Understanding the Chinese pedagogical context to facilitate meaningful crosscultural exchange

Understanding the Chinese pedagogical context to facilitate meaningful crosscultural conservation exchange between China and Australia

INTRODUCTION

The wealth of cultural heritage found in China and the overall active socio-political engagement with Australia provides a unique opportunity for conservation collaboration between the two countries. To facilitate positive and fruitful exchange, the conservation pedagogical approach in China needs to be understood in order to find a cross-cultural platform to inform Australian engagement with the Chinese conservation community. This paper reflects on my experience working and learning in the Chinese conservation context during the course of completing a three-week internship with the Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology (SPIA) in Xi’an, China, as part of the Masters of Cultural Materials Conservation program at the University of Melbourne. Acknowledging traditional Chinese learning methods and its vast differences with the prevalent constructivist Western model of education could inform future engagement.

BACKGROUND

As part of coursework for the completion of a Masters Degree in Cultural Materials Conservation at the University of Melbourne, a supervised internship was undertaken from 8-27 October 2015at the Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology (SPIA) in Xi’an, China. Collaborating with my fellow colleague Madeleine Roberts, I undertook a complete conservation treatment of a section of a Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 CE) wall mural that had been removed from a tomb discovered in Hengshan County, North Shaanxi Province in 2014 (CCTV 2015). The work is titled, Untitled (Wine Preparation Scene) measures 590mm high by 902mm wide and depicts three female figures in a traditional scene portraying the preparation or serving of wine and is part of a series of courtly banquet scenes previously located in a lower section of the tomb. According to SPIA accounts (Zhang 2015), removal and testing of the mural was previously carried out insitu and the mural had since been in storage in the conservation laboratory located at the Qujiang Xi’an Museum of Fine Arts. It was in this storage condition that treatment was initiated in the laboratory as part of the internship. The following conservation processes were conducted for the purposes of display: cleaning and consolidation of the verso surface, application of a mud substrate layer and polyester fabric support, removal of the auxiliary cotton gauze layer,

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and surface cleaning of the recto paint layer. Due to time constraints, the last stage that included the mounting of the mural onto its permanent rigid board support and display housing was not completed.

A senior instructor closely supervised treatment at all stages and daily activities were regimented, following a similar format irrespective of treatment stage. Other mural sections excavated from the same tomb were in various advanced stages of treatment which were to serve as instructional examples to demonstrate conservation processes that we were to undertake with Untitled (Wine Preparation Scene). It was assumed that the two students from the local Northwest University in Xi’an, who were also completing their workplace placement at the time, had previously conducted treatment of these works in association the lead instructor.

Using these other mural sections, all stages were systematically demonstrated by the lead instructor by holding focused practical tutorials for each process a few days prior to being eventually applied to our mural. Tutorials would consistently adopt a similar format: the instructor demonstrating with all students observing, each student then demonstrating whilst everyone observes and the instructor makes corrections, then a limited time for clarifying questions. Since the instructor and the two local students did not speak English, instruction during these tutorial sessions were conducted with the use of a translator or if unavailable, simple miming and physical demonstration. Language barriers were to be expected and the resulting limitation to knowledge access and the depth of inquiry we could undertake cannot be disregarded. However, of particular interest were the studentinstructor interactions that differed between the local university students and ourselves, which provided great insight into the pedagogical context of Chinese conservation practice and its differences with the Western constructivist model we were accustomed to.

PERSONAL STRATEGIES TO TRANSCEND THE CROSS-CULTURAL PEDAGOGICAL DIVIDE

The main differences in pedagogical approach between Australian and Chinese conservation training that were observed are described in the following section. Much pedagogical research has focused on the experiences of Chinese students in the Western educational context and the characterisation of the ‘Chinese learner’ (Oxford & Anderson 1995; Wu 2015; Yang, Zheng & Li 2006; Durkin 2008; Chen & Bennett 2012). However, as a conservator with Chinese ancestry brought up in the Western pedagogical paradigm, I hope I can provide insight into the differences in educational experience and the adapted learning strategies employed adopted during the course of the three-week conservation internship in China.

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Authority of the instructor

Throughout the internship, the authority of the instructor was unequivocally apparent, both in terms of interpersonal interactions but also in the structure of teaching. As briefly described previously, the format of the practical tutorial sessions involved the instructor demonstrating the process as we closely observe, after which we were required to perform the process with the instructor providing any corrections. The learning method of observation and correction established the linear relationship between an authoritative instructor and the passive student. Such an instructor-centred learning experience subsequently impacted the nature in which we could query the teacher. Most notable was the behaviour of the two local students compared to our interactions during these tutorial sessions. During the instructor’s demonstration, the students would periodically pass tools or materials as the instructor required, adopting a subordinate assistant role. The students also refused to pose any questions or verbally express any comments after the demonstration. Though these observations may in fact be an indication of the students’ prior familiarity with the processes shown or personal dispositions, it is interesting to note their lack of verbal interaction and it is this introverted behaviour that commonly characterises Chinese learners (Oxford & Anderson 1995; Wu 2015; Durkin 2008). From external observation, it appeared that this passive behaviour was the manifestation of their deferential relationship with the instructor. Consequently, the tutorial sessions adopted an instructor-centred nature whereby the aim of teaching was transmission of knowledge and learning in the receiving in its entirety with little questioning.

