Safalta.com - Best General Knowledge Book For All Government Exams

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General Knowledge For All Competitive Examinations

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lkekU; Kku

Hkkjrh; bfrgkl --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1&108

izkphu Hkkjr----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1&108 fo'o ,oa Hkkjr dk Hkwxksy----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------109&200

fo'o dk HkkSfrd ,oa vkfFkZd Hkwxksy--------------------------------------------------------------------------------109&111

lkS j e.My-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------111&117

i`Foh dh vkÑfr rFkk lajpuk---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------117&120

v{kka'k ,oa ns'kkUrj----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------120&121

pV~Vku----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11&24

iBkj ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 124&125

>hy ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 126&127

Tokykeq [ kh ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------127&128

ok;q e .My------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------128&130

lw ; Z r ki------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 130&130

ok;qnkc rFkk iou------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------131&133

izeq[k LFkkuh; iousa------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------133&134

vknZzrk vkSj o"kkZ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------134&135

ckny vkSj o"kZ.k------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135&136

egklkxjh; /kjk,a------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------137&137

tye.My------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 138&144

tSoe.My vkSj ifjfLFkfrdh--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------144&148

fo'o ds egk}hi------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------148&157

fo'o ds fofo/ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------rF;------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------157&162

Hkkjr dk Hkwxksy 163&&164

Hkw & vkÑfr -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------164&174

Hkkjrh; tyok;q ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 174&175

fefV~V;k¡-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------175&177

izkÑfrd ouLifr------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------177&178

oU; tho---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------178&185

Hkkjr esa Ñf"k-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------185&187

Hkkjr dh [kfut lEink---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------187&189

Hkkjr ds ize[q k m|ksx-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------189&195

ifjogu ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 195&200 Hkkjrh; jktO;oLFkk-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------201&260

lao/S kfud fodkl % laf{kIr :ijs[kk-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------201&204

Hkkjrh; lafo/ku dk fuekZ.k--------------------------------------------------------------------------------204&205

Hkkjrh; lafo/ku ds izeq[k lzksr-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------205&206 3

Hkkjrh; lafo/ku dh mísf'kdk----------------------------------------------------------------------------206&207 207&207 Hkkjrh; lafo/ku dh fo'ks"krk,a---------------------------------------------------------------------------Hkkjrh; ukxfjdrk % izkfIr ,oa vUr----------------------------------------------------------------------------208&209 ekSfyd vf/dkj--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------209&213 ekS f yd drZ O ; -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 213&214 jkT; ds uhfr&funs'kd rRo----------------------------------------------------------------------------214&215 la ? kh; dk;Z i kfydk--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------215&223 la ? kh; la l n ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 224&230 loks Z P p U;k;ky; ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------230&232 jkT; ljdkj-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------232&237 mPp U;k;ky; --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------237&240 v/huLFk U;k;ky;----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240&241 Hkkjr dh lao/S kfud laL------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Fkk,¡--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------241&242 lafo/kusÙkj vf/dj.k 243&245 bZ&xousZal (bZ&iz'kklu)-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------245&246 fuokZpu vk;ksx ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------246&250 iapk;rh jkt -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------250&254 jktHkk"kk-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 254&255 vkikr micU/----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 255&256 256&256 vUrjkZT;h; ifj"kn~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------la'kks/u dh izfØ;k-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 256&260 lafo/ku dh vuqlwfp;k¡ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------260&260 Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------261&304

ubZ vkfFkZd uhfr--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------268&270

fu/Zurk ,oa csjkstxkjh----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------270&275

Ñf"k {ks=k-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------275&277

m|ks x ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 277&282

jk"Vª h ; vk; ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------282&285

eqnzk ,oa cSafdax-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------285&293

ctV% vrhr ls orZeku rd-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------293&296

tux.kuk 2011--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------296&304 lkekU; foKku ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------305&416

