Healthy Garden Cities by Samuel Morley

HEALTHY GARDEN CITIES

With thanks to Howard Evans and Laurence Pattacini for their loyal direction of the dual Architecture and Landscape Architecture programme at the University of Sheffield

HEALTHY GARDEN CITIES

In the late 19th century, Ebenezer Howard founded the Garden City project with the idea of combining the benefits of town and country living in order to create more healthy and sustainable living conditions by attracting people away from the industrial slums of Victorian cities. The Garden City concept has since been frequently criticised for its unsustainable approach to density and affordability and thus disregarded as an appropriate philosophical influence in contemporary housing development. Instead, the attractive title ‘Garden City’ has been superimposed onto more spacious suburban developments as a marketing tool to increase plot value and obtain planning permission with little or no regard to the concept’s original principles. Through this written study I will investigate the core philosophies of Howard’s proposals in relation to health and wellbeing with the aim of establishing a framework of design principles for implementation in modern planning. To appropriate these healthy design principles for the context of current UK housing, I will examine each of them in relation to how the needs of modern society have changed since the original Garden City plans. The output of this report will be a set of modernised housing principles for healthy living which seed from the original socialist values of the Garden City concept but offer significantly more relevance to today’s residential market. These principles will then be tested against a set of modern case studies for sustainable living from developments around Europe.

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Towards the end of the 19th century, England was plagued with an agricultural depression which fuelled a mass migration towards its major cities. As a result of this substantial growth, cities became overpriced and established slums with poor sanitary conditions and unemployment. These issues prompted a complete reimagining of the English built environment, both urban and rural. In 1898, Ebenezer Howard launched his ‘Garden City’ proposal; a framework planning initiative which would provide a ‘marriage of town and country living’1 to encourage people away from larger cities and provide the foundation for a more sustainable, healthier means of life. His proposals were prescribed for towns of an eventual population of 32 000 on a concentric pattern built around open spaces.2 These visions were released in a series of successful books which generated enough interest and support to drive his ambitions into two real-world prototype developments, Letchworth and Welwyn. Howard’s eventual intention was to develop these Garden Cities as satellite towns for one ‘Central City’ – a model he proposed to impose on the city of London in accordance with Sir Patrick Abercrombie’s Greater London Plan for 1944.3

Figure 1: Howard’s ‘Three Magnets’ diagram from Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. p. 46.

The health benefits of humans regularly interacting with nature are well documented today, significantly moreso today than during the original Garden City proposals.4 Even the use of street trees has been shown to reduce stress, absorb pollutants and mitigate ultraviolet radiation.5 Howard himself would no doubt be astonished at the list of benefits that come with an integration of landscape within our urban environment – but he did remarkably elude to a number of them himself, most notably in his iconic ‘Three Magnets’ diagram (figure 1), which neatly summarises the appeal of living in a more natural setting. ‘Beauty of nature’, ‘pure air and water’, ‘bright homes and gardens’ are amongst the benefits he lists beneath the ‘Town-Country’ heading. This came from Howard’s use of doctors’ accounts on the effects of urban living on Victorian people.6 Even at the conceptual stage of his project, Howard had a clear emphasis on using environmental factors to service a healthier way of life and this was epitomised in his advertisement of ‘no smoke, no slums’.7

1. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement . [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 26. 2. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. pp. 52 -53. 3. Howard explores this future vision for London with Welwyn and Letchworth Garden Cities located amidst the ‘outer country’ of the greater London region alongside proposed sites for new satellite towns. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. pp. 152-159. Beevers, R (1988). A Garden City Utopia. p 138. 4. The Research Agency of the Forestry Commission (2011). Health Benefits of Street Trees. The Research Agency of the Forestry Commission. 5. The Research Agency of the Forestry Commission (2011). Health Benefits of Street Trees. The Research Agency of the Forestry Commission. pp. 5-8 6. This is revealed by MacFadyen, adding to the argument that ‘the first generation which moves in from the country to the city does well… The next just about holds its own… As for the fourth generation, it ceases to exist’. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 81. 7. Refer back to Figure 1. 8

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In order to achieve this idyllic natural living within a town, Howard understood that there was a crucial balance between the urban development and its adjacent outdoor environment.8 However, with successful development comes an increase in land value and through the existing planning system, outdoor space could be monopolised by the demand for industrial, commercial and residential growth. To circumnavigate this, the foundation of his proposals was an estate that would be publicly owned and controlled by a collective public body which in turn could comprehensively plan its own environment, assuring stability for the neighbourhood.9 Howard insisted that this set-up would be used to public advantage by being invested in the democratic interests of the town to sustain a high standard of living for all its inhabitants and thus prevention extortion.10

Figure 2 – Author’s drawing of conceptual sections illustrating the integration of landscape and urban environment to make the benefits of nature accessible to everyone within the town. Based on Gibberd’s vision for the masterplan of Harlow which inserted green wedges of open space within the development, taking inspiration from the Garden Cities movement. Alexander, A. (2009). Britain's new towns. London: Routledge. p. 74.

With this attractive vision, Howard’s project began to accumulate attention. One of the great successes in his literature was how rigorously he justified his proposals with an economic model. His financial plan for the Garden City provided it with a feeling of realism and attainability by which other conceptual masterplans may have failed.11 The same year of the proposal’s release, Dugald MacFadyen set up the Garden City Association to promote discussion of Howard’s project.

8. Evident throughout Howard’s written and illustrated work; a concept that is taken forward during the New Towns proposals post-WWII using Letchworth and Welwyn as exemplars. Further reading available: Alexander, A. (2009). Britain's new towns. London: Routledge. pp. 27-36 9. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement . [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 59. 10. A full list of benefits to this system is explored by MacFadyen: Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 59. 11. Stating that there is ‘no question more urgent than that of finding some system to take the place of the old landlord’, MacFadyen collates Howard’s extensive financial proposals for the initial Garden City project:

HEALTHY GARDEN CITIES

The principle of equal ownership is fundamental in Howard’s plan for a Garden City, which is clearly defined by the Garden City Association as ‘the land being in public ownership or held in a trust for the community’. 12 One of the great benefits of the collective land ownership was that better spaces for leisure and recreation could be afforded because the expense of these spaces would be offset by the increase in value of land facing onto them. As a counterargument, the possible repercussions of having ‘but one landlord and this is the community’ are investigated by MacFadyen.13 Howard suggests that by instilling this equality in the community, it prevents the incubation of slums in the town and generates a platform for a healthier living environment. This certainly became the case for the population who could afford to move to one of his eventual Garden City developments - but as they became more successful and grew in value, they priced out lower income workers and became gentrified.14

The consequence of this economic model was, in Howard’s vision, total control over the natural spaces which could be best designed to meet the needs of the town’s residents and improve their health and wellbeing. In the Three Magnets diagram, he refers to having ‘open country ever near at hand’ suggesting that a townscape set within the countryside was not purely a romanticised living environment but provided a practical, recreational advantage as well.15

Figure 3 - Howard’s diagram of administration, showing concentric arrays of municipal groups to integrate levels of community engagement, from: Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 65.