The strict hierarchical nature of the teacher-student relationship experienced in China differs greatly from constructivist pedagogical approach prevalent in Australia. Generally speaking, interactions between the teacher and the student adopt a discursive nature as the teacher acts as a facilitator to prompt students to question their own learning strategies to self-actualise knowledge and develop personal learning processes through interactive group debate (Educational Broadcasting Corporation 2004; Shelley 2013; Yang, Zheng & Li 2006; Chen & Bennett 2012). Constructivist pedagogy reconceptualises the authority of the teacher and democratises the learning relationship as a collaborative venture. The authority of the teacher is still existent in the Australian model, but it is the activation of the student through interactive discussion and open critique that differs, resulting in pedagogical model that is decidedly student-centred.

Differences in the linear nature of the instructor/teacher authority ultimately impacted on the way I interacted and conducted myself in tutorial sessions during the internship. As a student from the Western tradition, my

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experience in China did not prevent me from asking questions but it did limit the nature of the queries that I presented. The instructor appeared more comfortable when confronted with pragmatic questions concerning technique whilst analytical discourse regarding why certain processes were being conducted were perfunctorily answered in less detail. Recognising this tendency, I adapted my interactions with the instructor by internalising my critical thinking and only expressing my conclusions as questions for the instructor to confirm if my selfderived analysis was correct. Instead of posing queries as open-ended discussions, which is more common in the Australian education system, what proved to be more successful was when questions were posed using a directive closed framework. Questions were posed to avoid the potential for the instructor to present any uncertainty to the group and allowed the instructor to decisively provide conclusions to reaffirm their authority on the subject matter. Maintaining harmony and avoidance of confrontation are known to be of greater value in East Asian cultures (Durkin 2008; Yang, Zheng & Li 2006) and by recognising the nature of the authority observed in the Chinese teaching model, I was able to respectfully adapt my learning interactions and gain better analytical insight on the processes being taught that I would not have had access to otherwise.

Kinaesthetic and auditory learning relying on repetition of discrete skills

The conservation training experienced in China primarily focused on practical skills through physical demonstration in a systematic curriculum. Conservation treatment is primarily practical and therefore necessitates hands-on instruction and emphasis on applied technique. However, the training experienced during the internship emphasised these individual practical skills as the main subject matter. Every tutorial session would be initiated with detailed instruction on specific techniques with no introduction regarding the overall aims or the theoretical framework underpinning the treatment process. The instructor would demonstrate the technique with verbal descriptions after which I was asked to repeatedly re-enact whilst minute corrections concerning technique were verbally communicated or physically demonstrated by the instructor who was closely observing. Corrections were incredibly detailed, for example, the direction of brushstrokes during application of consolidants or the angle in which the gauze was peeled off the recto. Typical of the Chinese learning style (Oxford & Anderson 1995), each individual process was shown in this detailed manner using primarily kinaesthetic and auditory learning styles from a ‘bottom-up’ format, beginning with an emphasis on prescriptive instruction and strict adherence to established techniques.

Practical conservation techniques are taught in the Australian model in a very different manner. The structure of conservation training conducted in the Masters program at the University of Melbourne are generally initiated

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with a formal lecture reliant on visual learning whereby theoretical concepts and overall aims are introduced in an abstract format before any demonstration of practical techniques. In the Anglo-centric pedagogical style, abstract concepts are taught decontextualised from their practical application (Oxford & Anderson 1995). The Western model for education could be visualised as a ‘top-down’ format where all techniques are seen as servicing a holistic concept as the curriculum emphasises big concepts beginning with the whole and expanding into its composite parts (Educational Broadcasting Corporation 2004). Less emphasis on particular skills allows for nuanced differences in technique between practitioners to be accepted and individual students are encouraged to construct their own knowledge according to the prevailing constructivist pedagogical ethos.