HkkS f rd foKku --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 305&341

jlk;u foKku -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 341&372

tho foKku ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------373&411

dEI;w V j ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 411&416 fofo/ lkekU; Kku----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------417&477

vUrjkZ"Vªh; laxBu--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------417&425

fo'o esa izFke------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------425&427

Hkkjr esa izFke ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------427&431

varjkZ"Vªh; jktuhfrd rF; ,oa izrhd---------------------------------------------------------------------------432&433

jk"Vªh; izrhd ,oa fofo/ rF;-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------433&436

dyk laLÑfr---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------436&439

iqjLdkj&lEeku----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------441&449

[ksydwn-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------449&458

fofHkUu [ksyksa ls lacfa /r di ,oa VªkfiQ;k¡------------------------------------------------------------------------------459&460

foKku ,oa iz k S | ks f xdh ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 460&477 4

Hkkjrh; bfrgkl izkphu Hkkjr lkfgfR;d lk{;

bfrgkl ds Ïksr

• lkfgfR;d lk{; ds varxZr lkfgfR;d xzaFkksa ls izkIr lkefxz;ksa dk vè;;u fd;k tkrk gSA ;g nks izdkj ds gSaμèkk£ed lkfgR; ,oa ykSfdd lkfgR;A

èkk£ed lkfgR;

• èkk£ed lkfgR; ds varxZr czkã.k rFkk czkã.ksÙkj xzaFkksa dh ppkZ dh tk ldrh gSA • czkã.k xzaFkksa ds varxZr osn] mifu"kn~] jkek;.k] egkHkkjr] iqjk.k rFkk Le`fr xazFk vkrs gSA • czkã.ksÙkj lkfgR; ds varxZr ckS¼ rFkk tSu lkfgR; ls lacafèkr jpukvksa dk mYys[k fd;k tkrk gSA • osn% ;g Hkkjr dk loZizkphu èkeZ xzaFk gS ftlds ladyudrkZ eg£"k Ñ".kk}Sik;u osnO;kl dks ekuk tkrk gSA • osnksa dh la[;k pkj gSμ½Xosn] ;tqosZn] lkeosn rFkk vFkoZosnA bu pkjksa osnksa dks lafgrk dgk tkrk gSA • pkjksa osnksa esa lokZfèkd izkphu ½Xosn esa 10 e.My] 8 v"Vd] 10]600 ea=k ,oa 1028 lwDr gSaA • ½Xosn dk jpuk dky lkekU;r% 1500 bZñiwñ ls 1000 bZñiwñ ds chp ekuk tkrk gSA • ½Xosn dk nwljk ,oa lkroka e.My lokZfèkd izkphu rFkk igyk ,oa nloka e.My lcls ckn dk gSA • ½Xosn ds ukSosa e.My dks lkse eaMy Hkh dgk tkrk gSA • ½Xosn dh ekU; 5 'kk[kk,¡ gSaμ'kkdy] vk'oyk;u] ek.MwD;] 'ka[kk;u ,oa ok"dyA • ½Xosn ds 10osa e.My ds iq#"klqDr esa loZizFke o.kZ O;oLFkk dk mYys[k feyrk gSA • izfl¼ xk;=kh ea=k (lkfo=kh) dk mYys[k ½Xosn esa feyrk gSA • lkeosn dks Hkkjrh; laxhr dk ewy dgk tkrk gSA blesa eq[;r% ;Kksa ds volj ij xk;s tkus okys ea=kksa dk laxzg gSA lkeosn esa dqy 1549 ½pk;sa gSaA buesa ek=k 78 gh u;h gSa] 'ks"k ½Xosn ls yh x;h gSa • bl osn dh rhu eq[; 'kk[kk,¡ gSaμtSfeuh;] jk.kk;uh; rFkk dkSFkqeA • ;tqosZn esa ;Kksa ds fu;eksa ,oa fofèk&foèkkuksa dk ladyu feyrk gSA ;g ,dek=k ,slk osn gS tks i| ,oa x| nksuksa gh Hkk"kk esa fy[kk x;k gSA • bl osn ds nks Hkkx gSaμÑ".k ;tqosZn vkSj 'kqDy ;tqosZnA • Ñ".k ;tqosZn dh pkj 'kk[kk,¡ gSaμrSfÙkjh;] dkBd] dfi"By] eS=kk;.khA • 'kqDy ;tqosZn dh izèkku 'kk[kk,¡ ekè;fUnu rFkk dk.o gSaA • 'kqDy ;tqosZn ds laafgrkvksa ds jpf;rk otlus;h ds iq=k ;kKoYD; gSa] blfy, bls

