Sarah Evans
13088014
Sadaf Pourzand
13084175
Matthew Gibbs
12095789
Wan Wan Jefri
13090279
abstract
This report presents a vision for a generic masterplan which addresses the issues of maintaining a high level of environmental quality within a densely populated area. Four key themes have been selected and are consistent throughout the report which underpins the desired environmental qualities that have been strengthened by theorists. Relevant case studies have been analysed in detail in terms of environmental qualities and categorised under the relevant themes to form a reference for our design development. One masterplan model has been applied to three levels of intensification; 200, 500 and 800 people per hectare (pph) and reviewed to see if the underlying question has been achieved: “How do we safeguard and deliver high levels of environmental quality in the context of increasing intensification of land use?�
All images and text have been produced by the authors unless otherwise stated. References made within the report are reproduced as a comprehensive bibliography.
III
CONTENTS chapter 1
introduction
1
chapter 2
environmental qualities
11
chapter 3
walkability concept development
31
chapter 4
master plan
37
chapter 5
density applied to master plan
51
200pph
55
500pph
59
800pph
65
chapter 6
density comparison
71
chapter 7
reflection
78
chapter 8
bibliography
95
chapter 9
appendices
97
V
CHAPTER 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
1.1 introduction “HOW DO WE SAFEGUARD AND DELIVER HIGH LEVELS OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN THE CONTEXT OF INCREASING INTENSIFICATION OF LAND USE?” Since the 1970s the global population has been growing exponentially and therefore the traditional approach to building and town planning solutions are no longer achieving what is required for the intensification of dwellings, services, and open spaces and the structure which is
needed to support this rapid growth of cities (Moughtin et al. 2005). A new approach must be adopted to respond to this social, economic and environmental change resulting in a dynamic solution which uses land effectively whilst simultaneously creating places of high environmental quality. Therefore from an understanding of relevant literature and a detailed analysis of existing case studies an informed design concept has been developed to form a generic master plan model which can be applied to different densities and climates without compromising vital environmental qualities and design principles.
INTENSIFICATION OF LAND USE Due to the substantial increase in the population growth since the 1970s the intensification of land use is incredibly important today. More than half of the population today live in a town or city and it is predicted that nineteen ‘mega-cities’ with populations exceeding ten million will exist by 2020 (Fontani, 2013, P2); therefore a new strategy for developments must be designed to cope with an expected density growth. It is essential for developments to provide occupiers with an awareness and approach of safeguarding the needs of future generations (WCED, 1987) as strengthened by Fontani who states “cities are people’s future, places where tomorrow’s civilizations are built” (Fontani, 2013, P2). This increase in land use resulting from population growth presents a need for more dwellings and a subsequent need for more facilities, transport links and infrastructure. This has an effect on a large district scale and within a neighborhood to provide for the needs of the pedestrian. Inevitably the need for larger and more facilities within areas will result in an increased overall building height and floor area with the stacking of different uses. Consequently fundamental issues must be addressed to ensure environmental qualities are maintained, for example: 1. Overshadowing 2. Volume of green space 3. The definition between public and private space In addressing the issue of intensification by combining a variety of facilities an ideal model is generated to promote a walkable environment; enabling facilities to be within close proximity to dwellings and supporting sustainable transport systems. The intention of this project is to develop a singular strategy which is flexible and able to adapt to this change in intensification as well as being a desirable place to live. To gain an understanding of how a low density district can grow over time the masterplan blocks and street network will remain consistent for every density. Specific environmental qualities have been highlighted as essential in order to achieve a successful walkable development.
Fig. 01: High desnsity living, Hong Kong
2
1.2 METHODOLOGY Figure 02 demonstrates the methodology which shapes the overall development process of this project in order to inform and refine the model. The structure of this report is divided into the chapter headings. CHAPTER 1 AND 2 – BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT s Identify the key issues and an understanding of the terminology s Provide a background understanding of the implications of a densely populated area s Finalise a group vision for the project s Identify the key environmental themes and qualities s Back up environmental themes with theory s Provide a basis of understanding for how to achieve the key environmental qualities s Understand relevant planning policies which relate to the project vision s Analyse case studies in detail relevant to the environmental qualities CHAPTER 3 – STREET NETWORK DEVELOPMENT s Apply theorists and planning policies to establish a basic grid s Apply case studies to grid concept s Simplified concept s Focused on a neighbourhood and mirrored the quarter s Analysed and tested against theories with the application of further urban design principles s Divided the blocks into sub blocks using spreadsheets
Question
Fig. 02: Methodology Diagram
CHAPTER 4 – MASTERPLAN FORMATION s Relating the theories in detail to the masterplan and analysed the grid s Produced a space syntax CHAPTER 5 – APPLICATION OF DENSITY TO MASTERPLAN s Using planning policies and literature to gain base standards, a spreadsheet was produced to calculate the number of amenities needed at each density s For each density a spreadsheet was used to calculate the number of storeys for each density which were visualised s The iterations were refined to fit the number of dwellings and amenities into the grid floor plan whilst maintaining the hierarchy and key theories from chapter 4.
CHAPTER 7 – REFLECTION s Application of environmental themes and theories analysis s Strengths and weaknesses of the masterplan s Key issues requiring further investigation s Overshadowing and sky view factor s Green space s Block depth s Privacy
CHAPTER 6 – DENSITY COMPARISON s Arial visuals and section comparison s Public transport analysis s Land use comparison s Detailed neighbourhood comparison s Shadow analysis
Lit review
case studies
design
FINAL DESIGN 3
1.2 VISION This project goal is to create a walkable city for the pedestrian which is convenient, green, connected and sustainable. It is essential for the development to enable easy and enjoyable movement by foot as pedestrian activity “..is the life blood of the neighbourhood” (Barton et al, 2003, P117). For many people, walking is the best overall physical activity for maintaining and improving health and fitness (Barton et al, 2010, P143), this theory is supported by Gehl as he has suggest that walking promotes a sustainable and healthy city (Gehl, 2010, P7).
“walkability”
Convenient
Built Environment
Fig. 03: Walkability diagram
4
Green
Natural Environment
Connected
Walking is more than just a method of transportation, it is also a “mode of experiencing place and the city, and in this context is an aesthetic and insightful spatial practice” (Wunderlich, 2008). The movement of walking forms a relationship between a place and the pedestrian though the experience of different views, textures, sights and an interaction with others (Rendell, 2006). It is a method of understanding and discovering a place which can inspire and even transform the city through aesthetic practice as much as a critical and spatial one (Wunderlich, 2008). Furthermore it has a substantial effect on the community, providing opportunities for social interaction, “Travel on foot allows people to meet and greet one another, to look at and become part of their neighbourhood” (Untermann, 1984,).
Sustainable
Mobility & permiability
Energy Efficiency
To achieve this vision, the four key walkable aims; convenient, green, connected and sustainable have been established as four key environmental themes; built environment, natural environment, mobility and permeability and energy efficiency. Figure 03 represents the methodology for selecting these key themes.
Fig. 04
Fig. 05
Fig. 06
Fig. 07
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
MOBILITY
ENERGY
Diversity of form and type and visual identity By providing a variety of amenities within a neighbourhood people are encouraged to walk and consequently this increases the activity within the street which enhances the sense of safety because there is more surveillance and therefore a reduction in crime (Coupland 1997; Moughtin, 2003).
By integrating green space making it accessible to all, health and wellbeing is increased creating a lively environment and strong sense of community.
A district which is easy to traverse allows shorter traveling times and enables greater flexibility in dwelling locations where a greater number of pedestrian interactions occur thus increasing the sense of community.
In encouraging walkability, vehicles are less widely used thus enhancing the sustainability of the city and reducing co2 emissions.
5
1.3 literature review Barton
Kasprisin Moughtin Coupland
Lynch
Cullen
Gehl
Whyte
Crawford
Camona
Williams
Burdett
TOTAL
Legibility
4
Density Form
7
Walkability
10
Visual Landmarks
7
Public Transport
5
Green Space
6
Sustainability
6
Fig. 08: Literature Matrix
Categorised under each environmental theme are desired environmental qualities, shown in figure 08. Literature was selected form an understanding of these qualities. In order to refine research a literature matrix was produced to highlight the key qualities discussed by the majority of theorists; these were then expanded in further detail. Even though public transport was not highlighted as an important topic in the matrix, this quality has been selected as it supports our vision towards a walkable city. Throughout this essay references have been made to certain theorists to support the design.
BUILT ENVIRONMENT (Barton et al, 2010; Kasprisin, 2011; Moughtin, 1995; Coupland. 1997; Lynch, 1971; Cullen, 1961; Gehl, 2011; Bentley et al, 1980; Whyte, 1980; Carmona et al, 2003) Key Topics researched in literature: Diversity of form and type Mixed use development Building heights and scale Visual Identity Materials Building styles Legibility Landmarks Buildings terminating views Active edges Perimeter Block NATURAL ENVIRONMENT (Rohde et al, 1994; Whyte, 1980; Barton et al, 2010) Key Topics researched in literature: Green space Vegetation Green infrastructure
6
MOBILITY AND PERMEABILITY (Ghel 2010, 2011; Barton et al, 2010; Wunderlich, 2008; Untermann, 1984; Jacobs, 1961 ; Burney, 2013 ; Transport for London, 2010) Key Topics researched in literature: Access Cycle priority Transport Permeable street network Parking provision and service vehicles Shared surface Space syntax ENERGY EFFICIENCY (Williams et al, 2001; Goldman et al, 2006; Melia et al, 2010 ; Engwicht, 1993; Crawford, 2009; Gehl, 2011; Moughtin, 2003; Marsall, 2005; Barnett, 1982) Key Topics researched in literature: Qualitities Orientation Sky view Factor (SVF) Recycling Material Grey water
1.4 planning policies The data from the Interim London Housing Design guide and Shaping Neighbourhoods have been applied as a basis for the design of the district. Using the minimum housing standards a spreadsheet was generated to inform the space requirements for accommodation and amenities within the district. Below are key polices from the Interim London Housing Design Guide and comments on how the district may go about implementing them.
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
2.1.1 Development proposals should demonstrate how the density of residential accommodation satisfies London Plan policy relating to public transport accessibility level (PTAL) and the accessibility of local amenities and services, and is appropriate to the location in London. PTAL is a system established by the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, now used across London to measure transport connectivity. The district will endeavour to make sure all building are close to transport stops and that transport routes connect to provide swift and useful interchanges between transport nodes to allow fast cross district and city travel. 3.1.1 All main entrances to houses, ground floor flats and communal entrance lobbies should be visible from the public realm and clearly identified. Active edges will be designed across the district. All building will have a legible entrance, this allows commercial areas to maximise their location and making the streets safer with less places to hide. 5.2.1 Developments should avoid single aspect dwellings that are north facing and exposed to noise categories C or D41, or contain three or more bedrooms. The district will try to provide dual aspect dwellings where possible; this enables light to penetrate both facades of the building and can help reduce energy consumption too. Public squares will also be designed to try face south/west to maximise use in sunlight hours. 5.4.1 A minimum standard floor to ceiling height of 2.5m in habitable rooms and taller ceiling heights are encouraged in ground floor dwellings. The development strives to achieve a minimum 2.7m floor to floor height. This will allow sunlight to penetrate further into rooms creating a healthier living environment.
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
1.2.2 For developments with a potential occupancy of ten children or more, development proposals should make appropriate play provision in accordance with the London Plan SPG, Providing for Children and Young People’s Play and Informal Recreation. Green space where possible will be provided as per the guidelines. Public parks will be scattered across the district and developments will have private gardens or communal gardens where space doesn’t allow for private gardens. Dwellings without gardens will have balconies to ensure every dwelling has access to private outdoor space. 6.6.1 The design and layout of new residential development should avoid areas of ecological value and seek to enhance the ecological capital of the area in accordance with GLA best practice guidance on biodiversity and nature conservation58. As the district tis being designed from conception there should not be any clashes of ecological value. The district will try to create green spaces of value and significance as they provide a great community focus variety in a city.
7
ENERGY
MOBILITY
3.3.4 Where car parking is within the dwelling plot, at least one car parking space should be capable of enlargement to a width of 3300mm. Where parking is provided in communal bays, at least one space with a width of 3300mm should be provided per block entrance or access core in addition to spaces designated for wheelchair user dwellings. Parking can be provided for communal living. To achieve the vision of ‘a city for the pedestrian’ parking will be limited where possible. An efficient and regular public transport system is envisaged to further encourage walkability and to ensure access to all parts of the district quickly. 3.4.2 Individual or communal cycle storage outside the home should be secure, sheltered and adequately lit, with convenient access to the street. Where cycle storage is provided within the home, it should be provided in addition to the minimum GIA and minimum storage and circulation space requirements. Cycle storage identified in habitable rooms or on balconies will not be considered acceptable. All buildings including commercial and communal will have secure bike storage. In higher densities where space becomes a premium, Japanese style underground bike parking could be provided. A bike hire scheme, much like the scheme in London, will also be implemented across the city so that people can always have access to a bike even if they do not have their own.
6.1.1 Designers should seek to achieve a minimum of Level 4 of the Code for Sustainable Homes in all new developments. All buildings will aim to achieve highest sustainable standard possible. Renewable energy generation should be a part of every building along with high insulation levels to keep out extremes in the weather. 6.3.1 Development proposals should demonstrate how the design of dwellings will avoid overheating during summer months without reliance on energy intensive mechanical cooling systems. If the district is to be placed in a hot climate buildings will need to use louvers / natural barriers to shade buildings during warm months. South facing decades should have solar panels to generate energy and also stop building from overheating. Solar panel walls such as those used by the Heron Tower in London provide shading and also generate power. 6.4.1 New dwellings should be designed to ensure that a maximum of 105 litres of water is consumed per person per day. Buildings will save as much rain water as possible for appropriate uses across the district. In the home details such as water effect taps will be a requirement to reduce water usage.
SPREADSHEETS
Using data from Shaping Neighbourhoods and Interim London Housing Design Guide data has been lifted and represented in speed sheets showing key minimum distances from dwellings to amenities and various transport nodes. The numbers of required stops per district have been specified for the relevant densities. The spreadsheets have then been used to generate specific data which relates to the number of stops required per district for each density. Blue represents 200pph, yellow 500pph and red 800pph and are consistent throughout the report. AMENITY DOOR TO DOOR DISTANCES
PARKS
PLAYING FIELDS
ADVENTURE PAYGROUND
BUS
Light Rail Transit
ideal distance (m)
600
1000
1000
400
600
maximum distance (m)
800
1200
1200
-
-
Fig. 09
TRANSPORT
MINIBUS
BUS
GUIDED BUS
METRO
RAIL
Stop interval (m)
200
200
300
600
1000
Corridor width / area served (m)
800
800
800
1000
2000
Catchment per Stop (min)
320
480
1680
4800
24000
Catchment per Stop (max)
640
1760
3120
9000
---
average catchment
480
1120
2400
13800
24000
no stops needed : 200
27
11
5
1
1
no stops needed : 500
67
29
13
2
1
no stops needed : 800
107
46
21
4
2
Fig. 10
8
1.5 environmental qualities matrix introduction This environmental qualities matrix assesses the selected case studies in terms of the four key themes chosen with sub-questions under each theme. Firstly, subjects relating to ‘built environment’ have been considered; including the diversity of building types and forms. Secondly, issues relating to ‘natural environment’ have been assessed; these include the percentage and the types of green spaces within the area. Thirdly, topics relating to ‘mobility and permeability’ have been studied; including how walkable the neighbourhood is and what types of transport system is available for the community. Fourthly, matters relating to ‘energy efficiency’ have been measured; this includes any factor relating to environmental sustainability such as availability of electric car charging points, building orientations and any other sustainable strategies used.