However, theoretical concepts are not absent in Chinese conservation training approaches but are instead developed in parallel with technical practice. As mentioned previously, my critical thinking processes were conducted individualistically, expressed as confirming questions to the instructor only after some time I had repeatedly demonstrated the practical techniques that were being taught. I had noticed that I was only permitted to discuss why I was performing certain techniques after I had demonstrated my understanding of the skills to the instructor. Based on my experience, it appears that critical thinking and reflection in the Chinese model may be considered an individual subjective pursuit and accepted after the student has demonstrated their understanding of the presented knowledge. Contrast this with the Western student experience whereby the analytical thought is fundamental and an essential tool to developing knowledge as students are constantly encouraged to debate and question ‘out loud’ to the whole group (Oxford & Anderson 1995; Wu 2015). In the Chinese pedagogical approach theory and practice seen as integral and the emphasis on mastering basic skills is potentially seen as a pathway to critical thinking and a holistic viewpoint that is developed over time.

Prescriptive feedback during instruction

Due to the established instructor authority and the skills-based knowledge being presented, the feedback received during the internship adopted a more prescriptive nature. Particularly at the beginning of the internship, I was unaccustomed to the lack of feedback or discussion from the instructor or the local students. Instructor feedback was limited to corrections on technique whilst no response was offered if I was performing the processes correctly. Therefore, feedback took the form of approval from the instructor who possessed unquestionable authority over the subject matter. Particularly as the instruction was primarily technique focused, feedback received was a judgement of the outcome with quality assessed on the degree of conformity to the technique shown. This teaching approach assumes the immutability and completeness of the knowledge that is

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being imparted and assesses the student’s performance against an ideal practice, ultimately establishing the authority of instructor as the holder and transmitter of this knowledge.

Feedback in the Australian conservation training system differs greatly to the Chinese approach. The constructivist model depends on the teacher offering leading questions to facilitate the student to independently arrive at conclusions (Educational Broadcasting Corporation 2004; Shelley 2013). Therefore, feedback concerning progress is often presented as open suggestions that can be sought either by the student or the teacher, which the student may elect to subsequently adopt. In this feedback exchange, the source of the discussion is fluid and interactive whereby the emphasis is the development of the process rather than the end product. Results are assessed by the rigour of the analytical process to support conclusions rather than judgements on the quality of the produced outcome.

Communication strategies were subsequently adapted to content with the unfamiliar feedback response experienced in the Chinese context. Initially, I felt uncertainty whilst learning the new techniques, as the instructor provided neither encouragement nor critique of my practice with the instructor. Originating from an Australian education context, it became apparent that I rely on constant discussion and teacher interaction as essential tools for learning. To adapt to this new context, I found I had to become more assertive in seeking feedback from the instructor by directly soliciting confirmation or approval, which differs from the fluid studentteacher interactions that would commonly in Australia. This differed greatly to the observed behaviour of the local Chinese students who appeared to not require such verbal engagement, content to complete tasks with little interaction with the instructor. Any feedback sought focused on gaining the instructor’s approval on my technique or visual outcomes of the treatment, framed in direct questions that were closure orientated and linear in nature to avoid open-ended discourse. This strategy appeared to be successful as the potential for the instructor to present to the group any uncertainty or ambiguity was prevented and the authority of the instructor was maintained. Such a direct communication approach was only possible after almost a week of closely working in the laboratory with the instructor establishing closer familiarity by clearly demonstrating in tutorials my understanding and respect for the subject matter. Therefore, feedback and open discourse may not be necessarily lacking in the Chinese pedagogical model, but it may have the potential to emerge over time after familiarity and trust has been established between instructor and student.

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IMPACT OF CONFUCIAN CULTURAL VALUES ON PEDAGOGICAL APPROACH

The described observations from the internship may be a manifestation of the cultural values that have impacted the epistemological beliefs of the traditional Chinese pedagogical approach. Confucian philosophy has had a strong influence on Chinese society for more than 2,000 years, a worldview that values societal unity and harmony to inform individualist pursuits. Yang, Zheng and Li (2006) describe the main Confucian values that have manifested in Chinese culture that have a particular impact on teaching and learning, which are: the importance of holistic harmony within the individual-family-society-nature hierarchy, prioritisation of ‘being’ and ‘doing’ over ‘thinking’, and priority of time that manifests in a reverence for the past and tradition. The perceived authority of the instructor and the prescriptive nature of feedback received during the internship may be attributed to the Confucian emphasis on social harmony and reverence for the past. Confucian values that emphasises ‘being’ and ‘doing’ over ‘thinking’ may explain the kinaesthetic skills-based instruction experienced that unifies theory and practice. The learning experience during the internship appears typical to traditional Chinese pedagogical practice as discussed in the education literature. Chinese teaching practice commonly characterised by a transmission and apprenticeship approach (Pratt & Associates, 1998 in Yang, Zheng & Li 2006), resulting in teaching being largely didactic kinaesthetic learning reliant on memorization with less attention on creative expression, critical thinking, discovery of truth and generation of new knowledge (Yang, Zheng & Li 2006; Wu 2015; Chen & Bennett 2012). According to Chinese Confucian influenced pedagogical approach, learning is conducted by receiving knowledge from the authority by the passive student who must then repeatedly practice then master skills, which will lead ultimately to understanding and to be finally granted with the authority to reflect and question (Yang, Zheng & Li 2006).

