Architecture & Urban Intervention | Part One by Sarah Lipsit

RYERSON UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE

ARCHITECTURE & URBAN INTERVENTION A COLLECTION OF ESSAYS | PLX 599 THE HUMAN WORLD

DR. IAN MACBURNIE "There is perhaps no more honorable profession than architecture, nor one more challenging. Architecture operates simultaneously at so many different scales, from that of the general to that of the specific, from that of the part to that of the whole. At its most influential, and - arguable - at its most critical, architecture operates at the scale of the city. The task at hand would seem relatively straightforward: to conceive an urban intervention - small, medium, large, or extralarge - that may be considered appropriate. And therein lies the rub - for where some will see success, others will see failure. Importantly, it is not only time that will tell. Architecture at the scale of the city demands an informed profession, and an informed professional. If by way of this course, students begin to fathom the complexity that is city building, if they begin to ask the right questions, then we as instructors may take satisfaction in knowing that we are on the way to accomplishing our goal."

A MESSAGE RENĂ&#x2030; BIBERSTEIN "Building a city is like running a three-legged race. We may agree on some of the ultimate goals, but the variety of the interests involved makes it extraordinarily complicated. It requires us to simultaneously think at different spatial and temporal scales, to collaborate with a vast number of actors, and to engage with different systems of planning and regulation. Yet it is not an activity that we can afford to shrink from, as citizens and design professionals. As cities grow in size and significance, and spread outwards into the landscape, the project of city building is in many ways becoming the project of building the planet. The urban is the modern condition."

6 VICTORIA CHOW

DOAN-THY VO

TARA CASTATOR

SYLVIA RODAS

MARTA LEHZDYN

EDITORS YONG ZHU

KAREN GRUBB

DANA GUREVICH

BRIANA NICOLE ZITELLA

NAVEED KHAN

ISHAN PATEL

MICHELLE ASHUROV

SARAH LIPSIT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

PUBLISHERS

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

018

Auditorium Building

Marie Antoinette Arcayos

024

Letchworth Garden City

030

Prudential Building

036

Bauhaus Dessau

Timothy Cheng

042

Hufeisensiedlung

Victoria Chow

048

Chicago Tribune Tower

054

Wainwright Building

060

Home Insurance Building

066

Wainwright Building

072

Wrigley Building

078

Bauhaus Dessau

Dana Latimer

084

Monadnock Building

Jing Yi Liang

090

Barclay-Vesey Building

Judy Manouk

096

Marquette Building

Michael Mulvey

102

Weissenhofsiedlung

Nivin Nabeel

108

Equitable Building

114

Prudential Building

120

Village of Riverside

126

Singer Building

Derek Beattie Daniel Carey

Andrew Falls Matthew Ferguson Dylon Feyen John JinWoo Han Luke Kimmerer

Jinsuk Oh Oluwatobi Omisore Marcus Parisi Ishan Patel

CONTENT 132

Equitable Building

Daniel Petrocelli

138

Pittsfield Building

Nahal Rahnamaei

144

Woolworth Building

Kiente Sanipe

150

Weissenhofsiedlung

Hrishikesh Tailor

156

Monadnock Building

Jamie Tong

162

Welwyn Garden City

Zac Topp

168

Village of New Lanark

174

Marshall Field's Wholesale Building

Samantha Turchyn Roger Xu

CIAM 1928-1959

182

National Congress Building of Brazil

Omar Ahmed

188

United Nations Headquarters

194

Lever House

200

Unité d`Habitation

206

Pruitt-Igoe Complex

212

Amsterdam Orphanage

218

860 - 880 Lake Shore Drive

Joseph Costanza

224

Lever House

Andreh Custantin

230

860 - 880 Lake Shore Drive

236

Seagram Building

242

Nidda Valley Settlements

248

Chrysler Building

254

Unité d`Habitation

260

Pruitt-Igoe Complex

266

Chrysler Building

272

Baker House Dormitory

278

Lafayette Park Complex

Justin Mitchell

284

Park Hill Estate

Rawan Muaddi

290

Baker House Dormitory

Soroush Arabi Daniel Bassakyros Imane Boury Jessica Hoang Chen Wang Chiu

John Day Sara Duffin Marina Elmova Karen Grubb Shahida Hoque Celine Huynh Shivathmikha Suresh Kumar Benjamin Luong

Lorraine Okungbowa

CONTENT 296

Ministry of Education and Health

Iman Rahmati

302

Rockefeller Center

308

Lafayette Park Complex

314

Seagram Building

320

Amsterdam Orphanage

326

Unite d'Habitation

332

National Congress Building of Brazil

Greer Stanier

338

Rockefeller Center

Doan-Thy Vo

344

Corbusierhaus

Nineveh Rashidzadeh Sylvia Rodas Adam Rosenberg Artyom Savin Glearda Sokoli

Yong Zhu

POST-CIAM 1960-present

352

Centre Pompidou

358

New Museum of Contemporary Art

364

Central St. Giles Mixed Use Development

370

Yale Center for British Art

376

Centraal Beheer

382

London City Hall

388

New Museum of Contemporary Art

394

New City Hall

400

Hearst Tower

406

HSBC Building

412

McGraw Hill Building

418

New York Times Building

424

Robin Hood Gardens

430

30 St. Mary Axe

436

John Hancock Center

Ali Mohammed-Khaja

442

John Hancock Center

Min-Wook Kim

448

Free University of Berlin

454

Aurora Place

460

De Rotterdam

Catalina Ardila Bernal Michelle Ashurov Nicola Augustin Khaliq Azizi Nicholas Callies Tara Castator Ramoncito Espino Ryan Fernandes Danielle Fuller Arman Ghafouriazar Vlash Gjeka Dana Gurevich Ruslan Ivanystskyy Alexis Johansen

Yunhung Kim Lauren Kyle Eric Lachance

CONTENT 466

McGraw Hill Building

Marco Lee

472

Villa VPRO

478

Seattle Public Library

484

Torre Agbar

490

Seattle Public Library

Adrian Mann

496

Peabody Terrace Complex

Stefan Miller

502

Centre Pompidou

Emily Mutch

508

New Toronto City Hall

514

Linked Hybrid

520

LVMH Tower

526

Willis (Sears) Tower

532

World Trade Center

538

Toronto-Dominion Centre

Daniel Rosati

544

Willis (Sears) Tower

Jeffrey Szeto

550

Toronto-Dominion Centre

556

Leslie L. Dan Pharamacy Building

562

Danforth East Streetcar Yards

Marta Lehzdyn Sarah Lipsit Kavosh Maleki

Kousha Omidisahneh Masih Khalili Pooya Jacob Ragetli Rabia Randhawa Alborz Razavitousi

Jue Wang Briana-Nicole Zitella Ivana Digirolamo, Anne Kwan, Dana Salama, Alvin Yonatan Tanoko, Stephanie Tung

FOREWORD The CongrĂ¨s International d'Architecture Moderne may have proved to be the most influential meetings on the decisions concerning city planning and the future of contemporary architecture. With the first meeting taking place in 1928, with the premise that cities no longer serve their function to its inhabitants, 28 leading international architects began to direct architecture and urban planning to become harmonious. With a series of four conferences spanning 31 years, architects including Karl Moser and Walter Gropius were guided primarily by Le Corbusier, to become socially influential on topics related to housing, and solutions to social and economic problems. Beginning to better understand the relationship between politics and planning, many advancements were developed in consequence to these ideologies, serving new regulations on height of buildings and organization of the city. Zoning parameters were introduced to separate city regions by use and introduced height as an essential element to solve the problems of traffic, ultimately alleviating confusion and congestion on ground level. This collection of essays aim to express how the CIAM principals influenced infrastructure and planning methodologies throughout three time periods; Pre-CIAM, during the conferences, and post-CIAM. Each project within the book demonstrates how conditions of zoning have informed the project's conception, how the project responds to the city's planning regime, negotiates public space, and pertains to urbanism and its urban context. Although the original group dissipated in 1933, their belief that architecture proves itself as an economic and political tool to transform the world through better building design and urban planning remain a constant authority in today's building processes.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927 In the mid-19th century, city design and planning experienced a shift. An upsurge of industry, known now as the Industrial Revolution, was followed with a rapid growth in population. As a result, societies were often split into hierarchical social classes between people who largely profited and the working class who fell into poverty from the new industries. With the increase of the urban density and a lack of infrastructure, city planning became concerned with the poor, unsanitary living conditions that resulted in poverty, illness, crime, and congestion. The social problem was acknowledged and responded to with a progressive movement that focused on the concentrated density in residential, industrial and workplace areas. Zoning regulations were introduced as a tool for urban planning and architecture, specifying land use and controlling building form and design to benefit people`s living conditions. An improvement in sanitation, especially in public housing buildings, was the first priority. During this time period, city planning became not only concerned with beautification, but also an improvement in engineering of efficient infrastructure such as the water supply and sewage systems, in attempts to stimulate urban growth in cities. Globally, the years between 1850 and 1927 encompassed a body of projects that responded to the effects of the Industrial Revolution. Implementation of new standards, especially within housing projects, occurred slowly throughout these years. With the erection of new structures, improvements began to take place along with new principles that continuingly raised the standards of living. The following collection of essays investigates the new movement of urban and architectural thinking that occurred globally and acted as a foundation for the later-formed CongrĂ¨s International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) and Athens Charter principles.