In his publications, Howard drew a proposal for a hypothetical 6 000 acres of land which would contain a 1 000 hectare ‘Garden City’ at the centre, surrounded by a productive countryside.16 These proposals for new developments situated entirely within the landscape have come under fire from modern criticism since the introduction of green belts in the UK, which signified an effort to resist urban sprawl in valuable landscapes for the foreseeable future. This criticism is hardly surprising, as the Green Belt concept is undoubtedly the most iconic pillar of post-war British planning.17

12. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. 13. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 27. 14. Multiple articles discuss the narrowing population diversity of the outer London commuter belt in which Welwyn and Letchworth are situated. One example is: Fraser, I. (2016). Revealed: the true cost of buying a house in the commuter belt. [online] Telegraph.co.uk. Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/property/12085254/Revealed-the-true-cost-of-buying-a-house-in-the-commuter-belt.html [Accessed 8 Jan. 2019]. 15. Refer to Figure 1. 16. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. p. 52 17. This opinion is put forward in detail and evaluated by Parham (2013) “Shaping sustainable urbanism: are garden cities the answer?”

HEALTHY GARDEN CITIES

According to the Garden City Association a Garden City must, by definition, be ‘surrounded by a rural belt. 18 This belt is illustrated in Figure 4 as being within ¾ mile from any point within the central development and is home to new forests, allotments and fruit farms amongst other functions. Whilst much of this space is designated for agriculture, there is also a clear motive to facilitate outdoor recreation. This is evident in the conceptual Three Magnets illustration, which brags of ‘fields and parks of easy access’ for its residents, emphasising that this open land is for the use of the whole town.19 It even lists ‘convalescent homes’ within this landscape, showing an understanding of the relationship between the open countryside and good health. 20

Figure 4 – Howard’s illustrative diagram showing his proposed townscape sat within a large agricultural estate. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. p. 52

18. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. 19. Refer to Figure 4. 20. Refer to Figure 4.

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One of the primary ambitions of the Garden Cities movement was to encourage industries to move away from the highly congested cities for a healthier and safer working environment; the Garden City concept was developed to benefit its industries as much as its residents, ultimately making a community where people could both live and work. The land in the countryside would have been much cheaper than in the city but the problem preventing industries from using this land was the connections to other industries and means of distribution.21 To overcome this, Howard’s iconic concentric design proposed a circular railway which looped around the town, serving all of its industrial buildings with a railway siding and providing cheap and efficient movement of materials within an ‘agricultural district’. 22 Finally with sufficient financial backing in 1903, the town plan for Howard’s first Garden City of Letchworth was drafted by Messrs. R. Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin (later Sir Raymond Unwin). Howard had been very clear that his plan was no more than a sketch or an outline of what he would have liked to accomplish; therefore the conceptual layout was to be adapted to suit the location. Letchworth was designed for an eventual population of 30 000 people within an estate of 1 500 acres (much larger than the initial conceptual plan) and under Howard’s guidance, the land was assigned according to its best suited use. As a result, Letchworth Garden City is almost unrecognisable from the initial hypothetical layout; industry is located along the rail line at the northeast of the development such that smoke and pollution is carried away and shopping and commerce are located close to the station, with subsidiary shopping areas located in satellite centres. The town square is consciously detached from the train station, instead being positioned at a more geographical centre on high and level ground. Residential development is used to fill in the remainder of the proposal, though always within a short walk of a sub-centre. At the time of the development, the motor industry was at its infancy and there was little indication of its exponential growth ahead.23 The neighbourhoods were built around the idea of people walking and cycling to work as car ownership was never expected for anyone but the wealthy. Perhaps unknowingly, this was setting a planning precedent for healthier live-work developments in which inhabitants have a greater exposure to nature and an integrated daily exercise routine.

Figure 5 – Author’s zonal map of Letchworth showing how industry has been shifted from the conceptual layout in order to be strategically placed in the northeast to reduce the effects of its pollution on surrounding residential areas, based on the original town plan from: Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Litd. p. 105.

21. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 61. 22. Refer back to figure 4. 23. Pre-war, car ownership was never expected for anyone but the wealthy. Professor Abercrombie predicted that ownership would never raise above 16% of the population but rising wages in the 60s during economic stability brought ownership to 53% of households: Clapson, M. (1998). Invincible green suburbs, brave new towns. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

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According to definition by the Garden City Association, a Garden City must be ‘developed for healthy living and industry’ and clearly the initial proposals had an ideology that supported a healthy working environment as well as healthy homes. For this reason it was important to draw industry away from the existing urban realm and to support their growth within Garden Cities to allow opportunities for most of the inhabitants to both live and work in the town for the good of their health. As shown in Figure 6, even at a high level, the Garden City concept was illustrated with inter-municipal railways and high roads to connect with other developments as well as a central city. The town wards and centre were described in more detail in Figure 7, and again emphasise Howard’s approach to encouraging industry growth using transport links, with the provision of railway sidings being given greater importance than the housing layout within his masterplan. Gradually as a result, industries were lured to Letchworth by cheaper ground rent and a more convenient commute for workers.

Left: Figure 6 – Howard’s diagram illustrating the connectivity between proposed Garden Cities as a larger masterplan, from: Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. p. 143. Right: Figure 7 – Howard’s diagram showing the strategic ward layout in relation to the town centre, from: Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. p. 53.

HEALTHY GARDEN CITIES

The growth of the Letchworth was exceptional, but it was recurrently limited by having to reject freehold proposals which conflicted with the towns economic structure and otherwise would have boosted its economy. This frustrated Howard as he struggled to put a monetary value on the town’s sense of unity and the precedent it was setting; the town had to resist growth in order to benefit future generations of its inhabitants. Figure 8 – Letchworth in 1900s In 1904, the town plans are accepted and construction begins on the Garden City Estate Offices. Some structures are erected to house unemployed labourers from London whilst the town’s foundations are put into place.

Map produced by: Digimap.edina.ac.uk. (2018). Digimap. [online] Available at: https://digimap.edina.ac.uk/ [Accessed 16 Nov. 2018].

Figure 9 – Letchworth in 1920s The town recovers from the Great War and grows enormously from boosted industry and additional co-operative housing developments.

Map produced by: Digimap.edina.ac.uk. (2018). Digimap. [online] Available at: https://digimap.edina.ac.uk/ [Accessed 16 Nov. 2018].

Figure 10 – Letchworth in 1930s Public infrastructure is influenced by the town’s changing demographic. Major road connections withstand the test of time against the growing motor industry. Increased electricity supply permits more housing development.

Map produced by: Digimap.edina.ac.uk. (2018). Digimap. [online] Available at: https://digimap.edina.ac.uk/ [Accessed 16 Nov. 2018].

Letchworth was, however, sufficiently successful in its early days such that in 1919, Howard was able to acquire loans to purchase the land at Welwyn for his second Garden City experiment. This was recognised as a significant step towards encouraging the British government to take legislative action and two years later, laws were passed to enable the State to assist in the development of Garden City schemes, provided they were approved by the Ministry of Health. This followed on from extensive discussions surrounding the health benefits of town-country living and, I believe, narrowed Howard’s vision towards a design that specifically promoted a healthy live-work environment.24 24 – ‘In 1921, partly as the result of the report of the Departmental Committee on Unhealthy Areas, presided over by Mr. Neville Chamberlain, Parliament included in the Housing Act of 1921 a clause permitting the Public Works Loan Board to make loans to “ Authorised Associations “ established for the purpose of developing Garden Cities.’ From:

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Figure 11 – Author’s zonal map of Welwyn, Howard’s second Garden City, showing a somewhat refined town plan from Letchworth with the inclusion of community sub-centres and absence of development boundary or green agricultural belt boundary. Based on the original town plan from: Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. p. 129.