vej mtkyk ifCyosG'kUl lkekU; Kku oklus;h lafgrk Hkh dgk tkrk gSA blesa oSfnd iqjksfgr dsoy ea=kksa dk lekos'k gSA iq j ks f gr os n • vFkoZosn esa lkekU; euq";ksa ds fopkjksa rFkk vaèkfo'olksa dk fooj.k feyrk gS] • gksr` ½Xosn ds iqjksfgr blesa dqy 20 e.My] 731½pk,a rFkk • mn~xkrk lkeosn ds iqjksfgr 5987 ea=k gSaA • vFkoZons esa ijhf{kr dks dq#vksa dk jktk • vèo;qZ ;tqosZn ds iqjksfgr dgk x;k gSA vFkoZosn ds iqjksfgr • mifu"kn~% bldk 'kkfCnd vFkZ gS lehi • czãk cSBukA blesa vkRek&ijekRek ,oa lalkj ds lUnHkZ eas izpfyr nk'kZfud fopkjksa dk laxzg gSA • mifu"kn~ osnksa dk vafre Hkkx gSA bls osnkUr Hkh dgk tkrk gSA • mifu"kn~ksa dh dqy la[;k 108 gSaA • izeq[k mifu"kn~ gSaμbZ'k] dB] dsu] eq.Md] ek.MqD;] iz'u] ,srjs;] rSfÙkjh;] NkUnksX;] o`gnkj.;d] 'osrk'oj] dkSf"krdh ,oa eS=kk;.khA • izfl¼ jk"Vªh; okD; ^lR;eso t;rs* eq.Mdksifu"kn~ ls fy;k x;k gSA • vkj.;d% ;g czkã.k xzaFkksa dk vafre Hkkx gS ftlesa nk'kZfud ,oa jgL;kRed fo"k;ksa dk o.kZu gSA budh jpuk ouksa esa i<+k;s tkus ds fufeÙk dh x;hA • izeq[k vkj.;d gSμ,srjs;] 'ka[kk;u] rSfÙkjh;] o`gnkj.;d] tSfeuh] NkUnksX;A • osnkax% osnksa dks Hkyh Hkk¡fr le>us ds fy, N% osnkaxksa dh jpuk dh xbZ gsA ;s osnksa ds 'kq¼ mPpkj.k rFkk ;Kkfn djus eas lgk;d FksA • iqjk.k% iqjk.kksa ds jpf;rk ykseg"kZ vFkok muds iq=k mxzJok dks ekuk tkrk gSA • iqjk.kksa dh la[;k 18 gSA vfèkdka'k iqjk.kksa dh jpuk rhljh pkSFkh 'krkCnh bZLoh esa dh xbZ FkhA • jkek;.k% ;g vkfn dkO; gS ftldh jpuk nwljh 'krkCnh ds yxHkx laLÑr Hkk"kk esa ckYehfd }kjk dh xbZ FkhA izkjEHk esa blesa 6000 'yksd Fks tks dkykarj esa 24]000 gks x,A bls prq£o'kfr lkgL=kh lafgrk Hkh dgk tkrk gSA • egkHkkjr% bl egkdkO; dh jpuk pkSFkh 'krkCnh ds yxHkx eg£"k O;kl }kjk dh xbZ FkhA izkjaHk esa blesa 8]800 'yksd Fks ftls t;lafgrk dgk tkrk Fkk] rRi'pkr~ blesa 'yksdksa dh la[;k 24]000 gks xbZ vkSj bls Hkkjr dgk tkus yxkA dkykarj esa blesa 'yksdksa dh la[;k ,d yk[k gks tkus ij egkHkkjr dYi lw=k ds izdkj ;k 'krlkgL=kh lafgrk dgk tkus yxkA lw=k fo'ks " krk • egkHkkjr dk izkjafHkd mYys[k vk'oyk;u x`glw=k esa feyrk gSA • Jksr lw=k ;K lacaèkh fu;eksa dk mYys[k • lw=k% bl lkfgR; dh jpuk bZñ • x`g lw=k euq " ;ks a ds ykS f dd rFkk iwoZ NBh 'krkCnh ds vkl&ikl ikjykSfdd dÙkZO;ksa ls lacafèkr dh xbZ FkhA lw=k xzFa kksa dks dYi Hkh dgk tkrk gSA • èkeZ lw=k lkekftd] èkk£ed ,oa jktuhfrd • dYi lw=k% ,sls lw=k ftuesa fu;eksa dÙkZO;ksa dk mYys[k ,oa fofèk dk izfriknu fd;k tkrk gS] dYilw=k dgykrs gSAa • 'kqYo lw=k cfy osnksa vkSj vfXu osnh dk • "kM~n'kZu% mifu"knksa ds n'kZu dks mYys[k Hkkjrh; us N% Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr 6

