East meets west: The influences of Persian architecture on the West by Sadaf Pourzand

EAST MEETS WEST: The inﬂuences of Persian architecture on the west AR519 (March 2012) -‐ Kent School of Architecture

Sadaf Pourzand

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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! “I!am!Cyrus,!king!of!the!world,!great!king,!mighty!king,!king!of!Babylon,!king!of! Sumer! and! Akkad,! king! of! the! four! quarters! of! the! world,! son! of! Cambyses,! the! great! king,! king! of! Anshan,! grandson! of! Cyrus,! the! great! king,! king! of! Anshan,! descendant! of! Teispes,! the! great! king,! king! of! Anshan,! the! perpetual! seed! of! kingship! ...! When! I! went! as! harbinger! of! peace! into! Babylon,! I! founded! my! sovereign! residence! within! the! palace! amid! celebration! and! rejoicing.! Marduk,! the!great!lord,!bestowed!on!me!as!my!destiny!the!great!magnanimity!of!one!who! loves!Babylon,!and!I!every!day!sought!him!out!in!awe.”! !

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Quote!translated!by!the!British!Museum!from!Cyrus!the!Great’s!cylinder! !

Abstract% This! investigation! examines! the! relationship! between! Eastern! and! Western! design!with!a!focus!on!the!influence!of!Persian!architecture,!which!has!a!history! of! more! than! 7000! years! and! dates! back! to! 5000BCE.! The! Persian! Empire! created!some!of!the!most!magnificent!pieces!of!architecture!and!engineering!the! world!has!ever!seen.!This!has!shaped!the!development!of!Western!civilisation!for! thousands! of! years.! The! range! goes! from! the! rise! of! the! first! cities! from! the! Achaemenid! Empire,! which! threatened! the! very! existence! of! Athens,! to! the! classic!domes!and!vaulting!techniques!used!in!Parthian!and!Sassanid!times.!The! architectural!influences!from!the!first!Persian!Empire!right!through!to!the!rise!of! Islam!in!Persia!(Iran)!are!discussed!throughout!this!dissertation.!!

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Contents% Introduction!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Chapter!One! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!! ! Influences!of!Achaemenid!architecture!on!Greece! ! ! Chapter!Two! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Influences!of!Parthian!architecture!on!Roman!Greece! ! ! Chapter!Three! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Influences!of!Sassanid!architecture!on!Gothic!architecture! ! Chapter!Four! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Influences!of!Safavid!(Islamic)!architecture!on!Venice! ! Conclusion!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! Map!of!Achaemenid!Empire! ! ! ! ! ! ! Map!of!Parthian!Empire!! ! ! ! ! ! ! Map!of!Sassanid!Empire!! ! ! ! ! ! ! Map!of!Safavid!Empire! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Table!showing!the!Persian!Empires!Timeline! ! ! ! Bibliography! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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Introduction

When!discussing!ancient!Persia,!one!must!first!agree!on!the!scope!of!the!subject! matter!from!both!a!geographic!and!historical!view.!In!the!sixth!millennium!BCE,! the! Persian! population! extended! eastwards! and! westwards.1!The! new! culture! spread! over! a! vast! area! from! Syria! to! North! India,! right! up! to! the! borders! of! China,!and!also!from!Caucasus!to!Zanzibar.2!Thus,!in!the!ancient!times!the!extent! of! the! â&#x20AC;&#x153;Persian! worldâ&#x20AC;?! corresponded! to! the! group! of! territories! that! comprised! the! Achaemenid! Empire! (550`330BCE),! the! Parthian! Empire! (247`224CE),! Sassanid! Empire! `! which! was! the! last! pre`Islamic! Empire! (226`642CE)! and! Safavid! Empire! (1501`1722CE)! which! came! after! the! Arabs! invaded! Persia! and! forced!Islam!on!Persians.!3! ! Architecture! in! Persia! has! been! established! for! more! than! 7,000! years,! from! 5,000! BCE! to! the! present.! Persian! buildings! vary! from! peasant! huts,! teahouses! and! garden! pavilions4!to! what! some! have! argued! as! the! most! beautiful! and! majestic!structures!ever!witnessed!in!the!world,!not!to!mention!some!stately!and! audacious!bridges.5! ! The!Persian!Empire!was!established!by!560!BCE!when!Cyrus!the!Great!(580`529! BCE),! the! first! Achaemenian! Emperor,! united! two! powerful! Aryan! states,! these! being! Media! and! Persia.! The! Persian! Empire! created! some! of! the! most! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Stierlin,!2006,!P11! 2!Pope,!1969,!P1! 3!Stierlin,!2006,!P11! 4!Pope,!1969,!P1! 5!Engineering!an!Empire,!2006!(Documentary)!

astonishing! works! of! architecture! and! engineering! ever! seen.! For! example,! magnificent! palaces! that! rose! up! from! barren! deserts,! along! with! roadways,! bridges!and!remarkable!canals.6! ! !In! 330! BCE! an! Ancient! rivalry! with! Greece! erupted! into! an! epic! clash! that! changed!the!course!of!history,!and!shaped!the!Western!World!for!thousands!of! years.!The!remarkable!Achaemenid!achievements!were!due!not!only!to!courage,! strength!and!enterprise,!but!also!to!superior!use!of!logistics;!a!capacity!for!large` scale! planning! and! practical! administrative! ability.! More! than! 2,500! years! later! parts!of!the!immense!architecture!of!the!great!Persian!Empire!still!stand!today!as! a! testament! to! the! magnificent! heights! that! this! now`forgotten! empire! once! reached.7! ! For! more! than! 3,000! years! certain! design! elements! of! Persian! architecture! persisted.!The!most!striking!were!a!marked!feeling!for!scale,!a!discerning!use!of! simple! and! massive! forms,! a! rather! amazing! consistency! of! decorative! preferences,! the! high`arched! portal! set! within! a! recess,! columns! with! bracket! capitals! and! recurrent! types! of! plan! and! elevation.8!Through! the! ages,! these! elements! recurred! in! completely! different! types! of! buildings! which! were! constructed! for! various! programmes! and! under! the! patronage! of! a! long! succession!of!rulers.!Indeed,!some!of!the!earliest!styles!still!survive!today.!9Some! of!these!characteristics!survive!today!in!Persia!and!also!elsewhere!in!the!world.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6!Engineering!an!Empire,!2006!(Documentary)! 7!Engineering!an!Empire,!2006!(Documentary)! 8!Pope,!1969,!P1! 9!Engineering!an!Empire,!2006!(Documentary)!

To! deny! that! Arabs,! Persians,! Turks,! Huns,! Mongols,! Phoenicians! and! Scythians! are! part! of! a! European! as! well! as! an! Asiatic! Civilization! is! not! only! disagreeing! with!all!the!evidence!found!as!it!denies!some!of!the!greatest!achievements!of!the! Western!Civilization.!They!are!fundamental!parts!to!be!acknowledged!alongside! Greek,! Roman,! Norman! or! Slavic! parts.! Phoenicians,! Persians,! Arabs,! Turks! and! Mongols!all!form!a!part!of!European!history!`!a!part!that!is!both!European!and! Asiatic;!a!part!that!defines!and!makes!Europe!as!what!it!is.!10! ! Western!Culture!and!Architecture!derive!much!of!their!richness!and!characters! from! the! fact! that! their! origins! lie! outside! Europe.! It! is! in! the! Near! East! –! Mesopotamia! and! Egypt! `! that! the! earliest! buildings! can! be! found.! This! dissertation!aims!to!explore!some!influences!from!Persia!on!Western!countries.11! In!particular,!it!will!explore!the!influences!of:! Achaemenid! architecture! on! Greece! –the! influences! of! Persepolis! on! the! Odeon!of!Athens!and!the!Parthenon!Frieze!will!be!discussed;! Parthian!architecture!on!Roman!Greece!–the!influences!of!Parthian!vaulting! on!Roman!Greece!will!be!considered;! Sassanid! architecture! on! Gothic! architecture! –! the! influences! of! Sassanid! arches!on!Gothic!architecture!will!be!studied;! Safavid! architecture! on! Venice! –! the! influences! of! Islamic! architecture! on! Venice!will!be!explored.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10!Ball,!2010,!P!vii! 11!Watkin,!2005,!P9!

Chapter%One:% Influences%of%Achaemenid%architecture%on%Greece%

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The! military! and! political! interaction! between! Ancient! Greece! and! Persia! was! accompanied! by! artistic! exchanges! that! are! increasingly! being! unravelled. 12! Some!of!the!fascination!of!the!Greek!and!Persian!Wars!lies!in!the!fact!that!they! had! a! great! influence! on! the! history! of! the! Western! World.! By! preventing! the! Persians! from! conquering! Greece,! the! Athenians! and! other! Greeks! made! it! possible! for! their! own! culture! to! develop! and! grow! independently! of! Persian! dominance. 13 !The! Greco`Persian! Wars! began! in! 492BCE! and! went! on! to! 449BCE.14!This! led! to! a! great! amount! of! Achaemenid! architecture! influencing! much!of!the!architecture!found!in!Greece.!! ! Some! of! the! worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s! most! elaborate! columns! were! built! during! the! 5th! millennium! BCE! in! Persia! at! Persepolis. 15 !(Illustration! 1)! Darius! the! Great! founded!Persepolis!as!the!new!ceremonial!capital!of!the!Persian!Empire!upon!his! return! from! the! re`conquest! of! Egypt! in! 518BCE.!16!Persepolis! was! one! of! the! ancient!capitals!of!Persia,!considered!to!have!been!the!seat!of!government!for!the! Achaemenid! kings! and! a! centre! for! receptions! and! ceremonial! festivities.17!It! consisted!of!nine!monumental!buildings!on!a!vast!artificial!stone!terrace.!(Ill!2)! According! to! Deodorus! Siculus,! a! Greek! Historian! (his! date! of! birth! and! death! cannot!be!established!exactly),!Persepolis!was!known!as!â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;the!richest!city!under! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12!Kawami,!1986,!P259! 13!Ancient!Greco`Persian!Wars,!2009! 14!Green,!1996,!P6! 15!Persepolis!Recreated,!2005!(DVD)! 16!Root,!1985,!P108! 17!Lendering,!2004!

the! sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;! and! the! wealth! of! the! Persian! Empire! was! evident! in! all! aspects! of! its! construction.!18!