The towns’ integration of vast landscapes came at a cost, as the spacious layout of the Garden Cities has been heavily criticised over time for its unsustainable approach to density and population growth as well as its excessive impact on the natural countryside.25 In fact, there appears to be a conflict in his writing as Howard touches on the issues of size and density in his plans. Primarily he suggests a specific population for each town and orchestrates their arrangement across a quantified land area.26 However, there is a counter-argument that this was only as a necessity to provide an accurate financial plan for the scheme which gave it so much authenticity and success - and that in actual fact, Howard himself recognised this as a loose framework which could be evolved for a growing and changing population. In Howard’s ‘Garden Cities of To-Morrow’, only the first chapter deals directly with the spatial aspects of the design and all subsequent twelve are devoted to the programme’s finance, management and administration; Howard himself confessed that the original proposal was no more than an outline of a plan which required testing through practice.27 The most prominent remark made on this issue in his early writing is amongst the agreed terms of the first development of the town, which conclude that it should be not only ‘carefully planned’ but also ‘not allowed to grow in a haphazard fashion’, which is suitably vague as to encourage future debate and interpretation.28

25. For example by Edwards (1914) who challenges the convenience of the design in relation to its negative impact on the environment, amidst other issues: Edwards, A. (1914). A FURTHER CRITICISM OF THE GARDEN CITY MOVEMENT. The Town Planning Review. More recently by Ward (2005), who suggests the recent embrace of urban density offers ‘implicit critique’ of the original schemes, through he embellishes by distinguishing true Garden Cities from their post-war suburban copycats: Stephen Ward (2005). The Garden City: Past, present and future. Routledge. pp. 205 26. Conclusion from Figure 5 and Figure 6 in tandem with Ebenezer Howard’s economic plan. 27. This counter argument is built on in by Tizot (2018) in: Tizot, J. (2018). Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City Idea and the Ideology of Industrialism. Cahiers victoriens et édouardiens, (87 Printemps). 28: Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 61. HEALTHY GARDEN CITIES

More conclusively, we can decipher that Howard was a believer in systematic and sometimes exhaustive planning rather than allowing for temporal or incidental architecture to form. One benefit he lists of a town with public land ownership is the development of a democratic local plan.29 Through this system, the town not only profits from an initial overarching strategy but also has control of its own growth and structure, such that it is always ‘properly planned and limited in size’.30

Figure 12 – Welwyn in 1890s Ebenezer Howard’s second site was along the junction of two existing railways, less than 15 miles south of Letchworth Garden City with high, flat land perfect for development.

Map produced by: Digimap.edina.ac.uk. (2018). Digimap. [online] Available at: https://digimap.edina.ac.uk/ [Accessed 17 Nov. 2018].

Figure 13 – Welwyn in 1920s Howard founded his second Garden City in 1920 and formed the Limited Company. The centre was laid out with tree-lined boulevards and the Welwyn Stores were created as a onestop shopping monopoly, which later caused public resentment. Map produced by: Digimap.edina.ac.uk. (2018). Digimap. [online] Available at: https://digimap.edina.ac.uk/ [Accessed 17 Nov. 2018].

Figure 14 – Welwyn in 1930s The town attracted a strong commercial base with its several designated employment areas and housing demand increased, notably because of the success of the Shredded Wheat factory that had been built in 1924.

Map produced by: Digimap.edina.ac.uk. (2018). Digimap. [online] Available at: https://digimap.edina.ac.uk/ [Accessed 17 Nov. 2018].

29. ‘Healthy…economic combination of town and country life was to be brought about by the ownership of the land in the interest of the community living upon it.’ Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 27. 30. MacFadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 27.

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In the development of Welwyn, the spirit of co-operation was above all else in what Howard wanted to instil in the community and he took it upon himself to develop on Robert Unwin’s ideal of bringing people together within the town; ‘In the squares and quadrangles of our Garden City dwellings the spirit of cooperation will find a congenial ground from which to spring, for there association in the enjoyment of open spaces or large gardens will replace the exclusiveness of the individual possession of backyards or petty garden-plots’.31 He believed that his system of a self-contained economic enterprise run by the goodwill of the people would share the middle class healthy lifestyle with the masses.32 There are arguments that the town plan for Welwyn was insufficient in encouraging a range of ages and social classes to the town and thus it was unsuccessful in filling Howard’s ambition, but the housing layout remains as an expression of this philosophy with looser forms ranging from single-row cottages to cul-desacs of detached and semi-detached housing.33

Figures 15, 16 and 17 – Author’s photographs of Letchworth Garden City, taken on 24.12.2018, showing the range of housing types and arrangements in the town, including sets of terraced housing around a large cul-de-sac (left), terraced 1.5 storey cottage-style housing (centre) and semi-detached housing with large frontages onto the main road (right).

Amongst the agreed terms for the development, it is listed as essential that the town attracts ‘some professional and tradespeople and people of leisure and culture and agricultural people’.34 It is clear through this that Howard had strived for social diversity within his developments, not only to secure the longevity of the town but also for the wellbeing of its residents. The Garden City Association complies with this principle, insisting that all Garden City developments ‘makes possible a full measure of social life’.35

31. Quote from: Unwin, R. (1901) ‘On the Building of Houses in the Garden City’. The Garden City Conference at Bourneville, September 1901. Report of Proceedings. p. 70. 32. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 27. 33. See Figure XXXXXXXXX of author’s photos. Also discussed by Robert Beevers in his chapter ‘Housing a Co-operative Community’: Beevers, R. (1988). The Garden City Utopia. p. 108-117. 34. Macfadyen,, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 6. 35. Soissons, M. (1988). Welwyn garden city. Cambridge: Publications for Companies.

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PRINCIPLE 1: A UNITY OF RURAL AND URBAN INTERESTS It is popularly believed that a life set within the countryside is generally healthier than life in the city because of the great benefits associated with connecting people to nature and with reduced air and light pollution.36 However, emerging reports provide a counterargument that people living in the city are in fact healthier and happier; a study from Oxford University in partnership with the University of Hong Kong studied the impact of residential density on health by investigating 400 000 residents in 22 British cities.37 Their conclusion was that an optimum density was 32 homes per hectare, though they acknowledged this was primarily due to city dwellers being more reliant on walking as a means of transport as well as a more fulfilling social life.38

On balance, it does indeed seem true that the healthiest living environment would be a unity of both town and country as proposed by Ebenezer Howard. This could be achieved by urban areas reducing their environmental impact and integrating natural elements and biophilic design into everyday life, or indeed by rural developments providing an efficient network of healthy physical transport and access to a fulfilling, diverse social life. In this sense, Howard’s Garden City concept was successful and still very relevant, although his developments may have inadvertently initiated a suburban movement which endorses a reduced mobility lifestyle.

PRINCIPLE 2: EQUAL OWNERSHIP BY THE COMMUNITY Howard’s economic model was built around localising planning control, developing towns that were inward-looking and self-dependent such that they could regulate their own environment. This has proved challenging historically and even for Letchworth, Howard had to settle for drawing up leases at 99-year intervals because straying too far from pre-existing precedents would compromise investors’ confidence.39 Today in England, we see schemes with various models of ownership including social housing, which is reserved for people of lower incomes or particular needs, and co-housing, in which private homes are arranged within a shared piece of land. For the nature of this study, it is not the specifics of ownership that are relevant but rather the impact that they may have on the health and wellbeing of the residents.

36. This popular belief was most notably validated by a government report in 2012 which investigated potential years of life lost for various conditions and illnesses as a study of rural life, as well as the health implications of crime, poverty, transport behaviour and education, amongst other factors: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2012). Statistical Digest of Rural England 2012. This followed a 2007 report into the varying life expectancies of urban and rural environments which concluded that overall life expectancy was higher in the countryside although wealth was another significant factor: Kyte, L. and Wells, C. (2007). Variations in life expectancy between rural and urban areas of England, 2001-2007. [online] Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20531365 [Accessed 2 Jan. 2019]. 37. Sarkar, C. (2017). Planetary Health. [online] The Lancet. Available at: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(17)30119-5/fulltext [Accessed 10 Nov. 2018]. 38. Sarkar, C. (2017). Planetary Health. [online] The Lancet. Available at: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(17)30119-5/fulltext [Accessed 10 Nov. 2018]. 39. Bonham-Carter, E. (1951). Planning and Development of Letchworth Garden City. Town Planning Review, 21(4).