BUILT ENVIRONMENT Is it a mixed use neighbourhood? Does it Have Diversity of building form? Is it legible? Does it have landmarks? What is the average Storey Height?
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT What is the percentage of green space? What types of green spaces are available? Is there a blue network? Is there an open space within 400m of residents?
In creating an environmental qualities matrix the case studies are able to be categorised under one of the four environmental themes which they had the most predominant features. This enables specific aspects within a case study to be analysed in detail to strengthen the understanding of these key qualities.
MOBILITY AND PERMEABILITY Is the area walkable? What percentages of streets are pedestrian only? What transport systems exist / number of stops? (Regional train, commuter train, metro, tram, bus, bike hire scheme). Is the area disabled friendly? Is there a local car hire scheme?
ENERGY EFFIENCY Are there electric car charging points across the neighbourhood? Does the neighbourhood/development have any renewable energy sources? Are buildings orientated for maximum solar gain/reduction depending on location? Are there any other sustainable strategies in use?
9
CHAPTER 2 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITIES
2.1 environmental quality matrix BED-ZED
POUNDBURY
87
733
Population
240
2250
Hectares
0.64 0
GENERAL DATA Density
Health Centres Education
JURONG LAKE DISTRICT
SIENA (Centre)
BOSTON (Emerald Necklace)
BARCELONA (La Ramblas)
EVORA
COPENHAGEN
LIVERPOOL ONE
PUTRAJAYA
VENICE
674
160
565
126
1176
65
501
264000
56672
636479
1621000
12,634
559,440
20000
320000
270884
57.16
360
11800
23110
10190
1005
4309
17
4931
540
1
2(hospitals)
7
11
8
4
10
-
2
1
0
0
18
10
228
12
3
178
22
8
4
Employment
203
76(300 jobs)
150000
34004 (people employed)
182 (Businesses?)
6094
43000
(7.9% un-employed 2011)
54000
50000
377000
Total number of dwelings
82
1568 (34 swellings per hectare)
121000
?
272481
700000
4,000
280,000
206500
64000
193000
BED-ZED
POUNDBURY
JURONG LAKE DISTRICT
SIENA (Centre)
BOSTON (Emerald Necklace)
BARCELONA (La Ramblas)
Fig. 11:
BUILT ENVIRONMENT Is it a mixed use neighbourhood?
Does it Have Diversity of building form?
yes - residential & commercial
yes - residential, commercial and leisure
yes-residential, commercial, industries, education, tourism, business hub
no
yes - but building styles are predominantly classical
yes, mostly modern
yes yes
Is it legible? Does it have landmarks? What is the average Storey Height?
no 3 storeys
yes - residential, yes - residential, yes - residential, commercial, commercial, commercial, education education education
EVORA
COPENHAGEN
LIVERPOOL ONE
PUTRAJAYA
VENICE
yes residential, commercial, education located outside of city wall
yes - residential, commercial, education, industrial,
yesresidential,com mercial, education
yes -goverment, residential,com mercial, education, tourism
yes- residential, commercial, public attractions
no
yes
yes
yes - but buildings all have consistent vernacular
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
5-36 storeys and above
4-5 storeys
4-6 storeys
3-4
5 (city centre)
10-30 meters
20-80 meters
4-6 storeys
BOSTON (Emerald Necklace)
BARCELONA (La Ramblas)
EVORA
COPENHAGEN
LIVERPOOL ONE
PUTRAJAYA
VENICE
1%(2000meters square)
37%
-1%
Fig. 12:
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT What is the percentage of green space?
What types of green spaces are avaliable?
BED-ZED
POUNDBURY
JURONG LAKE SIENA (Centre) DISTRICT
45% (not including roof gardens)
30%
25%
445 Hectares (17.6% of Boston is Green Spaces)
4%
roof gardens, gardens, parks,
parks, lake side, country club, watefront
Wild parks,
9 parks
private open spaces, avenue
public parks by city walls, plazas towards the center,
public city parks, plazas, private gardens,
park
parks and recreation, agricultural crops park
garden
yes, man made lake
no
yes, rivers
yes, sea
no
yes - sea and sea canal
yes, sea
yes, 3 rivers,man made wetlands (lakes)
yes sea, river and canals
yes
yes
yes
no
yes (not always within city walls)
yes
yes
yes
yes
Is there a blue network?
no
Is there an open space within 400m of residents?
yes
Fig. 13:
12
no
A variety of case studies with varied climates, densities, street networks and walkability aspects were selected in order to gain a diverse range of information. Many of the selected case studies had been visited by group members who had a first-hand experience of the place and photographical information. General data was gathered to enable comparisons to be made against density in relation to environmental themes. A detailed set of environmental questions were created to assess the case studies under each environmental theme, this enabled case studies to be categorised and specific aspects to be analysed in further detail to inform the design development. In assessing the case studies we have selected an 800m x 800m area to analyse. To ensure the case studies can be accurately understood in relation to the project three have similar densities to the required masterplan. Jurong Lake District has a density closest to 800pph, Evora has a density closest to 500pph and Barcelona has a density closest to 200pph. GENERAL DATA Figure 11 is a simple spreadsheet of basic data, enabling a background understanding of the economic climate, scale and amount of amenities within each area. BUILT ENVIRONMENT It was interesting to see that every case study was a mixed use environment integrating commercial, residential and educational facilities as shown in figure 12 and for the majority of cases this resulted in a diverse built form. Consequently this enabled the places to be legible which supports Lynchs’ theory who states that in order to create a legible place the formation of landmarks are required and the sense of enclosure within streets (Lynch,1971) all which are achieved through a diversity in the built form. The importance of landmarks has been highlighted in this table which shows that all the legible places have landmarks and the illegible place does not (Fig. 16). Each case study had a very varied storey height which is interesting to note in the application of dierent densities. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT These were one of the most wide-ranging findings shown in the percentage of green space which varies dramatically ranging from 4% to 45% as shown in figure 13. This percentage is particularly low in areas with high density; however a key case study which manages to contradict the general findings is Boston who for its high density manages to incorporate 17.6% green open space. Boston uses its street network as a green open space, incorporating vegetation and street furniture along its movement framework. This is an interesting case study to research in more detail and can be applied to the masterplan
MOBILITY & PERMEABILITY Is the area walkable
What percentage of streets are pedestrian only What transport systems exist / number of stops? (regional train, commuter train, metro, tram, bus, bike hire scheme)
BED-ZED
POUNDBURY
yes
yes
-
JURONG LAKE SIENA (Centre) DISTRICT
BOSTON (Emerald Necklace)
BARCELONA (La Ramblas)
EVORA
COPENHAGEN
LIVERPOOL ONE
PUTRAJAYA
VENICE
yes
yes
yes across the development
walkable only in administrative center (goverment)
yes
11%
5%
70%
regional train, commuter train,bus, bike
regional train, commuter train, bus, bike
regional train,tram,bus boats,gondolaan d bike
yes
yes mostly buildings using universal design approach
no
yes
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
100%
20%
-
50%
regional train, buses, bikes, very few cars,
Electric Bus, bikes and cars
regional train, commuter train, bus, bike
regional train, bus, bike
-
regional train, bus, metro, bike
buses & taxi’s within the city wall, outside the wall regional trains & coaches
inter continental trains, coaches, buses, metro, bike, boat,
Is the area disabled friendly
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
Is there a local car hire scheme?
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
BED-ZED
POUNDBURY
JURONG LAKE DISTRICT
SIENA (Centre)
BOSTON (Emerald Necklace)
BARCELONA (La Ramblas)
EVORA
COPENHAGEN
LIVERPOOL ONE
PUTRAJAYA
VENICE
yes
no
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes, wind and water
yes -solar and biomass production and utilization
no
yes
Fig.14 :
ENERGY EFFIENCY Are there electric car charging points across the neighbourhood?
yes
Does the neighbourhood/ development have any renewable energy sources?
yes,
yes
yes
no
-
yes
Are buildings orientated for maximum solar gain/ reduction depending on location?
yes - good passive solar and daylight access
yes - good passive solar daylight
yes
no
-
yes
yes - buildings designed for minimum heat gain
yes - orientated for for solar gain
no
yes
no
Are there any other sustainable strategies in use?
yes - recycled construction materials, recycling water, Photovoltaics for powering buildings, renewable energy use
Yes - Wood
yes- passive strategies for urban planning, sustainable water solution, largest solar test bed,smarter power grids, intelligent transport system, climatic mapping
no
yes
yes
yes - all the buildings are painted white to
36% of citizens cycle to work
yes,sustainable transport, land use planning
yes, low carbon transportation, sustainable buildings, urban reforestation
no (looking towards it)
stoves
summer rays
strategy; it supports the vision for a walkable city by enhancing the kinetic experience within streets. The table also highlighted the importance of providing open space within 400 meters of residents which even the case studies with a low percentage of green space achieved. MOBILITY AND PERMEABILITY All of the case studies were selected because of their walkable aspects however as shown in figure 14 the percentage of pedestrian streets varies dramatically from 5% to 100%.It was interesting to see that all the case studies support an efficient and sustainable transport system, a topic which has an important emphasis in the design of a walkable city. ENERGY EFFICIENCY Figure 15 shows that approximately 60% of the case studies have adopted electric car charging points and the majority of places have adopted further environmental strategies to enhance their sustainability. It is evident in this table that the two case studies which do not comply with any energy efficient concepts are Siena and Venice who both have a medieval street pattern.
CONCLUSIONS Rows of data within the spread sheets have been highlighted to give a quick overview of the important issues, findings and topics to discuss further. Some of the questions, particularly under the environmental theme of mobility and permeability could have been rephrased to gain more accurate and beneficial findings. Although it states which case studies are walkable and the percentage of pedestrian streets, no information is gathered to see which case studies had a positive walkable experience and weather pedestrianized streets enhance the experience. This is a topic to research further in a detailed analysis of the case studies.
Fig. 15:
10%
10%
90%
Ledgible Places
90%
Non Ledgible Places
Places with Landmakarks
Places without Landmarks
Fig. 16: Percentage of legible places against the percentage of landmarks
13
2.2 BUILT ENVIRONMENT theories
Diversity of form and type (Barton et al 2010, Kasprisin 2011, Moughtin 1995, Coupland 1997)
Mixed-use developments have become increasingly important in recent years (Coupland 1997, P2); Barton states that every district should consist of a range of uses including “residential, educational, social, commercial, industrial and recreational activities” (Barton et al 2010, P238). Incorporating a variety of attractions within an area has a direct correlation with the number of pedestrians that will stay in a street and results in the success or fail of the street (Moughtin, 2003, P132). Consequently there is a reduction in crime as more street activity means a greater observation of the street and an increase in the sense of security (Coupland 1997). By combining different activities a variety of building forms and densities are created, resulting in a stimulating, enjoyable and convenient place (Davies, 2000, P14). Barton strengthens this argument in stating the viability of areas are increased in places with multiple and overlapping uses because there are reasons for people to go and stay in the centre (Barton et al, 2010, P238). It has been proven that compared to more car-orientated neighbourhoods “those living in mixed use; walkable neighbourhoods were found to have higher levels of social capital” (Leyden 2003).
the number of social activities usually increases substantially” (Gehl, 2011, P11). In addition, incorporating a necessary function transforms the street into a destination, enhancing the street as a place and further increasing the amount of activity, “…a greater number of social interactions occur at the destination…” (Moughtin, 2003, P131). Legibility (Lynch, 1971; Moughtin et al, 1999, Cullen, 1961; Moughtin, 1999; Collins, 1986; Bentley et al, 1985) Creating a legible place is essential as it provides one with a clear mental map of the urban environment. A legible mental map gives people an important sense of emotional security. It is the framework for communication and conceptual organization, and increases the depth and intensity of everyday human experience (Lynch, 1971, P 8-10). In order to create a legible place two of the key elements which are required are; the formation of landmarks, the sense of enclosure within streets.
Furthermore there are health benefits in establishing a mixed-use neighbourhood by providing local facilities within easy walking distances “They promote physical activity and social capital” (Leyden 2003; Frank et al, 2004; Blanco, 2009). This also encourages individuals to walk rather than being car dependent and provides individuals with a choice to live and work in the same area (Barton et al 2010, P238). A richness of variety and character is essential to create a diverse neighbourhood which can improve the sense of place, enhancing the community and encouraging the interaction of people; “Mixed use neighbourhoods have been found to encourage walking and promote social cohesion” (Barton et al 2010, P238). In order to achieve a mixed-use environment three types of activity should be explored; necessary, optional and social (Gehl, 2011, P11). The majority of streets endorse necessary activities because they act as movement networks, a route from one place to a destination; however when a street provides optional activities the pedestrian experience is enhanced. To attain optional activities the quality of the area must be high and subsequently the frequency of pedestrians will increase in that area (Gehl, 2011, P11); “Furthermore, as levels of optional activity rise,
14
Fig. 17: Gehl’s diagram representing the correlation between activities and qualities of environment.
According to Lynch landmarks are one of the components that contribute to the image of the city (Lynch, 1971, P78). Moughtin et al (1999) describes a landmark as an element or a group of coherent elements that can be singled out against a landscaped background (Moughtin et al, 1999, P45). The key physical characteristic a landmark is its singularity, which makes the landmark unique and memorable in the context. To ensure a landmark is memorable it is important for them to be visible from many locations and/or creating contrast with nearby elements (Lynch, 1971, P78-79). To distinguish certain streets of importance from for example a high street to a residential street which strengthens the sense of place, the ‘ideal’ street must create a sense of enclosure; this also strengthens the sense of security “One feels at ease in a space where the gaze cannot be lost in infinity” (Collins, 1986, P152). To accomplish this sense of enclosure three key elements must exist, an entrance, the place and an exit at both ends (Moughtin, 2003, P135). A distinctive continual built façade along the street creates a sense of place with a preferred ratio of street to building height of 1.5:1 (Bentley et al, 1985, P51). This also gives the street a strong character which is easily distinguished by pedestrians (Bentley et al, 1985, P52).
Visual Identity
(Cullen, 1961; Moughtin, 2003; Whyte, 1980; Wansboough, 2000; Wooley, 2003; Barnett, 1982; Carmona et al, 2003; Wheeler et al, 2009) SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITY Culture plays a vital role in place making by enhancing the identity of a place, increasing financial vitality and improving civic pride (Wansboough et al, 2000, P182). There is also a growing recognition of the arts in economic development (Wansboough et al, 2000, P183) which encourages visitors to explore and spend time in a place. GORDON CULLEN TOWNSCAPE The kinetic experience of place is enhanced through the application of Cullen’s ‘Townscape’ theories. The aim of a successful town design is to manipulate the elements of the town so that an impact on emotions is achieved. To create a long last visual identity, it is important to design in a way that the human mind automatically reacts to a contrast, to the differences between things. Serial vision is the movement through a sequence of spaces which create intimate views that enhance the kinetic experience of place. By emphasizing places with shade, shelter, amenity and convenience a sense of territory is caused and this creates an image of the various kinds of occupation a town. BUILDING TYPOLOGY, HEIGHT AND MATERIALS A rich pallet of materials is crucial to enhance the kinetic and sensory experience of place. Materials characterize the city and differentiate buildings from one another further enhancing legibility, diversity and identity of place.