The Auditorium Building in Chicago by Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan and its relationship to the CIAM principles will be discussed. The Auditorium Building is an advanced development of its time due to its scale, innovative technologies, and complex program. The building's design and program addresses the four keys to urban planning as stated by the Athens Charter, namely dwelling, work, recreation and transportation, in a manner that deviates from the CIAM principles. The client's recognition of the importance of the theatre to the city coincides with the CIAM principle of the necessity of a leisure space. Relative to the Athens Charter, the Auditorium building meets its requirement for fulfilling the essence of a leisure space in relation to its users. The harmonious programmatic and formal relationship of the different components of the building, the theatre, hotel, and retail demonstrate the strong correlation of the four keys to urban planning that is underlined by the Athens Charter. The success of the building's program that constitute habitation, leisure, work, and traffic spaces in the form of a theatre, hotel, retail, and intermediary spaces exhibit a model of a harmonious, functional urban city.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

CHICAGO AUDITORIUM BUILDING Louis H. Sullivan and Dankmar Adler 1886-1890 Chicago, Illinois Marie Antonette Arcayos

The Chicago Auditorium Building by Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler is a key work in modern architecture as an advanced development of its time due to its scale, innovative technologies and complex program. The building was Adler and Sullivan’s first major commission and its design and construction established their international reputation in creating innovative public buildings.1 Adler exhibited innovation in the building by managing its complex systems, including the auditorium’s air conditioning, the trussed steel girder that supports the acoustical interior, and the revolving stage.2 Sullivan exercised a new kind of aesthetic with the building’s façade, based on Richardson’s Marshall Field Store.3 He simplified Richardson’s Romanesque style into something that is almost NeoClassical. Client Ferdinand Peck had as much influence on the design as its architect and engineer. The building embodies Peck’s social goals and Adler and Sullivan’s technical and aesthetic abilities. Peck’s idea of a profit-making building that provides access to high culture to a broad audience is the basis of the building’s parti.4 To fund the theatre, it is encased in a hotel entirely, which provides acoustic separation of the theatre from the street and allows street frontage for the hotel.5 Although it was completed prior to the conception of the Congrès Internationaux d’architecture Modern ( CIAM), the building’s design and program addresses the four keys to urban planning as stated by the Athens Charter, namely dwelling, leisure, work, and circulation. The client’s recognition of the importance

of the theatre to the city coincides with the CIAM principle of the necessity of a leisure space. Relative to the Athens Charter, the Auditorium building meets its requirement for fulfilling the essence of a leisure space in relation to its users.

The Auditorium Building is situated in the north-east corner of Michigan and Congress. Prior to construction, to the area that lacked commercial development, the building was a remarkable addition (Fig.1.6 It was the tallest in building in Chicago during the time. The context allowed the development of the multifunctional building that contained a theatre, hotel, and offices on the site. South of the site, along Michigan Avenue, is primarily residential. To the north are a several hotels, which indicate the site as an ideal location for a hotel that Peck proposed to fund the theatre (Fig. 2). The cable car lines running on the west, along Wabash Street also makes it easily accessible by the public, particularly the guests of the hotel, workers in the office, and customers and visitors of the theatre (Fig.3). Its location on a main intersection also allows ease of access by private cars. Adjacent to the building is the Studebaker Building by Solon Beman, and further north is the Art Institute of Chicago by Daniel Burnham and John Root.7 With several major railroads east of the site, the three buildings formed a showpiece that is first seen by the city’s visitors. Together, they conveyed an image of Chicago that indicated it as a leading city in the Midwest, one that rivals New York.

The two main aspects that prompted Peck to initiate the development of the Auditorium are political and social. The former is his concern for Chicago’s cultural and architectural standing against New York and the latter being his concern for the ongoing class conflict in the city.8 Peck believed in the association of cultural amenities to the economic progress of the city. He intended the Auditorium Building to be symbol of Chicago’s identity as a leading city, with New York as one of its rivals. The building was meant to surpass others of its kind, especially Manhattan’s Metropolitan House.9 Furthermore, as a philanthropist, Peck wanted to ease the class conflict in the city. Since amusement is an essential aspect of class identity, he saw the theatre as an intermediate space for different classes. Different classes would usually have different forms of entertainment. Peck then wanted all classes to have equal access to high-class entertainment, like an opera, through the Auditorium Building. Funded by the profit of the hotel and rental office spaces, the theatre was able to offer moderate prices that attracted middle-class and working-class audiences alike.

Ferdinand Peck’s instigation of the Auditorium building exhibits his recognition of the importance of recreation in a city. He wanted a great hall where people can gather for all sorts of purposes, including an opera.10 Although the building was constructed prior to the conception of the Athens Charter, Peck’s idea coincides with the CIAM’s belief of the necessity of recreation. Among

Leland Hotel Richelieu Hotel

Victoria Hotel

VAN BUREN

MARIE ANTONETTE ARCAYOS CHICAGO AUDITORIUM BUILDING

The CIAM principles emphasize the interrelationship of the keys to urban planning: dwelling, work, recreation, and transportation. The nature of the program of the Auditorium building as

well as its form exhibit a similar idea of interrelationship between its elements of different occupancies. Peck’s vision for the building was to have a theatre as the main component, and incorporate other necessary elements to fund the theatre. With Peck’s idea and Adler and Sullivan’s skills, the building exhibits a strong correlation between the theatre, the hotel and the office spaces. This is evident in several aspects of the program. It is observable in the financial dependence of the theatre, and physically in the building’s harmonious composition. The client’s aim was for the building to be modestly profitable for it to avoid being a financial burden to the owner and the city.16 Other buildings of the same concept that relied on box seats as the primary source of income have failed financially. The several hotels in close proximity and the shortage of commercial development in the area that needs it made a hotel and office space ideal elements to generate sufficient income for the building. The effectiveness of this scheme is evident in the success of the building as it flourished for a long period of time. Sullivan translated Peck’s vision into a composition that allows the unique needs of the building

Art Institute

MICHIGAN

WABASH

STATE

Studebaker Building

PRE-CIAM

The Athens Charter discusses the requirements of a leisure space in terms of its nature and relationship to the other elements of the city. On the existence of a leisure space, the Charter requires residential districts to incorporate a green area for the purpose of athletic and other recreational activities.12

The Auditorium partially fulfills this for the residential areas nearby. Although it does not provide an open space for athletic activities, the theatre component of the building allows other recreational activities. The adjacent park allows exterior activities. Apart from plays and shows, the theatre may also serve as a gathering place for conferences or meetings for the residents. Further, the Charter also requires the leisure area to have a clearly defined purpose or program.13 This condition is also met by the Auditorium because when Peck developed the concept of the building, he intended it to be for the purpose of entertainment.14 Recreational spaces must also be accessible by convenient modes of transportation.15 The site is an ideal location for the program because the cable car lines on the west, as well as the building’s position in a main intersection ensures ease of access by the broad audience of different classes that the theatre was intended for.

CONGRESS CABLE CARS VEHICLES

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all elements in a city, the Charter asserts habitation, leisure, work, and traffic as the primary keys to urban planning. The CIAM sees leisure spaces as the true lungs of a city, a necessity to accommodate youth activities and to provide a favourable site for diversion during leisure hours.11 The Auditorium, however, is a high-rise building, which directly contradicts the CIAM’s ideal of a public open space as a recreational site. However, it fulfills the essence of a leisure space as it relates to the residents by being a place for diversion. Peck envisioned the theatre as means to ease the problem of class conflict in the city. It serves as a middle ground for all classes. The theatre therefore is not only a means of diversion but a solution to a higher social issue, a function of a recreational space that is not recognized by the CIAM.