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In Howard’s vision, the primary benefit of collective land ownership was that the community’s control over its environment could lead to better spaces for leisure and recreation, which is mirrored today in smaller self-build co-housing developments.40 The larger benefits of these schemes, however (and something neglected by Howard’s proposals), are the way they are designed to encourage interaction in everyday life and the informal mutual support among residents. As a result these engaged communities have been shown to combat loneliness and increase social resilience, especially when the residents are spanned across multiple generations.41 Other articles conform to the view that co-housing should rather be for communities of people who have things in common and that the system is not well suited for everybody’s circumstances.42 In light of their environmental impact as eluded to earlier, the development of future Garden Cities is far more achievable as either an extension or adaptation of existing urban developments and would therefore need great support by local or nearby communities.43 In their 2014 Wolfson Prize entry, Parham, Downs, Murray and Fernandez advised that ‘the advocacy of champions is a necessary basis for delivering any new Garden City, to help garner enthusiasm and support among communities’ and advocated a transparent engagement process at the very beginning of the decision-making.44 The underlying sentiment being that to create a successful town plan requires popularity with the community’s network and therefore they should be involved with where, how and if at all it should be delivered; the argument being that their participation is not only ethical but also pragmatic for ensuring the benefits of the development outweigh the costs.

In overview, since the original Garden City project, there has been no system which has reliably produced healthy communities (or at least there has been insufficient research into minority communities), though the strongest indicators come from creating social interaction and a sense of ownership through some form of collaboration.

40. A number of self-build communities focus on the collaboration over shared outdoor space, whilst also providing completely private homes. Some examples include Hedgehog Self-Build Co-operative, Diggers Self-Build Brighton Co-operative and various Diggers and Dreamers Communities: Forevergreen.org.uk. (2019). Diggers Self Builld Housing Co-op. [online] Available at: http://www.forevergreen.org.uk/Forever_Green_Ecological_Architects/diggersself-builld-housing-co-op.html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019]. Forevergreen.org.uk. (2019). Diggers Self Builld Housing Co-op. [online] Available at: http://www.forevergreen.org.uk/Forever_Green_Ecological_Architects/hedgehogself-build-housing-co-op.html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019]. Diggersanddreamers.org.uk. (2019). Diggers and Dreamers [online] Available at: https://www.diggersanddreamers.org.uk/communities/existing/birchwood-hallcommunity [Accessed 7 Jan 2019.] 41. The social benefits of housing founded through community engagement are discussed in the following report: Housing LIN (2018). Well-being and age in co-housing life: Thinking with and beyond design. 42. From an ‘Older Women’s Co-Housing’ scheme near Barnet, one resident declared that the system was successful because of their commonalities and that it would not be suited for everyone: Addley, E. (2019). Cohousing: 'It makes sense for people with things in common to live together'. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/feb/16/co-housing-people-things-common-live-together-older-people [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019]. Meanwhile, alternative schemes celebrate the diversity of people involved, arguing that it benefits the success of the community. For example, a resident of the Lancaster Co-Housing Development identified that ‘it was successful because of the nature of the people involved. We have engineers, environmental consultants, entrepreneurs, accountants, a lawyer, a carpenter, a nurse, academics including a visiting Cambridge professor and even a senior police officer among our number’: the Guardian. (2019). Cohousing offers a healthier way to live and a more sustainable business model. [online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/sustainablebusiness/cohousing-business-model-green-living [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019]. 43. The has been a modern criticism of the reinvention of the Garden City movement; the topic of community involvement is addressed in: Parham, S. and Boyfield, K. (n.d.). Garden Cities: Why Not?. Letchworth: The International Garden Cities Institute. 44. The entry argued that this is not only ethical for the affected communities of the project but also pragmatic for increasing the popularity of the proposal to ensure that the benefits outweigh the costs of implementation: URBED (2014). Uxcester Garden City - Wolfson Economics Prize Submission 2014. URBED.

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PRINCIPLE 3: ACCESS TO PERMANENTLY MAINTAINED OPEN SPACE Howard’s Garden Cities were designed to be primarily sustained by an agricultural belt which would provide dairy, eggs and meat for the inhabitants; therefore the town was inwardly reliant and responsible for its own growth. This is noted again by Mumford who wrote that ‘what strikes one about Howard’s Garden City’s proposals was how little he was concerned with the outward form of the new city’.45 Following the First World War and the end of rationing, it was common view that a man who had fought in the war was entitled to a small piece of land which could provide him livelihood and so there was a new wave of self-sustainability in agriculture, which Howard fully endorsed in his designs. This was evident in the founding of the Homes for Heroes scheme, in which ex-servicemen were given priority for land ownership.46 The question now is, how relevant and important to health is a development’s ability to sustain itself through agriculture or does this open space have a greater benefit that should be embraced within design? The number of agricultural workers in the UK has been in dramatic decline since the development of Letchworth and Welwyn (with the exception of during WWII) and total arable land area has, albeit less dramatically, followed suit.47 This aligns with cheaper import costs along with a changing British diet such that the UK now produces less than 60% of the food that it consumes.48 These figures are notably more dramatic when you factor the country’s population growth during that time as well as the more recent emerging cry for sustainability.

45. From Mumford’s foreword: Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. pp. 29-40. 46. More about this scheme can be found online: Socialhousinghistory.uk. (2018). Homes Fit for Heroes | Social Housing History. [online] Available at: http://www.socialhousinghistory.uk/wp/index.php/homes-fit-forheroes/ [Accessed 28 Dec. 2018]. 47. See graphs in Figure 18 and 19. Note that factors for decreasing agricultural employment include the development of technology and job demand in other sectors and so this is not directly related to agricultural production. 48. GOV.UK. (2014). Agriculture in the United Kingdom 2014. [online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/agriculture-in-the-united-kingdom-2014 [Accessed 15 Dec. 2018]. Also note that British grown foodstocks are largely similar now to pre-WWII but there has been a massive growth in animal farming both for meat and dairy products in that period as the average Brit’s diet is changing.

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Above: Figure 18 – Author’s graph showing change in arable land area within the UK 1922 - 2014 Below: Figure 19 – Author’s graph showing the number of agricultural workers within the UK 1925 - 2008 Both graphs produced by the author using data available from: Zayed, Y. (2016). Agriculture: Historical Statistics. House of Commons Library.

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Whilst English farming is in decline and modern society has a reduced need for a physical engagement with food production, there is a greater demand for recreation and interaction with nature as reports are showing that a lack of outdoor play time is having consequences on children’s health.49 Numerous studies have specifically linked children’s physical health to their proximity to recreational greenspace.50 Living close to public parks and open space has been consistently related to higher physical activity levels both in children and adults and is now part of an essential strategy for the UK tackling childhood obesity.51 Another study has shown that having this engagement at a young age helps spark lifelong habits and reduce adult obesity.52 The benefits are not only physical either, with outdoor recreation showing to improve mental health by reducing rumination and associated mental illnesses,53 whilst other studies have shown that exercise in green environments (especially with water) improves mood and self-esteem.54

Ultimately, engaging people with outdoor space is of greater health benefit than directly sourcing local produce and so with this theme in mind, an agricultural belt is not necessary though desirable. Instead, the focus should be on using this abundance of public land to generate opportunities for recreational activity which will boost a healthy lifestyle and still assimilates Howard’s philosophy for interaction with nature. Though these activities themselves may include community farms, allotments and orchards as initially proposed by Howard, they should be focused around the idea of public engagement and providing opportunities for all types of people.