Fig. 19: Oxford’s townacape
PUBLIC SQUARES Open spaces are one aspect of the urban environment that are of great importance in the daily life of people living in urban areas (Woolley, 2003, P2). One of the most important elements of city design is the square. Squares have introduced valuable open spaces into cities to make a pleasant addition to cityscape (Barnett, 1982, P72). Open spaces, such as plazas and squares can be designed to improve the quality of an area while exhibiting the surrounding buildings and being ‘people places’ (Carmona et al, 2003, P142). They help to encourage the preservation and even recreation of a sense of community within an area (Harvey 1990 P276). Squares are an escape for worker to relax and talk, endorsing a sense of community amongst residents and space for play and active reaction (Carmona et al 2012 P22). The design of the square is essential to become a welcoming space that invites individuals passing by to stay and to connect with one another therefore creating a busy area (Healthy Places 2009). Activity must be encouraged within the square (Fig. 20) to create a lively and attractive space as emphasized by Whyte; ‘what attracts people the most, it would appear, is other people’ (Whyte 1980 P19). This increases the amount of social interactions and daily activities within the area, improving the sense of security and creating an attractive opportunity for stimulation thus enhancing the sensory experience (Wheeler et al 2009 P100-101).
Fig. 18: Marker sequence and legibility
Fig. 20: How to create street enclosure
15
built environemnt case studies VENICE
barcelona
Fig. 21: Venice morphological layers
Fig. 22: St Mark’s Square
Built on an archipelago of islands Venice has a density of 501pph and population of 27,0884. Originating as a trading city Venice was the center of commerce until the mid-17th century because of the predominance of water transportation for delivering goods. Venice is a walkable city, built around the human scale and it is therefore impossible to retrofit the city for car use. There is no vehicular transportation across the city and the only method of transportation is railway which stops on the outskirts. The only way to transverse the city is via foot or boat. STRENGTH s Variety of building form s Public squares large and small are scattered throughout the city s Streets are attractive and serve as an active social area s Walkable environment s Absence of cars makes it safe for children to play anywhere. s Streets and squares arranged for the sole convenience of pedestrians WEAKNESS s Lack of parks and green spaces s Bus and train station are located at one end of the island s Public transport is expensive and weather dependent s Transporting goods is expensive and requires your own boat!
Fig. 24: La Rambla
Founded as a Roman city, Barcelona is a popular tourist destination due to its renowned architecture and location on the Mediterranean coast.
Barrier Squares / Plazas Nodes Landmarks
IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s The public squares which are scattered across the city s An awareness of the lack of green space s Streets which are too narrow to be legible and navigable
16
Green spaces Major movement routes Pedestrian areas
Fig. 23: Venice elements analysis
STRENGTHS: s Pedestrian priority streets s Pedestrian promenade and sitting area, generates a sense of community s Cars are restricted to narrow lanes on either side of the promenade s Good public transport provision s Avenue with trees all down it (tree lined boulevard) s Mixed use; shopping, commercial, residential s A mix of activities promotes diverse images and characters of the area s Buildings provide the street with clear edges – large number of buildings and windows and building entrances provide a sense of fluidity
putrajaya
Fig. 25: Barcelona morphological layers
WEAKNESSES: s The rigid grid means the city lacks the Cullens’ theme of serial vision. s The city is prone to flooding and has a poor infrastructure. IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s Rigid grid which forms uniformed blocks however landmark architecture counteracts this creating marker sequences across the grid s Parks throughout the city and areas of leisure
Fig. 27: morphological layers of district centre of Putrajaya
Fig. 26: Downtown Putrajaya
Known as the ‘world’s first intelligent garden city’ Putrajaya combines heritage, design and technology. It was conceptualised on three simple Islamic ideologies which consist of the spiritual, social and natural. STRENGTH s Extensive railway infrastructure s Good, low cost regional transit services s Good provision of local services and jobs s A thorough sustainability guidelines developed by local and regional authorities s A well planned mixed use development s Detailed planning of land use and neighbourhood areas s Diversity of built forms s Green city approach WEAKNESS s The city community does not walk or use bicycles even though good facilities have been provided. s Lack of commercial centre s The neighbourhood is far from city centre s The sale of small plots should be publicly-owned land to more different developers, architect s Poor regional connections, travelling must usually be via the city centre.
Fig. 28: Downtown Putrajaya
IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s How the built environment engages with nature s Diversity of forms with integrated green spaces within the street and block network s Every building achieves a high level of sustainability using active and passive green strategies
17
2.3 NATURAL ENVIRONMENT theories
theories
boston
(Barton et al 2010, Kasprisin 2011, Moughtin 1995, Coupland 1997) The creation and maintenance of a rich urban biodiversity is a strategic issue to be immersed within a city. The term ‘ecological intensification’ reflects natural environment as a bio diverse public realm that can play its part especially in socially focused outcomes such as health, wellbeing and quality of life even where space is at a premium (Rohde et al, 1994, P218). Natural environment is a matter of great concern in urban design field as it is essential to promote healthy life to enhance human well-being. As suggested by Rohde and Kendle, people live healthier lives when they have contact with the natural world and to have a connection with nature may be one of the conditions that protects individuals from a breakdown in health and supports resistance to disease (Rohde et al, 1994, p214). People prefer living in neighbourhoods where nature can thrive; places with a natural environment where people live and work provide opportunities for meaningful interactions with the natural world (DoE 1994). Moreover, supporting urban biodiversity makes social and economic sense that will give positive effects on health and well-being which have been demonstrated long before (Rohde et al, 1994, p213). How to achieve natural environment? The link between the natural environment and physical activity of human being has been focused on the idea that land use and design policies can be used to increase dependency on neighbourhood open spaces. Therefore it is important for these to be within a walking distance. The key to local provision of open spaces is not the scale of but the quality, access and safety (Whyte 1980). Baton argued that it is as well need to provide an essential element in a neighbourhood context to help create more liveable communities where facilities such as parks should be within 400-600 m walking distance. For example, Baton mentioned that playgrounds should be within 5 min walk (400 meters however 300 is recommended more) of every home (Baton et al 2010 P139).
18
Open spaces are another aspect of the urban environment that is of great importance in daily life for people who live in urban areas nonetheless their importance is often forgotten and needs to be reminded (Woolley 2003 P2). The open spaces can be enhanced with pocket parks where they are small greens spaces for sitting, talking, eating – enjoyable atmosphere that should be available within a 300m straight-line according to English nature (1995) (Baton et al 2010 P139) In a broader aspect, access to green space and allotments is a sustainability and health issue, local organic food production in mediumhigh density areas that can be implemented by providing allotments in large and poorly accessed. Allotments should be close enough to homes to permit easy access by foot, carrying tools and the guideline for allotments distance is 200m (Baton et al 2010 P138). In an area of growing intensity the provision of green space is often limited; therefore it is essential to acknowledge the importance of streets as green networks. This has the potential not only to engender support for protecting biodiversity, but also to enhance human well-being. Accomplishing these goals will necessitate urban designers forging an alternative way to create a framework of natural environment that will benefit to the future of cities.
Fig. 29: Boston’s Grid
Established by setters in Europe Boston was developed on very European principles before expanding as a modern American city. The integration of the car was seen as a revolutionary movement and a motorway was built through the city dominating the area. This has caused high pollution levels and a physical barrier through the city resulting in the Boston Big Dig Project, hiding the motorway and reconnecting the city. STRENGTHS s Communities connect with each other, increases the sense of community s Easy access to both sides of the city, since the ‘Big Dig’ s Visually interesting, strong diversity of building form. s Bike paths – encourage cycling - reduces health problems s Improved walkability – encouraging walking - reduces health problems. s Cleaner air for urban dwellers s An ‘emerald necklace’ surrounds the city providing a radial green network to the city WEAKNESS s Roads surround the city center park making it feel like an isolated island. s Lack of connection across the new city to North End, however this is only temporary whilst the ‘Big Dig’ project is ongoing. s The costal location adds to the natural environment but makes it difficult to access certain city districts due to a lack of bridges.
IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s Green spaces integrated within urban grid s variety of building form s Distinct Neighbourhood areas provide distinct place identity being visually interesting with an irregular grid
copenhagen
Fig. 31: Strøget, Copenhagen
Fig. 32: Bicycle carriages on Copenhagen’s metro
Believed to be first a town used by the Vikings Copenhagen is built around a natural harbor and is the gateway to Scandinavia. Copenhagen has become at the forefront of becoming a key sustainable a city. STRENGTH s Great network of cycle lanes connecting the suburbs to the Centre s Streets have specific furniture for the cyclist such as the traffic light waiting hand rail. s Buses have gps’ linked with the traffic lights so that they get priority, resulting in a fast reliable transport system. s The cities blocks are neither too big nor too small meaning they are provide good permeability for the pedestrian. s The city has the longest pedestrian street in europe, called Strøget its 3.2km long (Fig. 31). s City trains each have the capacity for 46 bicycles on board (Fig. 32).
Fig. 33: Copenhagen morphological layers
WEAKNESS s The waterways through the city act as barriers and create bottlenecks when traveling across the city. s Parts of the city have no access to rail services.
Fig. 30: Boston’s Emerald Necklace
IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s Longest pedestrian shopping area in the world s Great bike strategies which are able to be taken onto public transport s Street furniture developed for the bicycle s Great renewable energy strategies
Fig. 34: Copenhagen from the air
19
2.4 MOBILITY AND PERMIABILITY theories
Walkable neighborhood
(Ghel 2010, 2011; Barton et al, 2010, Wunderlich, 2008; Rendell, 2006; Wunderlich, 2008; Rendell, 2006; Untermann, 1984; Jacobs, 1961; Burney, 2013) Gehl states that walking promotes a sustainable and healthy city (Gehl, 2010, P7), this is strengthened by Barton who believes obesity can be tackled through the urban environment by providing a walkable neighbourhood by the reduction of air pollution, traffic congestion and crime rates (Barton et al, 2010, P18). For many people, walking is the best overall physical activity for maintaining and improving health and fitness (Barton et al, 2010, P143).
ACTIVE EDGES An environment with a lot of activity attracts pedestrians and subsequently this strengthens the sense of security. Safety on the street is enhanced when buildings are orientated towards the space creating an active edge because there are more eyes overlooking activities and a greater incentive to follow the events going on in the city from the surrounding housing and buildings (Gehl, 2010, P6). Jacobs (1961, P130) further argues the importance of an active edge by describing it as a voluntary police force. AMENITIES WITHIN WALKING DISTANCE When designing a ‘walkable city’ it is important to provide mixed-use developments in a street (Burney, 2013, P5). The availability of local services, including schools, health services, convenience stores etc. encourage the local community to walk and will therefore create a more positive walkable experience (Barton et al, 2010, P116). It is generally recognized that mixed use area allow people to make short walking trips between facilities rather than relying on longer car based journeys (Barton et al, 2010, P238). Local facilities especially retail are important providers for local jobs and help recycle money locally (Barton et al, 2010, P117).
Fig. 35: Walkable quality diagram
Walking is more than just a method of transportation, it is also a “mode of experiencing place and the city, and in this context is an aesthetic and insightful spatial practice” (Wunderlich, 2008). Pedestrian activity is the necessity of a neighbourhood as it enables free and easy pedestrian movement with direct access to all buildings and public spaces (Barton et al, 2010, P143). The movement of walking forms a relationship between a place and the pedestrian though the experience of different views, textures, sights and an interaction with others (Rendell, 2006). It is a method of understanding and discovering a place which can inspire and even transform the city through aesthetic practice as much as a critical and spatial one (Wunderlich, 2008). Furthermore it has a substantial effect on the community, providing opportunities for social interaction, “Travel on foot allows people to meet and greet one another, to look at and become part of their neighbourhood” (Untermann, 1984)
20
HOW? Many factors need to be taken in mind when designing any neighbourhood. One of many contributions to designing a ‘walkable city’ is the design of the pavement; this is very essential and often neglected in city design. This deserves much more attention when designing, as it is viewed as the stage on which pedestrian’s life is played out. They should be designed wide enough to allow easy passing and overtaking without being pushed out into traffic (Burney, 2013, P5; Barton et al, 2010, P144). It is important to design places where pedestrians feel safe therefore all routes should be connected sections and well lit and overlooked by nearby properties to give a sense of observation. Pedestrians need direct frontage access to all buildings and public spaces, as well as a dense, permeable network of safe and pleasant routes giving choice and opportunity (Barton et al, 2010, P143-145)
Fig. 36: Neighbourhood walking distances
Transport system PTAL PUBLIC TRANSPORT ACCESSIBILITY LEVELS The PTAL methodology was developed for London where a dense integrated public transport network allows all destinations to be reached within a reasonable amount of time. Research using the ATOS (Access to Opportunities and Services) methodology shows that there is a strong correlation between PTALs and the time taken to reach key services – i.e. high PTAL areas generally have good access to services and low PTAL areas have poor access to services. [Transport for London, 2010, P1] PROVISION FOR CYCLE PATHS AND PARKING Cycling provides excellent exercise and improves accessibility. In some situations it offers the fastest as well as the least polluting method of travel. All streets throughout neighbourhoods should be linking directly with surrounding areas and managed for bicycle use. It is important to have continuous cycle lanes or segregated routes (Fig. 37), where streets and junctions are heavily trafficked (Barton et al, 2010, P146). When designing a bicycle friendly city, it is important to take in mind secure ‘end of journey’ parking in convenient locations (Barton et al, 2010, P148). RANGE OF TRANSPORT ACCESSIBLE FOR ALL The key to a well-designed transport strategy is reducing reliance on private vehicular traffic. It is clear that when the car becomes less dominant in the design, streets become places this restores the meaning and use seen in traditional streets. The writings of Gehl contributes to this ideal of designing a street as a place for pedestrians to spend time in and not just for moving through. “It is important, naturally, to be able to stand in public spaces, but the key word is staying” (Gehl, 2011, P147). The evolution of the car resulted in the economic transformation of streets that were engineered for a high density of traffic, this had a detrimental effect on the experience within modern streets. Seen to have contributed to the neglect of the street, a vehicle focused street “deprives the street of its role, or meaning and such functional analyses leave the urban street without an existence or reason for being.” (Moughtin, 2003, P129). The challenge is to focus less on the role of the street as a movement channel built around the need of the car, but to address the street as an urban place (Marshall, 2005, P15). The importance of streets should be recognized as the framework of public open space (Barnett, 1982, P168) and as Alexander (1977) explains the street should be a space for staying in.
Fig. 37: Transport for London’s segregated cycle lane proposals for London
21
EVORA
poundbury
Fig. 39: Evora morphological layers
Fig. 38: Typical street in Evora
Dating back more than two millennia the city has a variety of landmarks including a Roman temple. Predominantly a medieval walled city Evora is a UNESCO world herniate site and is ranked number two as Portugal’s most livable city. STRENGTH s The city wall acts as a barrier to deter car use. s The city has great legibility. s Landmarks across the city create a marker sequence adding to the diverse built form. s No provision for parking within the city wall, further deterring car use, giving more space to s The city centre is very compact resulting in a totally walkable city. s Green space is located across the city in the form of pocked parks. WEAKNESS s The city has few facilities within the city walls, all the schools are located outside the city wall. s Public transport only reaches the city centre along one route. s Regional transport connections are outside the city wall. IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s The city walls deter car use within the city s Very walkable with integrated green and open space s Public transport is in efficient within the city walls due to the narrow street network s Variety of landmarks which act together to create a marker sequence across the city – Very legible
22
Fig. 41: A walkable street in Poundbury
Poundbury is a new housing development master planned by Leon Krierand built on Duchy of Cornwall Land. Poundbury was to follow new urban design principles and was intended to reduce car dependency.
