Spanish Colonial Silver

NOTICIAS Quarterly Magazine Or The Santa Barbara Historical Society

Vol. XLII, No, 1

Spring 1996

.●“Lx;

Spanish Colonial Silver

.

■●.4 L*

ANY NIO riVBS viay be asciibcd to the curly SpcinBh explorer:^ and settlers ivlio came to the Nerv World. They came for the glo)-y oj their h\ing, they camejar the glory oj Cjod, they came to Chnstianize the benighted natives, they came jor trade and commerce. They also came Jor another l{ind of wealth, dnven by the stones and legends — the gold and silver which the Amaicas supposedly had in almost unimaginable quantities.

The Spanish discovered a flourishing native silver industij upon ivliich they supenmposed a restrictive gidkl system, ivhich effectively excluded all nmiNpanish from all but the most menial tasfs. Of course, many ojthe silver objects produced made theinvay to the moth' er counti-y, but as the colonies continued to develop, more cind more objects ivere eannaifedjor iLse in the New Woiid. the Spanish settled Alta Califoniia, they brought their silver ivith them,jor no silver industry ivas ever established in Spanish Califoniia. The industiy ivas active in Nlexico, Central and South y\menca. Fine silver pieces ivere status symbols for the ivealthy and poiverful families, and the Church made e.xtensive use of silver as decoration and in the liturgy.

Michael Haskell introduces us to the Spanish Colonial sillvei-

in this issue of

N0TICT\S. lie notes how the native indiLStnes already in place ajjected the look of the pieces produced under Spanish suzerainty. The residt ivas the creation ojivorfs of art unlike any produced anywhere else in the world.

Front cover photograph is a silvei 'Neoclassical desk ^et which belonged to Jose de la Cjuara y Noriega of Santa Barbara. The set ivas made in Aiexico City and is from the coT lection oj the Santa Barbara Historical Society. Illustrations on this jxige, page lo, and the backcover are common silver marks ivhich indicate the silver in a piece is of acceptable pi mty. All photographs are Iry William B. Deivey.

INI'ORMATiON FOR CONTRIBUTORS; NOTICiAS is a qunmcrly jounia! devoced to the study ot tlic history ot Santa Barbara County. Contributions of articles are welcome. Those autliors whose articles are accepted tor publication will receive ten gratis copies oi' the issue m which their article appears. l urthcr copies are available to the contributor at cost. The authori ty in matters of style is the Umi-'crsif)' of Chicago A ianual of Style, i^th edition. The Publications Committee reserves the right to return subniitted manuscripts tor required changes. Statements and opinions expressed in articles are the sole responsibility of the author.

Michael Redmon, Editor Judy SucclilJc, Designer

© 1996 The Santa Barbara Historical Society 136 E. Dc la Guerra Street, Santa Barbara. Calilornia 93101 ● Telephone; 805/966-1601 Single copies $5.00 ISSN 0581-5916

<><>

JPA ISln.

oo

Michael Haskell

Michad Haskdl,a third generation Santa Barbaran, has owned and op' erated a local antiques business since iqyo. He is a graduate of the Brooks Institute of Fine Arts, which he attended on a painting scholar' ship. He has written and lectured extensively on Spanish Colonial an and has traveled throughout Mexico, Central and South America. He was a consultantfor the iggz exhibit, Cambios: The Spirit of Trans formation in Spanish Colonial Art, at the Santa Barbara Museum of An and ivas co'curatorfor that museum’s exhibit. Visions of Life: Art of the Plains Indians, in 1975. He was guest curatorfor the Santa Barbara Histoncal Society’s exhibit. Symbols of Status: Spanish Colonial Silver in California. He is presently working on a booki^bout thefurni' ture ofLatin America duting the colonial period.

owners or acquired from the trading

/^^A NUMBER OF PIECES of silver exist in museums, churches, or

ships which plied the California coast.

private collections which have tics to

Those pieces with a known Californi

the early missionary period in Califor

an

nia. Some silver objects have been

Mexican, Peruvian, or, rarely, Guate

passed down in those families of Span

malan. To one familiar with Spanish

ish Californian ancestry. Oftentimes,

colonial silver, it is usually easy to dis

these pieces arc referred to as "Spanish

tinguish those pieces of colonial manu

silver.” This description is only partly

facture from those of European manu facture.

true. Those pieces which we can docu

history

are

almost

exclusively

Because of the abundance of silver

ment as having an early California his tory Spanish or Mexican periods, arc almost exclusively of colonial manufac

in the New World, Spanish colonial

ture. made in the Spanish colonics of the Americas.

heavy, and often one will observe stress marks and fissures because of

pieces are

usually

very thick

and

There does not exist a single docu

the difficulty of annealing the heavy

mented piece of silver made in Califor nia during the 18th century. It must be

silver, which is very pure. One will also notice a difference in the surface

assumed that the pieces known to have

color which seems to have almost a lu

been in California during the early peri

minance when highly polished. The

od were brought to California by their

most sophisticated pieces made in the 1

2

NOTICIAS

Spanish colonics of the Americas rival or surpass the quality of similar forms made on the Iberian Peninsula during this colonial period.

No one knows for sure how much gold and silver flowed from the New World colonics to Spain. In 1660, An tonio de Leon Pinelo calculated that

was hemorrhaging from within. Deep ly in debt to the Crown's bankers, the Fuggers of Germany, and being crushed by its own bloated bureaucra cy together with the need to finance her wars in Northern Europe, Spain was losing her hold on her New World dominance and was soon to be

from the silver mined from Potosl, Alto Peru, at that time, one could have built a road Irom Potosi to Madrid,

surpassed by the English and Dutch.