PEDESTRIANS

before development after development immediate context parti circulation

lig

HOTEL AND OFFICES

CONGRESS

MICHIGAN

WABASH

THEATRE

ise

To the 19th century Chicago, the Auditorium Building was a suitable and desirable development. In the bigger picture, it responded to the city’s social and political struggles. From Ferdinand Peck’s goal of easing the ongoing class conflict in Chicago, the building is a social solution to begin with. With its grand scale, advanced technologies and developed program, the Auditorium is not only an architectural innovation but a political symbol. It conveyed an image of Chicago that suggested its superiority amongst the cities in the Midwest, and its competitiveness with New York. In the micro scale, the Auditorium is also a suitable development with respect to its immediate context. To the site that lacked commercial development and is adjacent to residential buildings, the commercial and recreational aspects of the building was highly appropriate. The readily available public transportation, car access through roads, and pedestrian access through sidewalks made the site be accessed and host the users of the auditorium, hotel, and offices. Sullivan’s architectural abilities, Adler’s engineering skills, and Peck’s social visions made

the Auditorium Building a success. The manipulation of the program, in particular, is a key to its success. The combination of a theatre, hotel and office spaces is a unique condition that addresses the Athens Charter’s four keys to urban design: dwelling, recreation, work, and transportation. Its composition does not entirely conform to the CIAM principles but only partially coincides with its essence. The Auditorium building by itself and in its context is a model of a harmonious, functional urban city.

components to be fulfilled harmoniously which is observable in the parti (Fig. 4). The theatre is encased with the hotel and the office component, which allows the acoustic separation from the street that the theatre needs and blocks natural light for controlled lighting within it.17 The hotel and office, on the other hand, are given the maximum frontage which is ideal for such occupancy for the purpose of lighting and view.

01 02 03 04 05

MARIE ANTONETTE ARCAYOS CHICAGO AUDITORIUM BUILDING

1. Bach, Ira. Chicagoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Famous Buildings. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969.,12. 2. Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: a Critical History. New York: Thames & Hudson, Ltd., 2007., 53 3. Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: a Critical History, 55 4. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002., 125. 5. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City, 132. 6. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City, 2. 7. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City, 4. 8. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City, 6. 9. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City, 5. 10. Szarkowski, John. The Idea of Louis Sullivan. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1956,36. 11. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973.,66. 12. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter, 69. 13. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter, 71. 14. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City, 7. 15. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City, 71. 16. Siry, Joseph. The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City, 125. 17. Bush-Brown, Albert. Louis Sullivan. New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1960., 15. FIGURES http://www.auditoriumtheatre.org/media/Image/landmark/photos/9053-18D.jpg.

PRE-CIAM

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROMhttp://38.media.tumblr.com/9b8e4235a82177c6f285db878323f111/tumblr_ mgula8OMjC1rodbnso1_1280.jpg

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NOTES

Urban planning and reform came to fruition in response to 19th century industrialization which caused poor living and working conditions in cities around the world. Architects and urban planners sought to alleviate this growing problem. This movement started the utopian ideas of a social reformation, creating entirely new communities that promote healthy living. The first of which was envisioned by Sir Ebenezer Howard, the Garden City Association, and designed by Raymond Unwin, and Barry Parker. Located in Hertfordshire England, Letchworth Garden City was to be a completely sustainable urban development that would alleviate the inherent problems of the industrialized city. The International Congress of Modern Architecture, namely the Athens Charter were founded by Le Corbusier, a renowned Architect that just like Ebenezer Howard, wished for a urban reformation that would better the lives of people in urban environments around the world. Both Letchworth Garden City, the Garden City movement, and the CIAM modernism movement illustrate unique ideas on how to reform urban living through planning and design. In many ways, the modernist movement and CIAM, aimed to reproduce a similar reformation as Letchworth Garden City, but for a later generation. Letchworth Garden City ideals were incorporated into the modernist movement, but only in their essence, whereas physical features and design varied greatly.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

LETCHWORTH GARDEN CITY Barry Parker, and Raymond Unwin 1903 Hertfordshire, England Derek Beattie

Letchworth and the Garden Movement

Letchworth Garden City was the first realized Garden City, and initiated the Garden Cities impact on rational urban planning for future generations. In late 19th century London, England, industrialization was at a peak, and a new urban reform was needed to escape the poor living and working conditions in the city. One of the many prospective plans created to address these problems was the Garden City by Sir Ebenezer Howard. Howard's theory of urban design considered the best aspects of the town and country, and aimed to combine the two into what was known as the towncountry magnet, the Ideal City. This was his master plan, and soon after finalizing his design he published a book in 1898, detailing his idea, "Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform". Following a positive response to his book, Howard founded the Garden City Association consisting of influential architects and urban planners of the time period. The Garden City is known to be one of the most captivating planning and design ideas of the late nineteenth-century.1 The Garden City Association helped realize the movement, and aided in the development of two garden cities. The Garden City spurred thought about remedies for the perceived ills of the industrial city, influencing many urban design reforms that followed.2

The Garden City was to be largely independent, financed, and managed by local citizens. Howard extended housing reform to encompass land purchase for the development of a complete town with

housing, industry, and open space. Large amounts of green space in the form of a surrounding green belt of countryside was used to prevent urban sprawl. This concept of a planned, self-contained, spaciously laid out town protected by an agricultural green belt still represents a desired model for urban design today.3 Letchworth Garden City

In 1899 the Garden City Association began implementing their plan, culminating in the purchase of the Letchworth Estate in 1903 located in Hertfordshire, a district just north of London.4 “The Company’s Plan”, designed by Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin, was the winning layout which endured as the overall master plan, but detail mainly in the outlying areas was modified.5 The plan contained a blend of formal and natural elements that fit the character of the site better than its competitors, preserving the majority of existing trees and hedgerows, giving the plan a more natural and less diagrammatic representation.6 The concept was to give virtual ownership of the towns entire land to the inhabitants giving the town complete control over its area. Physical Features of Letchworth

Letchworth was initially curated to combat the industrialization of London, so when siting Letchworth in North Hertfordshire, its proximity to the city intrigued those in the city, to move to Letchworth.7 The development of Letchworth was highly

dependant on the infrastructure; public utilities, roads, and transport facilities. The master plan required an integrated and accessible transportation system, and because of this Letchworth was situated on both sides of a railway. The railway separated the town into a northern and southern half, providing programmatic zoning potential. Separation of residential and industrial zones were carefully laid out on site, allowing prevailing winds to carry smoke away from housing areas.8 The housing in Letchworth provided mixed-tenure homes that would contrast and appeal to ordinary people. The preferred living arrangements were in row houses, garden apartments and maisonettes.9 The primary road houses were made up of two storey detached homes on large plots of land.10These homes were to be beautiful, and imaginatively designed with gardens, located in healthy communities. Letchworth quickly developed a character of its own with housing influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement, and a vast amount of trees and grass giving a universal impression of a green, healthy community. Planning Features of Letchworth

After the purchase of the Letchworth Estate, the First Garden City Ltd was established. The company owned the estate, and leased plots back to the resident shareholders in the company, while rents were being reinvested into the community.11 Politically, Letchworth provided a vision, leadership, and an emphasis on community engagement.12 Letchworth’s

DEREK BEATTIE

The Garden City initiative and the success of Letchworth, were major influences on later urban reforms. The International Congresses of Modern Architecture, were one of these direct influences. Founded in 1928, the CIAM was an avant garde association consisting of architects and urban planners of the time. CIAM looked to redefine the city by revolutionizing architecture and city planning; advocating the idea of a new modern architecture, in hopes of resolving urban architectural issues. The organization produced the Athens Charter; a Manifesto /

public declaration organized to set the physical requirements they felt necessary to establish healthy, and beautiful urban environments for the people â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Functional Cityâ&#x20AC;?.16 As the Garden City before it, the principles of CIAM and the Athens Charter became an integral step in the development of modern cities around the world; both stemming from the response of creating a healthy city for the individual.17 These movements coincided for decades, but it is evident throughout the history of CIAM that the foundations of those movements were rooted in earlier Garden City Ideas.18 The CIAM combined garden city goals with their modernistic ideas to create an improved urban living condition for the masses. The Athens Charter illustrated many regulations for improving living conditions, increasing economic efficiency, transportation, and protecting the natural environment. These important concepts were all key design principles in the Letchworth plan, setting a precedent depicting the ideal, healthy city for the people, proving its relative success in its first years of production, and in its greater impact on rational comprehensive planning.19