Illustration!1.!Persepolis!(518BCE),!recreated!in!3D!

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Ill!2.!Plan!of!Persepolis;!highlighting!the!nine! different!monumental!buildings!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18!Rezaeian,!2004,!P18!

The! hall! of! 100! columns! at! Persepolis,! also! known! as! the! Throne! room! of! Persepolis,! is! famous! for! the! massive! black! stone! columns! and! capitals! carved! with!bulls!or!horses.19(Ill3)!The!hall!measured!4,600!square!metres!and!had!one! hundred! columns! supporting! its! roof.20!These! columns! were! made! up! of! fine! black!stone21(Ill4),!stood!in!ten!rows!of!ten!columns,!each!of!which!were!over!14! metres!in!height.!22!The!hall!was!commenced!by!Xerxes!and!completed!by!his!son! Artaxerxes.!23! ! ! ! ! `! ! ! ! Ill!3.!Recreation!of!massive!black!stone!columns!and!capitals!!

Ill!4.!Recreation!of!hall!of!100!columns!at!Persepolis!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19!Persepolis!Recreated,!2005!(DVD)! 20!Rezaeian,!2004,!P56! 21!Persepolis!Recreated,!2005!(DVD)! 22!Peymanmeli,!1999! 23!Pope,!1965,!P35!

According!to!Plutarch!(AD46!–!AD120),!a!Greek!writer!and!philosopher,!there!is! evidence! of! Persian! borrowings! by! the! Greeks.! He! stated! that! “The! Odeon,! or! music! room,! which! in! its! interior! was! full! of! seats! and! ranges! of! pillars,! and! outside! had! its! roof! made! to! slope! and! descend! from! one! single! point,! was! constructed! …! in! imitation! of! the! King! of! Persia’s! Pavilion.! This! was! done! by! Pericle’s!order.”!24!Moreover,!when!the!Odeon!of!Athens!was!excavated!it!turned! out! to! have! been! almost! the! same! dimensions! as! the! Hall! of! 100! Columns! of! Persepolis.! The! Odeon! (Ill! 5)! measured! 68.5! x! 62.4! metres! and! contained! nine! rows! of! ten! columns,! while,! as! mentioned! earlier,! the! Hall! of! 100! Columns! at! Persepolis!contained!ten!rows!of!ten!columns!and!measured!68.5!x!68.5!metres.! As! Bakker! stated,! “The! similarities! are! too! obvious! to! imagine! it! was! coincidental”.!25! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Ill!5.!Recreation!of!The!Odeon!of!Athens!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24!Hunter,!2010! !! 25!Bakker,!2004

The! largest! and! the! most! magnificent! monumental! building! at! Persepolis! was! Apadana.!(Ill!6)!!Fourteen!of!its!seventy`two!columns!are!still!standing!today!on! the! enormous! platform,! to! which! two! monumental! stairways! on! the! north! and! east!give!access.26!The!staircases!are!decorated!with!rows!of!exquisitely!executed! reliefs,! showing! scenes! of! the! Persian! New! Year! Festival! and! presenting! 23! groups!of!gift!bearers.27! !

Ill!6.!Recreation!of!Apadana!at!Persepolis! ! Professor! Richard! Frye! explained,! “To! this! remarkable! ceremonial! centre! of! a! world! empire,! there! came! on! New! Year’s! day,! the! vernal! equinox,! on! the! 21st! March,!many!peoples,!representatives!of!many!satrapies!or!governorships,!which! Darius!had!established!in!the!empire.!From!the!Ionian!Greeks!to!the!Egyptians,! from!the!Babylonians!to!the!Indians,!they!brought!all!sorts!of!gifts.”28! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 26!Persepolis!Recreated,!2005!(DVD)! 27!Stierlin,!2006,!P150!`!153! 28!Rezaeian,!2004,!P36!

A.W.! Lawrence! offered! a! series! of! perceptive! and! provocative! observations! on! the! general! similarities! of! form! and! function! between! the! ceremonial! citadel! of! the! Persians! (Persepolis)! and! Athenians! (Parthenon). 29 !By! looking! at! the! Apadana! relief! (Ill! 7! and! 8)! and! the! Parthenon! frieze! (Ill! 9! and! 10),! the! resemblance! between! the! two! can! be! immediately! sensed.! It! is! believed! that! Apadana!reliefs!at!Persepolis!provided!a!prototype!for!the!Parthenon!frieze,!and! 110

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! Ill!7.!Plan!of!Apadana!with!diagram!of!the!relief!system!(J.Royer):!(A)!nobles,!

horses,!chariots,!equestrian!attendants!and!guards!(B)!Gift!Baring!delegations!from! ! the!subject!nations,!each!led!by!a!marshal!(C)!Original!central!panel!:!king!and! (A) nobles, horses, chariots, equestrian attendants and guards crown!prince!receiving!the!bowing!grand!marshal! (B) gift-bearing delegations from the subject nations, each led by a marshal (C) original central panel: king and crown prince receiving the bowing grand marshal Ill. 2. Persepolis, Apadana: plan with diagram of the relief system. (J. Royer) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

29!Lawrence,!1946,!P111`114! 30!Root,!1985,!P103!

EZE AND THE APADANA RELIEFS AT PERSEPOLIS

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in an area apart from the converging files of celebrants. The five males at the left ("b" on fig. 3) and four at the right ("c" on fig. 3) are set distinctly apart also by their self-contained relationships and by virtue of the fact that they all lean on staffs. I am inclined to follow Ill!8.!Image!presenting!part!of!the!Apadana!relief!â&#x20AC;&#x201C;!Showing!a!group!of!gift!bearers! Jenkins' arguments for identifying these men as eight of the city archons plus the secretary of the college of archons.10

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Ill!9.!Athens,!Akropolis,!Parthenon:!Plan! with!diagram!of!the!Frieze!procession!(J.! Royer)! ! ! (A) Horsemen! (B) Chariots! (C) Elders/citizens! (D) Musicians! (E) Hydria!bearers! (F) Tray!Bearers! (G) Sacrificial!animals! (H) Maiders!and!marshals! (I) Archons!! (J) Deities! (K) Central!tableau:!folding!the! peplos!and!bringing!out!seats! and!footstool!for!the!Basileus! and!Basilinna! ! !

(A) horsemen (F) tray bearers chariots (G) sacrificialanimals ! (B) (C) elders/citizens (H) maidens and marshals (I) archons ! (D) musicians (E) hydria bearers (J) deities (K) centraltableau:folding the peplos and bringingout seats and footstool ! for the Basileus and Basilinna 10! Ill. 1. Athens, Akropolis, Parthenon:plan with diagram of the frieze procession.(J. Royer)

Ill!10.!Image!presenting!part!of!the!â&#x20AC;&#x153;horsemenâ&#x20AC;?!on!the!Parthenon!frieze!

! Around! 449BCE,! when! Athens! had! successfully! stood! up! to! Persia! and! built! an! empire;! the! decision! to! build! the! Parthenon! was! made.! The! Parthenon! is! the! largest!and!most!sumptuous!temple!in!mainland!Greece,!measuring!361!x!777.6! metres,! with! the! significant! exception! of! the! Olympieion! in! the! lower! city.!31! Crowning! the! exterior! of! the! cellar! and! porch! walls,! a! continuous! sequence! of! figural!imagery!is!provided!which!starts!at!the!southwest!corner!and!proceeds!in! two! directions! toward! the! centre! of! the! east! side,! over! the! entrance! to! the! pronaos.!(Ills!9!and!10)32! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31!Meiggs,!1979,!P42`43! 32!Dinsmoor,!1950,!P159`79!

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! Apadana!reliefs!and!Parthenon!frieze,!both!have!the!ability!to!draw!the!onlooker! into!them,!and!then!to!draw!the!eyes!ever!upward!and!onward.!The!Apadana,!as! with!the!Parthenon,!does!not!require!the!viewer!to!expect!precise!reality!in!the! art,! but! encourages! an! acceptance! of! symbolism! and! integration! â&#x20AC;&#x201C;! symbolic! figural! imagery! integrating! the! movement! and! intensity! of! the! extended! scene.! The! figures! are! seen! to! be! rhythmical! in! the! continuum! of! the! frieze,! and! this! entices! the! observer! to! become! part! of! the! scene;! to! become! an! involved! spectator.!There!is!a!convergence!upward!towards!the!finale!of!both!frieze!and! architectural! style.! Both! end! at! an! elevated! destination;! conceptually! and! physically.33! ! The! beauty! and! splendour! of! Persepolis! lasted! for! two! centuries.! In! 330! BC,! it! perished! in! flames! when! Alexander! the! Great! and! his! Macedonian! army! conquered! and! looted! Persepolis.! According! to! Plutarch,! Persepolisâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;! treasures! were!carried!away!on!20,000!mules!and!5,000!camels.!34! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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Chapter%Two:% Influences%of%Parthian%architecture%on%Roman%Greece% (Roman!Greece:!!A!period!in!Greek!history!where!parts!of!Greece!was!under!the!Roman!rule35)! ! !

After! Alexander! the! Great! conquered! Persepolis! and! Ecbatana,! Greeks! tried! to! settle!in!Persia!on!a!permanent!basis.!They!controlled!and!took!power!over!the! Seleucids!in!the!Persian!territory!and!also!imposed!the!Greek!language!and!some! artistic! styles.36!The! Greek! influences! were! soon! checked! by! the! arrival! of! the! Parthian!Dynasty.!The!Parthian!Dynasty!began!in!247!BCE!and!carried!on!until! 224!CE.!37! ! During!the!Parthian!Dynasty!and!later!the!Sassanid!Dynasty,!a!number!of!battles! occurred!between!the!great!empires!of!the!East!(Persian!Empire)!and!the!West! (Roman!Empire).!These!battles!are!now!referred!to!as!The!Persian`Roman!Wars.! These! wars! spanned! over! 700! years,! from! 53BCE! to! 627CE38!and! during! this! period!Romans!adopted!some!architectural!techniques!from!Persia.!! ! The! military! construction! experts,! who! specialised! in! hydraulics,! introduced! some! techniques! of! architecture! from! Parthia! upon! their! arrival! back! in! the! West,! after! Trajan’s! Parthian! wars.39A! type! of! vaulting! traditionally! referred! to,! as!“pitched`brick”!appeared!for!the!first!time!in!Roman!architecture!during!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35!HeritageHistory,!2007! 36!MetMuseum,!2000! 37!Suren`Pahlav,!2006! 38!HeritageHistory,!2007!! 39!Lancaster,!2010,!P447!!