Spain was obligated to extract what ever commodities her colonics had to

"207 leagues long, 4 fingers thick and 15 yards wide,” and this was but a fraction of the riches which Spain was extracting from her mines in the colo nics,i Even as this vast wealth was

offer simply to survive. By the early years of the nineteenth century, Spain had lost her reign over her New World colonics, but it is undeniable

flowing to the mother country, Spain

that she had left an indelible legacy on the culture of Latin America,

Punishment fornatives who zoorlted in the mj'nes could be sevo'e. From a work by Fr, Barcolamc de las Casas, 1599,

w

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER

3

The Conquest

which included Central America and

The arrival of the Spanish conquiS' tadores to the Americas in the early sixteenth century marks a most signif icant change in the history of the world. The sheer size of the American continents, many times larger chan Europe, together with their vast natu ral resources, including not only their mineral riches, but their agricultural products, would transform the culture of Europe, The mission of the earliest arrivals from the Iberian Peninsula were not only to control and convert the natives to the Roman Catholic religion, but to exploit the riches of the New World.

This would not be an easy cask as the bravery and perseverance of the na tives were only finally broken by a combination of the horse, steel weap ons, gunpowder, and deceit.

What the conquistadores discovered was a remarkably advanced civiliza tion which had reached high levels in architecture, arc, agriculture, astrono my, medicine, and had intact a sophis ticated social structure.

The Viceregal Government In order to administer its new terri tories. Spain divided the continents into two geographical dominions con trolled by two separate viceroyalcies.

The division was approximately placed at what is now known as the Isthmus of Panama.

The first viccroyalty was estab lished in 1535 in the northern portion

Mexico, with its capital being Mexico City, This became known as j^ueva Espana, or New Spain. The southern viceroyalty, established in lv544, in cluded all of South America with the exception of the Portuguese viceroyalty of Brazil. This had its capital in Lima, Peru.

In 1717. the southern viccroyalty ceded territory to form what was to become the viceroyalty of Nueva Qranada, which roughly included the area comprised of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. In 1776, the viceroyalty of the Ejo dc la Plata was created, comprised of what is known today as Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and

Bolivia.

The system of viceregal rule contin ued in both Mexico, New Granada, and Rio dc la Plata until 1810, and in Peru until 1817 To give an idea of the complexity of the bureaucracy of the viceregal governments toward the end of the viceregal period, Mexico alone had fifty-nine viceroys; Peru had for ty; New Granada, fourteen; and Rio dc la Plata, eleven. Of these one hun dred twenty-four viceroys, only four were born in the New World; the rest were drawn principally from Spanish aristocracy.

The selection of a viceroy was often made without regard to intelligence or administrative skills, but had much more to do with social standing. Al though some of the viceroys were known for their fair treatment of their subjects, and displayed a social aware ness, many others were motivated by greed and cook full advantage of their

NOTICIAS

4

positions. The New World, with its gold, sil ver, and other vast re sources. together with masses of enslaved sub jects, made corruption and abuse of power routine.

Silver in PreColumbian America Before the arrival of the first Europeans to the New World, metallurgy was being practiced by the indigenous peoples of Mexico, Central America, and South America and included production of re markably sophisticated jewelry and ceremonial objects.

Work was being done in silver, gold, and bronze. | as well as alloys such as 1 tumbaya, made of sixty , percent gold and forty I percent copper. Both sil ver and gold were consid ered sacred entities and

Eloyivas the pat7vn saint ojthe silver guilds. His saint’s day ivas December i. Derail of an iSch-century painting in the Tcmplo dc Santa Cruz dc la Sierra.

many of the objects made of these materials were of a ceremonial nature or jewelry for people of royal stature.

Silver was called teocuicate by the Aztecs, which translates to "sweat of the moon." In Mexico, the Mixteca of Oaxaca created a variety of wellcrafted objects in the post-Classic peri od (900-1520), including earplugs, armbands, bracelets, tweezers (for pull ing whiskers), nose rings, bells, pen-

dants and various religious objects. In the pre-Hispanic period, the Mixtcca knew such techniques as lost wax casting, chasing, soldering, planishing, and repousse.

Among the Chimu of Peru, silversmithing had reached a very high level of sophistication by the year 1000 A.D, Many remarkable objects have been found in Chimu pre-Columbian tombs. The Florentine Codex and the

5

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER Codex Mendoza, anthologies of Aztec documents, record the technology of pre-Columbian silversmithing and mining.

Information about the earliest His panic silversmiths in Mexico and Peru is sketchy, but it is well documented that by the year 1525 the first guild or, in Spanish, gremio, had already been established in Mexico City on what became known as the Calle de los PLateros or "Street of the Silver smiths.” These first silversmiths in Mexico were all Spaniards; the native Mexicans were restricted from all but the most menial labor in the work place. The same situation and forma tion of guilds existed in Peru, and other Spanish viceregal centers such as Bo20ta, Colombia, and in Guatemala.

The silversmiths’ guild became a powerful entity in the protection of its own interests, and severe punishments were dealt to those who dared to work silver outside of the guild. The guild enjoyed a high social status, and even worshipped its own patron, St. Eloy.