lkekU; Kku vej mtkyk ifCyosG'kUl fd;k gS ftls "kM~n'kZu dgk tkrk gSA blesa vkRek] ijekRek] thou vkSj e`R;q ls lacfa èkr nk'kZfudrk dk o.kZu gSA • Le`fr;k¡% osnkax vkSj lw=kksa ds ckn Le`fr;ksa dk mn; gqvkA bls èkeZ 'kkL=k Hkh dgk tkrk gSA • euqLe`fr ds Hkk";dkj Øe'k% gSμes?kkfrfFk] Hkk#fp] dqYywd HkV~V rFkk xksafon jk;A • ;kKoYD; Le`fr ds Hkk";dkj Øe'k% gSaμvijkdZ] fo'o:i ,oa foKkus'ojA ykSfdd lkfgR; • ykSfdd lkfgR; ds varxZr ,sfrgkfld ,oa v¼Z&,sfrgkfld xzaFkksa rFkk thofu;ksa dk mYys[k fd;k x;k gS ftuls Hkkjrh; bfrgkl tkuus esa dkiQh enn feyrh gSA • dkS f VY; (pk.kD;) jfpr Le`fr;k¡ ,oa muds o"kZ vFkZ'kkL=k ls ekS;d Z kyhu bfrgkl ,oa 'kklu O;oLFkk dh tkudkjh Le`fr;k¡ o"kZ izkIr gksrh gSA 200μ200 bZñiwñ • ,sfrgkfld jpukvksa esa lokZfèkd • euqLe`fr egÙo d'ehjh dfo dYg.k • ;kKoYD; Le`fr 100μ300 bZñiwñ }kjk fojfpr jktrjafx.kh dk gSA 300μ400 bZñiwñ • v¼Z&,sfrgkfld jpukvksa esa • ukjn Le`fr ikf.kuh dh v"Vkè;k;h] 300μ500 bZñiwñ d k R ; k ; u d k o k £ r d k ] • ijk'kj Le`fr xkxhZ l a f grk] ira t fy dk • c`gLifr Le`fr 300μ500 bZñiwñ egkHkk";] fo'kk[knÙk dk eqnzkjk{kl rFkk dkfynklÑr • dkY;k;u Le`fr 300μ600 bZñiwñ ekyfodkfXufe=k vkfn fo'ks"k :i ls mYys[kuh; gSaA • xkxhZlafgrk ;|fi ,d T;ksfr"k xzaFk gS rFkkfi blesa Hkkjr ij gksus okys ;ou vkØe.k dk mYys[k feyrk gSA • ,sfrgkfld thofu;ksa esa v'o?kks"k ds cq¼pfjr] ok.kHkV~V dk g"kZpfjr] okDifr dk xkSM+ogks] foYg.k dk foØekadnsopfjr] in~exqIr dk uolkg'kkadpfjr] t;kudÑr i`Fohjkt fot; bR;kfn mYys[kuh; gSA

