water plant. There are a number of data variables that could be collected by IoT technology:

For engineers designing, constructing and operating buildings, the IoT offers significant potential in terms of providing data on day-to-day operation and long-term efficiency. It also means that engineers will have to grasp new technologies and understand how they can be applied. What

•

Demand by day of week

•

Outdoor air conditions

•

Day of week

•

Time of year

•

Cost of energy

•

Building occupancy

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Healthy Heat – Infrared Heating Panels

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The IoT and its impact on building automation now and in the future Continued

Similarly, occupancy controls can collect a range of data variables: •

Access control information

•

Historical performance of time to achieve set point

•

Outdoor conditions

•

Time of year

•

Cost of energy

It is clear to see that this sort of information can be used to track exactly how a building performs. It is therefore possible to identify what is ‘normal’ performance, and to identify abnormalities, which may indicate that energy is being wasted.

Plan operating in an unoccupied building at the weekend is a common example that can go unnoticed for months at a time.

This sort of data can also be used for planning equipment utilisation and controls strategy. For example when considering how many air handling units should be enabled in a shopping centre at any one time. The data variables collected might include: •

Energy load

•

Occupancy

•

Time to achieve set point

•

Outdoor conditions

•

Time of year

4. WHAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR BUILDING AUTOMATION? The advent of the Internet of Things has already made inroads into the world of building automation. Its continued development has several implications for this sector. Firstly, the devices in a building, from room-based sensors to rooftop air handling units, must be made available on true open framework which has also been developed with buildings in mind. In spite of the wide use of the term ‘open protocol’ there are not many which can link easily to the Internet. One example is the Niagara Framework from Tridium.

Malta-based building automation specialists ESI have used the Niagara Framework to on the new SmartCity project. ESI has designed and intelligent building management system

(BMS) which seamlessly integrates with the Pro-Watch security system. This provides a comfortable, productive and sustainable working environment for occupants. By linking security to management of building services, the integrated system continuously tracks occupation levels so that lighting and cooling in unoccupied areas can be automatically switched off to save energy.

5. AN EYE ON THE FUTURE Looking to the future, there will come a time when buildings are truly automated. The data coming out of building services will generate actions without the need for human intervention, ensuring quicker identification of problems and faster resolution. This will be the truly intelligent building.

The IoT is already having an impact on how building performance data is gathered, analysed and accessed.

Looking to the future, more clients will be able to use IoT technology to create buildings that can monitor the Grid, analyse building energy use at any point in time and quickly access the cheapest energy – seamlessly integrating demand with supply.

For those involved in the BMS sector, and the management of buildings, knowledge of this field will be extremely important.

Understanding Internet Protocols will be as important as the traditional protocols we have all been used to in building services. Most importantly, getting to grips with the notion of ‘truly open’ systems will be a first step in harnessing the potential of the IoT.

Mr Trevor

Buhagiar

Trevor Buhagiar is the Business Development Manager at ESI Malta Ltd., with more than ten years experience as Systems Integrator. He implements integrated applications within buildings and industry, bringing together the component subsystems into one solution and ensuring that the subsystems function together as a system.

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Final Year Engineering Projects Exhibition 2015

Final year engineering students, together with the Dean Dr Sammut in the centre.

The Final Year Engineering Projects Exhibition 2015 was officially opened on Thursday 2nd July. Seventy-four undergraduate projects in various fields of engineering were showcased in this public exhibition. The aim of this exhibition is to give all students ranging from primary to post secondary education, employers and employees within the industrial, health and services sectors and the general public an opportunity to view the projects first hand and to meet with graduating students of the Faculty of Engineering.

During the opening ceremony the new Dean of Faculty of Engineering Dr Inġ. Andrew Sammut gave a speech followed by a student representative Ms Brenda Farrugia. The President of the Chamber of Engineers, Inġ. Norman Zammit also gave a brief speech and urged the graduating students to build character during their professional life and follow professional ethics. The ceremony included for the first time two short musical pieces by a group of seven students who form part of the “University Wind Ensemble” six of which are engineering students. A number of leading companies presented contributions towards research in the Faculty of Engineering.

The projects were displayed to the general public at the Faculty of Engineering on Friday 3rd July and Saturday 4th July.

The exhibits included a wide selection of topical areas related to the biomedical field, renewable energy, the environment, electronic products, robotics, transportation, manufacturing processes, new materials and surface treatments. The exhibition gave the opportunity to visitors to tour the Faculty’s laboratory facilities and gather a better understanding of the Engineering profession.

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Faculty of ICT Student Final Year Projects Exhibition 2015 An important and now familiar event on the calendar of the Faculty of ICT at the University of Malta is the Student Final Year Projects Exhibition (FYPE) coupled with the Dean’s List Awards ceremony. This year the FYPE was held on 9th and 10th of July and proudly showcased work developed by the Faculty’s undergraduate final year students, along with awards acknowledging achievement of both academic and commercial relevance, and other collaborative activities and initiatives. This year, the event was opened by the Hon. Dr Joseph Muscat, Prime Minister of Malta. Throughout the academic year, the faculty also frequently hosts and organises various events, seminars, talks and visits, as well as conferences both exclusively and in collaboration with other entities.