The guild performed an important role in the upholding of the interests of the Spanish Crown in the collec tion of imposed taxes. The guild was also much involved in the mainte nance of craftsmanship and the train ing of apprentice silversmiths that were of the accepted social standard.

One must understand that the caste system in the colonial period in Mexi co was almost an obsession to those of Spanish ancestry. The breakdown of the caste system was gradual and existed in some form into the nine teenth century.

Peruvian Silver In Peru and Alto Peru (Bolivia), Potosi, Lima, and Cuzco were the princi pal centers of production of worked silver. These viceregal cities had large and powerful guilds of silversmiths which had great political and social power and grew very wealthy during the height of the exploitation of the mines in the seventeenth and eight eenth centuries. In Potosi alone, there were more than eighty established guild members. The guild became so rich that they were able to dedicate a chapel to St. Eloy which had an altar completely covered in repoiLsse silver and decorated with many silver can dlesticks and adornments. The guild sponsored festivals and bullfights to which the entire city was invited, free of charge. The guild also provided a form of social security for its older dis abled members.

A Spanish viceroy, visiting Potosi in the late seventeenth century, recorded that name plaques on homes and street signs were of silver and that he visited the home of a rich miner whose bath tub was completely made of silvcr.2 Within one-hundred-year period. from the mid-seventeenth to the mideighteenth centuries, this remote Indi an village was transformed into a lux urious city with thirty-six gambling houses, four theaters, a huge bullring, three hundred-sixty taverns and seven ty-two large mcrcantiles which sold all types of luxury items. Concerning the dress of the women, he said, "Tliat without regard to expense the women wear clothing which is covered with

6

NOTICIAS

precious stones and bordered with fold, silver and jewels. Their horses’ bits, bridles, reins, and harnesses also were covered with silver and jewels and their carriages were adorned with silver. Even the horseshoes were of fine silver. The stirrups and spurs of the horseman were of gold or goldplated silver."3 The mines of Potosi were the richest in the world, but there

During the boom years the wealth stimulated the building of massive Ba roque churches in these cities as well as huge public buildings. One need only to visit the city of Zacatecas to appre ciate the infusion of wealth from the mines and the effect it had on the city.

Many mines were located on the land of haciendas. In Mexico, the haciendas were owned by wealthy families or by various Catholic religious orders. These haciendas were much like feudal fief-

were many others such as Huancavclica, Puno, and perhaps as many as three hundred other mines of significance in Peru alone.

doms, complete with walled towns with their own churches and stores, and

The Mines of Mexico

many had their own form of currency, usually branded wooden tokens.

Vast deposits of silver were found throughout Mexico in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.

The cities which flourished around the

There is another aspect regarding the explosion of wealth surrounding the mining communities, if the mines began to fail or "play out." Cities which were completely dependent on the mines and located in areas with no

mines began to have dominant social and economic impact on all of Mexico.

The first major mine in Mexico was the R^al del Monte in the city of Pachuca. Hidalgo. This mine was in full oper ation by the year 1560, and mule trains loaded with ore were constantly haul ing the ore from the mines to the pro cessing area on the edge of Pachuca.

Other important mines were found throughout Mexico, some of the more notable being: Zacatecas’ La Bufa mine, Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi.

Taxco, Parral. Chihuahua, and the San ta Eulalia mines. There were also nu

other resources such as farming or ranching rapidly fell into decay as the mass exodus of their inhabitants be gan. The city of Parral, in Chihuahua, numbered one thousand families and a great number of transient workers in 1635. The mines played out about fif ty years later. The exodus began and by 1689 only about one hundred in habitants remained in the city.

In Mexico, the technology required to extract and process such ore became the most efficient in the world. A rev olutionary technique called ElBeneficio del Patio, "The Blessing of the Square," or Bl Beneficio, was soon introduced in Peru as well, where it was called Pro-

merous smaller mines, perhaps num bering in the hundreds, particularly in Durango, Chihuahua and Zacatecas.

The revenue from these mines creat ed instant cities in locations often not

cedimiento jvlexicano, the "Mexican Process." The credit for the invention

particularly well suited to settlement.

of this technique has been attributed to

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER

7

the Spanish Mexican, Barcolame dc

guished miners and Rescacadorcs of

Medina, although it is likely that he

Quanajuato, before the Revolution. Un

learned the process from German tech

der his tuition 1 endeavoured to acquire

nicians sent to Mexico in 1536 by the

an idea ofthis complicated process^ which

German banking family, Bugger.

1 shall proceed to lay before my readers,

This technique is described -by H. G. Ward, in his book, Mexico in i8zy,

never having myselffound in any work,a description calculated to convey all the

Vol. II:

information which 1 wished to obtain re

After returning from San Augustin,[sic]

specting it.

The ore, on being extracted from the

1 passed the whole of the afternoon at the Hacienda ofSalgado, in which the ores of the Valenciana Mine are reduced. The Hacienda containsforty-two arrastres, or crushing-mills, and thirty-six stampers, and the works are under the direction ofa

mine, is placed in the hands of Pepenadores, men and women, who break,all the larger pieces with hammers, and, after re fecting those in which no metallic parti cles are contained, divide the rest into three classes, called, in mining language,

young Mexican, Don Pedro Belauzaran,

Azogues, and Apolvillados, Buenos or

celebratedfor his skill as an amalgamator, which he appears to have inherited from

Ordinarios. The Azogues are the inferior ores, in which the matrix contains but a

hisfather, who was one ofthe most distin-

thin sprinkling ofsilver. As this increas-

Zacatecas ivas one ofthe most important silver mining and commercial centers in Mexico during the Spanish Colonialperiod. Lithograph, ca. 1830, by Karl Ncbcl (1805-1855). From the collection of Michael and Kim Haskell.