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first! half! of! second! century! CE! in! Greece.40!This! method! eventually! became! a! common! vaulting! technique! in! Byzantine! architecture.! According! to! Oscar! Reuther,!a!German!architectural!Historian!(1880`1954),!“the!pitched!brick!vault! has!long!been!considered!a!characteristic!of!Parthian!architecture’.41! ! The!term!“pitched`brick!vaulting”!refers!to!a!method!in!which!bricks!are!placed! side!by!side!and!slightly!inclined,!rather!than!being!set!radially.!(Ill!11)!This!term! was!created!originally!to!describe!a!technique!of!mud`brick!vaulting,!which!was!

Ill!11.!Examples!of!brick!vaulting!techniques:!left,!pitched!mud`brick!vault;!right,!vault!with! combination!of!radial!and!vertical!fired!bricks.!!

! used! to! build! vaults! without! wooden! centring.! The! first! ring! of! bricks! was! set! slightly! angled! against! the! back! wall! of! a! structure,! and! then! subsequent! rings! were!added!by!“gluing”!them!with!quick`drying!mortar.!The!bricks!were!set!edge! to! edge,! and! were! typically! inclined! to! help! prevent! them! from! sliding! down! before!the!mortar!had!set.42! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40!Lancaster,!2010,!P447! 41!Kawami,!1982,!P61! 42!Ward`Perkins,!1958,!P52`104!

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The!use!of!pre`formed,!curved!bricks,!usually!set`pitched,!occurs!in!both!Persia! and!Egypt.!The!map!below!shows!the!sites!with!brick!vaults!in!use.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Map!of!Egypt!and!Parthia/Iran,!showing!sites!mentioned!above!in!the!text.!(Broken! lines!indicate!modern!country!borders)!

Examining! the! comparison! of! construction! details! suggests! that! the! precedents! for! the! Roman! vaults! come! from! Mesopotamia! and! Iran! (Ancient! Persia).! The! defining! characteristics! are43;! first,! the! use! of! the! pre`formed! curved! bricks! to! create!the!three`brick!arches,!which!can!be!seen!in!Athens!and!Eleusis;!secondly,! the! setting! of! the! bricks! vertically,! rather! than! pitched,! which! can! be! seen! in! Athens,! Eleusis,! Argos! and! Gortyn;! thirdly,! the! combined! use! of! radial! bricks! at! the!haunches!and!vertical!bricks!at!the!crown!of!barrel!vaults,!which!can!be!seen! in!Argos.!44! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 43!Van!Beek,!1987! 44!Lancaster,!2010,!P459!!

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Each! of! the! characteristics! mentioned! has! models! in! Parthian! architecture,! centuries!before!their!adoption!in!the!Roman!examples,!whereas!only!two!of!the! characteristics!mentioned!above!have!examples!in!Egyptian!architecture.45!This! in!itself!proves!the!adoption!of!Parthian!vaults!by!Romans!in!Greece.!! ! The! earliest! reliable! data! example! of! vertical! brick`vaulting! in! Greece! occurs! in! some!channels!of!the!Roman!aqueduct!at!Athens,!which!was!installed!by!Hadrian! and! dedicated! by! Antoninus! Pius! in! 140! CE! (Ill! 12A).! The! channels! are! usually! quite! small! (60`70cm! internal! span);! therefore,! by! gluing! the! bricks! one! ring! against! another! with! mortar,! the! builders! were! able! to! create! a! continuous! tunnel!without!building!a!wooden!form.46! ! Examples! have! been! found! both! outside! the! city! and! in! the! urban! distribution! system.! This! example! is!critical!for!the!dating,!because!it! is!in!a!context!that!must!be!part!of! the! original! Hadrianic! project.! Similar! curved! bricks! were! also! used! for! the! vertical! access! shafts! by! putting! six! together! to! form! a!

Ill!12!Hadrianic!aqueduct!at!Athens:!A,!Three!brick! vault!of!channel;!B,!underground!section!of!channel;!C,! vertical!access!shaft!made!of!six!curved!bricks!(Ziller! 1877)!

circle!(Ill!12C).47! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45!Lancaster,!2010,!P459! 46!Ibis,!P446! 47!Ibis,!P449!

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Another!example!of!Parthian!vaulting!in!Greece!is!the!use!of!three`brick!vaulted! channels!in!Eleusis,!20km!west!of!Athens,!identical!to!those!in!Athens.!!The!brick` vaulted!channels!occur!within!the!Propylaea!toward!the!south.!It!breaks!off!just! before!it!reaches!a!channel!that!ran!along!the!east!and!south!foundations!of!the! Lesser!Propylaea!(Ills!13!and!14).!48!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Ill!13!Plan!of!Roman!Eleusis!indicating!the!locations!of!three`brick!block!channels!and! structures!mentioned!in!the!text:!A,!Lesser!Propylaea;!B,!Greater!Propylaea;!C,!arches;!D,! Temple!of!Artemis;!E,!forecourt!fountain;!F,!Roman!Bath;!G,!Fountain;!H,!cisterns.!!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ill!14,!Eleusis.!A!three!â&#x20AC;&#x201C;!brick!channel!near!Lesser!Propylaea!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48!Lancaster,!2010,!P452!

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In!the!Near!East,!in!Mesopotamia!and!Ancient!Iran!(Persia),!the!three`brick!arch! construction! appears! to! be! originated! from! the! use! of! long,! prefabricated! mud` brick!struts,!which!was!particularly!common.!The!earliest!examples!in!the!Near! East!occur!at!Tepe!Nush`i!Jan!in!Iran!in!the!eighth`sixth!century!BCE.49!(Ill!15)!

Ill!15,!Tepe!Nush`i!Jan.!Plan!showing!the!four!principle!buildings:!1)!the!Central!Temple,!2)!the! Western!Temple!(the!Old!Western!Building),!3)!the!Fort,!4)!the!Columned!Hall!!

! The!three`brick!arch!construction!continued!being!used!later!in!the!6th!century! BCE.!The!next!step!in!the!development!of!modular!pieces!was!to!create!an!arch!of! three!curving!bricks.!An!example!can!be!seen!in!the!1st!century!BCE!in!a!vault!in! the!Parthian!funerary!structure!at!Shahr`i`Qumis!in!Northern!Iran!(Ill!16).!This! technique! is! also! used! in! the! palace! at! Kuh`I! Khwaja! in! Southern! Iran,! where! examples!of!three`brick!and!five`!brick!arches!still!exist!today.!50! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49!El`Naggat!1999,!P85! 50!Ghanimati,!2000,!P144`145!

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Ill!16!Chart!showing!the!vaulting!techniques!used!in!Mesopotamia/Iran:!3S,! three!straight!bricks;!V,!Vertical!bricks;!C,!curved!bricks;!2C,!two!curved!bricks! struts;!3C,!Three!curved!bricks;!M,!mixed!radial!and!vertical!bricks;!P,!pitched! brick!

19!

The! second! defining! technique! found! in! the! Roman! examples! is! the! use! of! vertically! laid! fired! brick.! Examples! of! these! appear! in! both! Egypt! and! Mesopotamia/Iran.! In! Parthian! architecture,! vertically! laid! bricks! appear! much! later! that! they! did! in! Egypt.! Only! in! the! 1st! century! CE! did! the! use! of! vertically! laid! bricks! appear! in! Persia,! although! in! much! larger! scale! vaulting! than! appeared!in!Egypt.!The!most!advanced!example!occurred!at!the!Royal!Parthian! Palace! in! the! first! century! CE! in! a! pillared! hall! (Ills! 17! and! 18).! The! vaults! consisted! of! a! more! complex! arrangement! than! was! typical! for! simple! barrel! vaults.!These!vaults!are!no!longer!standing!today,!although,!after!the!excavations! carried!out!in!1930s,!it!is!thought!that!mud`brick!pillars!connected!by!fired!brick! arches,! the! largest! of! which! was! 5! metres! wide,! supported! a! series! of! three! parallel!barrel!vaults.!51! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ill!18.!Reconstruction!of!vaults!and!arches!in!pillared! hall!of!Parthian!royal!palace!(1st!century!C.E)!Ill:! Reuther,!1938!

Ill!17.!Reconstruction!of!Pillard!hall!of!royal!palace! !

! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51!Lancaster,!2010,!P463!

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The!third!defining!technique!employed!in!the!Roman!vaults!is!the!combined!use! of!radial!bricks!at!the!haunch!and!vertical!bricks!at!the!crown.!Examples!of!this! type!of!vaulting!can!be!found!at!Argos!in!the!agora!drains!(Ill!19)!and!in!the!later! substructures! of! the! Phase! 2! baths! (Ill! 20).! This! is! the! most! diagnostic! of! the! three!characteristics!as!it!only!appears!in!the!Parthian!vaults!and!later!Sassanid! (Sassanian)!vaults,!but!never!in!Egyptian!ones.!The!characteristic!that!was!also! most! commonly! adopted! in! Roman! barrel! vaults! in! Asia! Minor! during! the! later! 2nd!and!3rd!centuries!CE.!52! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ill!19.!Argos!`!Excavation!photograph!of!drain!near!prostyle! ! building.!Note!the!traces!of!vertical!bricks!at!crown!(Feissel! 1978,!fig32;!©!École!Français!d’aAthènes)!

! !

Ill!20.!Argos!`!View!of!vault!of!south! substructure!of!bath,!showing!radial!bricks!at! haunch!and!vertical!bricks!at!crown,!with! impressions!of!formwork!boards!underneath.!

When!examining!the!evidence!of!Parthian!vaulting!found!in!Greece,!it!is!obvious! that! the! Romans! adopted! the! vaulting! techniques! and! then! used! them! in! construction! in! Greece! while! they! were! in! power.! This! suggests! a! direct! link! between!military!intervention!and!military!building!expertise.!

% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52!Lancaster,!2009!P381`390!

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Chapter%Three:% Influences%of%Sassanid%architecture%on%Gothic%architecture% %

The!Sassanid!Dynasty!was!the!last!kingdom!of!Ancient!Persia!before!the!arrival! of!Arabs.!It!ruled!Persia!for!about!400!years!from!the!second!half!of!3rd!century! up!to!the!7th!century!CE.!This!period!is!where!the!origin!of!some!great!changes!in! the! field! of! architecture! occurred! in! both! the! Eastern! World! and! the! Western! World.53% ! During!the!Parthian!Dynasty,!the!people!of!the!Near!East!interpreted!Hellenistic! art!and!architecture!freely.!However,!throughout!the!Sassanid!Period!there!was!a! reaction! against! this.! Consequently,! to! prevent! Hellenistic! influences,! Sassanid! art! revived! forms! and! traditions! native! to! Persia! and! during! the! Islamic! Period! these! forms! reached! the! West. 54 !Some! excellent! examples! of! Sassanid! architecture! include! the! magnificent! palaces;! Firouzabad! (Ill! 21! and! 22)! and! Bishapour!(Ill!23!and!24).!!These!palaces!all!included!barrel`vaulted!Iwan,!which! was!introduced!from!the!Parthian!period.!However,!in!the!Sassanid!era,!the!use! of!vaulted!Iwan!was!extended!and!reached!massive!proportions,!particularly!at! Ctesiphon!(present!day!Baghdad,!Iraq),!the!royal!capital!of!the!Sassanid!Dynasty.! These! great! structures! fascinated! architects! in! the! centuries! that! followed! and! have! always! been! considered! as! some! of! the! most! important! pieces! of! architecture.55! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 53!Bier,!2006! 54!Rastani,!2010! 55!Rastani,!2010!

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Ill!21!and!22.!Images!of!Palace!of!Firouzabad!(3rd!century!AD),!Barrel!vaults!and! horseshoe!arch!

ashir I, Palace (3rd century AD.), Barrel vault, Horseshoe arch, abad, Photo! by the author. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ur I, Kazerun, 3rd century A.D Photo by the author. rd Ills!23!and!24.!Images!showing!palace!of!Bishapour!(3 rd !century!AD),!!Semi!circular! vault!sand!arches!

2-6b. Bishapur Hall, Shapur I, Kazerun, 3 century A.D Photo by the au ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! h on the wall of the city of Bishapur 24! , Photo by the author.

emi-circular vault and arch on the wall of the city of Bishapur , Photo by

Sassanid! architecture! is! usually! comprised! of! four! techniques;! firstly! there! are! the!vaulted(constructions.!Sassanid!vaulting!techniques!depended!largely!on!the! special!qualities!of!gypsum!mortar!which!allowed!vaulting!without!centering!due! to! its! short! setting! time.! Barrel! vaults! with! pitched! courses! were! the! most! common!technique!used.!They!owed!their!oval!shape,!and!their!significant!step` out!above!the!impost!to!this!technical!procedure.56! Secondly,! domed( constructions;! the! spread! of! the! dome! on! squinches! above! a! square!hall!is!regarded!as!the!most!significant!Sassanid!contribution!to!the!world! of! architecture.! This! most! uncomplicated! and! solid! of! all! constructive! systems! already!appears!fully!developed!in!the!buildings!of!Firouzabad.57! Thirdly,!Columns(and(other(supporting(constructions;!with!the!introduction!of! far`spanning! vaults,! the! use! of! columns! as! constructive! elements! was! widely! rejected.! At! Bishapour! (260)! there! are! examples! of! archaizing! slender! columns! with! bases,! capitals,! and! sometimes`fluted! shafts! that! maintain! Achaemenid! traditions.! Most! often,! the! column! was! transformed! into! a! massive,! round! or! rectangular! pillar! suitable! for! vaulted! masonry! constructions.! Nonetheless,! the! typical!supporting!elements!remained!the!massive!wall,!and!pillars.58!! Fourthly,! constructive( and( decorative( details;! clay! remained! the! main! coating! material! for! flat! and! vaulted! roofs! and! floors! during! Sassanid! era.! Floors! and! roofs!were!frequently!covered!with!gypsum!plaster,!stone!or!in!rare!cases!with! foreign`influenced! mosaics.! The! traditional! stepped! revetment! remained! a! favourite!decorative!element,!normally!with!four!rectangular!stages,!which!were!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 56!Creswell,!1969,!P544! 57!Rosinthal,!1928,!P43! 58!Huff,!2005!

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already! becoming! dovetailed,! as! in! the! late! Sassanid! monuments.59!At! least! one! of!the!characteristics!above!can!be!found!in!any!style!of!Gothic!architecture.60!! ! In! a! letter! which! was! written! at! the! opening! of! a! Persian! Art! Exhibition,! Dr! Arthur! Pope! (1881`1969),! an! American! archaeologist! and! historian! wrote:! “…# European#Gothic#architecture#owes#its#origin#to#Iran.##Here#is#the#beginning#of#the# ogival#vault,#and#of#the#vault#carried#on#piers#with#the#weight#resting#on#the#axes,# the#interspaces#being#merely#shells.#A#little#later#the#beginning#of#real#ribs#appears.# Meanwhile,#the#ogival#vault#has#been#fully#developed,#and#on#the#exterior#there#are# traces#of#rudimentary#buttresses,#and#all#these#appear#anywhere#from#two,#three#or# even# four# centuries# before# any# such# manifestations# can# be# found# in# Europe…”# Dr.! Pope!also!points!out!that!some!of!the!domed!vaults!are!markedly!close,!not!only! in!form,!but!also!in!specific!details!of!construction,!to!Romanesque!domed!vaults! in!both!Spain!and!Italy,!which!are!important!steps!in!the!evolution!of!European! architecture.61! ! It!is!not!surprising!that!Gothic!vaulting!can!be!traced!back!to!medieval!Persia,!as! French!culture!of!the!12th!and!13th!centuries!adopted!forms!of!construction!from! the! Islamic! world.62Dr.! Pope! was! convinced! of! the! Persian! origins! of! Gothic! architecture.!He!probably!discovered!evidence!of!visits!of!church!architects!from! Europe!to!the!east!in!some!medieval!records.63According!to!Dr.!Pope,!the!origins! of!the!“Gothic”!pointed!arches!were!first!seen!at!the!Tarikh!Khaneh!at!Damaghan! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 59Thompson,!1976,!P159! 60Briggs,!1933,!P183`191! 61Ibis,!P183! 62Ibis!!!! 63Ibis!!!

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in! the! Northern! Persia! (Ill! 25).! Tarikh! Khane,! or! â&#x20AC;&#x153;House! of! Godâ&#x20AC;?,! is! the! oldest! existing! mosque! in! Iran.! It! incorporates! a! simple! Arab! plan! with! Sassanid! construction!techniques.64!According!to!Dr.!Erich!Schmidt,!this!monument!dated! back! to! c700! CE.65!This! clearly! provides! evidence! of! a! trend! towards! a! Gothic! type!of!construction.!! !

Gothic Architecture and Persian Origins

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Vista of

A-The Khaneh at Northern Persia. Tari Damghan, (kh) Mosque arches and columns showing pendentive. Date c. 7oo

Plate I.

! !

B-The Masjid i-Jum'a (or " F Smaller dome-chamber, dated io

Ill!25.!The!Tarikh!khaneh!Mosque!at!Damghan,!Northern!Persia!(C700).!Vista!of! arches!and!columns!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 64Briggs,!1933,!P183`184!! 65Ibis,!P184!!

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The!ogival!vault!as!Dr.!Pope!referred!to,!or!the!pointed!brick!barrel`vault,!seems! to! appear! in! some! ancient! monuments! in! Persia.! In! Masjidì! Jumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;a! at! Isfahan! (1088),! an! extraordinary! building! that! was! mainly! constructed! at! the! end! of! eleventh!century,!and!in!some!later!examples!such!as!Friday!Mosque!at!Ardistan,! the! pointed! brick! barrel`vault! can! be! seen! (Ill! 26).! In! Europe! there! are! pointed! stone!barrel`vaults!from!very!early!dates!`!for!example!the!nave!of!Notre!Dame! des!Domes!at!Avignon,!which!Fergusson!ascribed!to!the!late!11th!or!early!12th! century;!over!the!nave!of!the!cathedral!at!Autun,!dated!1119`1132!by!Baum;!and! in!the!church!of!San!Tirso!at!Oviedo!in!Northern!Spain,!which!may!date!back!to! before!the!11th!Century.66!If!we!take!the!date!of!Masjidì!Jomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;a!as!1088!(late!11th! century)!and!the!church!and!cathedrals!mentioned!as!early!12th!century,!we!can! argue! that! the! Sassanid! vaults! influenced! the! vaults! in! the! West.! On! the! other! hand,! it! can! be! argued! that! this! does! not! definitely! pre`date! the! European! examples!mentioned.!Equally,!it!can!be!argued!that!the!PreÌslamic!vaults!of!the! Sassanid!palaces!at!Firouzabad!and!Sarvistan!in!Persia!were!constructed!around! the!3rd!or!4th!century!CE,!years!before!anything!similar!in!Europe!was!built.!67! ! To!claim!that!Persian!architects!anticipated!the!use!of!ribs!in!vaulting,!centuries! before!it!was!began!in!Europe!demands!very!careful!consideration.!Certainly!the! brick!vaults!of!the!Friday!Mosque!at!Isfahan,!which!was!illustrated!in!some!of!Dr.! Popeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s!photographs,!display!great!skills!in!this!matter,!and!we!may!accept!their! attribution! to! the! late! 11th! century,! which! is! at! least! a! century! before! ribbed!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 66Briggs,!1933,!P184! 67Ibis!

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vaults!appeared!in!Europe.!On!this!assumption,!we!can!argue!that!Europe!must! have!borrowed!this!important!structural!feature!from!the!East.68! !