Barrier Squares / Plazas Nodes Landmarks Green spaces Major movement routes Pedestrian areas
Fig. 40: Evora elements analysis
STRENGTHS s Good legibility across the development. s Buildings have been designed so that streets a good visual termination adding to legibility and diversity of the built form. s Pedestrian streets weave through the development connecting the areas together along traffic free routes. s Roads are all shared surfaces s Roads are wide enough for a variety of uses, markets, parking or for place spaces. s Green networks are integrated with green spaces. s Phase 1 has integrated into the existing town well, connecting to the existing road network well. s Work places are integrated to the housing development allowing people to live close to work and therefore lowers car use.
WEAKNESSES s ‘Chocolate box’ visual identity is pastiche. A variety of built form for built forms sake. s Private gardens often face onto back streets connecting to granges. Although the occasional building providing an active edge, these roads are not as easy to keep an eye on. s Location of development is prone to strong winds. s Lack of public transport across the development, and to the town centre. s Place identity is predominately stronger than the town is in.
SIENA
Fig. 43: Evora morphological layers
IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s Chocolate box visual pastiche identity s No road markings which reduces car dominance s Street network is an irregular grid s Green spaces are integrated into the street network s Good use of active edges to promote a sense of security Fig. 42: The Palio di Siena in the town Square
Siena is a UNESCO world heritage site and a prosperous as a trading post. Originally the city was ruled by an aristocratic family who developed the city. STRENGTHS s Iconic district identity s Historical landmarks s Pedestrian only areas s Green spaces coming into the city s Public squares large and small are scattered throughout the city s Walkable city Barrier
WEAKNESSES s Roads are too narrow for mixed uses (cars + people) s Lacks legibility due to regularity of building form s Green space breaks neighborhood connectivity
Fig. 44: Siena elements analysis
Squares / Plazas Nodes Landmarks
IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s Key landmarks and central Public Square, s Strong place identity but lack of legibility due to uniformed building form
Green spaces Major movement routes Pedestrian areas
23
2.5 ENERGY EFFICIENCY theories
Environmental strategies
bedzed
(Williams et al, 2001; Goldman, 2006; Melia et al, 2010; Engwicht, 1993; Crawford, 2009; Gehl, 2011; Mougtin, 2003) For an improved quality of life, it is important to provide land to meet housing needs in the most sustainable way (Williams et al, 2001, P38). Building more homes in urban areas is argued to contribute to social sustainability through regeneration and improves social equity by making services and facilities more accessible to all urban residents (Williams et al, 2001, P38). These concentrate on the accessibility of services and facilities, and aim to make essential amenities available to all urban residents, regardless of their income, age or gender. Therefore local services and facilities can be maintained within a short distance of residential areas. Theorists argue that to be a successful sustainable development an efficient transport policy must be implemented (Goldman et al, 2006, P261). Vehicle access is essential for some users and for certain local economic vitality for example the delivery of services. It is not necessary to exclude all traffic unless the pedestrian flow is high in relation to the street widths. Nevertheless, local communities and planning authorities might consider defining some communities by different target levels of car use. It has been defined that carfree developments either for residential areas or mixed use developments normally provide a traffic free immediate environment and offer limited parking which is separated from dwellings; therefore encouraging residents to live without owning a car (Melia et al, 2010). This definition has been distinguished from the more common “low car development” that is based mainly on experience in North-western Europe, where the movement for carfree development began. Within this definition, a carfree model city Vauban has been determined that is well known for as a limited access model and pedestrianized centre with certain residential population. A neighbourhood with pedestrian priority becomes more liveable, and it raises the possibility of creating eco-cities in which pedestrians and bicyclists move more freely, without breathing deadly toxins as it is vital to reclaim our cities and towns; cars literally choke off our streets and our lives that reshape land, social relations and economic patterns (Engwicht, 1993). Crawford (2009) believes that the city offers the best means to improve the quality of urban life while at the same time making it more sustainable. City streets will be the host for community, and community is central to the maintenance of a civilised society (Crawford, 2009).
24
In order to achieve the vision of a walkable city focused around the pedestrian local facilities and services must be supported and this is strengthened by the increasing population densities. The consequent increases in activity are also claimed to reinforce the attractiveness and safety of urban areas, especially town centres, night and day therefore foster civic pride, local identity, community spirit and safety.
Fig. 45: BedZed
Located in Hackbridge, two miles from Sutton, BedZed was designed on zero energy principles aiming to create a live work environment with easy access to amenities and reduced need for the car. The development was run in conjunction with a car hire scheme. STRENGTHS: s Reduced requirement for energy austerity s Reduced total cost of ownership due to improved energy efficiency s Reduced total net monthly cost of living s Fully integrated solar photovoltaic in the windows have dual purpose: to generate electricity and provide shading. s Improved reliability - photovoltaic systems have 25-year warrantees seldom fail during weather problems - the 1982 photovoltaic systems on the Walt Disney World EPCOT Energy Pavilion are still working fine today, after going through 3 recent hurricanes s Extra cost is minimised for new construction compared to an afterthought retrofit s Higher resale value as potential owners demand more ZEBs than available supply WEAKNESSES: s Initial costs can be higher - effort required to understand, apply, and qualify for subsidies s Glass-glass laminates not the most efficient type of solar PV technology.
jurong Lake District
Fig. 46: BedZed environmental strategies
s Electric car use at the site has not been significant enough to use all of the electricity generated by the PV cells. (Until last year the electricity sup- ply from the solar photovoltaics was not connected to the energy consumption for the buildings, so the energy was only being used for street lighting. This has now been remedied. ) s Costly to install the wiring for the photovoltaic cells in the window frames. s The passive solar design does lead to some overheating in the summer. However, this can be combated by correct use of blinds and curtains in the sun porches. This requires education of the residents s Solar energy capture using the house envelope only works in locations unobstructed from the South. The concept cannot be optimised in South facing shade or wooded surroundings. IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s Efficient transport links within close proximity s 777 meters of solar panels s High qualities low environmental impact materials were used for the development to last over a number of years s Some sustainable strategies failed, for example the biomass woodchip boiler which is no longer in operation and the water recycling facility which does not purify water to a high enough standard and is expensive to run. s Passive heating sun spaces are too cold in winter and too hot in summer
Fig. 47: Jurong Masterplan
Located in Singapore, Jurong is a major regional Centre which is an aesthetically pleasing development mainly for commercial with some residential. The aim is to provide a variety of employment to enhance the vitality of the area. STRENGTHS s Jurong uses ‘SSIM™’ a GIS based modeling tool to compare sustainability merits of (various) alternative urban form solutions s A good provision of locating mixed use development s Seamless connectivity for pedestrian to most developments through an extensive network of elevated covered walkways s Lush of greenery with open space and park connectors s Sky rise and rooftop greenery
WEAKNESS s The planning does not really focus on traffic circulation and mobility (will have further issue on traffic jammed) IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO NOTE s Efficient transport nodes s Integration of natural and built environment particularly along street network s Highly dense area s All development must meet sustainable criteria
25
2.6 VISUAL SUMMARY RELATING TO CASE STUDIES Built environment
Under each of the environmental themes diagrams have been sketched which summarise the key elements from the case studies which can be applied to the masterplan. Each diagram demonstrates a methodology to achieve the environmental qualities which enhances the vision for a walkable environment. These diagrams are generic and can be applied to each density.
ACTIVE EDGE Barcelona has outward facing blocks this promotes active edges which enhance to vitality, vibrancy and safety within the street. Activity is promoted in urban areas. Activity provides safety through natural surveillance, a greater sense of community where people know their neighbours and a more vibrant area (encouraging other people to use it).
In exploring dierent case studies an understanding of the reality of each of the densities has been gained. These case studies have informed the design strategy by highlighting key issues to be aware of and emphasising key qualities. Several environmental qualities have been explored within the case studies and strengthened through the literature review which will form a basis for the masterplan. The key qualities have been summarised under the relevant environmental theme listed below.
Integration of activities is promoted. Las Ramblas in Barcelona encourages activity because it is a key direct route linking the town square to the beach cutting through the old town. There is a need for close interaction between a variety of land uses to reduce the need to travel, a particular problem if there is a lack of use at certain times is the reduction in safety and economic instability.
Fig. 48
Fig. 49
26
LANDMARK There are several landmarks in Venice which are places of worship facing squares. These not only enhance legibility but become symbolic within the community. The spaces outside also strengthens the sense of community as they are regularly used as gathering points. Due to the tight grain of the street network these open spaces become extremely important. To enhance the likelihood of not getting lost and the ability to recognize an area by its character buildings should be distinctive with the introduction of landmarks; this creates a diverse place which provides element of ‘surprise’ and interaction with the environment.
Natural Environment Boston’s emerald necklace consists of a sequence of parks within the built environment; these add to the sensory richness and are visually pleasant to encourage walkability. Parks and green space improve the quality of life as it is an important resource both in terms of visual attractiveness and the eect that the ecosystem has on health and well-being that as well considering sensory experiences – primarily sight, also touch, smell, and hearing. The environment also has sense of attractiveness in term of ensuring a rich mixture of lines, textures, colours etc. within a single view.
Fig. 50
Fig. 51
27
Mobility and Permeability SHARED SPACE Evora has no defined roads, the streets are all cobbled for all users to share the space; this has proven to slow traffic speeds and enhances the walkability of the city. In order to develop a city for pedestrian shared surfaces should be implanted to enhance the walkable experience. This has the effect of reducing the speed of traffic and improves the quality of life by encouraging the interaction of neighbours. LEGIBILITY Evora has several squares/plazas scattered across the town which are generally on major access routes into the city, these form a sequence of open spaces which are easy to navigate between. Landmarks aid the marker sequence throughout the town. The implication of landmarks, diversity of building form, clear distinction and hierarchy between streets help create a navigable place.
Energy efficiency GREENERIES New planting should be considered as an intrinsic part of the design rather than as an afterthought. They can be implemented in residential areas or any other areas and are an effective way of encouraging local community involvement towards sustainable improvements
Fig. 52
Fig. 54
PASSIVE DESIGN AND PLANNING Jurong has passive environmental strategies that enhance the sustainability of the district. Public squares are vast to avoid over shadowing and to balance the ecosystem of the area. Buildings are designed with passive ventilation and cooling systems. A thorough planning and design strategy is formed to reduce the consumption and waste of energy through the construction and building orientation. It is important to highlight the use of sustainable building methods and energy saving methods in construction.
Fig. 53
Fig. 55
28
CHAPTER 3 WA L K A B I L I T Y C O N C E P T D E V E L O P M E N T
3.1 walkability concept development INTRODUCTION TO THE WALKABILITY CONCEPT This section of the report demonstrates the development of the district grid. To build on the theories of mobility and permeability and referring to the key theorists a basic grid was formed through the allocation of transport nodes. Using the spreadsheet (Fig. 56) created from Shaping neighbourhood the distances between these nodes were specified at 300meter intervals and positioned on a diagonal axis to allow for an accessible transport network. This use of perpendicular routes is seen predominantly in Roman settlements (Friedman 2012) and provides a basis for creating individual neighbourhoods. Initially the space allocation for different activities was investigated through an understanding of a key theory developed by Barton (2010). Figure 57 represents Bartons’ distribution of land hungry, small scale and people intensive activities. To build on the vision of a walkable city, a core of intensive pedestrian activity was allocated, surrounded by land hungry activities and then on the outskirts a ring of small scale uses. This formed our initial hierarchy of uses and was then developed into Grid I.
AMENITY DOOR TO DOOR DISTANCES
PARKS
PLAYING FIELDS
ADVENTURE PAYGROUND
BUS
Light Rail Transit
ideal distance (m)
600
1000
1000
400
600
maximum distance (m)
800
1200
1200
-
-
Fig. 56
32
Fig. 58
Fig. 57
GRID II The initial hierarchy of space which focused around a central core of pedestrian activities was seen as an opportunity to position a central transport hub. By maintaining the allocation of transport nodes across the district (Fig. 58) an efficient transport system was introduced to support the vision of a walkable city. In recognising the importance of green open space from detailed case study analysis and within our theories under natural environment, green public space was introduced to the grid. The green space has been divided equally within each district quarter (shown as green on the diagram). The blue lines represent major public transport routes which each reach the corners of the district to allow for maximum accessibility. Black lines represent other streets.
Fig. 59
GRID III To enhance the permeability of the grid a radial transportation route was added to connect the green spaces to the perpendicular transport routes. Cross district streets were also introduced to enhance the walkability between quarters.
Fig. 60
Fig. 61
Fig. 63
Fig. 64
GRID IV In reflecting back to the case studies the grid of Evora was selected because of its high level of walkability. The transportation nodes from Grid II were superimposed over this grid to analyse the eectiveness of applying a regulated transport system to a diverse and irregular grid.
GRID V In maintaining the methodology for a hierarchy of space, green areas were introduced to the grid on the outskirts of the district to maintain the core of intense pedestrian activity. Transport nodes were adjusted to suit the irregular network of streets.
GRID VII In referring to the case studies it is evident that the majority were legible and these had a nonrepetitive grid. Consequently the streets were designed to be unique. The circular route from Grid VI was morphed to form a point within each neighbourhood to become a focal space. Minor streets were added to the base grid to form a more permeable and therefore walkable district. A quarter of this new grid was selected and mirrored along the key axis to form a simplified grid of which only one neighbourhood would need to be designed.
GRID VIII The theories developed in chapter two emphasise the need for neighbourhoods to have distinctive identities and to be legible. The mirrored grid was then developed to remove regularities enhancing legibility. Key access routes from Grid VII were applied to a new organic framework
Fig. 62
GRID VI Developing Grid V is not feasible due to the complexity of retrofitting an existing network of streets into the established methodology. The core elements of Grid III were redrawn to establish a simple regular base for further development. These routes enable accessibility from every area within the district to the core encompassing the methodology of a walkable city and representing the theory established in Grid I for a hierarchy of activity. The circular route emphasises the hierarchy of a central zone and at the same time acts as a connecting route between the quarters.
33
Fig. 65
Fig. 68
GRID IX To apply the methodology from Mobility and Permeability the major bus and cross district cycle routes have been highlighted.
GRID XII The grid was then divided into five neighbourhoods (A to E) and the top hierarchy of facades have been highlighted in red to create a sense of enclosure and dominance in the major streets/square of activity. An initial spreadsheet was created to start to inform the building heights for each relevant density. The data for each building was submitted for one single height and was not accurate enough to work in accordance with the hierarchy desired.
Fig. 67
Fig. 66 Squares / Plazas Nodes Landmarks Green spaces Major movement routes Pedestrian areas
GRID X This diagram shows the application of the methodologies within this report to the grid. Landmarks have been positioned in predominant locations to enable tunnel vision, marker sequence and local focal points within each neighbourhood. Key pedestrian access routes have been plotted and the pedestrian streets have been highlighted in green. Public squares have been shown in pink and are provisionally placed within each neighbourhood.
34
GRID XI Grid X was then refined to enable the squares to be accessible o the main transport route, and for local amenities to be cluster around these squares. Landmarks were tested to see if they were visible along key vistas whilst also creating marker sequences in approaching the main square and along the main routes.
Fig. 69
GRID XIII This diagram shows a more detailed hierarchy. The buildings have been divided into segments, black represents the highest, red the second highest, blue lower and green the lowest. This is a generalised plan which can be adopted for each density.
35
CHAPTER 4 M A S T E R P L A N
4.1 final masterplan
This section of the report presents the generic masterplan which addresses the issues of maintaining a high level of environmental quality within the three densities. Under each of the environmental themes a methodology was applied and is diagrammatically shown. The final masterplan is of a district 800 x 800 meters equating to a ten minute walk from the furthest corner to the centre. This allowed the exploration of the walkable city concept.