LETCHWORTH GARDEN CITY

was typically made up of two to three storey buildings, in a slightly more dense set up in their massing, zoning, height, and scale. The blocks are large in scale and would house about four to six shops; their height provides a sense of enclosure to the streets relaxed in some extent by their relative widths. Some of the public buildings located around these central blocks, were significantly larger in scale, but were complemented by the size and shape of the gardens they were nestled in.15 Letchworth and the CIAM

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PRE-CIAM

strong sense of community, curated many cultural, recreational, and shopping facilities within walkable neighbourhoods. City bylaws and regulations were set to control the development of Letchworth. Each person would have their own land, house, and freedom with the development of their land, but an advisory committee could enforce the by-laws and veto poorly designed developments that would change the overall layout, plan, and principles that Letchworth was designed to achieve. These restrictions were made to enforce the concept of the garden city as one, economically feasible entity.13 The aspect of a low density town, was critical in the preservation of the character of Letchworth. All of the buildings were spread out, providing ample greenery and public park space, with wide avenues connecting the residential areas to the central commercial blocks. A variety of homes were set back from the wide roads separating the blocked houses, on large plots of land, standing two storeys high, with the occasional bungalow, or three storey house emphasizing the low density approach of the city.14 While the majority of Letchworth followed this approach, the Town Centre

Letchworth Prior to Purchase 01 Letchworth Programme Layout 02 Baldock road and Old post office 03 houses lined up implanted within nature 04

Although CIAM and Letchworth share similarities in their goals and hypothetical concepts, the Charter described the Suburb and Garden City as “a terrible waste of space”.20 During CIAM 3, projects were requested from designers across the world categorized by their density.21 Three projects were from Garden Cities, one of which being the Pixmore Hill plan at Letchworth Garden City. The criticisms on Letchworth’s plan, was the disregard for exposure, and the conventional street patterns.22 Le Corbusier, a founding architect of the CIAM claimed that the garden city pattern satisfies the individual which was a part of the CIAM and Charters principles, but it lost the advantage of a collective organization. The projects that were praised had rejected garden city methods, focusing on collective dwellings, solar orientation, high density, and wide spaces between buildings.23These methods carry through to what CIAM is most known for, which is the functional city. The CIAM shared some of the principles of the Garden City and Letchworth, but ultimately criticized the approach, and sought to improve on it.

designed as an antithesis of the 19th century industrial city, neglecting its bad traits, as well as the good ones. This form of rational planning is no longer an effective model of urban design in the 21st century. Learning from the past and developing improvements on the significant principles that Letchworth created, could be an effective way to adapt healthy city living principles into present day urban design; similar to how CIAM and the Athens Charter referenced the Pre-CIAM Garden City Movement.

Conclusion

Letchworth Garden City was the first realized development of modern rationalized urban planning. Letchworth, as with many other Garden Cities, has not endured the passage of time quite as well as principles in the Athens Charter. As the CIAM 3 council claimed, the Garden City is simply a “reaction against slums”.24 The Garden City was

03 03

NOTES

FIGURE 3 http://www.hertfordshire-genealogy.co.uk/data/places/places-l/letchworth/letchworth.htm FIGURE 4 http://www.letchworth.com/heritage-foundation/videos-and-galleries/galleries/letchworth-garden-city

LETCHWORTH GARDEN CITY PRE-CIAM PLX 599

FIGURES

1. Larice, Michael, and Elizabeth Macdonald.The Urban Design Reader. 2nd Edition ed. London: Routledge, 2007. 2. Larice, Michael, and Elizabeth Macdonald.The Urban Design Reader. 2nd Edition ed. London: Routledge, 2007. 3. Miller, Mervyn. Letchworth: The First Garden City. Chichester, Sussex: Phillimore, 1989. 4. Purdom, C. B. The Letchworth Achievement,. London: J.M. Dent, 1963. 5. "Letchworth Garden City - history and further information." North Hertfordshire District Council. http://www.northherts.gov.uk/index/leisure_and_culture/tourism_and_travel/towns_and_villages/letchworth/letchworth_-_history_and_further_information.htm (accessed October 14, 2014). 6. Miller, Mervyn. Letchworth: The First Garden City. Chichester, Sussex: Phillimore, 1989. 7. "Letchworth Garden City - history and further information." North Hertfordshire District Council. http://www.northherts.gov.uk/index/leisure_and_culture/tourism_and_travel/towns_and_villages/letchworth/letchworth_-_history_and_further_information.htm (accessed October 14, 2014). 8. North Hertfordshire District Council Urban Practitioners. "North Hertfordshire Urban Design Assessment Letchworth Garden City." North Hertfordshire District Council. http://www.north-herts.gov.uk/letchworth_urban_design_assessment_complete_061107.pdf (accessed October 14, 2014). 9. The Open Learn Team. "CIAM (Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne)." OpenLearn. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/ history/heritage/ciam-congres-internationaux-darchitecture-moderne (accessed September 15, 2014). 10. North Hertfordshire District Council Urban Practitioners. "North Hertfordshire Urban Design Assessment Letchworth Garden City." North Hertfordshire District Council. http://www.north-herts.gov.uk/letchworth_urban_design_assessment_complete_061107.pdf (accessed October 14, 2014). 11. North Hertfordshire District Council Urban Practitioners. "North Hertfordshire Urban Design Assessment Letchworth Garden City." North Hertfordshire District Council. http://www.north-herts.gov.uk/letchworth_urban_design_assessment_complete_061107.pdf (accessed October 14, 2014). 12. Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation. "The International Garden Cities Exhibition Âť Principles." The International Garden Cities Exhibition Principles Comments. http://www.garden-cities-exhibition.com/principles/ (accessed October 24, 2014). 13. North Hertfordshire District Council Urban Practitioners. "North Hertfordshire Urban Design Assessment Letchworth Garden City." North Hertfordshire District Council. http://www.north-herts.gov.uk/letchworth_urban_design_assessment_complete_061107.pdf (accessed October 14, 2014). 14. North Hertfordshire District Council Urban Practitioners. "North Hertfordshire Urban Design Assessment Letchworth Garden City." North Hertfordshire District Council. http://www.north-herts.gov.uk/letchworth_urban_design_assessment_complete_061107.pdf (accessed October 14, 2014). 15. North Hertfordshire District Council Urban Practitioners. "North Hertfordshire Urban Design Assessment Letchworth Garden City." North Hertfordshire District Council. http://www.north-herts.gov.uk/letchworth_urban_design_assessment_complete_061107.pdf (accessed October 14, 2014). 16. The Open Learn Team. "CIAM (Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne)." OpenLearn. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/ciam-congres-internationaux-darchitecture-moderne (accessed September 15, 2014). 17. The Open Learn Team. "CIAM (Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne)." OpenLearn. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/ciam-congres-internationaux-darchitecture-moderne (accessed September 15, 2014). 18. Mumford, Eric Paul. Defining Urban Design: CIAM Architects and the Formation of a Discipline, 1937-69. New Haven: [Yale University Press], 2009. 19. Mumford, Eric Paul. Defining Urban Design: CIAM Architects and the Formation of a Discipline, 1937-69. New Haven: [Yale University Press], 2009. 20. The Open Learn Team. "CIAM (Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne)." OpenLearn. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/ciam-congres-internationaux-darchitecture-moderne (accessed September 15, 2014). 21. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 22. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 23. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 24. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000.