49. Children and Nature Network (2010). HEALTH BENEFITS TO CHILDREN FROM CONTACT WITH THE OUTDOORS & NATURE. 50. A full report on the benefits of convenient access to open space for recreation is available at: Nrpa.org. (2018). Role of Parks and Recreation on Health and Wellness | Position Statement | National Recreation and Park Association. [online] Available at: https://www.nrpa.org/our-work/Three-Pillars/role-of-parks-and-recreation-on-health-and-wellness/ [Accessed 8 Dec. 2018]. 51. One study, published in the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that roughly one half of the preschool aged children surveyed did not walk or play outside with a parent once per day. Even more concerning, the study found that the girls in the study were 15% less likely than boys to have daily outdoor play: Tandon, P., Zhou, C. and Christakis, D. (2012). Frequency of Parent-Supervised Outdoor Play of US Preschool-Aged Children. 52. World Health Organization. (n.d.). Childhood overweight and obesity. [online] Available at: https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/childhood/en/ [Accessed 8 Jan. 2019]. 53. Bratman, G., Hamilton, J., Hahn, K., Daily, G. and Gross, J. (2015). Nature experience reduces rumination and subgenual prefrontal cortex activation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(28), pp.8567-8572. 54. Kyte, L. and Wells, C. (2007). Variations in life expectancy between rural and urban areas of England, 2001-2007. [online] Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20531365 [Accessed 2 Jan. 2019]. 22

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PRINCIPLE 4: TRANSPORT CONNECTIONS FOR GROWTH OF INDUSTRY After the Great War, thousands of surplus road vehicles assisted in the rapid growth of road transport, to the extent that local authorities heavily subsidised road construction at the expense of railway companies’ revenue. Companies distributing by road had the capacity to privately negotiate their rates and so they would undercut rail services across the board; as a result, the shipment of goods changed dramatically over the following two decades. This investment in road infrastructure coaligned with cheaper manufacturing to generate the staggering increase in privately owned vehicles that followed. Consequently, over the last 20 years rail freight has never contributed to more than 12% of British freight movement.55

Figure 20 – Author’s table showing the mass of freight usage in the UK 1998-2016 through different methods of transport. Data from: Data.gov.uk. (2018). Freight rail usage - data.gov.uk. [online] Available at: https://data.gov.uk/dataset/537afee0-62c4-4da1-be87-c5eb43e704b8/freight-rail-usage [Accessed 27 Dec. 2018].

55. See graph in Figure 20. However, note that there is a lack of early data available on this issue. Before abundant road infrastructure and in a less internationalised industrial world, rail would have been a far more significant nearer the times of the two original Garden City developments.

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Following from this, the number of commuting passengers by rail is at an all-time high in the UK but if you consider this growth as a proportion of the total UK population, it reveals an ‘true’ decline of around 25%.56 I found these statistics rather surprising considering the enormity of the sway to road transport and car ownership during this period; it suggests that road user growth is simply outweighed by the demand for commuting in general, with more people travelling further distances to work on a daily basis. This exhaustion of transport resources is not only causing substantial environmental consequence, but has also been shown to be detrimental to public health.57 In 2016, the Royal Society for Public Health concluded in a report that commuting long distance contributes to bad eating habits and a less active lifestyle, ultimately damaging physical health.58

Figure 21 – Author’s table showing the number of passengers on UK rail transport from 1840 – 2009 in relation to significant changes in the rail network. Data compiled from: ATOC (2008). The Billion Passenger Railway. Lessons From The Past: Prospects For The Future. ORR (2018). Passenger Journeys by Sector. [online] Available at: https://dataportal.orr.gov.uk/displayreport/html/html/a10e3c7b-7766-40ae-a87a-14c56cf85a63 [Accessed 27 Dec. 2018].

Whilst connections to existing, thriving urban areas gives the benefits of a full social life and allows for successful development growth, it endorses an unhealthy commuter lifestyle for the majority population who work in existing cities. The ideal healthy town would provide greater live-work opportunities, supported by a range of transport connections which allow and encourage more people to walk and cycle to work.

56. This is a conclusion based on a comparison of the graph in Figure XXXXXXXX to the population data available for 1909 compared to 2018: 1909 – Population of 40.6 million with 1.4 million passengers per year – Factor of 0.03448 2018 – Population of 66.2 million with 1.7 million passengers per year – Factor of 0.0257 Population data for these statistics is compiled from the two following sources: Populstat.info. (2019). The UNITED KINGDOM : country population. [online] Available at: http://www.populstat.info/Europe/unkingdc.htm [Accessed 8 Jan. 2019]. Worldometers.info. (2019). U.K. Population (2019) - Worldometers. [online] Available at: http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/uk-population/ [Accessed 8 Jan. 2019]. 57: NHS (n.d.). Being sick of the daily commute could be affecting your health. [online] Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/being-sick-of-thedaily-commute-could-be-affecting-your-health/ [Accessed 5 Nov. 2018]. 58. NHS (n.d.). Being sick of the daily commute could be affecting your health. [online] Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/being-sick-of-thedaily-commute-could-be-affecting-your-health/ [Accessed 5 Nov. 2018].

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PRINCIPLE 5: A COMPREHENSIVELY PLANNED, SPACIOUS DESIGN Howard’s ideas were idyllic, but not sustainable in terms of density and they could not be widely implemented in a growing UK population. As a result, Letchworth and Welwyn quickly became unaffordable for much of the population as their waste of space made them very costly, even in that time. Now the area has become increasingly gentrified as a result, discontinuing Howard’s ideology of attracting people from all walks of life, and so the Garden City approach to population density therefore must be criticised. Figure 22 and 23 – Author’s photographs taken on 24.12.2018: Showing how Letchworth’s spacious town plan has led to pockets of space and large frontages being hijacked for car parking. Unknowingly, Howard and Unwin’s plan was ideal for the upcoming increase in car ownership and as a result, the area is now dominated by road transport.

The Garden City plan combined with its proposed rural belt totals 6 000 acres for a population of 32 000 people, meaning a total density of 13.2 residents per hectare. This suggests a housing density at approximately 4.5–5.5 dwellings per hectare. If you were to ignore the agricultural belt, it leaves a central town of approximately 30 dwellings per hectare.59 However, the average building plot was 130 feet deep with a frontage of 20 feet, which is by no means generous especially as it was assumed to accommodate a family of five or six.60 If each house did indeed become home to a full family then the density would seem on the higher side of moderate, even by today’s standards – but the way Howard had marketed the Garden Cities as beautiful, airy and tranquil appealed more to the lower middle class couples, who became the town’s majority.61

59. BA. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. pp. 50-54. 60. Beevers, R. (1988). The Garden City Utopia. p. 108. 61. Beevers discusses the reason for housing density in Howard’s Garden Cities along with how it coped with the eventual communities who lived there in the following decades: Beevers, R. (1988). The Garden City Utopia. p. 108-114. HEALTHY GARDEN CITIES

In his review of Howard’s work, Dugald MacFadyen eluded to some of the benefits to this spatial design – notably the reduced spread of fire and disease which were a part of Howard’s major criticisms of London.62 Industry within the Garden Cities was also consciously dispersed in order to be less vulnerable in any future wars; which proved to be rather successful as a Letchworth munitions factory survived three attempted German raids during the Second World War.63 These benefits, however, no longer address the primary concerns in the housing industry today and instead we are facing issues of high rents and increased homelessness.64 Howard’s residential density strategy is no longer valid as we tentatively conform to an urban sprawl that eats away at our Green Belts.65

Although his initial proposals were in pursuit of conversation around healthier town planning and as such were to be adapted heavily upon site implementation, what we can criticise in Howard’s designs is the rigid social structure in place. Approaches to density in housing can always be challenged but are ultimately informed by site and context and Howard’s ‘one size fits all’ approach is insufficient. New housing or mixed developments should generate their own strategy for an appropriate density also with a view to how the proposal may grow or adapt to the growing urban form around it.