NOTICIAS

.1

r

fST:' I

L. l"l

si i**'

ml m , 111 w* —

t -

mmm 5- XXi i

>t

y! "

.

.>■

Haciendas ofwealthy landmvners were often cities unto themselves. View of the hacienda ofCha pingo. From H. G. Ward, yMexicom 1^27, Vol. II.

es, it becomes Apolvillado ordinario, and Apolvillado bucno when very rich. Sulphuet of silver, where it occurs but little

in twenty-four hours. This powder not be ing thought sufficiently fine for the quick'

intermixed with other substances, is des~

silver to act upon it with proper effect, it is transferred from the Morceros to the ar-

ignated as Polvillos; (probably because

rascres, (crushing mills), in which water

when reduced to polvo, (dust), this dust is

is used. Each of these reduces to a fine,

found to be richly impregnated with si7-

impalpable, metalliferous mud, six quin

ver) and Molonques, or Pctanques, are

tals of powder in twenty -four hours. At

the names given to the masses or crystalli

Quanajuato, where water-power cannot

zations ofpure silver, which are not unfrequently met with. 77ie three last are too

mules, which are kept constantly in 7no-

be obtained, the arrastres are worked by

rich to be submitted to the ordinary pro

tion at a slow pace, and are changed eve

cess of amalgamation; but the Azogucs and Apolvillados are transmitted in co

ry six hours. The grinding-stones, as well

scales, (miner's sackj, weighing 150 lbs. each, to the Hacienda, where they are de

as the sides and bottom of the mill itself are composed of granite, four blocks of which revolve in each arrastre, attached

livered to the Adminiscrador, (overseer),

to cross-bars of wood. This part of the op

ivho gives the receipt for the amount. They are then submitted to the action of the

eration is thought ofgreat importance, for it is upon the perfection of the Molienda,

Morteros, (stamps), one ofwhich of eight

(literally, the grinding), that the loss of

stampers, (Mazos), is capable ofreducing to powder ten cargas ofore, (each 350 lbs.)

quicksilver is supposed in a great mea sure to depend. It is performed usually in

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER a covered shed, or Galcra, which, in a large Hacienda like Salgado, from the number of arrastres at work at the same time, is necessarily ofconsiderable extent.

From the arrastres the ore is again re moved to the Patio,(amalgamation court) where it is disposed in Tortas, the size of which varies according to the dimensions of the Patio, or thefancy of the Administrador (overseer). The number of Montones (heaps)contained in each Torta is consequently uncertain; but the Monton of Quanajuato consists of nine Cargas, and two arrobas, or thirty-two quintals of ore; each carga containing fourteen arrobas of lbs.

The Monton requires three arrobas of salt, (from Colina), at one dollar, or nine reals the arroba. This is added to the mass

9 three days before any other ingredient.

One arroba or ordinary Magistral, (from Tepesalar,nearAguas Calientes),or ylbs. ofthe very best quality,(Pepena).[sic] Quicksilver, in the proportion of3 lbs. for every marc of silver that the ores ofthe Monton are supposed by the amalgama tor to contain, and varying, consequently, according to the quality of the Monton, which is determined by the eye.

In the amalgamation ofa large Torta, the same proportions are always ob served;and the mass is repeatedly worked up by men and mules, (repasadores), in order to promote the incorporation of the silver with the mercury, which it requires six weeks in winter, and one month in summer, to effect. When the amalgamator supposes the Torta to have rendido, i.e..

JhepatioofthehaciaidaofSalgado. The technique known as E\ Dcneficio del Patio used to extract and process silver ore revolutionized the industry. From H. G. Ward,AfexicomiSay,Vol. II.

10

NOTICIAS

Whcti water power was unavailable, mules were often used in the crushing mitb. From H. G. Ward,Mexico in i8zy, Vol II.

to have yielded all the silver that it con-

densed in the water, where it is subse

tains, it is washed in large vats, (TinasJ,

quently collected. The pure silver (Plata

until all the earthy particles are got rid of, when the amalgam, which remains at the bottom of the vat, is strained in leather

or melted down into bars,(containing 135

bags until no more quicksilver can be sep aratedfrom the silver by pressure. The remainder is cut into wedges, which are

quemada)is then cut again into wedges, marcs each), in either of which shapes it may be transmitted to the mints."^

conveyed to the Qucmadcro, (burning-

This technique made it possible to obtain a very pure form of silver. The

house), and arranged in a circular pile round a copper-plate called the Vaso,

lay in the fact that it was imported

with a hole in the centre, and a receptacle

from Amedcn, Spain, at great expense.

importance of recycling the mercury

for water beneath, care being taken to make the hollow left in the centre of the pile oj amalgam correspond exactly with the hole in the Vaso below. The whole is then covered by a large iron bell, called Capclla, or Capdlina, which is strongly luted down;a wall ofmud bricks is raised

Ecclesiastical Silver Probably the first silver items made by the Spanish conquerors in the New World were for the church. Cer

with charcoal. 'The fire is k^t up for

tain sacramental items were required to be of precious metal. The manufac ture of ecclesiastical silver must have

twelve hours, in which time the quicksil' ver is sublimed, and afterwards con-

evolved at a rapid pace as a great number of sixteenth-century ecclesias-

round it, and the intervening space filled

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER deal items still exist in churches, mu seums, and

in

private

collections.