DEREK BEATTIE

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM http://www.letchworth.com/heritage-foundation/news-and-blog/media-enquiries

Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler's Prudential building in Buffalo, New York stands as a testament to the emergence of modernism in North America in the late 19th century. Sullivan's mantra "form follows function" is a fundamental element in the American modernist movement, an influence physically manifested through various elements of the Prudential Building. Their impact on urban architecture is not limited to their buildings form, but is also visible in their planning too, which led to a new approach to the organization of tall buildings and an alternate method of urban planning. This relationship is clearly expressed through the Prudential Building's three distinct tiers: a public/ retail base, the office space core, and a divergent penthouse to terminate the buildings verticality. The appearance of these tiers and their means of generating the building's form demonstrate the impact planning has on shaping the mass of the building. Although constructed prior to the formation of the International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM), it is clear that Adler and Sullivan's design for the Prudential Building and the ideology they adhered to were in line and potentially even influenced the principles on which CIAM was founded upon.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

THE PRUDENTIAL BUILDING Adler and Sullivan 1986 Buffalo, NY Daniel Carey

Introduction

Architecture in North America at the end of the 19th Century was in desperate need for innovation and an architectural style that was uniquely American. Louis Sullivan saw this as a challenge and his design for the Prudential Building in Buffalo, New York stands as a testament to both a new American style of architecture and the modernization of buildings that resulted as a result of the industrial revolution. The emergence of the steel-framed high-rise building in the mid1880’s marked the beginning of a new era.1 The architecture firm Adler & Sullivan were at the forefront of skyscraper design in North America, quickly earning Sullivan the title “Father of the Modern Skyscraper.”2 The firm’s last collaboration and most notable project is the Prudential Building, built for Hascal L. Taylor in 1896 to be an icon of American office buildings.3 Originally named “The Guaranty Building” when it was first constructed, it is credited with being the first building entirely supported by a steel-framed structure.4 Through its unique three-tiered approach, it embodies Sullivan’s mantra “form follows function”, which would later become a fundamental element in North American architecture, especially in high-rise design.5 It can be argued that this method of planning at the scale of the building as well as the principles that it embodies played a great influence in shaping the fundamental planning ideals that CIAM was founded upon.6

The Site – Physical Context

Before being built, the site where the Prudential Building would be constructed upon lay barren, except for a small wooden building. The land was bought by a local oil entrepreneur, Hascal L. Taylor, in the hopes of building the country’s finest office building.7 When selecting a site, Taylor strategically decided to purchase a plot of land adjacent to Buffalo’s municipal building in an area populated with institutional buildings. His rationale was to attract tenants for the office space through proximity to the surrounding amenities, in addition to the building’s provocative design.8 Taylor died the very month plans were completed, leaving the Guaranty Construction Company to acquire the project. It was subsequently named after them until it was refinanced in 1898, and renamed the Prudential Building, after the Prudential Insurance Company.9 Taylor and Sullivan wanted the design to stand as a bold architectural style and create a new American building typology, celebrating the poise and wealth of the United States.10 The building appears to grow from its site through its spacious retail base. This was an innovative implementation at the time as it embraced the public realm. The hope was to attract pedestrians from the nearby Ellicott Square Building, which was being built to be the tallest retail building in the world.11 The Prudential Building stood as a testament to the booming American economy as well as a leader in the development of Buffalo’s downtown core.

The Site – Social, Political, Cultural, and Planning Context

With the emergence of the high-rise, construction was at its peak in the United States around the 20th century, leading to the erection of some of the country’s finest examples of urban architecture. The innovation of Sullivan’s design was not the only substantial feats of engineering of the time. Just as construction was completed, Buffalo was linked to the electric grid, illuminating the city via hydroelectricity from Niagara Falls for the first time.12 This brought unprecedemted illumination to Buffalo as well as within the Prudential Building. As Buffalo was rising to prominence in the built world, it was receiving attention in the politics as well. While still in the beginnings of the design process, Grover Cleveland was re-elected as president in 1893.13 A former Erie Country resident, sheriff, and Mayor of Buffalo, he brought Buffalo and other major cities great prosperity due to his economic platform: reform against fiscal conservatism through a pro-business mentality.14 By 1900, Buffalo was the eighth-largest city in the US.15 Shortly after construction completed in 1896, the presence of the personal automobile began to be a commodity even the middle class could afford with the introduction of the Model T in 1908.16 This would revolutionize the way cities were planned and conceived as residents began to move away from cities and into the suburbs and commute to work. The end of the 19th Century developed the foundations upon which a modern city could emerge from.

DANIEL CAREY THE PRUDENTIAL BUILDING

The assembly of members which formed

The context in which a building or even a city is surrounded in was of great importance to CIAM and the Athens Charter. They felt that context should directly influence the design and conception, from the scale of a building to the scale of a city.21 This ideology still holds true today. Its origins, however, can date back prior to CIAM’s formation. Though the planning was not done directly by the project’s architect, great consideration went into the site which the Prudential Building would be built upon.

PRE-CIAM

The principles CIAM was created around were not new ideas. They were beliefs that existed for generations before the groups formation. Many architects that predate the group share these same ideologies. Corbusier often spoke about buildings as “living machines”, a philosophy shared with his predecessor, Louis Sullivan. The physical expression of the building’s façade was designed to celebrate the innovative technology of the building: its structural steel frame, use of the curtain wall cladding system - arguably the first in North America - and the invention which made skyscrapers possible: the elevator. From its verticallycelebrated aesthetics resembling elevator cables to the prominent mechanical cornice with windows which are positioned to celebrate the inner workings of the building, Sullivan’s design subtly hints at this notion of the building as a living organism.

CIAM believed that the urban city was the vision of the modern city; they felt that the key to successful growth and development was through increased density.20 Buffalo in the late 1800’s was a booming city and at the heart of urban growth in the United States. The concept of a mixed use high-rise was still new and relatively untested. Sullivan’s design and his incorporation of retail in the ground and second floors separating the office core (the primary function of the building) from the street. This notion of separation of programme and engaging the pedestrian at street level is a philosophy the Athens Charter would later incorporate.

PLX 599

In the beginning of the 20th century, several of the world’s most influential architects joined forces to develop and spread the notion of the modern movement, focusing on the domains of architecture, urban planning, landscape architecture, and industrial design. CIAM (Congress International Modern Architecture) was founded in 1928 maintaining prominence until 1960.17 In that period, the congress assembled four times in order to discuss various elements of architecture and the modern city. Founded largely in part due to the efforts of Le Corbusier, the group embodies many of his methodologies and beliefs. The fundamental principles CIAM was founded upon are embodied in the Athens Charter. It was published after CIAM IV, the last of the congress’ assemblies, which was held on the SS Partis in 1933.18 Focusing on the “functional city”, this congress was the most significant as the functional city was the most notable architectural theoretical approach of CIAM. It took 10 years for the Athens Charter to be published after the congress concluded. Published in 1943, the

Prudential Building pre-dates it by nearly fifty years; however, many elements which influenced Sullivan’s design would later be embodied in the Athens Charter.19

Influence on CIAM

Figure-ground (1895) 01 Figure-ground (1900) 02 Massing diagram illustratomg three tier approach with horizontal relif pattern in facade 03 Prudential Building's distinct three tier approach, Photograph 04 A close up of the building 's ornamented cornice detail work 05

The thoughtful analysis of the existing buildings in the area as well as the foresight into what was being developed and even the future of the region led Hascal Taylor to purchase the specific lot on which the Prudential Building was built. His calculated anticipation’s success is evident in the fact that the Prudential Building now lies in the heart of downtown core of Buffalo. Zoning and the notion of planning a city’s sectors based on land use did not gain popularity until the beginning of the 20th century and later became a fundamental element of CIAM.22 Although not apparent at first, further analysis reveals that the Prudential Building’s site was selected to comply with the unofficial “zoning” of its surrounding area. The site was selected due to its proximity to buildings with similar functions. It is through this thoughtful planning that the downtown region of Buffalo developed and grew to become a booming commercial sector. Conclusion

The foresight, intuition, and innovation Louis Sullivan and Hascal Taylor brought to the Prudential Building’s design had a great influence on the progress of American high-rise architecture, subsequently having the potential to influence members of CIAM and the principles it was founded upon. From the selection of its site to the horizontal arrangement of the buildings various functions, it featured revolutionary ideas and technologies that changed the way architects approach tall buildings. Through

breaking up the buildings use into its programmatic uses, Sullivan fundamentally approached city planning and the notion of zoning at the scale of an individual building. The building’s vertical expression through its terra cotta cladding and the termination of its height through its ornamented cornice, Louis Sullivan posed the solution to issues numerous architects were overcome by; a

solution still used today. The building’s celebration of technology further iterates the thinking of the modern movement, the basis in which CIAM was founded to promote. Though the economy of Buffalo has suffered in recent times, the Prudential Building still stands today as a testament to the evolution of the modern day skyscraper and is an icon of planning and modernism in architecture.

NOTES

2. Encyclopedia of Britannica. Guaranty Building. Last Modified Apr. 2014. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/247864/Guaranty-Building. Web. 4. Office of Geographic Information Services. "Erie County, NY." Last Modified Aug 2014. http://gis2.erie. gov/GC/ErieCountyNY/. Web. 5. Stuart, Mark. Flickr. Guaranty Building, Buffalo, NY. 13 March 2013.