62. U. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. p. 87. 63. U. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. pp. 71-72. 64. UNISON National. (2019). Housing | Key issues | UNISON National. [online] Available at: https://www.unison.org.uk/at-work/community/key-issues/housing [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019]. 65. His response to how the city could cope with exceeding it’s population limit was ‘by establishing another city’. BA. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Ltd. p. 142.

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PRINCIPLE 6: A COMMUNITY FOR ALL TYPES OF PEOPLE In order to encourage growth and secure the longevity of the Garden Cities, it was important to support and engage with all types of people; this was also part of Howard’s vision to enable a full measure of social life for a happy population.66 It has been shown that diversity in team leads to better productivity and performance and this is also related to communities, where different cultural perspectives inspire creativity and innovation.67 An article in the Harvard Business Review argues that the challenges of diversity within a group are actually one of the factors for success, purely through the challenges that it brings.68 A successful community body will then benefit the wider society through the promotion of healthier, active lifestyles and enhanced civic participation.69 As an example, co-housing groups have been shown to provide health benefits through their skill sharing and mutual support.70 The greater diversity within the group, the greater the opportunities available to do so. In their publication ‘Promoting Neighbourhood Diversity’, Turner and Rawlings (2009) identify the weaknesses created by neighbourhood segregation, especially ethnically, including a concentration of poverty and distress in minorities. Previous research also shows that a lack of ethnic integration affects not only the minority neighbourhoods but society as a whole by damaging the health of children and adults.71

I believe that as a result of this, in an increasingly diverse UK population, Howard’s social perspective is more relevant now than ever before and that communities should seek to engage a wide demographic and people of all backgrounds in order to be both sustainable and healthy. It doing so, a healthy town is not only providing its benefits to all types of people but the residents themselves are encouraged of a fuller and more integrated social life.

66. Saint, A. (1990). [Rezension von:] Soissons, Maurice de: Welwyn Garden City. 67. Acevedo-Garcia, D. and Osypuk, T. (2008). Impacts of housing and neighborhoods on health: Pathways, racial/ethnic disparities, and policy directions. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, pp.197-236. In addition, the full society effects are explored by Carr, J. and Kutty, N. (2008). Segregation. New York, NY: Routledge. 68. Grey, J. and Grey, J. (2019). Study finds diverse, inclusive workplaces more productive . [online] Mybusiness.com.au. Available at: https://www.mybusiness.com.au/human-resources/868-study-finds-diverse-inclusive-workplaces-more-productive [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019]. 69. Harvard Business Review. (2019). Diverse Teams Feel Less Comfortable — and That’s Why They Perform Better. [online] Available at: https://hbr.org/2016/09/diverse-teams-feel-less-comfortable-and-thats-why-they-perform-better [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019]. 70. Brenton, M. (2010). POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF COHOUSING FOR OLDER PEOPLE. University of Bristol. 71. This is discussed in tandem with the feeling of self-progression associated with learning and its link to wellbeing: Brenton, M. (2010). POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF COHOUSING FOR OLDER PEOPLE. University of Bristol.

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Figure 24 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A summary of modern healthy design principles.

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The following case studies have been selected as demonstrations for implementing these 6 healthy design principles. The list is not exhaustive but aims to include a wide range of housing and mixed-use developments from around Europe, all of which are successful in at least one of the principles. They have been selected based on their pioneering or exemplar approach to a certain aspect of design, though this may not necessarily be health-orientated. In order to accurately assess them, I have only included schemes which are at least well into the construction phase of the project with some residents already having moved in.

ADAMSTOWN – DUBLIN, IRELAND Adamstown is a development of approximately 10 000 homes in outer Dublin which follows the ‘New Towns’ style for the first time in Ireland since the 1980s. The project has been under development since 2005 and currently has a population of 3 500, expecting to reach 25 000, so it is similar in scope to Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City project. It has been developed as a private initiative in a rural area which had high housing demand and the scheme has been well-accepted by the locals for its lack of a ‘top-down’ approach.72 72. https://www.independent.ie/business/commercial-property/wembley-firm-to-lead-adamstown-project-36807380.html Figure 25 - Independent.ie. (2019). Wembley firm to lead Adamstown project - Independent.ie. [online] Available at: https://www.independent.ie/business/commercial-property/wembley-firm-to-lead-adamstown-project-36807380.html [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019].

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AMERSFOORT – UTRECHT, NETHERLANDS Amersfoort is a small historic city in the Netherlands which has developed three new suburbs totalling 20 000 homes designed around the core value of urban connectivity, with each region sharing their economic and social infrastructure from the very start of the project.73 This inward-looking town plan is closely related to the Garden Cities’ principles.74 73. http://environmentalistonamission.blogspot.com/2010/09/eco-town-amersfoort.html 74. PRP, URBED and Design for Homes (2008). Beyond Eco-towns Applying the Lessons from Europe. Report and Conclusions. London: PRP Architects LTD. Figure 26 - Rosengren, A. (2010). Eco-town Amersfoort. [online] Environmentalistonamission.blogspot.com. Available at: http://environmentalistonamission.blogspot.com/2010/09/eco-town-amersfoort.html [Accessed 7 Dec. 2018].

BEDZED – LONDON, ENGLAND BedZED is an ‘environmentally friendly’ housing and office scheme in Hackbridge, south of London, initially designed to be a carbon-neutral development by architect Bill Dunster which would support a more sustainable lifestyle.75 The project was pioneering in the UK as the first construction project where a local authority sold the land below its market value to make it economically viable.76 75. BioRegional and CABE (2008). What Makes an Eco-Town?. Wallington: BioRegional Development Group. 76. Bioregional. (2019). BedZED - Bioregional. [online] Available at: https://www.bioregional.com/bedzed/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019]. Figure 27 - Bioregional. (2019). BedZED - Bioregional. [online] Available at: https://www.bioregional.com/bedzed/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].

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CHESTER BALMORE – CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND Located at the junction of Chester and Balmore Street, Camden Council founded a Passivhaus development for mixed tenure housing of 53 units combined with 500m2 of commercial space. 77 The proceeds from the sales will be put back into the neighbourhood as low-cost housing and public space investment.78 77. Architype.co.uk. (2018). Architype / Chester Balmore Residential Scheme / The UK's Leading Passivhaus, Sustainable Architects. [online] Available at: https://architype.co.uk/project/chester-balmore/ [Accessed 7 Dec. 2018]. 78. Micaarchitects.com. (2019). Chester Balmore. [online] Available at: https://micaarchitects.com/projects/chester-balmore [Accessed 2 Jan. 2019]. Figure 28 - Architype.co.uk. (2018). Architype / Chester Balmore Residential Scheme / The UK's Leading Passivhaus, Sustainable Architects. [online] Available at: https://architype.co.uk/project/chester-balmore/ [Accessed 7 Dec. 2018].