11 In addition to the church decoration and

sacramental

objects

of

silver,

Among the items extant are mon-

many of the santos, the carved wood

stronces, chalices, processional crosses,

and polychrome figures of saints, vir

candlesticks, pyx (containers for the

gins, and angels, have silver adorn ments, such as crowns, staffs, halos,

Eucharist wafers), censers, chandeliers, reliquaries, salvers, and ciboriums, as altar decorations.

even clothing and sandals. The wings

In the seventeenth and eighteenth

the plaques on the top of crucifixes on

centuries, as prosperity grew in the Spanish colonies, not only did the

which the letters INRI appear were of silver. INRI was the Latin initials for

churches prosper, but many donations

Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.

of archangels were often of silver and

were given by the parishioners, rang

Periodically, the tips of the cross and

ing from small items and votive offer ings to entire silver altars or rztabLos. In

even the nails which affix the corpus to the cross were of silver, as were the

the book, Life in Mexico, Mmc, Cald eron de la Barca writes in her letters of

rays of the halo, or potencias, which emanated from Christ’s head.

1840 a description of the cathedral in

Many of the vestments worn by

Morelia (Valladolid): Accompanied by several ofourfriends including one of the canons ofthe cathe

the priests also were embroidered in silver thread. For those who are famil iar with the colonial churches of Latin America, it is not difficult to imagine

dral, we visited that splendid building the

the sheer volume of silver objects

second day ofour arrival. It is still won

created for use by the Catholic Church

derfully rich notwithstanding that silver

from the sixteenth until the early nine

to the amount of thirty two thousand marhs has been taken from it during the

teenth century. Much of the silver has vanished from these churches, often

civil wars.'The high altar is dazzling with

times through theft, especially during

gold and silver; the railing which leads

the periods of civil war. Some pieces

from it to the choir is of pure silver, with

were sold, while others ended up being melted down for use as ballast. Yet

pillars ofthe same metal; the two pulpits, with their stairs are also covered with sil ver, and the general ornaments, though numerous and rich, are disposed with

enough still exists in churches, mu seums, or in the hands of collectors

good taste, are kept in order and have

that scholars have an understanding of the importance of ecclesiastical silver

nothing tawdry or loaded in their general

during the colonial period.

effect. The choir itselfis extremely beauti ful; so also is the carved screen before the

Domestic Silver

organ, the doors ofthe first being ofsolid silver and those of the other of richly carved wood. There is also an immense

Domestic silver had an important role in the daily lives of Latin Ameri

silverfont and superb lamps ofsilver.^

can viceroys and wealthy merchants

NOTICIAS

12

cigar boxes, candle snuffers, chocolate pots, frames, cups, mugs, beakers, tu reens, inkwells, desk sets, even the

a "

1 '"H.

'■V

A

St

ubiquitous chamber pot. In addition, a large number of equestrian-related items were of silver or had silver orna mentation. Tlie braiding on sombreros and clothing was often of silver thread.

Buttons and clasps were of silver.

Swords, knives, and firearms often had silver decoration or applications.

This silver-ori'Wood tabcmacU ivas produced in Cuzco, Peru, ca. ijzo. Ecclesiastical silva’ pieces were among the earliest made in the colo nial period. From che colleccion of Mr. and Mrs. Robert Carey,

of the colonial period. Due to the insta bility of governments in many areas, families often owned silver objects as security against turbulent times.

Mme. Calderon de la Barca de scribes a visit to che home of one Gen eral Moran and his lady, the Marquesa de Vavanco, at San Agustin, "We found a large party assembled and about 12:00 sac down to a most mag nificent breakfast of about sixty per sons. Everything was of solid silver, even the places, A vast capital is sunk in diamonds and place in this country, no good sign of che state of com merce. ”6 The variety of domestic silver ob jects is vast, but here arc examples of some of what the privileged classes owned: tableware {vajilla). utensils, candlesticks, incense burners (che burn ing of various fragrant incenses was very popular in colonial homes), small chests of silver and silver with tortoise shell, lacquer or exotic wood, lamps, chandeliers, barber bowls for shaving,

Stylistic Evolution of Spanish Colonial Silver In the earliest extant pieces of church silver made in the New World one finds adaptations of che styles pop ular in Spain in the second half of the sixteenth century. Particularly evident is the surface decoration influenced by platercsque devices. Placercsque (platC' resco) is a style which became popular in Spain in the early sixteenth century.

This style was influenced by che Ital ian Renaissance devices such as medal lions, grotesques, swags and garlands of flowers and fruit and che incorpora tion of putti (cherubs), together with candelabrum-style columns which had been adapted to Spanish caste. About this time in Spain the architect, Juan de Herrera, che architect of El Escorial, thought by many to be the greatest ex ample of Spanish architecture, became extremely inlluencial. Herrera's disdain of detail and his reliance on proportion and scale influenced all phases of che decorative arcs as well as architecture.

Indeed, the term Herrcran style has been applied to works showing his in fluence.

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER Many of the early sixteenth-century colonial silver pieces paradoxically combine a combination of platcresquc style of overall scrolling, faces, and complex surface detail and the open ar chitectural style of simple, delineated areas, outlined cartouches, and lozenge forms. Some early pieces are very faith ful to the Herreran style, while other pieces arc obviously influenced by Ital ian Renaissance devices as interpreted by the Spanish (plateresque). One also encounters pieces which arc completely devoid of surface decoration but arc

13 faichful in form to late Gothic and Ren aissance shape and outline.