Fig. 70: Street network diagram
39
4.2 BUILT ENVIRONMENT application to masterplan
OBJECTIVES s Create a hierarchy of centres s Achieve a mixed use development s Design a Legible environment s Encourage activities to promote safety within the site and promote social interaction ACTIONS s Achieve an outward facing development s Create a number of smaller ‘neighbourhood centres’ in secondary squares which will provide more local facilities s Create a single ‘district centre’ in the main square will provide facilities of a scale to meet the needs of the whole development s Provide a major landmark building in the main square s Create vistas to establish new landmarks s Develop smaller landmark buildings in appropriate locations s To be sensitive to surrounding development the edge area will have a lower intensity s The main square in the central district centre will have the highest scale and intensity of buildings s Create a sense of enclosure by using terraced buildings s Create positive street scenes by placing corner buildings on the back edge of the pavement s Position doors and windows to improve sense of safety and security s Create a mixed use development s Use high quality local materials s All development is flexible for future needs s Create opportunities for public art s Provide for residential amenity
4.2.1 DIVERSITY OF FORM AND TYPE This scheme strives to encourage walkability by providing local services, facilities and employment within close proximity of residential development reducing the need to travel and consequently reducing the need of vehicles. Infrastructure and community facilities will be integrated within residential areas to meet the needs of residents who can easily access amenities by foot. The use of diverse building forms and heights enables certain districts and streets to have a distinct sense of identity, thus enabling them to be distinguished and enhancing legibility.
EMPLOYMENT The majority of industrial units will be located along the two primary transport routes for easy access for workers and delivery of services. To separate this employment from residential areas, smaller industrial units and businesses will act as a buffer. AMENITIES Services and retail amenities to provide for the whole development are concentrated around the main square at the core district centre of the site. A few superstores have been integrated within buildings around the Main Square and along transport routes to encourage walkability and use of public transport. The scale of these superstores has been limited to ensure there is no harmful impact on smaller stores and family run businesses. To ensure all dwellings are within a five minute walk radius to local amenities, smaller squares within the neighbourhood districts have been identified to provide local corner shops and services. COMMUNITY FACILITIES A primary, secondary and nursery school are proposed within the site adjacent to a key transport node. This educational precinct focuses around a secondary square within a neighbourhood centre, creating a unique identity and community within this sector. A leisure centre, community centre, town hall, library, health centre and post office are situated within the main square to encourage use by all residents of the development which enhances the sense of community in the city as a whole contributing to the unique identity. The leisure centre is required to have a 25 meter six lane swimming pool plus a learner pool. Smaller local community centres are provided within secondary squares to enhance the sense of local community within the more residential areas of the site.
Fig. 71: Generic land use masterplan
40
MIXED USE DEVELOPMENT In encouraging walkability, a variety of uses are provided across the development. This enables the integration of varied dwellings, employment units, green space and services.
RESIDENTIAL DWELLINGS There will be a mixture of two and three storey terraced housing and flats. 35% of dwellings within the site will be affordable to encourage a diverse range of residents to live in the area. Affordable housing will be integrated within the development and will be aesthetically similar to other properties. The majority of terraced housing will be towards the outskirts of the site with a high intensity of flats and apartments on the upper floors around the main square and along the transport routes. FLEXIBLE HOUSING DESIGN The future of the development is adaptable to change. The designs of dwellings are flexible to adapt to the need of the user throughout their lifetime. There is also potential for extending the dwellings to adjust to users changing needs; for example workshops can be created in gardens, or rooms converted into offices. BUILDING HEIGHTS AND SCALE There will be a hierarchy of centres in the development, which will vary in importance and this will be reflected in the building scale. The scale and intensity of development will vary across the site, with greater scale and intensity focused in district centre around the main square and along the main transportation routes. There will be a lower building scale and less intensive development along the outskirts of the development in the neighbourhood centres in providing two or three storey dwellings. This intensification in certain areas strengthens the importance of certain areas and increases the sense of enclosure which reinforces the sense of place identity. The buildings are predominantly two storeys in height and range to three and four storey with landmark buildings exceeding this height. Fig. 72: Commercial activity on the street
COMMERCIAL AND RETAIL Local businesses, shops, cafes and restaurants are focused around the ground and lower floors of the Main Square in the central district and along the main pedestrian high street as they are the most feasible economically. All retail is within 400 meters of dwellings.
Fig. 73: Street hierarchy, highest to lowest: black, red, blue, green
Fig. 74: The four neighbourhoods and district centre, neighbourhood squares are highlights.
DISTRICT CENTRES In creating a central district centre in the Main Square there is a concentration of facilities which meet the needs of the population and attracts residents and visitors. The Main Square is located centrally in order to be accessible from all surrounding local districts and to promote walkability. It also acts as a central focal point within the community hosting monthly markets and enhances legibility as it creates a distinction between areas. NEIGHBOURHOOD CENTRES There are four neighbourhood centres within the scheme which are situated in highly residential areas. They consist of a small cluster of local shops and a few small businesses within a five minute catchment. These neighbourhoods have subtle distinct identities; one is unique in being an educational precinct, another is a predominantly green neighbourhood and the third neighbourhood focuses on integrating public art.
41
4.2 BUILT ENVIRONMENT application to masterplan
4.2.2 VISUAL IDENTITY The urban environment will have a distinctive identity with high quality design and materials enhancing the kinetic experience. Landmarks have been introduced to enhance the legibility of the city which enriches the walkable experience. MATERIALS High quality design and local materials will be used in order to retain the character, local distinctiveness and sustainability of the development. A diverse range of materials have been selected to enhance legibility and to distinguish certain buildings of importance. All materials are robust to endure weather conditions and last long durations of time.
PERIMETER BLOCK The arrangement of the perimeter block allows back gardens to run back to back to enable buildings frontages to address the street network on all sides thus enhancing surveillance. This also provides eective permeability with blocks typically achieving between 60-80 x 115-140 metres in size. Taller buildings are situated in the corners of blocks to add aesthetic diversity and to enhance the sense of security and enclosure of the street network.
4.2.4 LEGIBILITY To promote walkability it is essential the pedestrian is aware of where they are in relation to their surroundings therefore it is important to design a well legible city. To do so the city must be design in a way where there is continuity between striking elements of the city; between all main integrators and visible fields of the landmarks forming coherent structure. These elements should overlap to emphasise each other to make the city more legible. Landmarks and other visual clues have an important impact on the legibility of a city.
BUILDING STYLES Buildings will be a variety of styles reflecting the needed density of the development.
4.2.3 ACTIVE EDGES Development will take place in the form of perimeter blocks facing onto public streets; doors and windows will overlook the street and squares providing natural surveillance which contributes to a sense of safety. In providing a mixed use neighbourhood, activity will occur throughout the day and night in all areas of the site to ensure surveillance is consistent in the neighbourhood.
Fig. 76: Perimeter block diagram Fig. 77: Legibility diagram showing key nodes, landmarks and access routes.
Fig. 75: Active edge diagram
42
LANDMARKS Tall and distinctive buildings acting as landmarks have been positioned across the site in specific locations. These buildings add diversity to aesthetics of the streetscape and provide a focal point for pedestrians to navigate towards. The major landmark in the site is positioned in the Main Square to highlight the significance of the centre. This acts as a meeting point for residents and visitors and has been scaled eectively so it is visible from the surrounding neighbourhoods. To enhance the importance and visual impact of this key landmark, a vista has been created within the street network drawing the pedestrian towards the square. Two landmarks have been positions at the main entrances to the square and act as gateways into this district centre. There are also smaller scale landmarks within the neighbourhood districts where pedestrian and transport routes intersect. These landmarks reflect the identity of the specific neighbourhood district and can be depicted as sculptures which form navigational aids and meeting places.
BUILDINGS TERMINATING VIEWS Buildings of architectural distinction will be positioned as the main element used to terminate the view at the end of vistas. Providing points of focus is particularly important because the irregular grid pattern of the street network results in views frequently terminated by buildings.
MARKER SEQUENCE The main transport streets have been designed to enclose the central district. This street adds to the sensory richness of the city by providing a marker sequence which pedestrians can follow.
Fig. 80: Diagram representing marker sequence along the western transport avenue
Fig. 78: The landmark position in the district centre
Fig. 79: Sensory visualisation demonstrating distinctive buildings terminating views
43
4.3 NATURAL ENVIRONMENT application to masterplan
OBJECTIVES s Trees and greenery promote better public health s Promote the presence of green space to enhance biodiversity s Encourage outdoor activity s Enhance the kinetic experience s Soften the visual impact of the built environment s Streets to become green spaces ACTIONS s Provide a large area of publicly accessible green space adjacent to the educational precincts s Pocket parks 300 metres away from residential areas s Playgrounds 5 minute walk or 400 metres from residential areas s Integrate small green public spaces within the neighbourhood districts which provide recreational activities s Plant trees within the Main Square and smaller public squares s Deliver avenue planting along transport routes with ample furniture
4.3.1 GREEN SPACE
4.3.2 VEGETATION
Pocket parks exist throughout the site within neighbourhood districts of 300 metres apart which include recreational facilities such as equipped children’s play areas, basketball nets and football pitches. The main formal leisure space exists within the educational precincts to provide for the schools and to become a focus for the local community. There are also more informal green spaces within neighbourhood centres which encourage biodiversity and provide attractive rural settings for walking, running and picnics. These green spaces provide an opportunity for the creation of wildlife habitats and can increase the number of plant and animal species.
To further enhance the kinetic experience avenues of trees along the main transport routes will be implemented. In combining different species of tree biodiversity is enhanced in providing habitats for birds to nest. Trees have a positive effect on the environment by absorbing carbon dioxide which is why avenues of trees are specified along the transport route. They also provide shade and shelter and create a cooling effect on the micro climate. Aesthetically they soften the impact of the built environment. The planting of trees along the transport route acts as a buffer between the pedestrian cyclist and vehicle. This encourages walkability and enhances the safety of the pedestrian. Furthermore the tree avenue reinforces the importance of the transportation route as a movement network
4.3.3 GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE To maximise biodiversity; streets, public spaces, courtyards, facades and roofs should incorporate green spaces. 30% of the site area is allocated to green spaces. As recognised by Growth Point sub regional ‘green infrastructure’ strategy vegetation and green space improves the quality of the urban environment; green space can moderate extremes of temperature and microclimate and meet people’s intrinsic needs for a natural environment.
Fig. 81: Green spaces enclosed by buildings
Fig. 82: Rooftop garden spaces for high density developments
44
4.4 MOBILITY AND PERMIABILITY application to masterplan
4.4.1 ACCESS
4.4.2 CYCLE PRIORITY
Access into the neighbourhood is enhanced with dedicated pedestrian streets which link into the residential areas. There are two other transportation types with dedicated routes, one for cyclists and another public transport, these have frequent stops to access all areas of the site. Walkability within these areas and in crossing these main routes is safe and encouraged by the irregular grid which limits the speed of vehicular traffic.
All streets throughout the neighbourhoods are managed for bicycle use, linking directly with surrounding areas. The main cycle pathways run separate from the public transportation routes (Fig. 84) and are easily accessible from within the developments. All main bicycle routes are designed as continuous as possible, with a few unavoidable stops. For cyclists comfort, we have provided secure bicycle parking in convenient locations across the city and ‘bike waiting rails’, such as those used in Copenhagen so cyclists don’t have to put their feet down when waiting for traffic lights.
Fig. 83
OBJECTIVES s Ensure good access to efficient public transport s Form a harmonious and dedicated pedestrian network s Minimise the impact of vehicles on the streetscape s Safe neighbourhoods s Safe routes to schools s Promote a hierarchy of routes and streets with variable street widths related to the function of routes which restrict vehicular use ACTIONS s Provide a perimeter walkway and cycleway s Create transport nodes which are accessible from each neighbourhood district s Develop pedestrian and cycle links to central district and surrounding areas s Ensure the widths of the main transport routes are 20meteres, major pedestrianized streets are s 15meters, minor streets are 8meters and quiet residential streets are 6meters wide. s Provide a permeable street network s Create fully pedestrian streets which connect to the main square s Use materials subtly to dictate public transport and cycle routes s Provide a well-lit area
Fig 84: Walkability distance diagram
Fig. 85: Main cross district cycle paths
45
4.4.3 TRANSPORT
4.4.4 PERMEABLE STREET NETWORK
4.4.5 PARKING PROVISION AND SERVICE VEHICLES
Easy and direct access to public transport facilities has been ensured. An eďŹƒcient transport system with frequent stops ensures that no residential area is far from the main routes (Fig. 86). Minibuses would not carry enough people so the district will not have any, neither will it have any guided buses as the infrastructure needed would be too cumbersome for the street network. Therefore the district will have buses, trams and an underground railway for its transport network. Spreadsheets will be used to make calculations to see how many stops will be needed across the district for the relevant densities.
There will be a hierarchy of streets to restrict the impact of vehicles in the development which will be dictated by the width of the street and will represent the streets function. The primary network is the transportation route designed for public transport and cyclists. This is the widest street surrounded by tall buildings to reflect its importance. The secondary network is the pedestrian streets which are narrow with lower surrounding buildings to reflect the human scale. The street network is permeable with joined-up streets promoting walkability by providing direct routes and enabling easy access by bicycle.
The district is designed to limit car use. In an ideal scenario no cars would be used across the district, but the street network has been designed to accommodate car use if it is required. There are four road widths across the district, 6, 8, 15 and 20m. 6m roads are mainly found in the residential areas and are primarily designed for the pedestrian and cyclist. 8m roads are also mainly for the pedestrian and cyclist. 15m roads are the major pedestrian and cyclist routes into and across the district. 20m roads are the primarily routes into the city for public transport. Buses and trams will travel along these routes, the streets are wide enough to give them room and allowing space for trees and generous pavements.
Fig. 86: Proposed public transport routes
Fig. 87: Gird access and permeability
46
4.4.6 SHARED SURFACES
4.4.7 SPACE SYNTAX
The streets will be designed for the pedestrian. All streets will be shared surface streets, this means the whole district is disable and cycle friendly with no curbs across the city. It will also encourage any vehicles that pass through the district to drive slowly (Fig. 88). On the public transport roads a strong material contrast will make the ‘road’ area more obvious so pedestrians are aware of the traditional road area. Quality materials have been chosen for the streets to enhance the kinetic experience of the area.
Careful consideration of the use of the street has to be decided through an understanding of the economic vitality to ensure the chosen function is suitable. One method of research used to understand the social and economic processes of a city and how it will develop over time have been developed by Bill Hillier, using Space Syntax (Penn, et al, 2005). A grid was created to be imported into the software shown in figure 89. We then created a predicted analysis that incorporated our methodology of providing a hierarchy of streets along the main transport nodes and the central district square where the most retail and activity was predicted to occur (Fig. 90). The streets were then analysed using the software and indicated in colours according to the number of times they were traversed; red represents a frequently used street, and blue the least. This resulted in an inaccurate outcome and the street network was redrawn to help the software become more accurate (Fig. 91). This final iteration proved the two north to south major transport routes will have a high percentage of activity as predicted. However the east to west routes is shown as less busy than expected; it is possible this may be due to the software being unable to understand the main square. It has a much lower connectivity than predicted; the grid however Bus Stops has large plazas which the software did not seem to understand. This has probably lowered the connectivity for some of the streets which Tram Link connect to the plazas.
Fig. 88: Exhibition Road, London. Before and after being rebuilt to a shared surface.