Ill!26.!The!Masjid!i`Jomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;a!(or!Friday!Mosque)!at!Ardistam!(late!11th!century).! Angle!of!Dome!Chamber!â&#x20AC;&#x201C;!Image!showing!pointed!brick!barrel`vault!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 68!Briggs,!1933,!P183`191!

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Chapter%Four:% Influences%of%Safavid%(Islamic)%architecture%on%Venice

% %

The! Muslim! conquest! of! Persia! led! to! the! end! of! Sassanid! empire! and! the! beginning!of!Safavid!era,!the!first!Islamic!era!in!1501.69!Before!understanding!the! relationship! between! Islamic! architecture! and! Venice,! it! is! essential! to! understand! the! influences! that! Sassanid! Architecture! had! upon! the! Islamic! world.!The!influences!of!Sassanid!architecture!reached!far!beyond!their!borders! as! it! had! a! distinctive! influence! on! Islamic! architecture.! In! fact,! Islamic! architecture!was!heavily!influenced!by!Persian!architecture.!Examples!of!this!can! be! found! in! Baghdad,! Iraq.! As! it! has! often! been! affirmed! Baghdad! was! based! upon! Persian! precedents! such! as! Firouzabad;! a! former! Sassanid! capital! which! was! highlighted! in! the! previous! chapter.! Furthermore,! the! Great! Mosque! of! Samarra!from!the!Sassanid!era!in!Firouzabad,!where!this!spiral!fire!temple!tower! was! at! the! centre! of! the! circular! city.! These! examples! are! evidence! of! the! influences!that!Sassanid!architecture!had!on!the!early!Islamic!period.!70! ! It!would!appear!that!the!pre`Islamic!Arabs!had!the!crudest!nations!of!buildings.! This!is!due!to!their!principal!sanctuary!before!608!being!nothing!more!than!four! walls.! Additionally,! in! the! early! days! of! Islam! Arabs! brought! nothing! architectural!to!the!conquered!countries!beyond!what!would!serve!their!simple! ritual! requirements.71!As! it! has! been! cited! by! K.A.C! Creswell! (1958),! Richmond! expressed! that! Islamic! architectural! resources,! before! they! â&#x20AC;&#x153;started! on! their! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 69!BBC,!2009! 70!Bier,!2006! 71!Cresswell,!1958,!P15!

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career! of! conquest,! were! barely! enough! to! give! the! rudest! expression! to! their! needsâ&#x20AC;?.! For! generations! the! Arabs! remained! quite! untouched! by! any! architectural! ambitions! and! showed! no! desire! to! make! use! of! the! developed! architectural!talent!of!the!conquered!peoples.!When!they!did!begin!to!feel!such! ambitions! it! was! mainly! for! political! reasons.! Subsequently,! they! turned! to! Sassanid!architects!on!the!Mesopotamian!front.!72! ! Venice!was!found!in!the!7th!Century!and!it!grew!to!be!one!of!the!largest!cities!in! Europe!and!the!capital!of!a!great!trading!empire!whose!reach!extended!far!into! the!eastern!Mediterranean.!Venice!initially!had!strong!political!ties!to!Byzantium,! as! the! Byzantium! Empire! gradually! gave! way! to! Islamic! caliphates! from! the! 8th! century!onward.!Byzantium!met!its!ultimate!demise!in!1453!at!the!hands!of!the! Ottoman! sultan! Mehmet! II.! Consequently,! Venetians! increasingly! came! into! contact!with!Muslims!and!their!ideas,!culture!and!ways!of!life.!As!a!result,!Venice! became!Christian!Europeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s!most!important!interface!with!the!Muslim!civilization! of! the! Near! East.! The! artistic! consequences! of! the! dynamic! relationship! that! Venice!forged!with!its!Islamic!trading!partners,!especially!the!Mamluks!of!Egypt! and!Syria,!the!Ottomans!of!Turkey!and!the!Safavids!of!Iran,!were!felt!over!nearly! a!thousand`!year!period.73!! ! There! are! initial! observations! in! the! huge! and! highly! complex! field! of! east! and! west! relations! in! the! Middle! Ages.! There! is! much! to! understand! regarding! the! Venetian! attitudes! towards! Islam,! and! the! ways! which! Islamic! characteristics! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 72!Cresswell,!1958,!P16! 73!Metmuseum,!2004!

31!

became! woven! in! the! city’s! urban! fabric.74!Although! the! city’s! architecture! was! complete!with!the!Venetian!adaptation!of!Islamic!characteristics;!there!is!no!doubt!of!

the! potency! of! the! imagery! during! the! centuries! of! Venetian! dominance! in! Levantinde! trade. 75!It! is! imperative! to! note! the! high! civilization! during! this! period;! Venetians! who! spent! time! in! the! Eastern! Mediterranean! would! have! naturally! wished! to! emulate! these! qualities.! As! Venetian! art! historian,! Giusepe! Fiocco!(1884!–!1971)!wrote:!“Thus!Venice!found!her!“vocation”,!her!own!voice,! infusing! her! heritage! with! reminiscences! of! the! Islamic! world…! themes! that! made!her!ever!more!responsive!to!the!quality!of!colour!and!light...”76!! ! After! the! Fourth! Crusade,! the! Venetians! added! their! interpretations! of! Islamic! architectural! elements! to! the! exterior! of! San! Marco! to! visually! represent! their! economic! relations! with! the! Middle! East.! (Ill! 27)! The! Islamic! architectural! and! ornamental! additions! were! not! derived! directly! from! the! source.! Alternatively,! they! were! Venetian! imitations! and! interpretations! of! architecture! and! ornamental!details!seen!by!Venetian!merchants!in!the!Middle!East.!These!Islamic! elements! represented! the! successful! mercantile! relations! of! Venice! with! the! Islamic! World,! and! symbolized! the! economic! power! of! Venice! in! the! Levantine! regions.! The! great! church! of! San! Marco,! a! gigantic! reliquary! for! the! precious! body! of! St! Mark! and! the! private! chapel! of! the! Doge,! is! possibly! the! most! conspicuously! oriental! building! in! Venice,! due! to! its! glittering! mosaics,! shimmering!marbles!and!exotic!skyline.!77!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 74!Howard,!1991,!P71! 75!Lewis,!1970! 76!Howard,!1991,!P71! 77!Howard,!1991,!P61!

32!

Ill!27.!The!image!is!showing!the!faĂ§ade!of!San!Marco!which!represents!some! Islamic!characteristics.!! ! Islamic!elements!that!are!evident!in!the!architecture!of!San!Marco!are!the!Domes,! the!Ogee!arches!above!the!Porta!Die!Fiori!(Ill!28),!the!window!to!the!Capella!Zen!! (Ill!29)!and!Porta!San!Alippio!(Ill!30),!and!finally!the!stone!grates!located!above! the! Porta! Sanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Alippio.!78!These! arches! around! San! Marco! present! imitations! of! Islamic! arches! found! on! both! secular! and! religious! buildings! throughout! the! Middle!East.!79!This!type!of!arch!was!not!found!on!any!other!European!structures! except!for!those!in!Venice,!and!differed!from!the!commonly!seen,!rounded!arches! of!the!West!with!a!Roman!precedence.80!In!the!13th!century,!the!ogee!arches!were! added!to!the!exterior!of!San!Marco!above!the!Porta!dei!Fiori!on!the!north!facade,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 78!Demus,!1960,!P104! 79!Och,!2010! 80!Howard,!2000,!P142!

33!

above!the!window!of!the!Capella!Zen!Chapel!on!the!west!façade,!and!above!the! Porta!San’!Alippio!on!the!West!facade.81! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ill!29.!Image!showing!ogee!arch!the!window! to!the!Capella!Zen!!ogee!arch!San!Marco!– Venice!(early!13th!Century)!

Ill!28.!Image!showing!ogee!arch!above!the!

! Porta!Die!Fiori!–!San!Marco!–Venice!(early! 13th!Century)!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ill!30.!Image!showing!ogee!arch!`!"Porta!San'!Alippio,"!(Early!13th!Century),!Venice.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 81!Och,!2010!

34!

Otto!Demus;!an!Austrian!art!historian!and!Byzantinist!(1902`1990)!pointed!out! the!similarities!between!the!stone!window!grilles,!in!particularly!those!over!the! Porta!Sant’Alippio!(Ill!31),!and!similar!windows!in!the!great!Umayyad!mosque!in! Damascus! (Ill! 32).! Designs! of! this! type! are! further! evident! in! the! tomb! of! the! Dogressa!Felicitas!Michiel!inside!the!narthex;!indeed!the!Islamic!tree!of!life!motif!

62 ARCHITECTURAL is!incorporated!into!its!decorative!stonework.82!!

HISTORY 34: 1991

Fig. I Por Marco, Ven probablythi

Fig. 2

Gre

Damascus, c

detailof win

! ! ! ! ! ! Ill!31.!!Window!grills!over!Porta!Sant’Alippio! th –!San!Marco!(Early!13 !Century)!

Ill!32.!Window!on!the!great!mosque! of!Damascus!(715)!

! It! is! important! to! admire! the! delicate! metalwork! lanterns! that! are! essentially! characterised! by! Islamic! metalwork.! Surprisingly,! the! presence! of! no! less! than! twenty`one! Islamic! objects! can! be! viewed! in! the! treasury! at! San! Marco.83!One! could! argue! that! Venetian! civilization! was! strongly! imbued! with! Byzantine! influence,!and!that!many!of!the!characteristics!of!Islamic!architecture!were!also! shared!by!and!indeed!grew!out!of!the!Byzantine!artistic!heritage.84!!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 82!Howard,!1991,!P63! 83!Perocco!et!al.,!1984! 84!Howard,!1991,!P60!

35! IY .