Also found in a number of early Mexican pieces are the inclusion of ex otic bird feathers within compartmen talized cartouches on monstrances, chalices, etc. The art of bird feather mosaic is of pre-Hispanic-Aztec origin and shows an interesting appreciation for the indigenous arts by the Spanish.

Also rock crystal as well as boxwood and semi-precious stones can be found on certain early Mexican pieces.

Through recent discoveries in ma rine archeology, such as the wreck of the Nuestra Seiiora Atocha, we have been able to examine those silver items found in the wreckage. It is known that the Atocha, together with her sis ter ship, the Margarita, sunk in heavy seas off the Tortugas Islands In 1622.

We also know from the manifest that together with other commodities, the ship carried thirty-five tons of silver, not including the personal silver of its 268 passengers and crew.

Of the silver Items found in the wreck of the Atocha, most are known to be of South American origin. The silver recovered, which obviously pre dates 1622, includes a variety of late sixteenth and early seventeenth centu ry forms as well as some styles and touch marks heretofore unknown.

Among the items are a large, 175" di ameter, silver gilt rosewater dish in the

This candlesticf{, produced in Peru in the late i8th centwj, is an exquisite example ojdcnnestic silver in the late Baroque style. From the collection of Captain Charles Gordon Dav)^ Lent courtesy of Mr. and Mrs. John T. Hoag.

14

NOTICIAS

Ihis silver dish and beako'xvere pnxsented to Jose dc la Quetra y Noriega and Maria An tonia Carrillo cm the occasion oftheir marriage I'n Santa Barbara in 180^. The pieces were made in Mexico.From chc collection of Gary Brcitwciscr.

classic Herrcran style, also a rare silver candlestick in a version of what is

had boarded the Atocha in Havana), as well as silver incense burners, castors,

called, in English, a capstan, with its domed circular base and thin, flaring, baluster-formed stem. This was found

cups, ewers, plates, and bowls.

Also, several pieces were found in the pure plateresque style. Of particu lar interest are a number of silver beak

together with several fragments of similar candlesticks carrying Peruvian marks. Also found were a number of early pieces of domestic silver, includ ing a group of very heavy, simple piec es which, among other items, included an important salver with the Salgado crest (Martin Salgado and his wife, Doha Maria de Apatia together with their teenage daughter and servants

ers of tapering form. This form is a typical pre-contact form referred to as a heroin Peru. Some of these beakers de pict condors as well as typically Span ish designs such as horsemen and lions which have been "Indianized," One ex ample appears to depict miners scaling ladders at a silver mine in Potosi. Alto gether the salvage of the Atocha items

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER

15

This tortoise shell casket ivith silver decoration and lock.ivas madeinT^exicoin the late i6oos. The piece is unusual in that it is pure tortoise shell, not tortoise shell oji u-ood, which was more common.

From the collection of Klaus M. Schilling.

has given us great insight into the mate rial culture of the Spanish Colonial America and the transitional period of the native silver maker as he became as

By chc cighccench century, although the guilds were still run by Spaniards or Creoles, most of the workers were Indian or mestizo, and their influence

similated into Hispanic society.

became evident. Particularly in eccle siastical silver does the Mexican Ba

The Baroque Period In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Baroque style became widely popular in Latin America, par ticularly in Mexico. It seems that with the Baroque movement the Mexican silversmiths, along with architects, painters, etc., finally were freed from the constraints imposed by their Iberian traditions. The Baroque period in Mex ican art seemed to release an artistic energy that was more expressive perhaps than anywhere else in the world.

roque expression become apparent, perhaps influenced by the incredible Baroque churches being constructed in Mexico at this time. On certain colo nial pieces virtually every bit of sur face space is covered in exaggerated Baroque curves and sumptuous chas ing and repousse. The Baroque move ment in New Spain seemed to be a re volt against feudalism and the artistic rules of the Renaissance in Europe.

Within the world of the Spanish Co lonial artist they were suddenly free to create items of arrogant magnificence

NOTICIAS

16

This beahp'belonging to the de la Cjiietrafamily clearly shoios a manber ofthe marl{s.

Vie zigzag burilado ivas used to test the purity ofthe silver. The M with the croiim IS the hallmark, indicating the piece is ofacceptable purity. The bird figure at upper right is the quinto. From che collection of Gary Brcicwciscr.

and drama. This was indeed an age of an overall flowering within the arts of the New World.

panied by a marked reduction in pro duction of the mines as well as a de crease in the production of finished plate. These years, beginning about

The Neoclassic Period

Toward the end of the 18th century one sees a transformation to Neoclas sic motifs and architecture in Latin America which lasted into the middle of the next century. This was accom-

1780, were times of great turmoil in all of Latin America, as the various coun tries sought independence from Span ish rule and searched for national iden tity.

Although this was an intense time in the social and political history of

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER Lacin America, ic marked a withering of the creativity of the people. In Mexico, for example, because of the major disruptions created by civil war and general unrest, art almost seemed to degrade into a numb, cold imitation of the European flavor for things in the Neoclassic taste. Styles based on ancient Greek and Roman designs be came popular, with reeded columns and pediments with swags. For exam ple. ink stands became bases with Ro man pavilions. Silver worked in imita tion of folded fabric and bows became popular.