fons'kh ;kf=k;ksa ds fooj.k

• fons'kh ;kf=k;ksa ds fooj.k lkfgfR;d lk{; ds varxZr vkrs gSaA buds fooj.k ls rRdkyhu lkekftd ,oa jktuhfrd voLFkk dk irk pyrk gSA • fonsf'k;ksa ds fooj.k dks rhu Hkkxksa esa ckaVk tkrk gSμ(i) ;wuku vkSj jkse ds ys[kdksa dk fooj.k (ii) phuh ;kf=k;ksa ds o`Ùkkar ,oa (iii) vjc ;kf=k;ksa ds o`ÙkkarA

;wuku ,oa jkse ds ys[kdksa dk fooj.k

• gsjksMksV~l% bls bfrgkl dk firk dgk tkrk gSA blus viuh iqLrd fgLVhfjdk esa ik¡poh 'krkCnh bZlk iwoZ ds Hkkjr iQkjl ds lacaèk dk o.kZu fd;k gSA • esxkLFkuht% ;g lsY;wdl fudsVj dk jktnwr Fkk tks pUnzxqIr ekS;z ds njckj esa vk;k FkkA blus ^bf.Mdk* uked vius xzFa k esa ekS;;Z xq hu lekt ,oa laLÑfr ds fo"k; esa fy[kk gSA • Mkbesdl% ;g lhfj;u ujs'k ,fUV;ksdl izFke dk jktnwr Fkk tks fcUnqlkj ds njckj esa vk;k FkkA • Mk;ksfufl;l% ;g feÏ ujs'k VkWyeh f}rh; fiQysMsYiQl dk jktnwr Fkk tks v'kksd ds njckj esa vk;k FkkA 7

vej mtkyk ifCyosG'kUl lkekU; Kku • VkWyeh% blus nwljh 'krkCnh bZñ ds yxHkx (150 bZñ)^Hkwxksy* uked xzFa k dh jpuk dh FkhA • fIyuh% blus ^uspqjy fgLVksfjdk* uked xzaFk dh jpuk izFke 'krkCnh bZLoh ds yxHkx dh FkhA blesa Hkkjrh; i'kqvksa] isM+&ikSèkksa] [kfut inkFkks± bR;kfn dk fooj.k fn;k x;k gSA

phuh ;kf=k;ksa dk o`Ùkkar

• phuh ;k=kh iQkáku] laqx;qu] àsulkax rFkk b¯Rlx ds fooj.k Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ds iqu£uekZ.k esa fo'ks"k mi;ksxh jgs gSaA • iQkáku% ;g xqIr ujs'k pUnzxqIr foØekfnR; (375&415 bZñ) ds njckj esa Hkkjr vk;k FkkA blus vius fooj.k esa eè;ns'k ds lekt ,oa laLÑfr dk o.kZu fd;k gS ftlesa eè; ns'k dh turk dks ^lw[kh ,oa le`¼* crk;k gSA • laqx;qu% ;g 518 bZñ esa Hkkjr vk;k FkkA blus vius rhu o"kks± dh ;k=kk esa ckS¼ xzaFkksa dh izfr;k¡ ,df=kr dhA • àsulkax% bls ;qokuOpkax ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA ;g g"kZo¼Zu ds le; 629 bZñ ds yxHkx Hkkjr vk;k Fkk tks ;gk¡ 16 o"kks± rd jgkA • àsulkax dk ;k=kk o`Urkar ^fl&;w&dh* uke ls tkuk tkrk gS ftlesa 138 ns'kksa dk fooj.k feyrk gSA • àsulkax dh thouh àhyh us fy[kh FkhA ;g àsulkax dk fe=k FkkA • b¯Rlx% ;g lkroha 'krkCnh ds var esa Hkkjr vk;k FkkA blus vius fooj.k esa ukyUnk fo'ofo|ky;] foØe'khyk fo'ofo|ky; rFkk vius le; ds Hkkjrh; n'kkvksa dk o.kZu fd;k gSA