Train Station
Fig. 89: District grid for Space Syntax modeling
Bus Stops Tram Link Train Station
Bus Routes
Bus Routes
Tram routes
Tram routes Fig. 90 Predicted Space Syntax model
Fig. 91: Space Syntax model
47
4.5 ENERGY EFFICIENCY
application to masterplan
OBJECTIVES s Improve comfort and living conditions s Reducing overall energy consumption and bills s Saving energy and reducing co2 emissions s Creating a more sustainable and secure energy system ACTIONS s Excellent environmental standards in all development s Reducing energy use through passive solar gain and high insulation s 20% + of energy use in new development to come from on-site renewable sources s Water conservation and recycling s Sustainable drainage
4.5.1 ORIENTATION
4.5.2 SKY VIEW FACTOR (SVF)
Blocks are shaped and orientated to allow maximum penetration of sunlight and maximum number of southern elevations to optimise the sun’s capacity for daylight and heat gain in winter. Block masses have been designed to avoid overshadowing – larger blocks are placed towards the northern side of streets and squares to allow maximum solar gain from the south. Changes in level of buildings/ blocks have been used to improve solar penetration to streets and south facing facades. All squares are orientated for maximum solar gain from the west and the south.
Block heights have been designed to have the maximum possible sky factor view. A low SVF creates a feeling of density and enclosure as well as a sheltered microclimate however it reduces natural day lighting and solar gain therefore this will increase energy usage. Blocks are designed to avoid excessive overshadowing and to allow natural lighting and passive solar heating, particularly in the residential areas.
Fig. 92: Landmark and public square orientation
Fig. 93: A diagrammatic example of Sky View Factor
Fig. 94: Section showing passive solar and ventilation strategies
48
4.5.3 RECYCLING GREY WATER RECYCLING/HARVESTING Grey water recycling is an eective solution for the collection of waste water and grey water fromgray baths,water showers and hand basins to re-use system for toilet flushing, irrigation and washing machine supply. This can be applied for Sustainable developments in residential areas and will remove the need for complex water treatment systems; thus reducing the amount of potable water supplied to a household, making it easier to comply with the Code for Sustainable Homes.
filter
WC
water tank
Fig. 96: Visual representation of skyline
Fig. 95: Grey water recycling diagram
49
CHAPTER 5 DENSITY APPLIED T O M A S T E R P L A N
5.1 generic space data
Fig. 97: Population and green space per density
Fig. 98: Initial schedule of accommodation
Figure 97 uses the district density to calculate the population of each district. This was then used to calculate the optional green space and playground requirement in relation to the district density. For each density a schedule of accommodation was created which derived from the Interim London Housing Design Guide and Shaping Neighbourhoods (Barton, 2010) (Fig. 98). This data was then transferred into block areas for each amenity required by each density. (Fig. 99)
52
5.1 generic space data visualised
200 pph
500 pph
Fig. 99: Block representation of accommodation of schedule
800 pph
53
2 0 0 pph
5.2 200 people per hectare
Fig. 100: 200pph Accommodation Spreadsheet
Fig. 103: District section of 200pph
56
Fig. 101: 200pph summary of figure 96
Fig. 102: Final 200pph neighbourhood floor area totals
Within each district a variety of housing types were proposed to achieve a diverse aesthetic environment. Having used the spreadsheets to calculate the population for this density the required number of homes was adjusted until the population reached the necessary level. The spreadsheet then generated the total floor area required for each housing type (Fig. 100). Figure 101 is a summary of figure 96 for 200pph which calculated the required total floor area of the amenities. Appendix 9.1 calculated the space required for the working population. These floor area totals were combined to create the total floor area of all required for all district needs. The total area required for the whole district was then divided into each neighbourhood in accordance with the building hierarchy. Figure 102 is a summary of the final iteration.
57
200 3
200 1 CENTRAL
STOREYS
CENTRAL
STOREYS
A
6
A
4
B
5
B
3
C
4
C
2
D
3
D
2
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD A
5
A
3
B
4
B
2
C
3
C
2
D
2
D
2
200 3
SPACE +349
SPACE +381342
BLOCKS AS PARKS
Fig. 104: Iteration 1
A
2
5
11
B
6
11
13
18
C
3
4
9
19
D
3
7
12
13
Fig. 105: Iteration 2
CENTRAL
STOREYS
A
4
B
3
C
2
D
2
19 NEIGHBOURHOOD 22
A
3
B
2
C
2
D
2
SPACE +349
BLOCKS AS PARKS
These spreadsheets shown in figures 104-105 are the summary iterations from the investigations into meeting the required space for amenities and dwellings within each district. Figure 106 is the final iteration which is the closest to achieving the required total floor area for each district. The detailed spreadsheet can be found in appendix 9.2.2
58
A
2
5
11
B
6
11
13
18
C
3
4
9
19
D
3
7
12
13
Fig. 106: Final 200pph iteration
19
22
5 0 0 pph
5.3 500 people per hectare
Fig. 107: 500pph Accommodation Spreadsheet Fig. 110: District section of 500pph
60
Fig. 108: 500pph summary of figure 96
Fig. 109: Final 500pph neighbourhood floor area totals
Within each district a variety of housing types were proposed to achieve a diverse aesthetic environment. Having used the spreadsheets to calculate the population for this density the required number of homes was adjusted until the population reached the necessary level. The spreadsheet then generated the total floor area required for each housing type (Fig. 107). Figure 108 is a summary of figure 96 for 200pph which calculated the required total floor area of the amenities. Appendix 9.1 calculated the space required for the working population. These floor area totals were combined to create the total floor area of all required for all district needs. The total area required for the whole district was then divided into each neighbourhood in accordance with the building hierarchy. Figure 109 is a summary of the final iteration.
61
500 3
500 2
500 1
500 4
CENTRAL
STOREYS
CENTRAL
STOREYS
CENTRAL
STOREYS
CENTRAL
STOREYS
A
12
A
12
A
15
A
13
B
9
B
9
B
12
B
10
C
7
C
7
C
10
C
7
D
5
D
5
D
6
D
5
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
5
A
7
A
11
A
8
B
4
B
5
B
9
B
5
C
3
C
3
C
7
C
3
D
2
D
2
D
4
D
2
A
SPACE -89798
SPACE -200691
SPACE -43922
SPACE +15124
EXCEPTIONS
Fig. 111: Iteration 1
Fig. 112: Iteration 2
9
A6A
9
B6A
10
B6A
10
C11A
11
C11A
11
D16A
12
D16A
12
E1A
20
E1A
20
E4A
16
E4A
16
Fig. 113: Iteration 3
These spreadsheets shown in figures 111-114 are the summary iterations from the investigations into meeting the required space for amenities and dwellings within each district. Figure 115 is the final iteration which is the closest to achieving the required total floor area for each district. The detailed spreadsheet can be found in appendix 9.3.2
62
EXCEPTIONS
A6A
Fig. 114: Iteration 4
500 5 CENTRAL
STOREYS
A
12
B
10
C
7
D
5
NEIGHBOURHOOD A
8
B
5
C
3
D
2
SPACE +2
EXCEPTIONS A6A
9
B2A
10
B20C
4
C11A
9
D16A
10
E1A
18
E3A
13
E4A
16
Fig. 115: Final 500pph iteration
63
8 0 0 pph
5.4 800 people per hectare
Fig. 116: 800pph Accommodation Spreadsheet
Fig. 119: District section of 200pph
66
Fig. 117: 800pph summary of figure 96
Fig. 118: Final 800pph neighbourhood floor area totals
Within each district a variety of housing types were proposed to achieve a diverse aesthetic environment. Having used the spreadsheets to calculate the population for this density the required number of homes was adjusted until the population reached the necessary level. The spreadsheet then generated the total floor area required for each housing type (Fig. 116). Figure 117 is a summary of figure 96 for 200pph which calculated the required total floor area of the amenities. Appendix 9.1 calculated the space required for the working population. These floor area totals were combined to create the total floor area of all required for all district needs. The total area required for the whole district was then divided into each neighbourhood in accordance with the building hierarchy. Figure 118 is a summary of the final iteration.
67
800 1
800 2
800 4
800 3
CENTRAL
STOREYS
CENTRAL
STOREYS
CENTRAL
STOREYS
CENTRAL
STOREYS
A
12
A
15
A
15
A
16
B
9
B
12
B
12
B
13
C
7
C
10
C
10
C
10
D
5
D
6
D
6
D
6
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD 10
A
11
B
8
B
9
B
C
6
C
7
D
4
D
4
SPACE -331186
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
A
SPACE -89798
11
A
15
9
B
9
C
7
C
7
D
4
D
4
A
SPACE +36
SPACE -16151
EXCEPTIONS
Fig. 120: Iteration 1
Fig. 121: Iteration 2
A6A
17
B2A
20
C11A
18
D16A
15
E1A
35
E4A
25
Fig. 122: Iteration 3
These spreadsheets shown in figures 120-124 are the summary iterations from the investigations into meeting the required space for amenities and dwellings within each district. Figure 122 is the final iteration which is the closest to achieving the required total floor area for each district. The detailed spreadsheet can be found in appendix 9.4.2
68
Fig. 123: Iteration 4
800 5 CENTRAL
STOREYS
A
15
B
13
C
10
D
6
NEIGHBOURHOOD A
16
B
9
C
7
D
4
SPACE -17
EXCEPTIONS A6A
17
B2A
20
C11A
18
D16A
15
E1A
30
E4A
23
Fig. 124: Final 800pph iteration
69
CHAPTER 6 D E N S I T Y C O M PA R I S I O N
6.1 block comparision
Fig. 125: Block development models
Using the data gathered from the spreadsheets general blocks were modelled for each density resulting in the first iteration with one continuous building height. The blocks were then divided into sections and the hierarchy of streets was applied. This resulted in dierent height sections with the overall floor area maintained. The final iteration refined the previous model to create a realist representation of the building façade.
73
6.2 Street comparision Three sketch visualisations have been produced to show the street environment from the application of the blocks onto the site for each street width.
Fig. 126: A typical 6m wide street
Fig. 127: A typical 15m wide street
Fig. 128: A typical 20m wide street
The first sketch shows the six meter wide pedestrian street within the residential area. It is evident that the hierarchy of streets is much lower in this area to incorporate the human scale.
The second sketch shows a fifteen meter wide pedestrian and cycle street with a mixture of residential, retail and commercial uses. This enhances the vitality, vibrancy and activity within the street. The building heights have increased proportionally to the width of the street to maintain a sense of enclosure.
The final sketch represents the major transport routes which have the second highest building facades and incorporate a range of transportation methods. Trams travel along the north south and east west axis for the 800pph alongside busses and bicycles.
74
6.3.1 3d visualisation of 200pph
Fig. 129: 200pph District (Appendix 9.2.2)
75
6.3.2 3d visualisation of 500pph
Fig. 130: 500pph District (Appendix 9.5.1)
76
6.3.3 3d visualisation of 800pph
Fig. 131: 800pph District (Appendix 9.5.2)
77
6.4 section comparision
Fig. 132: 200pph section
Fig. 133: 500pph section
Fig. 134: 800pph section
78
6.5 public transport
Bus Stops Train Station Bus Routes
Bus Stops
Bus Stops
Tram Link
Tram Link Train Station
Train Station
Fig. 135: Transport diagram for 200pph
Bus Routes
Bus Routes
Tram routes
Tram routes
Fig. 136: Transport diagram for 500pph
Fig. 137: Transport diagram for 800pph
200PPH
500PPH
800PPH
The district has nine bus stops, one of which is has a connection between the buses and the underground railway service. Although two less than the recommended number for bus stops the district is very walkable and any extra stops would make the distance between stops too short for an eďŹƒcient transport network.
A tram traverses east west across the district. The tram carries a larger volume of people negating the larger number numb rod bus stops required for the density. All modes of transport connect in the centre of the district, a small transport hub.
This density should have 46 bus stops across the district. This is un-feasible with the street network so instead the tram network is significantly larger than at 500pph, now with five stops across the district. Two underground railway stops service the district, the central stop is now a full size transport hub focusing on serving the district centre with the larger number of oďŹƒces and retail units
79
6.6.1 land use 200pph
Fig. 138
80
6.6.2 land use 500pph
Fig. 139
81
6.6.1 land use 800pph
Fig. 140
82
6.8 NEIGHBOURHOOD LAND USE 0m
25m
50m
75m 100m
0m
25m
50m
75m 100m
0m
25m
50m
75m 100m
Fig. 141: 200pph
Fig. 142: 500pph
Fig. 143: 800pph
Fig. 144: 200pph
Fig. 145: 500pph
Fig. 146: 800pph
Health centre Community center Restaurant Shops Post Office
Health centre Community center
Health centre
Restaurant
Community center
Shops Post Office
Restaurant
Residential
School
Shops Post Office
Leisure Center
Residential
School
School
83
6.9.1 Shadow analysis 200pph
Figure 147 demonstrates the level of over shadowing for 200, 500 and 800 pph. It is clear in analysing the dierent densities that the 200pph model has no overshadowing issues, whereas the 800 pph model has around 95% over shadowing in December at 1pm.
500pph
800pph
: 200pph
JUNE 1pm
JUNE 1pm
JUNE 1pm
DECEMBER 1pm
DECEMBER 1pm
DECEMBER 1pm
84
Fig. 147
6.9.2 800pph PHYSICAL MODEL SHADOW analysis
December
march
june
september
9am
12pm
3pm
Fig. 148
85
CHAPTER 7 R E F L E C T I O N
7.1.1 200PPH masterplan swot analysis
88
7.1.2 500PPH masterplan swot analysis
89
7.1.3 800PPH masterplan swot analysis
90
7.2 REFLECTION
OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT The aim of the project was to form a methodology for the design of a pedestrian focused city which could adapt to fit three densities and was to be achieved in creating one masterplan. To achieve the vision of a walkable city it is vital for the development to be a place that is enjoyable and enables easy access to amenities. Four main key walkable aims were chosen to work from, these are: convenient, green, connected and sustainable. An understanding of the terms ‘high environmental quality’ and ‘intensity of land use’ alongside the four walkable aims lead to the four key environmental themes; Built environment, natural environment, mobility and permeability and energy efficiency. These themes have been consistent throughout the report and form a basis for the theories, in analysing case studies and developing the overall masterplan strategy. To achieve the vision of creating a walkable city, the streets have been designed to prioritise the pedestrian. All neighbourhoods are accessed with dedicated pedestrian streets which link directly into all residential areas. There are two dedicated routes available for cyclists and buses. The district for all three types of densities includes nine bus stops; one of which has a connection between the buses and the underground railway service. As the density increases, the number of bus stops do not increase however for 500 and 800pph model a tram service is introduced which crosses east west across the district. Due to the street network it is impractical to increase the number of bus stops around the district therefore for 800pph model a larger tram network is introduced with five stops across the district, as well as two underground railway stops. The central underground station is changed
to a full size transport hub focusing on serving the district centre with a larger number of offices and retail units. The masterplan for all densities include four different road widths across the district, 6, 8, 15, and 20 metre wide roads. 6 metre roads are mainly located in the residential areas and are primarily designed for the pedestrian and cyclists. 8 metre roads are designed for pedestrians and cyclists and all 15 metre roads are the major pedestrian and cycle routes into and across the district. 20 metre roads are primarily routes in the city for buses – and trams in 500 and 800pph models. All streets are wide enough for pedestrians and cyclists to travel easily and safely, there is also enough space to allow landscaping across all streets. As all streets are shared surface streets, the whole district is disable and cycle friendly - to encourage vehicles passing through the district to drive slowly there is no curbs on any of the streets. Quality materials have been chosen to create a contrast on the main bus routes. As the scheme strives to encourage walking it is important to provide a variety mixed uses across the development. By doing so this reduces the need to travel and consequently reduces the need of vehicles. All facilities have been integrated within residential areas to meet the needs of the residents who can easily access amenities by foot. As the density increases the number of neighbourhoods does not change but the amount of facilities within each neighbourhood increases proportionately with population. The neighbourhoods have been divided to ensure walkable distances are achieved, therefore when the density increase the neighbourhood size does not need to change.