This is not to say that technically fine pieces were not being made. The craftsmanship is very high in many pieces. Manuel Tolsa had a great influ ence during this period. Spanish by birth, he helped establish thz Academia de las Nobles Artes de San Carlos de la Nueva Espana in 1783. Tolsa became president of the academy and was a central figure in the finishing of the Cathedral of Mexico City and the ar chitecture of the Palace of Mining

School.

On these important buildings are found Tolsa’s Neoclassic language, concave forms, curved stripes, gar lands, sprays of arrows and feathers.

This became known as La Influencia Tolsa. These Neoclassic elements were soon transported to the other "minor” arts, such as silver, ceramic, and glass.

Except for those provincial pieces which retained their "Mexican” char acter, in general, Mexican silver lost its spirituality and expressiveness and par roted European prototypes from the late eighteenth century until indepen¬

17 dence from Spain, which marked the end of the colonial period.

The Marks on Silver The marks on silver were created primarily to assure that taxes were be ing collected on each finished piece and to ensure the purity of the silver ac cording to the Spanish ordinance. The standard unit of silver weight was the marco, which was the equivalent of eight onzas, which was slightly more than two hundred and thirty grams. In Mexico, a piece could have as many as five marks: ♦ The Quinto: This mark could take a variety of forms. One of the most common was the figure of a bird or ea gle. The qiiintowas the royal fifth, the 20% tax which was imposed on silver. ● The Burilado: This was the dis tinctive mark left by the buril. which was used to scrape a zigzag mark on the surface of the silver object. These scrapings were melted and compared to a sample of known legal quality called the parangon, which was the standard. As this zigzag scraping was done in a freehand manner, ic varied in size and uniformity. In addition, the name or an abbreviation of the name of the assayer was marked. ● The Hallmark; This signified that the silver piece was of the correct puri ty. Ic often cook the form of a crown, sometimes over the letter signifying place of manufacture. ● The Casa de Fundicion: The third mark indicates the place of manufac ture. For example, Mexico is a capital M. The piece can also additionally

NOTICIAS

18

have a mark indicating the city of manufacture. ● The Maker’s Mark: This mark in dicates the name of the silversmith or shop. It is often a full name or initials.

Very rarely do silver objects have all five marks, and they often have none. This can be explained by the following reasons; Tlie silver was made in a provincial area which was difficult to regulate; it was made in a deliberate attempt to avoid taxes and regulating; or, in some areas, the in got from which the silver item was made was assayed and marked previ ous to its being worked. (This was not within guild regulations or viceregal law, but was not uncommon, par ticularly in Peru.)

Many pieces have also surfaced with forged marks. These fraudulent marks, particularly those of the assayer. were intended to avoid regulation and avoid the quinto, the twentypercent tax.

The End of the Colonial Era By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the ties between Spain’s New World colonists and the mother coun try grew progressively weaker as, with each generation, fewer and fewer colonists were born in Spain. Political ferment in this "Age of Revolution” resulted in independence movements sprouting in Mexico, Argentina, Para guay, Uruguay. Bolivia, and Peru by 1817 New political realities enforced al tered social priorities; matters artistic faded into the background. A number of the mines had played out. while po litical turmoil often wreaked havoc with production. Silver continued to be mined and objects of great beauty con tinued to be produced, but the era of Spanish Colonial silver, the period when the peoples of the Spanish colo nies produced silver artifacts for the Spanish world, was over.

This silverplatUrwas presented fo Jose de la Querra y Noriega on his birthday in ijjg- The in scription reads,]osc de la Guerra y Noriega Novalcs 1779 Espana. Novales was de la Querra’s birthplace. The platter was made in Mexico City. From the collection of Frederica D. Poccc.

19

SPANISH COLONIAL SILVER NOTES 1. Adolfo Luis Ribera, Southern Sp/endor: Masterworks of Colx)nial Silver jrom the Museo Issac Fernandez Blanco, Buenos Aires (New York: Americas Society. 1987), 13.

2. Alfredo Taullard, Plateria Sudamericana (Buenos Aires; Peuscr, Ltda., 1941), 28-29.

3. Ibid., 29.

4. H. G. Ward, Mexico in i8zy, Vol ume II (London: Henry Colburn, 1828), 434-438.

5. Mmc. Calderon dc la Barca, Life in Mexico (New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., 1931). 505.

6. Ibid.. 209.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson. Lawrence. El Arte de la Plateria cn Mexico, 1519-1936, Vols. I and II. New York; Oxford University Press, 1941.

Boylan, Leona Davis. Spanish Colonial Silver. Santa Fc; Museum of New Mexico Press, 1974. dc la Barca, Mmc. Calderon. Life in Mexico. New York: E.P. Dutton and Co.. 1931.

Fernandez, Alejandro, Rafael Munoa, and Jorge Rabasco. Marcas de la Plata Madrid: EdiEspanola y Virreinal. clones Antiquaria, S.A., 1992.

Kelcmen, Pal. Baroque and Epcoco in Latin America. New York; The Mac Millan Company, 1951.

Mardn, Cristina Esccras. La Platcria ddJAuszo Franz Mayer. Mexico City; Museo Franz Mayer, 1992.

Metropolitan Museum of Art. Mexico: Splendors of Thirty Centuries. New York; co-pub with Bulfinch Press, 1990.

Museum Voor Sierkunst. Mexicaans Zilver. Ghent; Museum Noor Sier kunst, 1993.