DIGGERS SELF BUILD - BRIGHTON, ENGLAND In Brighton, five families teamed with four other singles to create self-build homes for rental; the homes are all privately owned, timber framed houses inspired by Walter Segal, sitting within shared community gardens. 79 The project was backed by the local council working alongside the South London Family Housing Association such that the families didn’t have to offer any financial investment, making it a strong case study for community involvement.80 79. Forevergreen.org.uk. (2019). Diggers Self Builld Housing Co-op. [online] Available at: http://www.forevergreen.org.uk/Forever_Green_Ecological_Architects/diggers-self-builld-housing-co-op.html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019]. 80. Heslop, J. (2018). SELF-BUILD III – SELF-BUILD FOR SOCIAL RENT: HEDGEHOG CO-OP AND THE SEGAL METHOD. [online] unofficialculture.wordpress.com. Available at: https://unofficialculture.wordpress.com/2015/06/15/self-build-iii-self-build-for-social-rent-hedgehog-co-op-and-thesegal-method/ [Accessed 7 Dec. 2018]. Figure 29 - Forevergreen.org.uk. (2019). Diggers Self Builld Housing Co-op. [online] Available at: http://www.forevergreen.org.uk/Forever_Green_Ecological_Architects/diggers-self-builld-housing-co-op.html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].

Figure XXXXXXX - Bioregional. (2019). BedZED - Bioregional. [online] Available at: https://www.bioregional.com/bedzed/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019]. HEALTHY GARDEN CITIES

EBBSFLEET GARDEN CITY – KENT, ENGLAND The ‘Garden Town’ development in Ebbsfleet Valley has been long prominent in the media; initially proposed in 2014 for up to 15 000 homes, the scheme has been slow in progress and under fire from criticism, but is now home to its first batch of residents.81 I have included it as one of the more evolved re-emergences of Howard’s Garden City concept which is entirely operated by a group of private developers. 82 81. Booth, R. (2016). Vision of Ebbsfleet garden city for 65,000 struggles to take root. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/jan/04/ebbsfleet-garden-city-richard-rogers-critics [Accessed 17 Dec. 2018]. 82. Ebbsfleet Development Corporation. (2018). Home. [online] Available at: https://ebbsfleetdc.org.uk/ [Accessed 30 Dec. 2018]. Figure 30 - Ebbsfleet Development Corporation. (2018). Home. [online] Available at: https://ebbsfleetdc.org.uk/ [Accessed 30 Dec. 2018].

HAFENCITY – HAMBURG, GERMANY A redevelopment of the port area of Hamburg is providing 5 500 new homes as well as commercial infrastructure close to the city centre.83 The scheme is encouraging a modal shift from car usage to public transport, cycling and walking for a healthier lifestyle and reduced impact on the environment; it is currently Europe’s biggest inner-city development project.84 83. hamburg.de. (2019). HafenCity Hamburg. [online] Available at: https://www.hamburg.com/sights/architecture/hafencity-hamburg/ [Accessed 1 Jan. 2019]. 84. HafenCity. (2018). HafenCity - Home. [online] Available at: https://www.hafencity.com/en/home.html [Accessed 4 Dec. 2018]. Figure 31 - Astoc.de. (2019). Masterplan Hafencity Hamburg - ASTOC - EN. [online] Available at: https://www.astoc.de/en/projects/masterplan-hafencityhamburg.html [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019].

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HAMMARBY SJOSTAD – STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN The so called ‘Hammarby Model’ has been developed through collaboration between the local authority and water and energy companies to create a system of efficient energy use and waste management. 85 The focus of the project is an urban extension of Stockholm, including 11 000 new homes on a site which was previously promoted for an Olympics bid.86 It is regarded for its rapid build-out rate due to exhaustive masterplanning. 85 - PRP, URBED and Design for Homes (2008). Beyond Eco-towns Applying the Lessons from Europe. Report and Conclusions. London: PRP Architects LTD. 86 - PRP, URBED and Design for Homes (2008). Beyond Eco-towns Applying the Lessons from Europe. Report and Conclusions. London: PRP Architects LTD. FIGURE 32 - URBED (2008) Beyond Eco-towns: Applying the Lessons from Europe. URBED.

KRONSBERG – HANOVER, GERMANY 6 000 homes were designed on the hill of Kronsberg in Hanover as part of the EXPO 2000 International Exhibition.87 The scheme is a mixture of apartments, condominiums and private townhouses, all connected by neighbourhood parks and extensive public infrastructure. The project is highly commended and showcased as a global standard for integrated construction.88 87. PRP, URBED and Design for Homes (2008). Beyond Eco-towns Applying the Lessons from Europe. Report and Conclusions. London: PRP Architects LTD. 88. PRP, URBED and Design for Homes (2008). Beyond Eco-towns Applying the Lessons from Europe. Report and Conclusions. London: PRP Architects LTD. Figure 33 - Pizzatravel.com.ua. (2018). Kronsberg District in Hannover - Germany - Blog about interesting places. [online] Available at: http://www.pizzatravel.com.ua/eng/germany/9/kronsberg_district_in_hannover [Accessed 7 Dec. 2018].

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LILAC – LEEDS, ENGLAND LILAC is a co-housing community of 20 eco-build households in west Leeds, managed collectively through a Mutual Home Ownership Society which assures permanent affordability, just as proposed in Howard’s conceptual town plan. Each member pays an equity share into the co-operative and holds a lease which certifies their democratic control of the community.89 89. Lilac.coop. (2018). LILAC – Low Impact Living Affordable Community. [online] Available at: http://www.lilac.coop/ [Accessed 27 Dec. 2018]. Figure 34 - Lilac.coop. (2018). LILAC – Low Impact Living Affordable Community. [online] Available at: http://www.lilac.coop/ [Accessed 27 Dec. 2018].

NORTHWEST BICESTER – OXFORDSHIRE, ENGLAND Northwest Bicester is one of four eco-towns given the green light by British government in 2009 as showcases for sustainability. Of the four, it was the only development which was permitted to be built to its original proposed standards and is now in its fourth phase and is imminently due completion as a true carbon zero neighbourhood. 90 Amongst the key design features are 40% green space, cycle networks and green-roof garages.91 90. NWBicester. (2019). Masterplan - NWBicester. [online] Available at: http://nwbicester.co.uk/masterplan/ [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019]. 91. A2dominion (2014). NW Bicester Masterplan - Vision and Objectives. FIG 35 - Willmott Dixon (2016). [image] Available at: https://twitter.com/willmottdixon/status/756135309193076737 [Accessed 28 Dec. 2018].

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RIESELFELD AND VAUBAN – FREIBURG, GERMANY Freiburg hosted a development of 5 000 new homes in two urban extensions in south Germany which have been amongst the most advanced in Europe for shifting residents’ behaviour towards a healthier lifestyle, including walking and biking for shorter travel.92 92. PRP, URBED and Design for Homes (2008). Beyond Eco-towns Applying the Lessons from Europe. Report and Conclusions. London: PRP Architects LTD. Figure 36 - Freiburg.de. (2019). Vauban and Rieselfeld. [online] Available at: https://www.freiburg.de/pb/,Len/618445.html [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019].