vjc ;kf=k;ksa ds o`Ùkkar

• vjch ys[kdksa esa vyc:uh] vy fcyknqjh] lqyseku] vy elwnh] glu futke] iQfj'rk] futkeqíhu bR;kfn eqlyeku ys[kd gS ftudh Ñfr;ksa ls Hkkjrh; bfrgkl fo"k;d egÙoiw.kZ tkudkjh izkIr gksrh gSA • vyc:uh% bldk iwjk uke vcwjsgku eqgEen bCn vgen vyc:uh FkkA bldk tUe 973 bZñ esa [okfjTe ([khok) esa gqvk FkkA • ;g egewn xtuch ds lkFk Hkkjr vk;k FkkA ;g vjch iQkjlh ,oa laLÑr Hkk"kkvksa dk vPNk Kkrk FkkA • bCu[kqnkZo% blus uoha 'krh ds xazFk ^fdycqy&elkfyd oy eekfyd* esa Hkkjrh; lekt rFkk O;kikfjd ekxks± dk fooj.k fn;k gSA • vyelwnh% blus vius xzaFk ^eq:jt tgc* esa rRdkyhu Hkkjrh; lekt dk ltho fp=k.k fd;k gSA • lqyseku% blds fooj.k ls izfrgkj ,oa iky jktkvksa ds fo"k; esa tkudkjh izkIr gksrh gSA • ehj eqgEen elwe ds rkjh[k&,&fgUn ls flUèk ns'k ds bfrgkl rFkk eqgEen fcu dkfle dh liQyrkvksa dh tkudkjh izkIr gksrh gSA

iqjkrÙo lacaèkh lk{;

• iqjkrRo ds varxZr rhu izdkj ds lk{; vkrs gSaμvfHkys[k_ eqnzk ,oa LekjdA vfHkys [ k • vfHkys[k ik"kk.k f'kykvksa] LraHkksa] nhokjksa] eqnzkvksa ,oa rkezi=kksa ij [kqns tkrs FksA • vfHkys[kksa ds vè;;u dk iqjkys[k 'kkL=k dgrs gSA • lcls izkphu ds vfHkys[k eè; ,f'k;k ds cksxtdksbZ ls izkIr vfHkys[k gSA ftlesa fgrh ujs'k lfIyqY;qek rFkk fer=kh ujs'k efroktk ds chp lafèk dk mYys[k gSA 8