91
FUTURE INVESTIGATION In investigating the intensification of cities several key parameters were established for future investigation. GENERIC MASTERPLAN In the application of densities to the masterplan alterations had to be made to the building heights and depths in order to accommodate all necessary facilities and dwellings within the grid; enabling the underlying block structure and street network to remain. In adopting this methodology a realistic analysis could be made to see how a city can adapt to an increase in intensification of land use. This methodology could be used to underpin a new built development and would enable the concept to work for future generations. GREEN SPACE In the adaptation from a 200pph to a 500pph a significant amount of green space has been built on to achieve the required amenities and to reduce the overall building heights. However in a real situation developing existing green space which is within residential areas can be extremely difficult because the residents can become attached to this space. To avoid this issue it would be advisable to build at a higher density so that the green space is permanent and not needed to be built on in order to meet the accommodation criteria. OVERSHADOWING In maintaining a generic masterplan and developing the site from a low to high density overshadowing is a key issue. One method of avoiding this issue would be to adapt the methodology of a hierarchy of streets; this would mean that the buildings to the South East would need to be lower in height. The buildings to the South East of the square could also be reduced in height to reduce amount of shade that infringes on this key space. However depending on the climate overshadowing can be a positive aspect to a city in reducing the solar gain on buildings.
92
INFRASTRUCTURE This conceptual project has not taken into account the underground services required by buildings such as gas, electricity and sewage. In reviewing the irregular grid it is evident that implementing an efficient system would be considerably more expensive. Since the grid has been designed to cope with 800pph, the infrastructure would need to be built for this high density even when the density of the district is lower, for example at 200pph. This would mean that developers would not see this as fanatically viable even though this will save retrofitting the district later on. CAR ADAPTION The streets have been designed to accommodate car use if it is required. Residential streets of six meters and eight meters in width would not be suitable for a district with a large percentage of car ownership. This is compounded by the fact that all the streets have shared surfaces blurring the division between pedestrian and vehicle which would at low densities provide a safe environment. Even the wider streets in have not been designed to cope with high car ownership of the district. If cars were to be adopted in the 800pph the street network must be redesigned as it has been designed for the pedestrian. In conclusion this investigation into the application of high densities to this generic masterplan did not result in a completely resolved scheme. The 200pph and 500pph studies show a level of high environmental qualities which strengthen the vision for a walkable district but the 800pph study encountered several issues addressed above. The 500pph model offers the most walkable environment whilst marinating key environmental qualities set out in our vision and would be the most appropriate scheme to be developed.
CHAPTER 8 B I B L I O G R A P H Y
BIBLIOGRAPHY Barton et al, (2010). Shaping Neighbourhoods. 2nd ed. Suffolk: St Edmundsbury Press. Carfree, (2013) Carfree. [online] Available at: <http://www.carfree.com> [Accessed 1 February 2013]. Carmona et al (2003). Public places: Urban Spaces. United Kingdom: Architectural Place. City of New York. (2013) Active Design - shaping the sidewalk. [online] Available at:<http://centerforactivedesign.org/sidewalks> [Accessed 1 February 2014] Coupland, A (1997). Reclaiming the City: Mixed Use Development. London: Spons Press. Crawford, J (2000). Carfree Cities. Netherlands: International Books. Department of the Environment, Transport and Regions. (2000) By Design. [online] Available at:<https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/ system/uploads/attachment_data/file/7665/158490.pdf> [Accessed 1 February 2014] Evans, D (1996). URBAN DESIGN QUALITIES IN THE PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL NEW SETTLEMENTS. Oxford : Oxford Brookes University. Ewing, R et al . (2006). Identifying and Measuring Urban Design Qualities Related to Walkability. Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 3 (1), pp223-240.
Hospital Beds, (2014) Worldbank. [online] Available at: <http://data. worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.BEDS.ZS> [Accessed 3 February 2013]. Ingram, R et al. (2010). Building Virtual Cities: applying urban planning principles to the design of virtual environments. Department of Psychology. 1 (2) Jenks et al (2002). The Compact City - A sustainable urban form?. Oxford: British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. Kasprisin, R (2011). Urban Design the composition of complexity. New York: Routledge.
Schittich, C (2004). High Density Housing. Munich: Redaktion DETAIL.
Mayor of London (2005) Commissioning a sustainable and welldesigned city. [online] Available at:<http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/ downloads/Guidetocompetitiveselectionofdesigners.pdf> [Accessed 30 January 2014]
SECONDARY PDFs Greater London Authority. (2010) Housing Design Standards. [online] Available at:<http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/ Guidetocompetitiveselectionofdesigners.pdf> [Accessed 30 January 2014]
Mayor of London (2010) London Housing Design Guide - Interim Edition. [online] Available at:<http://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ Interim%20London%20Housing%20Design%20Guide.pdf> [Accessed 30 January 2014]
Taylor, N . (2009). Legibility and Aesthetics in Urban Design. Journal of Urban Design. 14 (2), pp189–202.
Gehl, J (2010). Cities for people. USA: Island Press.
Mcglynn et al, (1985). Responsive Environments. UK: Routledge.
Gehl, J (2011). Life between buildings: using public space. USA: Island Press. P162.
McLauren, E. (2013). Statistical Bulletin: Births in England and Wales, 2012. Office for National Statistics. 1 (1)
Goldman, T et al. (2006). Sustainable urban transport: Four innovative directions. Technology in Society. 1 (1), pp261–273.
Melia et al. (2010) Carfree, Low Car - What’s the Difference? World Transport Policy & Practice 16 (2)
Greater London Authority (2011) The London Plan. [online] Available at:http://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/planning/publications/thelondon-plan> [Accessed 1 February 2014]
Milton Keynes to pioneer driverless car scheme, (2013) The Telegraph. [online] Available at: <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/ greenertransport/10433105/Milton-Keynes-to-pioneer-driverless-carscheme.html> [Accessed 1 February 2013].
96
Number of hospitals or hospitals and hospitals per 100000, (2013) Data. Gov.Uk. [online] Available at: <http://data.gov.uk/data-requests/numberof-hospitals-or-hospitals-and-hospitals-per-100000-0> [Accessed 3 February 2013].
Leedy, P et Al (2010). Practical Research. 9th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.
Fontani, F. (2013). Cities of Tomorrow. GDF SUEZ. 2 (11), ppxx.
Hasan et al. (2010). Shared lessons: cities, spaces, equity. Available: http://www.urbandensity.org/shared-lessons-cities-spaces-equity. Last accessed 3rd February 2013.
Newman, P et al . (2006). Urban Design to Reduce Automobile Dependence. Opolis. 1 (2), pp35-52.
Science Direct (2013) The principles of integration in urban transport strategies. [online] Available at:<http://data.london.gov.uk/documents/ PTAL-methodology.pdf> [Accessed 1 February 2014]
Mayor of London (2010) London Housing Design Guide - Interim Edition. [online] Available at:<http://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ Interim%20London%20Housing%20Design%20Guide.pdf> [Accessed 30 January 2014]
Greater London Authority. (2010) Measuring Public Transport Accessibility Levels. [online] Available at:<http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0967070X05001599#> [Accessed 1 February 2014]
Moughtin et al (2005). Urban Design: Green Dimensions. 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Architectural Press.
Milton Keynes to trial driverless pod cars, (2013) The Engineer. [online] Available at: http://www.theengineer.co.uk/automotive/news/miltonkeynes-to-trial-driverless-pod-cars/1017445.article> [Accessed 1 February 2013]. Moughtin et al (1999). Urban Design: Ornament and Decoration. United Kingdom: Architectural Press.
Transport for London (2013) Better Streets Delivered. [online] Available at:<http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/corporate/better-streetsdelivered.pdf> [Accessed 1 February 2014] Wall & Waterman (2010). Basics Landscape Architecture 01: Urban Design. Switzerland: AVA Publishing. Wansboough, M et al. (2000). The Role of Urban Design in Cultural Regeneration. Journal of Urban Design. 5 (2), pp181-197. West Dorset District Council. (2006). POUNDBURY: what do you think?. Dorset for You. 1 (2), pxx Wheeler et al (2009). The Sustainable Urban Development Reader. 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Routledge. Whyte, W (1980). The social life of small urban spaces. USA: Edward Brother Inc. Williams et al (2001). Archieving Sustainable Urban Form. Glasgow: British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. Woolley, H (2005). Urban Open Spaces. USA: Spon Press. Zeisel, J (1984). Inquiry by Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
IMAGE BIBLIOGRAPHY All images and text have been produced by the authors unless otherwise stated. Figure 1:
Figure 32:
Figure 46:
http://photomichaelwolf.com/#architecture-of-densitiy/
www.Maps. bing.com
http://citypeak.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/bedzed.html
[Last Accessed 10th February 2014]
[Last accessed: 10th February 2014]
[Last accessed: 22nd February 2014]
Figure 17:
Figure 34:
Figure 47:
Gehl, J (2010). Cities for People. Washington: Island Press.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/adjourned/6077699794/sizes/l/
[Last Accessed 10th February 2014]
[Last accessed: 11th February 2014]
http://www.condojurong.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/JurongMaster-Plan-2013.jpg
Figure 20:
Figure 36:
Mcglynn et al, (1985). Responsive Environments. UK: Routledge.
http://ronsmith.mycouncillor.org.uk/category/planning/
[Last Accessed 11th February 2014]
[Last accessed: 12th February 2014]
Figure 24:
Figure 37:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/12297822@N05/4957022968/sizes/l/
http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/multimedia/archive/00375/119927477_ BUSSTOP_375398c.jpg
[Last Accessed 10th February 2014]
[Last accessed: 15th February 2014] Figure 87: https://www.flickr.com/photos/dgeezer/sets/1098485/ [Last accessed: 20th February 2014]
[Last accessed: 22nd February 2014] Figure 26: http://www.panoramio.com/photo/32112621
Figure 41:
[Last Accessed 8th February 2014]
http://ronsmith.mycouncillor.org.uk/category/planning/ [Last accessed: 24th February 2014]
Figure 30: http://tclf.org/landscapes/emerald-necklace [Last accessed: 19th February 2014]
Figure 42: http://bespokesiena.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Palio2.jpg
Figure 31:
[Last accessed: 20th February 2014]
http://momentummag.com/features/bicycles-are-transit-linking-cyclingtransit-planning-and-people/
Figure 45:
[Last accessed: 10th February 2014]
http://www.flickr.com/photos/tomchance/1008213420/sizes/l/ [Last accessed: 15th February 2014]
97
CHAPTER 9 A P P E N D I C E S
9.1 Working population spreadsheet
101