SLATEFORD GREEN HOUSING – EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND Slateford Green is a car free ‘urban village’ sitting on a former railway goods yard outside Edinburgh; it is one of the most sustainable and energy-efficient schemes in the country, using waste heat from a local distillery. GH The development includes 120 flats, half of which are social rentals with a further 25 of shared ownership, encouraging interaction within a wide demographic.93 93. Edinburgh Architecture. (2019). Slateford Green Housing, Edinburgh: Canmore Housing Association. [online] Available at: http://www.edinburgharchitecture.co.uk/slateford-green-housing [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019]. 94. Edinburgh Architecture. (2019). Slateford Green Housing, Edinburgh: Canmore Housing Association. [online] Available at: http://www.edinburgharchitecture.co.uk/slateford-green-housing [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019]. Figure 37 - Edinburgh Architecture. (2019). Slateford Green Housing, Edinburgh: Canmore Housing Association. [online] Available at: http://www.edinburgharchitecture.co.uk/slateford-green-housing [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019].

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SPRINGHILL CO-HOUSING - GLOUCESTERSHIRE, ENGLAND Springhill Co-Housing is the first new build co-housing scheme in the UK, based on the Danish model for collaborative living to achieve a strong community to benefit social wellbeing. The scheme has been planned, owned and managed entirely by its residents and has set a precedent for further developments by the Cohousing Company Ltd.95 95. Architype.co.uk. (2019). Architype / Springhill Co-Housing / The UK's Leading Passivhaus, Sustainable Architects. [online] Available at: https://www.architype.co.uk/project/springhill-co-housing/ [Accessed 5 Jan. 2019]. Figure 38 - Architype.co.uk. (2019). Architype / Springhill Co-Housing / The UK's Leading Passivhaus, Sustainable Architects. [online] Available at: https://www.architype.co.uk/project/springhill-co-housing/ [Accessed 5 Jan. 2019].

TAUNTON - SOMERSET, ENGLAND Taunton is the most speculative and forward looking of the case studies I have included. It has been officially named as the first Garden Town in the southwest of England, developing a community closely knitted to its environment.96 This accolade was based on the creation of three new communities at Monkton Heathfield, Staplegrove and Comeytrowe/Trull which are in the early stages of providing 9 500 new homes.97 96. Somerset County Gazette. (2018). Everything you need to know about garden town status - exhibition. [online] Available at: https://www.somersetcountygazette.co.uk/news/15403911.everything-you-need-to-know-about-garden-town-status-exhibition/ [Accessed 9 Jan. 2019]. 97. Ibid. Figure 39 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; From source above.

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MODERN DAY LETCHWORTH GARDEN CITY – HERTFORDSHIRE, ENGLAND Ebeneezer Howard’s first Garden City has grown now to a population of 33 600 with the modern addition of several housing estates.J Over time, the town has transformed dramatically, including increased mobility and a changing demographic which have influenced the estate’s facilities. This comparison will deduce how it has withstood the test of time against its original philosophy. Figure 40 – Author’s photograph from 24.12.2018

MODERN DAY WELWYN GARDEN CITY – HERTFORDSHIRE, ENGLAND Like its predecessor Letchworth, Howard’s second city of Welwyn has been greatly transformative but also influenced by changes in society. Greater industry success and connectivity as a commuter town to London has made Welwyn the more outward-looking, larger sibling of the towns today, with a population estimated over 50 000. Figure 41 – Author’s photograph from 24.12.2018

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Figure 42 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Methodology factors for assessing healthy design.

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Figure 43 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Selected contemporary case studies graded against modern healthy design principles.

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Figure 44 – Grading system used

Figure 45 – Successful schemes according to ranking.

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The stand-out case studies amongst those selected were Amersfoort in the Netherlands and Rieselfeld & Vauban in Germany, with both schemes scoring exemplary in four subcategories of healthy design. Amersfoort is one of the greenest cities in Europe, with each residential division given its own unique landscape-driven identity, with a vast array of affordable and social housing to support a diverse, proud community. Rieselfeld & Vauban is a remarkable precedent for implementing community engagement throughout the design process of a large scheme. It provides diverse opportunities within a more limited landscape and has a great emphasis on healthy and sustainable connections both internal and external. As the UK is on the brink of a much-needed housing reform, these case studies provide excellent precedents for generating healthier communities and living environments. The methodology shows that schemes can be successful in providing a healthier lifestyle for all types of people, whether they are led by government bodies, private investors or community groups. The six design principles could, of course, be expanded to dozens of specifics, but as a body they provide a neat domain for conversations around healthy residential designs.

Figure 46 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A summary of modern healthy design principles.

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This report is the result of extensive Garden City research, initially without the view of a final outcome. I believe this was to the benefit of the research, as it allowed me to immerse myself into understanding what was important about the original project without superimposing my own agenda. The initial scope of this report was to be of healthy and sustainable lifestyle, from which I developed 12 principles, before deciding to distil it to a more precise and pragmatic output. One great challenge of this methodology has been adequately justifying the ‘modernisations’ of Howard’s principles, something that could be subject to opinion and bias. I attempted to condense large topics of conversation around healthy living aspects. However, with each principle I developed, the importance was that developments would have been designed with a consideration of the topic in hand. Another challenge was finding the most relevant case studies for healthy design whilst also testing the methodology across a diverse sample of developments. To tackle this, I researched through multiple mediums for case studies that were exemplary or pioneering in a particular aspect of design with the logic that these should outscore any similar schemes that may have been overlooked. I also applied a precedent criteria to limit the sample size. In doing so, I ruled out the hundreds of proposals that are still in concept or development phase. Whilst some of these have the opportunity to surpass the included examples in their score, from my experience in practice on these projects, it felt unfair to compare them to projects which had already materialised their ambitions as they still have many hurdles ahead to maintain their high standard of design. Overall I am pleased to deliver this piece to inform discussion over greater designs for healthy living

Figure 47 – An illustration of methodology.

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BOOKS Acevedo-Garcia, D. and Osypuk, T. (2008). Impacts of housing and neighborhoods on health: Pathways, racial/ethnic disparities, and policy directions. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, pp.197-236. Alexander, A. (2009). Britain's new towns. London: Routledge. Beevens, R. (1988). The Garden City Utopia: A Critical History of Ebenezer Howard. Macmillan Press. Carr, J. and Kutty, N. (2008). Segregation. New York, NY: Routledge. Clapson, M. (1998). Invincible green suburbs, brave new towns. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Howard, E. (1902). Garden cities of to-morrow. London. Faber and Faber Litd. Macfadyen, D. (1933). Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement. [Manchester. Eng.]: Manchester University Press. Ryan-Collins, J. (2018). Why can't you afford a home?.

LECTURES Casey, V. (2018). Talk at the University of Sheffield. 14th November 2018.

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Tandon, P., Zhou, C. and Christakis, D. (2012). Frequency of Parent-Supervised Outdoor Play of US Preschool-Aged Children. The Research Agency of the Forestry Commission (2011). Health Benefits of Street Trees. The Research Agency of the Forestry Commission. The Urban Institute (2009). Promoting Neighbourhood Diversity. The Urban Institute. Tizot, J. (2018). Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City Idea and the Ideology of Industrialism. Cahiers victoriens et édouardiens, (87 Printemps). Unwin, R. (1901) ‘On the Building of Houses in the Garden City’. The Garden City Conference at Bourneville, September 1901. Report of Proceedings.URBED (2008) Beyond Eco-towns: Applying the Lessons from Europe. URBED. URBED (2014). Uxcester Garden City - Wolfson Economics Prize Submission 2014. URBED. Vernet, N. and Coste, A. (2017). Garden Cities of the 21st Century: A Sustainable Path to Suburban Reform. Urban Planning, 2(4), p.45. Stephen Ward (18 October 2005). The Garden City: Past, present and future. Routledge. Warm, P. (n.d.). Lessons from UK Passivhaus projects - A Certifier's View. Zayed, Y. (2016). Agriculture: Historical Statistics. House of Commons Library.

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MAIN TEXT WORD COUNT: 5315

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