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FIGURES

1. Hodgonson Russ Attorneys. ''Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building.'' Last modified 17 Feb. 2003. http:// www.hodgsonruss.com/Louis-Sullivans-Guaranty-Building.html. Web. 2. Weingarden, Laren S. Louis H. Sullivan: The Banks. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987. Visit Buffalo Niagara. ''Guaranty Building.'' Last modified 27 Apr. 2006. http://www.visitbuffaloniagara. com/buffalo-architecture/buildings-monuments/guaranty-building. Web. 3. Sullivan, Louis H. Louis Sullivan: The Public Papers, edited by Robert Twombly. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1988. 4. Hodgonson Russ Attorneys. ''Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building.'' Last modified 17 Feb. 2003. http:// www.hodgsonruss.com/Louis-Sullivans-Guaranty-Building.html. Web. 5. The Open Learn Team. ''CIAM (Congress Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne).'' Last modified 26 Nov. 2001. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/ciam-congres-internationaux-darchitecture-moderne. Web. 6. Preservation; Buffalo-Niagra. ``Guaranty Building.'' Last modified 28 Sept. 2014. http://www.preservationbuffaloniagara.org/buildings-and-sites/buildings-catalog/location:guaranty-building. Web. 7. Visit Buffalo Niagara. ''Guaranty Building.'' Last modified 27 Apr. 2006. http://www.visitbuffaloniagara.com/buffalo-architecture/buildings-monuments/guaranty-building. Web. 8. Hodgonson Russ Attorneys. ''Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building.'' Last modified 17 Feb. 2003. http:// www.hodgsonruss.com/Louis-Sullivans-Guaranty-Building.html. Web. 9. Visit Buffalo Niagara. ''Guaranty Building.'' Last modified 27 Apr. 2006. http://www.visitbuffaloniagara.com/buffalo-architecture/buildings-monuments/guaranty-building. Web. 10. Buffalonet. ''Buffalo and Western New York's Historical Resource.'' Last updated 20 Jan. 2014. http:// www.buffalonet.org. Web. 11. Sullivan, Louis H. Kindergarten Chats and Other Writings. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1979. 12. Buffalonet. ''Buffalo and Western New York's Historical Resource.'' Last updated 20 Jan. 2014. http://www.buffalonet.org. Web. 13. Preservation; Buffalo-Niagra. ''Guaranty Building.'' Last modified 28 Sept. 2014. http://www.preservationbuffaloniagara.org/buildings-and-sites/buildings-catalog/location:guaranty-building. Web. 14.Buffalonet. ''Buffalo and Western New York's Historical Resource.'' Last updated 20 Jan. 2014. http://www.buffalonet.org. Web. 15.The History Channel Online. ''The Model T.'' June 2014. http://www.history.com/topics/model-t 16.The Open Learn Team. ''CIAM (Congress Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne).'' Last modified 26 Nov. 2001. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/ciam-congres-internationaux-darchitecture-moderne. Web. 17. The Open Learn Team. ''CIAM (Congress Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne).'' Last modified 26 Nov. 2001. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/ciam-congres-internationaux-darchitecture-moderne. Web. 18. IBID 19. IBID 20. IBID 21. IBID

DANIEL CAREY

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM. Buffalo, NY. ''Guaranty/Prudential Building.'' Last Modified May 2009. http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/newyork/buffalo/sullivan/guaranty.html. Web.

The Bauhaus Dessau is a combination of Walter Gropius' mythologies and a series of relationships leading to the development of CIAM (International Congresses of Modern Architecture). With the relocation of Bauhaus to Dessau, it enabled unique methods of thinking due to its seclusion from the emerging Nazi political presence. With this movement it allowed for a new form of education, combining architecture along with industrial design and various other principles of art. Gropius' interests leaned towards structural and technological advancements. His interest along with Utopian influence led to the planning of a new form of architectural expression. This rational and its context created a light and freeform building resembling Gropiusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; idea of open nature with consideration to the aviation industry nearby. His teachings were applied and tested into the practical field with this new development. These strategies were developed into the core ideas of CIAM where they promote economic efficiency through the use of art and engineering as they believed this was the core of rational city planning. This paper will further investigate the relationships between the buildings to the city and understand how the planning was formed to fully understand its influence on CIAM.

Pre-CIAM 1850-1927

THE BAUHAUS DESSAU Walter Gropius 1925-1926 Dessau, Germany Timothy Cheng

Bauhaus Dessau is a Pre-CIAM project constructed in Dessau, Germany 1926 through the commission of Mayor Fritz Hesse1.1 His rational thinking envisioned great potential for this project in relation to the community. The development is created by Walter Gropius, founder of Bauhaus and the architectural practice on this project.2 A cohesive unity amongst all parties allowed endless possibilities for creative freedom. Gropius transitioned his ideals into architecture through the ideology of “create a new, fresh idiom derive from modern needs, employing modern materials and techniques, and expressing modern aspirations.”3 The architect encompassed the ideal of creative thinking for the future into architecture by using modern technology. Modern aspirations were fundamental to teachings and everyday life of Bauhaus professors.4 These professors were influenced by western culture to challenge the past for a better future. Ideologies of advancing modernism and internationalism to serve society had enormous influence in the greater context of the world through the eventual development of Athens Charter. Bauhaus Dessau reflected the ideals of the educational institution by challenging traditional architectural values and developing architecture through pragmatic needs.5

The site is located on the outskirts of Dessau behind the station Dessau Hauptbahnhof.6 Railway lines within its vicinity threatened to cut off communication between Bauhaus and the underdeveloped town centre. However, the situation was countered through the

arrangement of festivities and other cultural events to promote community interaction.7 Gropius, Ernst Neufert, and Carl Fieger designed the building around pre-existing street conditions. They used the street Leopolddank to separate the building into its three required parts; specialist building, Bauhaus workshop, and studio building. The building form was expressed as individual departments through volume, height and spatial organization. These department were combined with the use of a bridge representing the ideology of separate colleges under the same organization.8 Design of Bauhaus Dessau was unique as it used an asymmetrical layout. This design rejected the strictly maintained monumental and institutional style of hierarchy in Germany at the time.9 Atmospheric conditions was an important factor in the design influenced by previous housing developments of Gropius’ architectural practice (Sommerfeld House 1922).10 The design aims for a utopian lifestyle in combination with practical artistic application through careful selection of material and structure that could be efficiently produced. Of all materials Gropius praised glass’ properties as “the purest building material consisting of earthly matter, closing off space and keeping out weather but also having the effect of opening up space without being and light.”11 Usage of glass represents innovative technologic application, an important trait for a small developing industrial town with aviation companies nearby. The curtain wall façade allowed visual transparency unknown to the world at the time, removing the barrier of

public and private space.

The Bauhaus Dessau encountered a tremendous amount of issues before, during, and after its construction. Criticism began since initial stages of its relocation from Weimar. The organization received heavy pressure coincided with the rise of National Socialists and the fall of Republicans.12 Planning and approval process began when cities across Germany rallied to house Bauhaus. Gropius considered the city of Dessau as it supported the same cultural and political stance.13 Simultaneously, Mayor Fritz Hesse of Dessau envisioned Bauhaus’ research into materials and techniques with design integration would be useful in his developing industrial town.14 Hesse’s interest lead to multiple meeting resulting in favorable impressions to house the school. He proposed the building to planning officials and received both criticism and support. Many battles were often fought between the Liberal Fritz Hesse against the opposing conservative Dessau craft community.15 However with the support of the Mayor and prominent representatives such as Hugo Junkers, the project was approved and Gropius was provided with a large piece of land.16 While the political battle during the planning process concluded, the institution still faced many social, political, and cultural issues leading up to its closure in 1932. The design of the building took into careful consideration of its social context as variations of innovative groups are prone to inclusion and exclusion with members themselves and the community surrounding them. This

Walter Gropius aimed to produce economic buildings with integration of art to create improved living conditions. His intentions

were influenced by Germany’s post-war economic crisis.22 These conditions led to the development of a high rise featuring twenty-eight residential units for Bauhaus students.23 The residential department had sufficient funds to create mass housing with the economic advantages of modern technology and reinforced concrete. Quality of life was taken into account with the use of window wall systems. Glass enhanced the spatial quality of the unit with its visual communication and ability to transfer natural light. When examining the Bauhaus Dessau in comparison to CIAM ideals, it is evident that successful application of cheap mass housing influenced resolutions proposed in the Athens Charter. The avant-garde saw value in economic housing as it can apply to a large low-class majority in populated cities. While Bauhaus Dessau took into consideration of the individual dwelling units, CIAM looked to further develop the principal to a larger context of residential zones. The ideas of individual residential quality drove the progression to plan cities in reasonable densities as nearby buildings can overshadow and impact the spatial qualities of other units. The building led to

the conclusion of residential zones should occupy the best site in terms of typography, climate, sunlight, and green space for optimal living conditions.