9.2.1 200pph block spreadsheet
102
9.2.2 200pph sub-divided block spreadsheet
103
9.3.1 500pph block spreadsheet
104
9.3.2 500pph sub-divided block spreadsheet
105
9.4.1 800pph block spreadsheet
106
9.4.2 800pph sub-divided block spreadsheet
107
9.5.1 500pph sub-divided GREEN block ADJUSTED spreadsheet FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
FOOTPRINT (M2)
TOTAL AREA
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
A01
B
1000
5
5000
B01
A
530
8
4240
C01
A
300
8
2400
D01
A
600
8
4800
E06
D
634
6
3804
A01
C
500
3
1500
B01
B
750
5
3750
C01
B
650
5
3250
D01
C
730
3
2190
E07
D
600
6
3600
A01
D
1100
2
2200
3456
B01
D
1300
2
2600
C01
C
1100
3
3300
D02
B
950
5
4750
E09
D
576
6
A02
B02
A
2100
8
16800
C01
D
900
2
1800
D02
C
480
3
1440
E10
D
577
6
3462
A02
B02
B
655
5
3275
C02
A
1400
8
11200
D02
D
1200
2
2400
E11
D
760
6
4560
A03
A
1600
8
12800
B03
A
850
8
6800
C02
B
450
5
2250
D03
B
1150
5
5750
E12
D
700
6
4200
A03
C
550
3
1650
B03
C
860
3
2580
C02
D
1500
2
3000
D03
D
300
2
600
E01
C
948
7
6636
A03
D
1100
2
2200
B03
D
1200
2
2400
C03
D04
B
440
5
2200
E04
C
900
7
6300
A04
A
300
8
2400
B04
A
630
8
5040
C03
D04
C
600
3
1800
E06
C
444
7
3108
A04
B
600
5
3000
B04
B
1345
5
6725
C04
B
1200
5
6000
D04
D
980
2
1960
E07
C
1390
7
9730
A04
C
325
3
975
B04
C
630
3
1890
C04
D
1000
2
2000
D05
A
690
8
5520
E08
C
650
7
4550
A04
D
150
2
300
B05
A
730
8
5840
C05
B
1650
5
8250
D05
C
512
3
1536
E09
C
526
7
3682
A05
B
2340
5
11700
B05
B
630
5
3150
C05
C
700
3
2100
D05
D
900
2
1800
E10
C
577
7
4039
A05
D
700
2
1400
B05
C
850
3
2550
C06
A
1100
8
8800
D06
A
540
8
4320
E14
C
610
7
4270
A06
A
1000
9
9000
B06
A
850
10
8500
C06
B
1000
5
5000
D06
D
1390
2
2780
E02
B
869
10
8690
A06
B
1400
5
7000
B06
B
400
5
2000
C06
C
1000
3
3000
D07
D
2374
2
4748
E03
B
1390
10
13900
A06
C
700
3
2100
B06
C
250
3
750
C07
A
950
8
7600
D08
B
1100
5
5500
E04
B
800
10
8000
A07
A
1110
8
8880
B07
A
550
8
4400
C07
B
350
5
1750
D08
C
556
3
1668
E05
B
1300
10
13000
A07
B
1600
5
8000
B07
B
1700
5
8500
C07
C
1000
3
3000
D08
D
440
2
880
E06
B
954
10
9540
A07
C
520
3
1560
B07
D
770
2
1540
C08
B
1450
5
7250
D09
B
740
5
3700
E10
B
656
10
6560
A08
B
900
5
4500
B08
B
1850
5
9250
C08
C
1000
3
3000
D09
D
740
2
1480
E11
B
1260
10
12600
A08
C
800
3
2400
B08
C
550
3
1650
C09
B
1800
5
9000
D10
A
620
8
4960
E12
B
610
10
6100
A08
D
950
2
1900
B08
D
960
2
1920
C09
D
950
2
1900
D10
B
440
5
2200
E13
B
2182
10
21820
A09
A
570
8
4560
B09
B
770
5
3850
C10
B
1900
5
9500
D10
D
760
2
1520
E14
B
377
10
3770
A09
B
640
5
3200
B09
C
760
3
2280
C10
C
860
3
2580
D11
A
630
8
5040
E05
A
2346
13
30498
A09
C
1000
3
3000
B09
D
1000
2
2000
C11
A
980
9
8820
D11
C
640
3
1920
E06
A
773
13
10049
A10
A
500
8
4000
B10
A
600
8
4800
C11
B
670
5
3350
D11
D
980
2
1960
E07
A
620
13
8060
A10
B
1600
5
8000
B10
B
450
5
2250
C11
C
620
3
1860
D12
C
750
3
2250
E08
A
1782
13
23166
A10
C
600
3
1800
B10
D
1000
2
2000
C12
A
690
8
5520
D12
D
1525
2
3050
E09
A
1372
13
17836
A11
A
700
8
5600
B11
A
694
8
5552
C12
C
1500
3
4500
D13
C
1045
3
3135
E10
A
757
13
9841
A11
C
800
3
2400
B11
B
660
5
3300
C13
B
850
5
4250
D13
D
270
2
540
E11
A
580
13
7540
A11
D
1700
2
3400
B11
D
1060
2
2120
C13
C
1400
3
4200
D14
B
900
5
4500
E12
A
1486
13
19318
A12
A
750
8
6000
B12
B
660
5
3300
C14
B
270
5
1350
D14
C
1400
3
4200
E13
A
1280
13
16640
A12
B
960
5
4800
B12
C
640
3
1920
C14
C
700
3
2100
D14
D
460
2
920
E14
A
1200
13
15600
A12
C
510
3
1530
B12
D
1430
2
2860
C15
A
750
8
6000
D15
A
1500
8
12000
E02
A
1223
13
15899
A13
A
540
8
4320
B13
B
770
5
3850
C15
B
770
5
3850
D15
B
1200
5
6000
E03
A
1100
13
14300
A13
B
750
5
3750
B13
C
1800
3
5400
C15
C
1730
3
5190
D15
C
560
3
1680
E04
A
1482
16
23712
A13
C
870
3
2610
B14
C
1600
3
4800
C16
A
650
8
5200
D16
A
1218
10
12180
E01
A
1749
18
31482
A13
D
550
2
1100
B14
D
1022
2
2044
C16
C
600
3
1800
D16
C
668
3
2004
A14
A
1660
8
13280
B15
A
655
8
5240
C16
D
1000
2
2000
D16
D
470
2
940
A14
C
1200
3
3600
B15
C
730
3
2190
C17
C
900
3
2700
D17
B
700
5
3500
B15
D
1170
2
2340
C17
D
1100
2
2200
D17
C
680
3
2040
B16
A
1116
8
8928
C18
A
630
8
5040
D17
D
1070
2
2140
B16
B
1235
5
6175
C18
D
1100
2
2200
D18
B
760
5
3800
TOTAL SPACE
35145
167415
B17
B
990
5
4950
C19
C
770
3
2310
D18
C
980
3
2940
B17
C
850
3
2550
C19
D
1400
2
2800
D18
D
886
2
1772
B17
D
460
2
920
C20
A
674
8
5392
D19
A
375
8
3000
B18
C
1300
3
3900
C20
B
820
5
4100
D19
B
1100
5
5500
B18
D
1400
2
2800
C20
C
1400
3
4200
D19
C
854
3
2562 2080
B19 B19 B20
A
B20 B20
TOTAL SPACE
46184
198862
D20
A
260
8
D20
B
1100
5
5500
D20
C
580
3
1740
TOTAL SPACE
38040
413318
1200
8
9600
C
678
4
2712
D21
A
1979
8
15832
D
1400
2
2800
D21
C
1295
3
3885
200
239580
68206
134814
442600
217600
3200
57600
278400
D23
B
1172
5
5860
500
595850
170525
425483
1191858
544000
8000
144000
696000
D23
C
1167
3
3501
800
971400
272843
704341
1948584
810400
12800
230400
1053600
TOTAL NEEDED
MINIMUM STOREY
HOUSING
OFFICE
D22 TOTAL SPACE
49040
213581
D22
800 TOTAL SPACE
108
48406
BLOCK AREA
198473
216815
1191858
FACILITIES NEEDED
5.5
TOTAL
FLOOR AREA 1191649
GREENSPACE
DIFFERENCE -209
PLAYGORUNDS
INFORMAL
TOTAL
9.5.2 800pph sub-divided GREEN block ADJUSTED spreadsheet FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
FOOTPRINT (M2)
NO. STOREY
TOTAL AREA
A01
B
1000
9
9000
B01
A
530
11
5830
C01
A
300
11
3300
D01
A
600
11
6600
E01
C
948
11
A01
C
500
7
3500
B01
B
750
9
6750
C01
B
650
9
5850
D01
C
730
7
5110
E01
A
1749
25
10428 43725
A01
D
1100
4
4400
B01
D
1300
4
5200
C01
C
1100
7
7700
D02
B
950
9
8550
E02
B
869
14
12166
A02
B02
A
2100
20
42000
C01
D
900
4
3600
D02
C
480
7
3360
E02
A
1223
16
19568
A02
B02
B
655
9
5895
C02
A
1400
11
15400
D02
D
1200
4
4800
E03
B
1390
14
19460 17600
A03
A
1600
11
17600
B03
A
850
11
9350
C02
B
450
9
4050
D03
B
1150
9
10350
E03
A
1100
16
A03
C
550
7
3850
B03
C
860
7
6020
C02
D
1500
4
6000
D03
D
300
4
1200
E04
C
900
11
9900
A03
D
1100
4
4400
B03
D
1200
4
4800
C03
D04
B
440
9
3960
E04
B
800
14
11200
D04
C
600
7
4200
E04
A
1482
23
34086
10800
D04
D
980
4
3920
E05
B
1300
14
18200
4
4000
D05
A
690
11
7590
E05
A
2346
16
37536
9
14850
D05
C
512
7
3584
E06
D
634
7
4438
700
7
4900
D05
D
900
4
3600
E06
C
444
11
4884
A
1100
11
12100
D06
A
540
11
5940
E06
B
954
14
13356
C06
B
1000
9
9000
D06
D
1390
4
5560
E06
A
773
16
12368
C06
C
1000
7
7000
D07
D
2374
4
9496
E07
D
600
7
4200
1750
C07
A
950
11
10450
D08
B
1100
9
9900
E07
C
1390
11
15290
11
6050
C07
B
350
9
3150
D08
C
556
7
3892
E07
A
620
16
9920
9
15300
C07
C
1000
7
7000
D08
D
440
4
1760
E08
C
650
11
7150
4
3080
C08
B
1450
9
13050
D09
B
740
9
6660
E08
A
1782
16
28512
1850
9
16650
C08
C
1000
7
7000
D09
D
740
4
2960
E09
D
576
7
4032
550
7
3850
C09
B
1800
9
16200
D10
A
620
11
6820
E09
C
526
11
5786
D
960
4
3840
C09
D
950
4
3800
D10
B
440
9
3960
E09
A
1372
16
21952
B09
B
770
9
6930
C10
B
1900
9
17100
D10
D
760
4
3040
E10
D
577
7
4039
B09
C
760
7
5320
C10
C
860
7
6020
D11
A
630
11
6930
E10
C
577
11
6347
7000
B09
D
1000
4
4000
C11
A
980
18
17640
D11
C
640
7
4480
E10
B
656
14
9184
11
5500
B10
A
600
11
6600
C11
B
670
9
6030
D11
D
980
4
3920
E10
A
757
16
12112
1600
9
14400
B10
B
450
9
4050
C11
C
620
7
4340
D12
C
750
7
5250
E11
D
760
7
5320
600
7
4200
B10
D
1000
4
4000
C12
A
690
11
7590
D12
D
1525
4
6100
E11
B
1260
14
17640
A
700
11
7700
B11
A
694
11
7634
C12
C
1500
7
10500
D13
C
1045
7
7315
E11
A
580
16
9280
C
800
7
5600
B11
B
660
9
5940
C13
B
850
9
7650
D13
D
270
4
1080
E12
D
700
7
4900
D
1700
4
6800
B11
D
1060
4
4240
C13
C
1400
7
9800
D14
B
900
9
8100
E12
B
610
14
8540
A12
A
750
11
8250
B12
B
660
9
5940
C14
B
270
9
2430
D14
C
1400
7
9800
E12
A
1486
16
23776
A12
B
960
9
8640
B12
C
640
7
4480
C14
C
700
7
4900
D14
D
460
5
2300
E13
B
2182
14
30548
A12
C
510
7
3570
B12
D
1430
4
5720
C15
A
750
11
8250
D15
A
1500
11
16500
E13
A
1280
16
20480
A13
A
540
11
5940
B13
B
770
9
6930
C15
B
770
9
6930
D15
B
1200
9
10800
E14
C
610
11
6710
A13
B
750
9
6750
B13
C
1800
7
12600
C15
C
1730
7
12110
D15
C
560
7
3920
E14
B
377
14
5278
A13
C
870
7
6090
B14
C
1600
7
11200
C16
A
650
11
7150
D16
A
1218
15
18270
E14
A
1200
16
19200
A13
D
550
4
2200
B14
D
1022
4
4088
C16
C
600
7
4200
D16
C
668
7
4676
A14
A
1660
11
18260
B15
A
655
11
7205
C16
D
1000
4
4000
D16
D
470
4
1880
A14
C
1200
7
8400
B15
C
730
7
5110
C17
C
900
7
6300
D17
B
700
9
6300
B15
D
1170
4
4680
C17
D
1100
4
4400
D17
C
680
7
4760
B16
A
1116
11
12276
C18
A
630
11
6930
D17
D
1070
4
4280
B16
B
1235
9
11115
C18
D
1100
4
4400
D18
B
760
9
6840
B17
B
990
9
8910
C19
C
770
7
5390
D18
C
980
7
6860
B17
C
850
7
5950
C19
D
1400
4
5600
D18
D
886
4
3544
B17
D
460
4
1840
C20
A
674
11
7414
D19
A
375
11
4125
B18
C
1300
7
9100
C20
B
820
9
7380
D19
B
1100
9
9900
B18
D
1400
4
5600
C20
C
1400
7
9800
D19
C
854
7
5978
D20
A
260
11
2860
D20
B
1100
9
9900
D20
C
580
7
4060
D21
A
1979
11
21769
D21
C
1295
7
9065
200
239580
68206
134814
442600
217600
3200
57600
B
1172
9
10548
500
595850
170525
425483
1191858
544000
8000
144000
696000
8169
800
971400
272843
704341
1948584
810400
12800
230400
1053600
TOTAL NEEDED
MINIMUM STOREY
A04
A
300
11
3300
B04
A
630
11
6930
C03
A04
B
600
9
5400
B04
B
1345
9
12105
C04
B
1200
9
A04
C
325
7
2275
B04
C
630
7
4410
C04
D
1000
A04
D
150
4
600
B05
A
730
11
8030
C05
B
1650
A05
B
2340
9
21060
B05
B
630
9
5670
C05
C
A05
D
700
4
2800
B05
C
850
7
5950
C06
A06
A
1000
17
17000
B06
A
850
11
9350
A06
B
1400
9
12600
B06
B
400
9
3600
A06
C
700
7
4900
B06
C
250
7
A07
A
1110
11
12210
B07
A
550
A07
B
1600
9
14400
B07
B
1700
A07
C
520
7
3640
B07
D
770
A08
B
900
9
8100
B08
B
A08
C
800
7
5600
B08
C
A08
D
950
4
3800
B08
A09
A
570
11
6270
A09
B
640
9
5760
A09
C
1000
7
A10
A
500
A10
B
A10
C
A11 A11 A11
TOTAL SPACE
35145
291765
B19 B19 B20
A
1200
11
13200
B20
C
678
7
4746
B20
D
1400
4
5600
TOTAL SPACE
46184
363454
TOTAL SPACE
38040
549111
HOUSING
OFFICE
D22 TOTAL SPACE
49040
387414
D22 D23 D23
C
1167
7
800 TOTAL SPACE
48406
BLOCK AREA
357091 216815
1948584
FACILITIES NEEDED
9.0
TOTAL
FLOOR AREA 1948835
GREENSPACE
PLAYGORUNDS
DIFFERENCE 251
109
INFORMAL
TOTAL 278400
9.6 neighbourhood storey height spreadsheet 800 1
800 3
800 2
800 4
DO NOT USE
800 5
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
A
12
32.4
A
15
40.5
A
15
40.5
A
16
43.2
A
15
40.5
B
9
24.3
B
12
32.4
B
12
32.4
B
13
35.1
B
13
35.1
C
7
18.9
C
10
27
C
10
27
C
10
27
C
10
27
D
5
13.5
D
6
16.2
D
6
16.2
D
6
16.2
D
6
16.2
A
10
27
A
11
29.7
A
11
29.7
A
15
40.5
A
16
43.2
B
8
21.6
B
9
24.3
B
9
24.3
B
9
24.3
B
9
24.3
C
6
16.2
C
7
18.9
C
7
18.9
C
7
18.9
C
7
18.9
D
4
10.8
D
4
10.8
D
4
10.8
D
4
10.8
D
4
10.8
45.9
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
SPACE -331186
SPACE -16151
SPACE -89798
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
SPACE -17
SPACE +36
EXCEPTIONS
EXCEPTIONS
500 1
A6A
17
45.9
A6A
17
B2A
20
54
B2A
20
54
C11A
18
48.6
C11A
18
48.6
D16A
15
40.5
D16A
15
40.5
E1A
35
94.5
E1A
30
81
E4A
25
67.5
E4A
23
62.1
500 3
500 2
500 4
500 5
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
A
12
32.4
A
12
32.4
A
15
40.5
A
13
35.1
A
12
32.4
B
9
24.3
B
9
24.3
B
12
32.4
B
10
27
B
10
27
C
7
18.9
C
7
18.9
C
10
27
C
7
18.9
C
7
18.9
D
5
13.5
D
5
13.5
D
6
16.2
D
5
13.5
D
5
13.5
A
5
13.5
A
7
18.9
A
11
29.7
A
8
21.6
A
8
21.6
B
4
10.8
B
5
13.5
B
9
24.3
B
5
13.5
B
5
13.5
C
3
8.1
C
3
8.1
C
7
18.9
C
3
8.1
C
3
8.1
D
2
5.4
D
2
5.4
D
4
10.8
D
2
5.4
D
2
5.4
24.3
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
SPACE -200691
NEIGHBOURHOOD
SPACE -43922
SPACE -89798
SPACE +15124
EXCEPTIONS
EXCEPTIONS 9
24.3
A6A
9
24.3
A6A
9
B6A
10
27
B6A
10
27
B2A
10
27
C11A
11
29.7
C11A
11
29.7
B20C
4
10.8
D16A
12
32.4
D16A
12
32.4
C11A
9
24.3
E1A
20
54
E1A
20
54
D16A
10
27
E4A
16
43.2
E4A
16
43.2
E1A
18
48.6
E3A
13
35.1
E4A
16
43.2
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
CENTRAL
STOREYS
HEIGHT (M)
A
6
16.2
A
4
10.8
A
4
10.8
B
5
13.5
B
3
8.1
B
3
8.1
C
4
10.8
C
2
5.4
C
2
5.4
D
3
8.1
D
2
5.4
D
2
5.4
A
5
13.5
A
3
8.1
A
3
8.1
B
4
10.8
B
2
5.4
B
2
5.4
NEIGHBOURHOOD
NEIGHBOURHOOD
C
3
8.1
C
2
5.4
C
2
5.4
D
2
5.4
D
2
5.4
D
2
5.4
SPACE +349
SPACE +71889
SPACE +381342
BLOCKS AS PARKS
BLOCKS AS PARKS
110
EXCEPTIONS
A6A
CENTRAL
NEIGHBOURHOOD
SPACE +2
200 3
200 2
200 1
NEIGHBOURHOOD
A
9
A
2
5
11
B
10
B
6
11
13
18
C
11
C
3
4
9
19
D
12
D
3
7
12
13
19
22