Fig. 3 Ent Tesoro, San probablythir

Fig. 4 Cer mihrabniche thirteenth-f (Paris, Mus D&oratifs)

Conclusion% To!conclude,!this!research!endeavoured!to!examine!and!illustrate!the!influences! which!Persian!architecture!had!upon!the!west!in:!Athens!during!the!Achaemenid! dynasty,!Roman!Greece!during!Parthian!dynasty,!on!Gothic!Architecture!during! Sassanid!dynasty!and!Islamic!influences!in!Venice!during!Safavid!dynasty.! ! It! is! clear! that! in! Athens! there! are! influences! of! Achaemenid! architecture.! Plutarch! stated! the! ‘Odeon! of! Athens! was! constructed! in! imitation! of! King! of! Persia’s! pavilion’.! After! Odeon! was! excavated,! the! measurements! and! the! number! of! columns! used! to! build! the! hall! were! too! similar! to! the! Hall! of! 100! columns!at!Persepolis!and!this!suggested!Greek!borrowings.!! ! The!Persian`Roman!wars!lasted!for!700!years,!from!53BCE!to!627CE.!During!this! period,! Romans! adopted! some! architectural! techniques! from! the! Parthian! dynasty! in! Persia! which! suggested! a! direct! link! between! military! intervention! and! military! building! expertise.! The! military! construction! experts! introduced! new!vaulting!techniques!–!‘pitched!brick’!`!upon!their!arrival!back!in!the!west.!As! Oscar! Reuther! suggested! ‘the! pitched! brick! vault! has! long! been! considered! a! characteristic!of!Parthian!architecture’.! ! During!Sassanid!period,!some!great!changes!in!the!field!of!architecture!occurred! in! the! Eastern! and! Western! World.! The! use! of! vaulting! from! Parthian! dynasty! was! expanded! during! this! period! and! later! used! in! the! West! in! construction! of! Gothic!architecture.!As!Dr!Pope!stated!‘…!European!Gothic!architecture!owes!its! origin!to!Iran.!!Here!is!the!beginning!of!the!ogival!vault…’! !

36!

After! the! Muslim! conquest! of! Persia! in! 1501! and! the! beginning! of! Safavid! Dynasty,! architecture! in! Persia! started! facing! a! new! direction.! It! became! more! about! the! domes! and! arches! rather! than! pictorial.! Venice! started! a! strong! relationship! through! trade! with! the! Eastern! Muslim! countries.! This! influenced! their!architecture,!as!they!wanted!to!show!this!relationship!in!their!buildings.!As! Demus! pointed! out,! Islamic! elements! are! evident! in! the! architecture! of! San! Marco;!these!include!the!domes,!ogee!arches!and!the!stone!window!grills.!! ! Overall,! this! investigation! has! been! positive! in! terms! of! finding! influences! from! Persian!architecture!upon!the!west.!This!demonstrates!that!Western!culture!and! architecture!derive!much!of!their!richness!and!characteristics!from!the!East.!! !

37!

Map%of%Achaemenid%Empire%(Ill%33)! % % %

38!

Map%of%Parthian%Empire%(Ill%34)% % %

39!

Map%of%Sassanid%Empire%(Ill%35)%

% !

% 40!

Map%of%Safavid%Empire%(Ill%36)%

41!

Persian%Empire%Timeline% !

Dynasty,%Ruler%or%Event% % % ! Birth%of%Zoroaster% % % ! Achaemenian%Dynasty% % % Cyrus%the%Great% % % First!to!extend!Persian!empire! % % Builder!of!Pasargad! % % Killed!in!battle!by!Queen!Tomyris!of!the!Massagetaes! % % Tomb!at!Pasargad! % % ! % Cambyses%(son%of%Cyrus)% % % Extended!empire!into!Egypt! % % ! % Darius%I% % % 28!year!old!royal!spear!bearer;!branch!of!Achaemenian!family! % % Married!widow!of!Cambyses!and!daughter!of!Cyrus! % % Put!down!internal!revolts;!carved!story!in!rock!at!Hamadan! % % Moved!into!Punjab,!in!present`day!India.! % % Using!chariots,!drove!into!Libya! % % Persian!army!reached!lower!Danube!``!height!of!Empire! % % Builder!of!Persepolis! % % Greek!victory!at!Battle!of!Marathon! % % Tomb!at!NaqshEe#Rostam! % % Ganjnameh!(Treasure!Book)!carvings!near!Hamadan# % % ! % Xerxes% % % Brought!foreign!architects!and!artisans!to!work!at!Persepolis! % % Marched!on!Greece;!defeated!Spartans!at!Thermopylae! % % Conquered!Athens!and!set!fire!to!the!Parthenon! % % Lost!navy!at!Battle!of!Salamis! % % Xerxes!murdered!by!a!palace!conspirator! % % Tomb!at!NaqshEe#Rostam! % % Ganjnameh!(Treasure!Book)!carvings!near!Hamadan# % % ! % Artaxerxes%I% % % Tomb!at!NaqshEe#Rostam! % % ! % Darius%II% % % Tomb!at!NaqshEe#Rostam! % % ! % Artaxerxes%II% % % Tomb!above!Persepolis! % % ! % Artaxerxes%III% % % Tomb!above!Persepolis! % % ! % Darius%III% % % Defeated!by!Alexander!the!Great! % % ! Alexander%the%Great% % % Crossed!Hellespont! % % Took,!looted!and!burned!Persepolis! % % ! Selucid%Dynasty%(founded%by%Alexander's%generals)% % % Anahita!Temple!in!Kangavar!from!Selucid!or!Parthian!times! % % ! Parthian%Dynasty% % % % Fought!and!kept!Romans!in!check!for!300!years! % % Developed!larger,!stronger!horses!mounted!w/!armor!and!archers!

42!

Begin% End% ! ! Sometime!between!10th! !and!7th!century!BCE! ! ! 560%BCE% 330%BCE% % % 559%BCE% 530%BCE% ! ! ! ! ! 530!BCE! ! ! ! ! 530%BCE% % ! ! ! ! 521%BCE% 486%BCE% ! ! ! ! ! ! 517!BCE! ! ! ! 512!BCE! ! 500!BCE! ! 490!BCE! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 486%BCE% 465%BCE% ! ! 481!BCE! ! ! ! 480!BCE! ! 465!BCE! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 465%BCE% 424%BCE%%?% ! ! ! ! 425%BCE%%?% 405%BCE% ! ! ! ! 405%BCE% 361%BCE% ! ! ! ! 361%BCE% 338%BCE% ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 332!BCE! ! ! ! ! ! 312%BCE% 44%BCE% % % ! ! 163%BCE% 224%CE% % % % % % %

% % Defeated!Mark!Anthony!and!killed!35,000!Romans!in!Azerbaijan! % % Fostered!development!of!Persian!miniature!painting! % % TakhtEe#Soleiman!(Solomon's!Throne)!used!as!Zoroastrian!fire!alter# % % ! Sassanian%Dynasty% % % % Renaissance!of!Persian!culture! % % Dome!and!vault!used!later!in!Islamic!architecture!developed! % % TakhtEe#Soleiman!(Solomon's!Throne)!used!as!Zoroastrian!fire!alter# % % Ruins!on!hill!of!Zoroastrian!Fire!Temple!from!Sassanian!era!outside!Isfahan! % % ! % Ardeshir%I% % % Defeated!Artabanus!V!(Ardavan),!last!Parthian!king!in!hand`to`hand!combat! % % Depicted!in!carvings!at!NaqshEe#Rostam!receiving!crown!from!Ahura!Mazda! % % !!!(Artabanus!V!and!Ahriman,!Zoroastrian!god!of!evil,!trampled!underfoot)! % % Zoroastrianism!becomes!state!religion! % % ! % Shapur%I% % % Roman!Emperor!Valerian!taken!prisoner!at!Edessa! % % Carving!at!NaqshEe#Rostam,#w/!Philip!the!Arab!(kneeling)!and!Valerian! % % Prophet!Mani!(b.!216)!spreads!concepts!of!Manichaeism!(duality!of!good!and!evil)! % % ! % Bahram%II% % % Depicted!in!carving!at!NaqshEe#Rostam,!w/!family!and!dignitaries! % % Also!at!NaqshEe#Rostam!on!horseback!in!combat! % % ! % Narseh% % % Depicted!at!NaqshEe#Rostam!receiving!crown!from!goddess!Anahita! % % ! % Hormizd%II% % % Depicted!at!NaqshEe#Rostam!on!horseback!toppling!enemy!w/!spear! % % ! % Shapur%II% % % Right!cave,!leaning!on!sword,!at!TaqEe#Bostan,!Kermanshah! % % Depicted!in!damaged!carving!at!NaqshEe#Rostam!leaning!on!sword! % % ! % Shapur%III% % % Right!cave,!leaning!on!sword,!at!TaqEe#Bostan,!Kermanshah! % % ! % Ardeshir%II% % % Depicted!receiving!crown!from!Ahura!Mazda!at!TaqEe#Bostan!in!Kermanshah! % % ! % Bahram%V% % % Built!small!palace!(or!hunting!lodge)!at!Sarvestan!(near!Shiraz)! % % ! % Peroz% % % Killed!by!Hephtalite!Huns!out!of!central!Asia! % % ! % Khosroe%(Khosrow)%I% % % Moved!capital!to!Cresiphon!in!Mesopotamia! % % "Spring!of!Khosrow,"!first!known!Persian!carpet;!90'!square! % % ! % Khosroe%(Khosrow)%II% % % Depicted!on!horse!(Shabdiz)!in!large!grotto!at!TaqEe#Bostan#in!Kermanshah! % % Renewed!empire!building;!drove!into!Byzantium!in!602;!Jerusalem!in!614! % % Drove!into!Alexandria!and!Egypt!in!619! % % Defeat!by!Byzantium;!king!abandons!Cresiphon;!beginning!of!end! % % ! % Yazdagird%III% % % Battle!at!Qadisiya!(on!Euphrates);!Gen.!Rustam!and!80,000!Persians!lose! % % Cresiphon!falls!to!Arabs;!Yazdagird!in!retreat! % % Arabs!win!at!Nihavand!(near!Hamadan)!opening!passes!thru!Zagros!to!Persia! % % Persians!lose!at!Istakhr!(in!Fars);!40,000!killed;!Arabs!take!Persepolis! % % ! Beginning%of%Arab%(and%Islamic)%domination% % % Persian!culture!led!Islamic!Empire!to!golden!age!of!8th!to!10th!centuries!

43!

36!BCE! ! ! ! 208%CE% % % % % % % 208%CE% 224!CE! % % % % 241%CE% 260!CE! ! ! ! 276%CE% % % ! 293%CE% ! ! 303%CE% ! ! 310%CE% ! ! ! 383!CE! ! ! 379%CE% ! ! 420%CE% ! ! 457%CE% % ! 531%CE% % ! ! 590%CE% ! ! ! 626!CE! ! 632%CE% 636!CE! 638!CE! 642!CE! 648`49!CE! ! 651%CE% !