“Architects should conceive of buildings not as monuments but as receptacles for the flow of life which they have to serve.”24 Gropius’ mythology of architecture considers the quality of life both as an individual and the building as a whole. Creation of high density program generates problems as it lacks room for social interaction and recreation. However with the form of Bauhaus Dessau’s long limb composition, it generates voids exposing land ideal for public usage. These open spaces were defined by the schools surrounding program and served as leisure space. CIAM acknowledges the need for open spaces to avoid unhealthy dense environments. After thorough study of cities worldwide, members of the organisation agreed on classifying undefined spaces as unhealthy and unused. This is an interesting conclusion as it differs from Gropius’ beliefs. Gropius believed he could influence and alter social conditions based on architectural form and nature.25

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM BAUHAUS DESSAU TIMOTHY CHENG

foreseen problem was accounted for through common features17 and program with large open spaces for interaction between both the organization and the community in its vicinity.18 As National Socialists became the majority of Dessau town council in 1931, they were now in control of Bauhaus as a municipal institution. Hitler’s rise to power imposed a “national cultural policy”. His propaganda altered the cultural thinking of Germans with his explanation of “UnGerman or Jewish” architecture.19 The Nazis increased opposition with describing the Bauhaus roofs as “the fact the false roof construction used by the Bauhaus had almost completely paralysed the carpentry and roofing trade”.20 This degenerated the avant-garde concept and caused citizens to look down on the Bauhaus institution. Nazis targeted the institution as its economic and technological progression unmasked the lie of Nazi propaganda. Eventually Bauhaus was unable to defend itself from pressure and closed on September 30th, 1932.21

Depicts the quiet spatial planning of the site 01 Influence of bauhaus dessau as a community 02 Circulation of dessau and conflicting paths 03

Bauhaus Dessau is a small scale representation of the core principles mentioned in Athens Charter. The design of residential units in the school was unique as it went beyond previous customary educational realities. Gropius’ goal was to create a communal existence for pupils and teachers.26 Communal existence related to the core strategies of the building’s design as it aimed to prevent segregation between groups. The design of the Bauhaus was well received as Ise Gropius’ diary documented the enjoyable atmosphere during their time at the building.27 CIAM analyzed the principles behind the design of the building which influenced reduced journey and open spaces between work and residential areas into its principles for healthy city design. Site selection is an important process which contributes to the building’s success or failure. Through comparisons with Athens Charter it is fascinating how Bauhaus Dessau managed to receive tremendous popularity. The observation of CIAM members states railways systems as a serious obstacle to well-planned areas. In normal circumstances it’s easy to understand the logic behind their statements. However this precedent study is a unique case due to its dynamic program. The building demonstrates the ability of program possessing the power to redirect and work in accordance with imposed barriers. It expresses limitless potential to develop solutions around restrictions to create well designed architecture. The addition of Bauhaus Dessau and its institution is a significant and valuable feature to the city. The building deserves

its recognition as a masterpiece of modern architecture due to its exquisite response to human interaction. It is a wonderful example of well executed art and engineering to create improved spatial qualities. It is an excellent response to the delicate community in which it was built and flourished both within the organization and the city in its entirety. This piece of art accomplished the architecture of “the complete building”28 Gropius was dreaming about. Buildings are a reflection

of the city and its modern construction represented the bright future it had for the growing industrial town. Although the organization ceased due to the totalitarian society it situated in, it was an important step to progressing modern architecture. This building infleunced the world into creating considerrate greater designs and has become one of the most important heritage sites defining the city of Dessau today.

NOTES

1. Craig, Margret. The Dessau Bauhaus building, 1926-1999. Basel: Birkhauser, 1998. 6 2. Siebenbrodt, Michael, and Lutz Schรถbe. Bauhaus, 1919-1933. Parkstone International, 2009. 120 3. Fitch, James. Walter Gropius. Kessinger Pub, 2006. 18 4. Experimentation, Not Replication." Experimentation, Not Replication - De Bauhaus in Desau. Accessed November 6, 2014. 5. Craig, Margret. The Dessau Bauhaus building, 1926-1999. Basel: Birkhauser, 1998. 11 6. Ibid., 16 7. Ibid., 70 8. Ibid., 16 9. Ibid., 70 10. Frampton, Kenneth. Modern architecture: a critical history. 4th ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2007. 127 11. Craig, Margret. The Dessau Bauhaus building, 1926-1999. Basel: Birkhauser, 1998. 21 12. Ibid., 72 13. "Bauhaus and Its Sites in Weimar and Dessau." - UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed November 6, 2014.Siebenbrodt, Michael, and Lutz Schรถbe. Bauhaus, 1919-1933. Parkstone International, 2009. 120 14. Craig, Margret. The Dessau Bauhaus building, 1926-1999. Basel: Birkhauser, 1998. 12 15. Moore, Rowan. "Bauhaus: A Blueprint for the Future." Bauhaus: A Blueprint for the Future. April 13, 2012. Accessed November 6, 2014. 16. Siebenbrodt, Michael, and Lutz Schรถbe. Bauhaus, 1919-1933. Parkstone International, 2009. 120 17. Craig, Margret. The Dessau Bauhaus building, 1926-1999. Basel: Birkhauser, 1998. 87 18. Ibid., 72 19. Ibid., 113 20. Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich in Power, 1933-1939. New York: Penguin Press, 2005. 169. Craig, Margret. The Dessau Bauhaus building, 1926-1999. Basel: Birkhauser, 1998. 72 21. Ibid., 12 22. Fitch, James. Walter Gropius. Kessinger Pub, 2006. 22 23. Reader, John. Cities. New York: Grove Press, 2004. 285 24. Craig, Margret. The Dessau Bauhaus building, 1926-1999. Basel: Birkhauser, 1998. 69 25. Ibid., 113 26. Krame, Hilton. "The Bauhaus." The Bauhaus: Weimar Dessau Berlin Chicago., September 28, 1969. FIGURES 1.

"Picture36." The CharnelHouse. Accessed November 6, 2014. http://thecharnelhouse.org/2013/08/10/ hannes-meyer/picture36/. 2. "Stiftung Bauhaus Dessau." Bauhaus Online. Accessed November 6, 2014. http://bauhaus-online.de/ en/stiftung-bauhaus-dessau.

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM BAUHAUS DESSAU TIMOTHY CHENG

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM "Magdeburg-Dessau." Access to Digital Special Collections. Accessed November 6, 2014. http://digitalarchive.mcmaster.ca/islandora/object/macrepo:26993.

Aspects of the Hufeisensiedlung's urban planning and architectural design will be explored - as they relate to the natural site, time, and context of postwar Berlin and the housing crisis - in parallel with the principles of modernism that would be discussed several years later by CIAM. In stark contrast to the poor living conditions in Berlin, the design of the Hufeisensiedlung focused on hygiene and public health. The master plan incorporated rowhouses and apartment blocks terraced with the natural landscape and arranged to create ample greenery and communal spaces for the residents, as well as connections to social infrastructure. Through units provided fresh air, light and living areas oriented towards green space. Low building heights, pedestrian streets and variety in the architecture addressed human scale and individuality within the collective. Taut achieved architectural interest and variety while maintaining standardized units for economic reasons by utilizing colour, staggered forms and curved streets. The Hufeisensiedlung addressed the problems of housing quantity and quality, demonstrating the possibility of achieving a fairly high residential density while improving the quality of housing by applying ideas of modernist planning. Appropriately addressing both site and context, the Hufeisensiedlung is a large scale combination of garden city ideals and rational planning, marking its place as a benchmark in modern housing.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

HUFEISENSIEDLUNG Bruno Taut 1925-1933 Berlin, Germany Victoria Chow

The Hufeisensiedlung is a subsidized housing estate built from 1925-1933 in the Britz locality of Berlin, Germany. The client was GEHAG, a non-profit housing savings and building shareholding company founded in 1924 by the German architect and urban planner Martin Wagner. Its purpose was to efficiently construct low-cost, large scale public housing developments.1 Bruno Taut, another German architect and urban planner, was hired to design a housing estate made up of multiple family dwellings combined with single family row houses for approximately 5000 people.2 Working together with Martin Wagner as the co-architect, Taut conceived the estate as a garden suburb, focusing on issues of hygiene and public health. His objective was to develop a new type of housing suitable for the modern industrial society that responded to the needs of the individual. Taut believed that a new architecture could reflect a new social order of the modern society â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the collective spirit.3 Though completed prior to the CIAM (International Congresses of Modern Architecture) conferences, the design of the Hufeiseinsiedlung addressed similar ideas of planning and architecture which would later be outlined in the Athens Charter as the main tenets of the modern movement.