lkekU; Kku vej mtkyk ifCyosG'kUl • cksxtdksbZ vfHkys[k (,f'k;k ekbuj) yxHkx 1400 bZñiwñ dk vfHkys[k gS ftlesa oSfnd nsork bUnz] fe=k] o#.k ,oa uklR; ds uke feyrs gSaA egÙoiw.kZ vfHkys[k vfHkys [ k oa'k 'kkld • gkFkh xqEiQk vfHkys[k [kkjosy d¯yx ujs'k (frfFk jfgr vfHkys[k) • twukx<+ (fxjukj) vfHkys[k ;ou #nznkeu • ukfld vfHkys[k lkrokgu xkSreh cyJh • iz;kx LrEHk ys[k xqIr leqnzxqIr • ,sgksy vfHkys[k pkyqD; iqydsf'kuμII • eUnlkSj vfHkys[k ekyok ;'kksoeZu • Xokfy;j vfHkys[k izfrgkj Hkkst • fHkrjh ,oa twukx<+ vfHkys[k xqIr LdUnxqIr • nsoikM+k vfHkys[k lsuoa'k fot;lsu • Hkkxor èkeZ fodflr gksus dk izek.k ;ou jktnwr ^gksfy;ksMksjl* ds osluxj (fofn'kk) x#M+ LrEHk ys[k ls izkIr gksrk gSA • loZizFke ^Hkkjr o"kZ* dk mYys[k d¯yx ujs'k [kkjosy ds gkFkh xqEiQk vfHkys[k ls izkIr gksrk gSA • loZizFke nqfHkZ{k dh tkudkjh nsus okyk vfHkys[k lkSgxkSjk vfHkys[k gSA • loZizFke Hkkjr ij gksus okys gw.k vkØe.k dh tkudkjh LdanxqIr ds Hkhrjh LraHk ys[k ls izkIr gksrh gSA • lrh izFkk dk igyk lk{; 510 bZñ ds ,j.k vfHkys[k (lsukifr Hkkuw xqIr) ls izkIr gksrh gSA • js'ke cqudj dh Jsf.k;ksa dh tkudkjh eanlkSj vfHkys[k ls izkIr gksrh gSA

eq æ k

• ;|fi Hkkjr esa flDdksa dh izkfIr vkBoha 'krkCnh bZñiwñ ls gh feyrh gS rFkkfi bZlk iwñ NBh 'krkCnh ls fu;fer flDds feyus ls izkIr gks tkrh gSA • izkphure flDdksa dks vkgr flDds (Punch Marked Coins) dgk tkrk gS] lkfgfR;d xzaFkksa eas bUgsa dk"kkZi.k] iqjk.k] èkj.k] 'kreku vkfn ukeksa ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA • vkgr flDds vfèkdka'kr% pkanh ds VqdM+s gSa ftu ij fofoèk vkÑfr;k¡ vafdr dh xbZ gSaA • flDdksa ij ys[k fy[kokus dk dk;Z loZizFke ;ou 'kkldksa us fd;kA • izkphu Hkkjr ds x.kjkT;ksa dks vfLrRo eqnzkvksa ls gh izekf.kr gksrk gSA • dfu"d ds flDdksa ls gesa mlds ckS¼ èkeZ ds vuq;k;h gksus dk irk pyrk gSA • loZizFke flDdksa ij ys[k fy[kus dk dk;Z ;ou 'kkldksa us fd;kA

izkxSfrgkfld dky

• ftl dky ds bfrgkl dk fyf[kr fooj.k ugha feyrk gS] og dky izkxSfrgkfld dky dgykrk gS] tSlsμik"k.k dkyhu bfrgklA • ftl dky ds fyf[kr fooj.k rks feyrs gSa ysfdu mldk vFkZ Li"V ugha gks ldk gS] og dky vk| ,sfrgkfld dky dgykrk gS] tSlsμflUèkq lH;rk rFkk oSfnd lH;rkA • ftl dky ds fyf[kr lk{; dk Li"V fooj.k izkIr gksrk gS og dky ,sfrgkfld dky dgykrk gS] tSlsμegktuinksa ds ckn dk dky (NBh lnh bZñiwñ ls)A 9