% % % ! 637%CE% % % % % % % 241%CE% % % % % % 272%CE% % % % ! 293%CE% % % ! 302%CE% ! ! 309%CE% ! ! 379%CE% ! ! ! 388!CE! ! ! 383%CE% ! ! 440%CE% ! ! 484%CE% % ! 579%CE% ! ! ! 628%CE% ! ! ! ! ! 651%CE% ! ! ! ! ! ! !

% % Ali,!son`in`law!of!Prophet,!becomes!caliph!in!Kufa!(near!Basra)! % % Ali!assassinated!in!Kufa;!buried!in!Najaf!(now!in!Iraq)! % % Hussein,!2d!son!of!Ali,!challenges!Umayyad!rulers!in!Damascus! % % Hussein,!with!force!of!72,!slaughtered!by!Umayyad!army!in!Karbala!(Iraq)! % % Battle!of!Karbala!beginning!of!Shi'ism!as!separate!sect!from!Sunnis! % % ! Abbasid%Dynasty%defeats%Umayyad;%moves%capital%to%Baghdad% % % Abbasid!Dynasty!much!influenced!by!traditional!Persian!culture! % % Greek!works!translated!by!Persians!into!Arabic;!also!Persian!scientific!work! % % ! % % Eighth!Imam,!Reza,!died!of!suspected!poisoning!(buried!in!Mashhad)! % % Muhammad!al`Muntazar,!12th!or!Hidden!Imam,!goes!into!"occultation"! % % ! Buyids%(adherents%of%Shi'ism)%march%into%Baghdad% % % Buyids!establish!Qom!as!important!center!of!Shi'ism! % % ! Ghaznavid%Dynasty%(Turkic%speaking)% % % Persian!culture!flourishes! % % Ferdowsi!(b.!935)!writes!Shahnameh!(Book!of!Kings);!created!modern!Persian! % % GonbadEe#Kavus!(167!foot!tomb!tower)!built!1007# % % Tomb/tower!of!Arsalon!(10th!century!Turk,!General!of!Tus)!outside!Mashhad! % % ! Seljuq%Dynasty%(and%vizier%Nizam%aldMulk%(1020d1092)% % Toghrul%Beg% % AlpdArslan% % Mailk%Shah% % % Era!of!Omar!Khayyam!(and!historical!novel!Samarkand)! % % Khayyam!solved!quadratic!equation;!reformed!calendar! % % Seljuqs!elevated!Sufism!as!respected!part!of!Sunni!Islam! % % ! % % Dome!of!GonbadEe#Khaki#(1088)!in!Friday!Mosque!in!Isfahan! % % GonbadEe#Alavian!built!in!Hamadan!during!Seljuq!era# % % GonbadEe#Sorkh#(Red!Tomb)!(1147)!built!in!Maragheh# % % GonbadEe#Kabud#(1197)!built!in!Maragheh# % % PolEe#Shahrestan#(12th!century,!Seljuq,!bridge!over!river,!Zayendeh`rud!in!Isfahan)# % % West!evian!of!Friday!Mosque!in!Isfahan!w/!stalactites;!Seljuq!construction! % % North!evian!of!Friday!Mosque!in!Isfahan;!Sejuq!construction! % % ! Genghis%Khan's%Mongol%Army%captures%Khorassan% % % Every!person!in!Nishapur!beheaded;!heads!stacked!in!pyramids! % % ! Hulagu%Khan%(grandson%of%Genghis;%d.%1265)%subdues%all%of%Persia% % % Baghdad!captured;!caliph!put!to!death;!end!of!Abbasid!Caliphate! % % Massacred!up!to!800,000!in!Baghdad! % % Iran!becomes!an!"Ilkhanate,"!territory!of!Great!Khan!of!China! % % Not!until!mid`20th!century!did!Iran's!population!reach!pre`Mongol!levels! % % ! % Ghazan%Khan% % % ! % % GonbadEe#Khafariyeh!(1328)!built!in!Maragheh# % % Mausoleum!of!Sheikh!Safi!al`Din!(1252`1334)!``!important!Sufi!center! % % Shaking!Minarets!(menarEe#Jonban);!small!14th!c.!Mongol!mosque;!near!Isfahan! % % ! Tamerlane%(Timur%the%Lame;%d.%1405)%captures%eastern%Iran% % % Remainder!falls!a!few!years!later;!70,000!killed!in!sack!of!Isfahan! % % ! Timurid%Dynasty% % Shah%Rokh% % % Flourishing!of!arts,!especially!miniature!painting! % % ! % Jahan%Shah% % % Mausoleum!of!Shah!Nematollah!Vali!(d.1431)!in!Yazd! % % Mir#Chakhmaq!mosque!(1437)!in!Yazd# % % Blue#Mosque#(masjedEe#Kabud)#built#in#Tabriz#in#1465# % % ! % % Khanjor!tower!(GonbadEe#Khanjour?)!``!15th!century;!Timurid,!near!Mashhad!

44!

656!CE! 661!CE! ! 680!CE! ! ! 750%CE% ! 813!CE! ! 817!CE! 873!CE! ! 945%CE% ! ! 994%CE% ! 985!CE! ! ! ! 1045% 1038% 1063% 1072% % % % % % % % % ! ! ! ! 1221% % % 1256% 1258! ! ! ! ! 1295% % ! ! ! ! 1384% % ! 1405% 1405% ! ! 1436% % ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 833!CE! ! ! ! ! 1055% ! ! 1030% ! 1010! ! ! ! 1092% 1063% 1072% 1092% % % % % % % % % ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1304% % ! ! ! ! 1405% ! ! 1517% 1447% ! ! 1467% % ! ! ! !

South!evian!ceiling!(Timurid;!15th!c.)!at!Friday!Mosque!in!Isfahan!

! % % Safavid%Dynasty% % % % % % % % ! % Shah%Ismail% % % Origins!go!back!to!Sufi!order!centered!around!Ardabil! % % Shah!Ismail!declared!Shi'ism!as!the!official!religion! % % Over!next!8!years!subdued!all!of!Persia;!imposed!Shi'ism!thru!"example,!zeal! % % !!!massacre,!pillage!and!torture."! % % ! % Shah%Abbas%I% % % Signed!treaty!ceding!Azerbaijan!to!Ottoman!Turks!to!neutralize!external!threat! % % Encouraged!contacts!and!trade!w/!Europe;!another!"golden!age"! % % Abbas!furthered!secured!Shi'ism!as!state!religion! % % Fearing!a!conspiracy!to!overthrow!his!throne,!Abbas!murders!own!son! % % Another!son!suspected!of!conspiracy!is!blinded! % % Abbas!also!blinded!and!imprisoned!his!5th!son,!his!father!and!two!brothers! % % Capital!moved!to!Isfahan,!away!from!Ottomans;!massive!rebuilding!of!city! % % ! % % Ali#Qapu!Palace,!small!Timurid!palace!enlarged!by!Shah!Abbas!in!Isfahan# % % SiEoESe#pol!(Bridge!of!33!Arches,!aka#Allahverdi#Khan!Bridge)!(c.!1600)# % % Mosque!of!Sheikh!Lotfollah!(built,!1602`1619)!in!Imam!Square,!Isfahan! % % Imam!Mosque!(started!in!1611)!in!Imam!Square,!Isfahan! % % Mausoleum!of!Khaje!Rabi!(built!1617`1622!by!Shah!Abbas)!near!Mashhad! % % Chehel#Sotun!(40,!really!20,!columns)!finished!1647!in!Isfahan# % % PolEe#Khaju!(bridge!built!in!1650;!24!arches)!over!river!in!Isfahan# % % BaghEe#Fin!gardens!in!Kashan,!designed!for!Shah!Abbas!(buildings!now!Qajar)# % % West!evian!of!Friday!Mosque!in!Isfahan;!Seljuq!construction;!Safavid!redecoration! % % ! % Succession%of%weak%and%disconnected%rulers% % % ! Afghan%army%invades%Khorassan%and%captures%Isfahan;%rules%eastern%Iran% % Ashraf%Shah%(2d%ruler)%overthrown%by%Nader%Shah% % % ! Nader%Shah% % % Briefly!restored!Tahmasp!to!Safavid!throne!before!taking!power!himself!in!1736! % % Conquered!Afghanistan,!New!Delhi,!Bukhara!and!Khiva!(Jewels!from!India)! % % Cruel!and!dictatorial,!he!was!assassinated!in!1747! % % ! Karim%Khan%(and%Zands)%establishes%rule%in%Shiraz% % % Civil!wars!rip!Iran!apart!along!ethnic!lines! % % Last!Zand!surrenders!to!Agha!Muhammad!Khan! % % ! Qajar%Dynasty% % Agha%Muhammad%Khan% % % In!youth,!hostage!of!Zands;!castrated!and!caged! % % Unified!Persia!under!his!control;!crowned!Shah!in!Tehran!in!1796! % % Assassinated!by!own!servants! % % ! % Fath%Ali%Shah% % % Restored!Persian!elegance!and!grandeur!to!the!court! % % Portrait!painted!in!large!grotto!at!TaqEe#Bostan!in!Kermanshah! % % Iran!loses!first!war!to!Russia!and!Armenia,!Georgia!and!N.!Azerbaijan! % % Iran!loses!second!war!to!Russia!and!cede!southern!Caspian!shore! % % ! % Muhammad% % % Qajar!king!lays!claim!to!Herat!in!Afghanistan;!trounced!by!Great!Britain! % % Mirza!Ali!Muhammad!declares!himself!Mahdi;!creates!Bahai!faith! % % Bahais!considered!Shia!heresy;!deny!Muhammad!as!last!prophet!and!Koran! % % !!!as!the!final!revelation;!Mirza!executed!as!heretic!in!1850! % % ! % Naser%oddDin%Shah%

45!