Ribera. Adolfo Luis. Southern Sp/endor:Masterwork^s of Colonial Silverfrom the Museo Issac Fernandez Blanco, Buenos Aires. New York; Americas So ciety, 1987 Rodriguez, Josephina Alonso. El Arte de la Plateria en La Capitania Qeneral de Quatemala,Wols. I-II. Ciudad de Guatamala; Unlversidad dc San Carlos de Guatemala, 1980.

Samayoa, Guevara, and Umberto Hec tor. El Qremio de los Plateros de la Cuidad de Quatemala y Sus Ordenanzas 1524-1S21. Ciudad dc Guatamala; Edi torial Universitaria. 1962.

Taullard, Alfredo. Plateria Sudamericana. Buenos Aires; Peuser, Ltda., 1941.

Toussaint, Manuel. Arte Colonial de Mexico. Impcnta Universitaria, Mexi co, D.F., 1962.

Ward. H. G., Esq. Mexico in i8zy, Vols. I & II. London: Henry Colburn, 1828.

<> o o <>

o o The Santa Barbara Historical Society wishes to acknowledge the generous financial support of me following towards the publication of this issue of NOTICIAS:

Foster Campbel, George E. Frakes .Richard Glenn ^ ean Goodrich ^awrence Hammett C. Seybert Kinsel ^ ane Rich Mueller Ruth Scollin o Beth Van Gelderen

o o

o <> o o

SANTA BARBARA HISTORICAL SOCIETY BOARD OF TRUSTEES Richard Glenn

President

Jo Beth Van Gcldcrcn .

. . First Vice President

Lani Mcanley Collins .

Ruth Scoilin

Second Vice President

Warren Pullman Miller

Nancy Balch Victor H. Bartolomc Foster Campbell Marilyn B. Chandler Barbara Cleveland Dan Cross

Secretary Treasurer

George E. Frakes

Jane Mueller

Neal Graffy Lawrence Hammett

Joanna Newton

Robert G. Hansen

John Pitman Barbara Robinson

John W. Hunt Thad MacMillan

Jack Overall

Cicely Whcelon

George M. Anderjack, Executive Director

MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS The Santa Barbara Historical Society wishes to thank and to acknowledge with pride the following members and institutions for their generous contributions in 1995.

PRESIDENTS CIRCLE ($10,000 and aht)vc) Alice Tweed Tuohy Foundation Ms. Lani Mcanley Collins, Attorney Mr. and Mrs. Lawrence T. Hammett John Moran Incorporated, Antique and Fine Arts Auctioneers MacFarlanc, Faletti and Company Santa Barbara Foundation Smith-Walker Foundation Mr. and Mrs. Donald Van Gcldcrcn

Mr. and Mrs. Ernest A. Bryant III California Council for the Arts Mr. and Mrs. Charles Cleek Mr. and Mrs. Richard Cleveland Mrs. Zelva Pierce Fischer Mrs. Walter H. Gainey Mr. and Mrs. Nathan Gates Mr. and Mrs. Richard A, Glenn The Estate of Yale B. Griffith Mr. and Mrs. Benjamin C. Hammett Mr. and Mrs. Thomas J. Harriman Mr. and Mrs. Arne P. Hvotboll

Wtxxl-Clacysscns Foundation MAJOR BENEFACTORS ($5,000 and above) Danielson Foundation Mrs. Calvin T. Gotxirich Mr. and Mrs. Donald Harcourt Mrs. Gilbert M. W.Smith PATRONS($1.000 and above) American AsscKiation of Retired Persons Mrs. John Baptiste Ford Bacon Ann Jackson Family Foundation Mr. and Mrs. Donald L. Balch

Mrs. Beverley Jackson Mrs. Pat Lickcr Mr. and Mrs. Thad MacMillan Mr. and Mrs. Warren P. Miller Mrs. Jane Rich Mueller Mr. and Mrs. William G. Myers Old Spanish Days Mr. John Pitman Mrs. Rena Redmon Santa Barbara Conference and Visitors Bureau Mrs. Thomas Sicbert Mr. and Mrs. Jerry Springer The Upham Hotel, Ms. Jan Martin Winn Wrathcr Family Foundation

BENEFACTORS($500 and above) Aesthetic Frame and Art Services Bartham and Associates.

Mr. Victor H. Bartolomc Mr. James Jeter Ms. Denise Hammett Bicker Mr. Gary Breitweiser Mr. and Mrs. Robert Carty Mrs. Marilyn Brant Chandler Chubbs Insurance Mr. and Mrs. Dan N. Cross Mr. and Mrs. Gordon Fish Mrs. Rowe Geisen Graphic Traffic Mr. Donald B. Hamister Mr. and Mrs. Robert G. Hansen Mrs. Richard H. Hcllmann Kaleidoscope Flowers Mr. David F. Myrick Dr. and Mrs. George Terry Northrop Mrs. Robert R. Nye Mr. and Mrs. Jack Overall Santa Barbara News-Press, Mr. P. Steven Ainslcy Starbuck, Tisdale, and Associates Mr. Ivano Paolo Vit Wells Fargo Bank Mrs. William H. Wilson, Jr.

Non-Profit Organization U.S. Postage PAID Santa Barbara California Permit No.534

NOTICIAS Quarterly Magazine of the Santa Barbara Historical Society P.O. Box 578 Santa Barbara. California 93102-0578

Address Correction Requested Forwarding Postage Guaranteed

contents Pg. 1: Spanish Colonial Silver