vej mtkyk ifCyosG'kUl lkekU; Kku • izkxSfrgkfld dky dks lkekU;r% rhu Hkkxksa esa ckaVk x;k gSμiqjkik"kk.kd dky] eè; ik"kk.kdky rFkk uo ;k mÙkj iqjkik"kk.k dkyA iqjkik"kk.k dky (5]00]000μ10]000 bZñiwñ) • loZizFke ik"kk.kdkyhu lH;rk rFkk laLÑfr dk vUos"k.k czwl ÚqV egksn; us 1863 bZñ esa fd;kA • iqjkik"kk.k dky dks rhu Hkkxksa esa ckaVk tkrk gSμ (i) fuEu iqjkik"kk.k dky (ii) eè; iqjkik"kk.k dky rFkk (iii) mPp iqjkik"kk.k dkyA • fuEu iqjkik"kk.k ;qx ds LFky orZeku ikfdLrku ds lksgu ?kkVh ,oa egkjk"Vª esa ik, x, gSAa • bl dky ds y{k.k FksμdqYgkM+h ;k gLr&dqBkj (gSaM ,Dl)] fonkfj.kh (Dyhoj) vksj [kaMd (xaMklk) ds iz;ksxA • Hkkjr esa lcls iqjkuk gLrdqBkj lksgu ?kkVh ls izkIr gqvk gSA • yksgnk ukyk (osyu ?kkVh] mÙkj izns'k) ls i'kq dh gM~Mh ls cuh ew£r izkIr gqbZ gSA • gFkukSjk (eè; izns'k) ls gkFkh dk lcls iqjkuk thok'e feyk gSA • eè; iqjkik"kk.k ;qx ds vkStkj eq[;r% 'kYd (Flake) ds FksA vr% bl laLÑfr dks iQyd laLÑfr dh laKk nh xbZ gSA • [kqjpuh] iQyd] osèkuh] osèkd rFkk r{k.kh bl laLÑfr ds izèkku midj.k FksA • iqjkik"kk.k dky esa vkx dk vkfo"dkj gqvk tcfd uoik"kk.k dky esa ifg, dk fodkl gqvkA • bl dky ds ekuoksa dh xqiQk,a HkhecsVdk ls feyh gS ftuesa fofHkUu dkyksa dh fp=kdkjh ns[kus dks feyrh gSA • mPp iqjkik"kk.k dkyhu fp=kksa esa HkSals] gkFkh] ck?k] xSaMs rFkk lwvj ds fp=k izeq[k gSaA • HkhecsVdk xqiQk dh [kkst 1958 esa chñ,lñ okd.kdj us dh FkhA eè; ik"kk.k dky (10]000μ4]000 bZñiwñ) • ;g dky iqjk ik"kk.kdky rFkk uoik"kk.k dky nksuksa dh lfEefJr fof'k"Vrkvksa dk izn'kZu djrk gSA • bl dky ds yksx f'kdkj djds] eNyh idM+dj rFkk [kk| oLrq,¡ cVksjdj isV Hkjrs FksA • eè; ik"kk.k dky esa ik"k.k ds y?kq midj.k cuk;s tkrs FksA • Hkkjr esa lcls igys y?kq ik"kk.k midj.k 1867 bZñ esa ¯oè; {ks=k esa lhñ,yñ dkykZby }kjk [kkstk x;kA • izeq[k eè; ik"kk.kdkyhu midj.k gSaμbdèkj] iQyd] osèkuh] v¼ZpUnzkdkj] leyaac bR;kfnA • eè;ik"kk.kdky esa iz{ksikÏ rduhd dk fodkl gqvk ftlls rhj&deku dk izpyu vkjaHk gqvkA uoik"kk.k dky (9]000μ1000 bZñiwñ) • bl dky dh 'kq:vkr 9]000 bZñ iwoZ ls gksrh gSA • LFkk;h fuokl dh voèkkj.kk uoik"kk.k dky esa vkbZ rFkk ekuo us ^dqÙks* dks loZizFke ikyrw cuk;kA • bl dky ds yksx ikWfy'knkj iRFkj ds vkStkjksa vkSj gfFk;kjksa dk iz;ksx djrs FksA • uoik"kk.k dky dk izeq[k fo'ks"krk,¡ FkhμÑf"k dk vkjaHk] xrZ&vkokl (cqtZgkse)] vkx dk vkfo"dkj] ekuo 'ko ds lkFk dqÙkk niQukuk] cM+h ek=kk esa vfLFk ds vkStkj] iksr&fuekZ.k] Åu ds lk{;] LFkk;h thou ,oa lekt dk fuekZ.kA 10