Confucian values that underpin the Chinese pedagogical approach ultimately impacts on conservation training and may help characterise the typical Chinese conservation practitioner to foster cross-cultural understanding.

The emphasis on basic skills and kinaesthetic learning would presumably produce a conservation graduates with proficient manual dexterity with fluency with practical and field-based work (Oxford & Anderson 1995). This tendency observed in Chinese conservators impacts on potential cross-cultural engagement whereby initial communication modes may rely on physical demonstration and an emphasis on the exchange of techniques.

The Confucian value of social harmony that emphasises the maintenance of authority and tradition would also impact on the perceived rate of innovation. Questioning of the status quo in the Chinese model would perceptively be difficult for recent graduates, whereby culturally prevalent introversion and passivity results in the avoidance of confrontation and open critique. However, studies show Chinese learners are not adverse to critical discourse but tend to cooperate readily in groups outside of the classroom context (Oxford & Anderson ASSIGNMENT 2 REFLECTIVE ESSAY CUMC90006 CONSERVATION INTERNSHIP

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1995; Yang, Zheng & Li 2006). Therefore, innovation is not impossible in the Chinese model but the measured rate of change and the less overt manner in which discussion occurs may frustrate Western practitioners who may be more accustomed to more apparent signs of debate and progress. Therefore, theoretical discourse between Australian and Chinese practitioners may only be achievable after the development of familiar relationships produced over time and possibly initiated by the exchange of skills and techniques, which would suit the Chinese learning sensibilities. Ultimately, it is a consistent commitment of time to build personal relationships and familiarity that appears crucial to developing cross-cultural cooperation with China and to recognise the Confucian values that characterise the typical Chinese conservation practitioner.

CONCLUSION

The Australian student experience during the three-week conservation internship with the Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology (SPIA) in Xi’an, China provided many insights in the differences in pedagogical approach that will subsequently impact on cross-cultural exchange between the two countries. It was observed that the role of the instructor as transmitter of skills and knowledge to the passive student, a position rooted in authority.

This ultimately impacted the subject matter of classes, which primarily emphasised technical skills, and the linear prescriptive nature in which feedback was obtained. It is proposed that the learning experience observed could be attributable to the prevailing Confucian cultural values that have impacted Chinese society.

Understanding these cultural mechanisms may help future conservation collaboration between Australia and China and it is suggested that fostering personal relationships over time produced through initial skills exchange may be a method to initiate cross-cultural cooperation. Understanding the prevalent Confucian values that underpin the Chinese pedagogical approach may help transcend divergent learning and communication approaches to provide a platform for effective cross-cultural dialogue.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CCTV 2015, Beautifully painted Yuan dynasty murals discovered inside tomb, viewed 15 October 2015, <http://english.cntv.cn/2015/01/20/VIDE1421752686603437.shtml>.

Chen, R & Bennett, S 2012, 'When Chinese learners meet constructivist pedagogy online', Higher Education, vol 64, no. 5, pp. 677-691.

Durkin, K 2008, 'The adaptation of East Asian masters students to western norms of critical thinking and argumentation in the UK', Intercultural Education, vol 19, no. 1, pp. 15-27.

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Educational Broadcasting Corporation 2004, Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning, viewed 15 November 2015, <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html>.

Oxford, RL & Anderson, NJ 1995, 'A crosscultural view of learning styles', Language Teaching, vol 28, no. 4, pp.

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Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology 2010, Conservation and restoration of murals from tombs of the Han and Tang Dynasties, Shaanxi Press, Shaanxi.

Shelley, N 2013, Art of Constructivist Teaching in the Primary School : A Guide for Students and Teachers, Taylor and Francis, London, ebook.

University of New South Wales 2015, Teaching with ICT / Theory, practice and examples / Constructivism, viewed 10 November 2015, <http://sydney.edu.au/education_social_work/learning_teaching/ict/theory/constructivism.shtml>.

Wu, Q 2015, 'Re-examining the ‘‘Chinese learner’’: a case study of mainland Chinese students’ learning experiences at British Universities', Higher Education, vol 70, pp. 753-766.

Yang, B, Zheng, W & Li, M 2006, 'Confucian View of Learning and Implications for Developing Human Resources', Advances in Developing Human Resources, vol 8, no. 3, pp. 346-354.

Zhang, Y 2015, Discovery of Yuan Dynasty tomb murals in North Shaanxi Province in 2014, informal lecutre [translated from Chinese by Yuan, H], Qujiang Xi'an Museum of Fine Arts, Xi'an, October 8.

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