This year’s FYPE featured around 70 projects, which relate to various aspects of ICT. These projects have different backgrounds and come from various fields of study touching upon, but not limited to, such themes as software development and data science, information analytics, assistive and adaptive technologies, graphics and image processing, flow management and transport systems, security and surveillance solutions, testing, robotics, health and wellbeing, speech processing, programming paradigms, embedded systems and chip design, system modelling, social media and tools, code monitoring and correctness assurance tools, mobile technologies, video transmission, financial tools, hardware interfacing, and many other areas. As is the spirit and intent of the Faculty, the exhibited projects are a mixture consisting of work that has a more readily discernable applicative nature and other work that has a more fundamental and conceptual nature. Whatever the focus, all projects exhibit a channel towards practical usefulness.

We are always happy to note the great interest that our students’ projects elicit in various industrial partners. This, we believe, testifies to both the innovative and applicative nature of many of our students’ projects and ideas.

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MCAST EXPO 2015

The fourth edition of the MCAST EXPO, a four-day event aimed at offering visitors a taste of the MCAST learning experience was held between Wednesday 24th and Saturday 27th June 2015 at the Institute of Applied Sciences, MCAST Main Campus, in Paola.

Students, lecturers, career advisers, support staff as well as different industry sectors were available under one roof to help visitors discover different aspects related to the College’s full-time and part-time courses, student support services available at MCAST as well as career and employment opportunities.

Through the continued support of industry, government and vocational education and training providers, the MCAST EXPO was revised and presented in a new format. The main aim was

to increase awareness of the need for continuous education and training to all age groups, with particular reference to students interested in vocational education.

During the EXPO, MCAST’s six institutes and the Gozo Campus were encouraging visitors to engage in enjoyable handson activities to experience different career paths in several industrial sectors. The Institutes also hosted representatives of major local employers that gave details about current and upcoming employment and entrepreneurial opportunities.

Visitors also meet MCAST students and discovered more about their projects and innovations. The College’s student support staff were at hand and provided advice to prospective students and answered any queries about MCAST’s courses.

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IEEE Malta Section Public Presentations

The Serhatköy Photovoltaic Power Plant on the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.

From Thursday 21st May to Friday 22nd May 2015, the IEEE Malta Section in collaboration with the Chamber of Engineers hosted Dr Ing. Fulcieri Maltini, who gave a number of presentations on various topics including climate change, renewable energy sources and the decommissioning of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

Dr Maltini is an electrical engineer with a doctorate in Electronics Engineering and a Master in Nuclear Engineering.

His professional career has spanned from research, industry, consulting and banking worldwide. His main activity during the last 20 years has been developed around renewable energy, energy efficiency, decommissioning of highly complex plants and the financing of projects. He is an advisor to governments, international institutions, the European Commission and industry whilst developing and financing projects within an environmental framework on conventional and renewable energy, sustainable development, environmental sciences and energy efficiency. Recently he joined a committee within the University of Sheffield in UK, which was established to support and to develop Supply Chain Resource Sustainability. He is also involved in the development of innovative technologies and the establishment of spin-off companies from Universities and Research Centres. Fulcieri Maltini is a senior life member of the IEEE-Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the IEEE Power Energy Society and the IEEE Communications Society.

The first public presentation, titled “The Serhatköy Photovoltaic Power Plant on the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC)”, was held at the Faculty of ICT Auditorium (University of Malta) on Thursday 21st May. Under a grant provided by the Council of the European Union to support the Turkish-Cypriot Community, a Photovoltaic Power Plant of 1,275 MWp was designed and built on the Serhatköy site on the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The plant is unique on the Island of Cyprus and the largest in the East Mediterranean area. The plant is connected since May 2011 to the grid of Kib-Tek and annually it produces 2 GWh of

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Dr Ing. Fulcieri Maltini delivering his public presentation on the decommissioning of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant at MCAST.

electricity. In addition, the presentation featured a program of new solar and wind power plants for an estimate annual production of 210 GWh to be implemented by 2020. This is presently under negotiation with the TRNC Government.

The second presentation, titled “The decommissioning of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant: The Intermediate Spent Fuel Storage ISF-2 and the Safe Containment project”, was held at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (MCAST, Kordin) on Friday 22nd May. During his lecture, Dr Maltini explained that in 1993, following the 26th April 1986 Chernobyl accident, the G7 launched an initiative on the prevention of nuclear accidents within Russian built plants and agreed that the EBRD - European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, establishes a fund aimed at the closure and decommissioning of some Russian built nuclear power plants of the RBMK and VVER 440-230 type.

The initiative initially included the plants of Ignalina units 1-2 in Lithuania, Kozloduy units 1-4 in Bulgaria, Saint Petersburg units 1-4 in the Russian Federation. In 1996, Chernobyl three remaining units in Ukraine were added to the scope.

The fund contributors included the G7 countries, the EU, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. Initial contributions were in excess of €285 million. As of today, 22 countries and the European Community are contributing with grants for the safety upgrades and the decommissioning of the above nuclear power plants. The concept, which had been accepted by the plant countries, included for each plant a safety assessment, the construction of an essential number of short terms safety improvements facilities and the final closure of the plant.

Later an additional special fund was established for the decommissioning of each plant.

Dr Maltini has been responsible of the decommissioning programme of the Chernobyl units in Ukraine and the Ignalina units in Lithuania. Both programmes, initiated in 1996, are still under way and it is not expected they will be concluded before the next ten years.

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