1501% 1501% ! 1501! ! ! ! 1588% 1590! ! ! 1615! 1621! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1722% % ! 1736% % % ! ! 1750% 1779% 1795! ! 1795% 1796% % % 1797! % 1798% % ! 1813! 1828! % 1834% 1838% 1844! ! % % 1848%

1722% 1524% ! ! ! ! ! 1629% % ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1729% % ! 1747% % % ! ! 1779% 1795% % ! 1925% 1797% % % % % 1834% % ! ! ! % 1848% % % % % % 1896%

% % % % % % % % % % %

% Visited!Europe!several!times!and!started!"modernization"!of!Iran! % Tried!to!reclaim!Herat!for!Iran;!Britain!forces!entry!into!Iran!w/!Treaty!of!Paris! % Began!selling!"concessions"!to!European!companies! % Religious!fatva!against!tobacco!concession!sold!to!Britain! % Shah!assassinated!in!mosque!by!Muslim!objecting!to!Western!influence! % ! Muzzaffar%eddDin%Shah% % Pledged!Iranian!customs!receipts!as!collateral!for!Russian!loan! % Shah!gives!British!right!to!Iranian!oil! % Riots;!13,000`20,000!take!refuge!in!British!Embassy! % Constitution!and!inauguration!of!Majlis,#parliament!

% 1857! 1890! 1891! 1896! % 1896% 1900! 1901! 1906! 1906!

! % % ! % Muhammad%Ali%Shah% 1907% % % Russian!troops!defeat!protestors!at!mosque!and!Majlis;!end!of!parliament! 1908! % % ! ! % Sultan%Ahmed%Shah%(corpulent%12%year%son%of%Muhammad)% 1909% % % W.!Morgan!Shuster!attempts!to!reorganize!Iranian!finances;!ousted!by!Russians! 1911! % % Shah's!cabinet!backed!by!12,000!Russian!troops!overthrows!Majlis! 1911! % % British!Admiralty!converts!to!oil;!controls!much!of!southern!Iran! 1913! % % ! ! Pahlavi%Dynasty% 1925% % Reza%Shah% 1925% % % Little!known!military!officer,!Reza!Khan,!seizes!power! 1921! % % In!negotiations,!clergy!rejects!republic;!agrees!to!Reza!as!Shah! 1925! % % Declared!"Reza!Shah"!by!Majlis! 1925! % % Forced!"westernization"!of!Iran! ! % % Country's!name!changed!from!"Persia"!to!"Iran"! 1935! % % Various!moves!against!religious!authority;!wearing!of!veil!banned!in!1935! ! % % Shah's!troops!massacre!hundreds!of!protestors!in!Imam!Reza!Shrine!in!Mashhad! 1935! % % Britain!and!Russia!depose!Reza;!install!weak,!playboy!son!as!new!Shah! 1941! % % ! ! % Muhammad%Reza%Shah% 1941% % % Muhammad!Mossadeq!and!second!constitutional!revolution! 1951! % % Shah!flees!to!Rome,!but!is!reinstalled!with!American!CIA!help! 1953! % % SAVAK!(secret!police)!formed!w/!CIA!assistance.! 1957! % % "White!Revolution"!incenses!clergy;!Ayatollah!Khomeini!is!jailed!for!first!time! 1963! % % Iran!accepts!U.S.!"Status!of!Forces!Agreement,"!immunity!for!US!citizens!in!Iran! 1964! % % Khomeini!released!from!jail;!promptly!resumes!criticism!of!Shah!and!SOFA! 1964! % % Khomeini!exiled!to!Najaf,!in!Iraq!``!continues!criticism!w/!leaflets!and!cassettes! 1964! % % Shah's!grandiose!celebration!of!2,500!years!of!empire!at!Persepolis! 1971! % % Nixon!arms!Iran!to!counter!Soviet!influence!in!region;!Iran!buys!$4B!US!arms! 1972! % % Mid`70's!50,000!Americans!living!in!Iran;!"ugly!American"!incidents!protected!by!SOFA! % % SAVAK!increases!spying,!repression,!torture!and!killing!thru!1970's! ! % % SAVAK!arrests,!interrogates!and!tortures!Rafsanjani,!Montazeri!and!Khamenei! 1974! % % Economic!hardship;!inflation;!lower!oil!revenue;!spending!on!arms;!budget!deficit! 1975! % % Khomeini's!49`year!old!son!dies!suddenly;!SAVAK!suspected! 1977! % % Shah's!police!kill!hundreds!of!protestors!in!Qom,!Tabriz,!elsewhere! 1978! % % Khomeini's!exile!moved!to!Paris;!gains!access!to!international!press! 1978! % % Shah!flees!Jan!16;!Khomeini!arrives!Feb.!1;!Islamic!Revolution!begins! 1979! % % ! ! Islamic%Revolution%and%Establishment%of%Islamic%Republic% 1979% % % First!seizure!of!US!Embassy:!Feb.!14,!1979!``!militants!retreat! 2/14/1979! % % Seizure!of!US!Embassy:!Nov!4,!1979!after!Shah!admitted!to!US!for!treatment! 11/4/1979! % % Khomeini!used!seizure!to!unify!country!around!adoption!of!constitution! ! % % Saddam!Hussein!and!Iraq!invade!Iran! 9/22/1980! % % American!hostages!released! 1/20/1981! % % During!1981,!Mujahedin!assassinates!more!than!1,000!gov't!officials! ! % % 1985`1986!Iran!and!US!engage!in!"arms!for!hostages"!deals! ! % % July!3,!1988!USS!Vincennes!shoots!down!Iran!Air!655;!290!die! 7/3/1988! % % Iran!agrees!to!UN!resolution!to!end!war!with!Iraq;!750,000!Iranians!died! 7/18/1988! % % Khomeini!issues!fatva!against!Salman!Rushdie! 2/14/1989! % % Ayatollah!Khomeini!dies;!Khamenei!becomes!new!Supreme!Leader! 6/4/1989!

! ! !

46!

% % % % % % 1907% % % ! ! ! 1909% ! ! 1925% ! ! ! ! 1979% 1941% ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1979% 1953! % % % ! % % ! 1976! ! ! ! 1977! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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52!

Illustration!9:! Root,!M.C.!(1985).!The!Parthenon!Frieze!and!the!Apadana!Reliefs!at!Persepolis:! Reassessing!a!Programmatic!Relationship.!American#Journal#of#Archaeology.!89! (1),!105.! ! ! Illustration!10:! Jenkins,!I!et!al!(2009).!Explore#the#Parthenon.!London:!The!British!Museum.!25.! ! ! Illustration!11:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American#Journal#of# Archaeology.!114!(3),!449.! ! ! Illustration!12:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American#Journal#of# Archaeology.!114!(3),!444.! ! ! Illustration!13:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American#Journal#of# Archaeology.!114!(3),!449.! ! ! Illustration!14:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American!Journal!of! Archaeology.!114!(3),!452.! ! ! Illustration!15:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American!Journal!of! Archaeology.!114!(3),!452.! ! ! ! Illustration!16:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American!Journal!of! Archaeology.!114!(3),!462.! ! ! ! ! !

53!

Illustration!17:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American!Journal!of! Archaeology.!114!(3),!463.! ! ! Illustration!18:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American!Journal!of! Archaeology.!114!(3),!463.! ! ! Illustration!19:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American!Journal!of! Archaeology.!114!(3),!452.! ! ! Illustration!20:! Lancaster,!L.!(2010).!Parthian!Influence!on!Vaulting!in!Roman!Greece?!An! Inquiry!into!Technological!Exchange!Under!Hadrian.!American!Journal!of! Archaeology.!114!(3),!452.! ! ! Illustration!21:! Motlagh,!M!(2011).!Sassanian!Vaults,!Tarbiat!Modaress!University,!Tehran.!6.! ! ! Illustration!22:!! Motlagh,!M!(2011).!Sassanian!Vaults,!Tarbiat!Modaress!University,!Tehran.!6.! ! ! Illustration!23:!! Motlagh,!M!(2011).!Sassanian!Vaults,!Tarbiat!Modaress!University,!Tehran.!12.! ! ! Illustration!24:!! Motlagh,!M!(2011).!Sassanian!Vaults,!Tarbiat!Modaress!University,!Tehran.!12.! ! ! Illustration!25:! Briggs,!M.!(1933).!Gothic!Architecture!and!Persian!Origins.!The#Burlington# Magazine#for#Connoisseurs.!62!(2),!185.! ! ! Illustration!26:! Briggs,!M.!(1933).!Gothic!Architecture!and!Persian!Origins.!The#Burlington# Magazine#for#Connoisseurs.!62!(2),!186.! ! !

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Illustration!27:! http://www.girlsaresmarter.com/laura/Rome/dave.html! ! ! ! ! Illustration!28:! http://venice11.umwblogs.org/theògeeàrches/! (Last!accessed!on!the!28th!March!2012)! ! ! Illustration!29:! http://venice11.umwblogs.org/theògeeàrches/! (Last!accessed!on!the!28th!March!2012)! ! ! Illustration!30:! http://venice11.umwblogs.org/theògeeàrches/! (Last!accessed!on!the!28th!March!2012)! ! ! Illustration!31:! Howard,!D.!(1991).!Venice!and!Islam!in!the!Middle!Ages:!Some!Observations!on! the!Question!of!Architectural!Influence.!Architectural#History.!34!(`),!62.! ! ! Illustration!32:! Howard,!D.!(1991).!Venice!and!Islam!in!the!Middle!Ages:!Some!Observations!on! the!Question!of!Architectural!Influence.!Architectural#History.!34!(`),!62.! !

Illustration!33:! http://www.utexas.edu/courses/ancientfilmCC304/lecture15/detail.php?linenu m=7! (Last!accessed!on!the!3rd!January!2012)! ! ! Illustration!34:! http://www.livius.org/a/1/maps/parthia_map.jpg! Last!accessed!on!the!3rd!January!2012)! ! ! Illustration!35:! http://www.moddb.com/mods/theàgeòf`mankind`total` war/images/sassanidèmpire`map! (Last!accessed!on!the!3rd!January!2012)! ! ! ! !

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Illustration!36:! http://www.zonu.com/fullsizeèn/2010`01`05`11619/The`SafavidÈmpireòr` Safavid`Dynasty`1501`1722.html! (Last!accessed!on!the!3rd!January!2012)! !

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