The site of the estate was a 91 acre plot of unused land, part of the former Britz manor grounds. Taut responded to the topography of the site by integrating it with the architecture and open spaces. The horseshoe-shaped 3-storey housing block, from which the estate gets its name and iconic image, was built around a natural depression with a pond

in the centre. A hybrid between the block margin and ribbon typologies, the horseshoe wraps around and forms a large common green space in the centre of the estate.4 The surrounding housing units are all 3-storey row houses with lawns and gardens laid out radially from the horseshoe, stepping up and down to correspond to the topography.5 Multi-family housing lines the perimeter, creating an enclosure for the estate. The integration of garden city elements and large common open spaces into social housing marked the Hufeisensiedlung as a milestone of urban housing and planning.

controls to be put into place from 1917-1922, preventing any new private construction from being built; the government had to assume responsibility and provide public funds for mass housing developments on an enormous scale.7 However, the postwar inflation caused a standstill in building construction until 1924. The poor living conditions in the city also drove the switch from the highly condensed

The Housing Reform

The Hufeisensiedlung was shaped by and made possible by the complex political, social and economic factors of the time. Following the end of the war in 1918, there was a critical housing shortage in Germany. During the war, the expansion of new wartime industries caused a large migration of the rural population into the city. The new demand for urban housing could not be met during wartime and with the return of the soldiers after the war, the housing shortage worsened. During the last few months of the war, the poor living conditions within the city led the Prussian Landtag to pass a housing law based on the â&#x20AC;&#x153;right of every citizen to a sound dwelling within his meansâ&#x20AC;?.6 As well, shifts in social structures, such as early marriages and the disintegration of the large family unit, caused an increased demand for small dwellings. The high demand for housing led to exploitative rents, causing rigid rent

Light, Air, and Space

In the years following the completion of the Hufeisensiedlung, the CIAM conferences and the Athens Charter would outline three important ideas of the modern movement as light, air, and space. The overcrowded living conditions in the city led often to the deprivation of these elements and a poor quality of housing. In the design of the Hufeisensiedlung, Taut and Wagner gave special consideration to the provision of natural light, fresh air and open space to all the occupants. Ample open green spaces, along with personal lawns and gardens, were provided and arranged carefully throughout the estate (Fig. 06). Every housing unit had living spaces with either a balcony or loggia facing open green space.9 The design of small, through units with narrow massing allowed in light and allowed for cross-ventilation ( Fig. 05). Taut arranged the row houses within the estate mainly along a North-

South axis to receive light from the East and West.10 Though the form of the horseshoe led to a considerable number of units with living spaces facing North, it was compensated for by light from the South face, as well as the view towards the spectacular open space which the form created. In stark contrast to the crowded city tenement blocks, the residents of the Hufeisensiedlung were not at all lacking for light, air, or space.

estate. Shopping, restaurants and community facilities are incorporated into the entrance of the horseshoe, increasing the walkability of the daily lives of the residents.12 Similarly, various tenets of the Athens Charter would later provide that planning and architecture should be governed by human proportions, especially in regards to distances and efficiency in the cycle of daily functions with housing as the starting point.13

Human Scale and Life

Standardization and Variation

Another important response to the congested living conditions in the city was to design for human scale. The estate consists only of low-rise blocks, large open green spaces, and a network of wide residential streets and boulevards. As well, under Tautâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s direction, the design of the blocks were to avoid blank, strained faĂ§ades, breaking them up into a more human scale.11 Compared to the high-rises and congestion of the city core, the Hufeisensiedlung was much more suited to a human scale with its low-rises and low density. As well, Taut sought to optimize the daily lives of the occupants by integrating social infrastructure into the

Along with the daily lives of the occupants, construction of the project was also designed to be optimized. With the advent of the machine age came new industrialized building techniques. Through design, Taut rationalized the construction of the estate. Traditional materials were combined with new building techniques to maintain a picturesque image while increasing efficiency. Faster and more economical building construction could be achieved through modern industrialized building production, the embrace of which which would later be advocated for in the Athens Charter.14 To do this effectively on a large scale, Taut standardized the floor plans

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM HUFEISENSIEDLUNG VICTORIA CHOW

urban tenement block (Fig. 01) to the garden city model and a change from the artistic aspect of urban design to urban planning focused on public health and hygiene.8

Working-class tenement block, berlin 1929 Figure-ground of site prior to development, 1924 - 1:10000 Figure-ground after development, 1933 - 1:10000 Hufeisensiedlung private gardens E-W Section through typical housing unit Green space and relation to buildings Variety in housing unit doors

of the housing units, thereby standardizing the construction elements. There were four standard unit types for over 1000 units in the estate.15 By lowering the construction costs, rent could also be lowered for the residents. Although standardized units create repetition and monotony, Taut sought to create a sense of variety through curved streets and setbacks that staggered the blocks from each other in varying arrangements of buildings, as well as through varying colour and unique building elements such as doors (Fig. 07).16 The result is a colourful community of housing emphasizing both the individual and the collective. The Collective Spirit

Taut wished to create an ideal social community with the Hufeisensiedlung that embodied the collective spirit. He saw the social coherence between the workers that would live there to be of great importance and designed the estate to have groupings of similar elements within it. He created distinct neighbourhood units, utilizing the uniform pitched roofs and a harmonious interaction of colour to create a sense of totality within each unit and within the entire estate.17 There were also no fencing elements built for the purpose of separating public and private spaces. Private gardens and public open spaces were separated only by low hedges and paved walkways.18 The same applied towards the separation of private gardens and lawns from each other (Fig. 04). Taut saw the collective as a vital entity of modern society, and his ideals were strongly reflected in the design and organization of the Hufeisensiedlung. CIAM would also address

the importance of the collective, although it would focus on efficiency through collective effort and interest, while Taut was more interested in the social idea. Conclusion

Though the Hufeisensiedlung was conceived and built prior to the CIAM conferences and the Athens Charter, it still addressed many of the ideas that would be discussed, such as the provision of light, air, open space and wider roads, human scale and daily functions, organization based on housing and its needs as a starting point, the embrace of modern building techniques, and the importance of the collective. These were the ideas of the time, brought forth by the social, political and economic context, and recognized and addressed by Bruno Taut and Martin Wagner. Their design responses stand as evidence that the ideas of CIAM were truly relevant to the problems in architecture and planning of the time. The Hufeisensiedlung has appropriately addressed its site, context and occupant needs ( as individuals and as a community) with an innovative response. It is still inhabited to this day and stands as a benchmark in modern urban housing and planning.

8.5M

7M 8.5M

24M

building to green space ratio in a typical rowhouse lot

private lawn/ gardens for rowhouses private lawn/ gardens for multiresidential

public open space

01 02 03 04 05 06 07

Notes

1. Lane, Barbara Miller. Architecture and Politics in Germany 1918-1945. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968. 2. UNESCO. Housing Estates in the Berlin Modern Style: Nomination for Inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1239.pdf. 3. Bätzner, Nick. "Housing Projects of the 1920s: A Laboratory of Social Ideas and Formal Experiment." In City of Architecture, Architecture of the City, ed. Scheer, Thorsten, Josef Paul Kleihues, and Paul Kahlfeldt. Berlin: Nicolai, 2000. 4. UNESCO. Housing Estates in the Berlin Modern Style: Nomination for Inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1239.pdf. 5. French, Hilary. Key Urban Housing of the Twentieth Century. London: Lawrence King Publishing Ltd., 2008. 6. Lane, Barbara Miller. Architecture and Politics in Germany 1918-1945. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968. 7. Lane, Barbara Miller. Architecture and Politics in Germany 1918-1945. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968. 8. Krier, Rob. Town Spaces: Contemporary Interpretations in Traditional Urbanism. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2006. 9. French, Hilary. Key Urban Housing of the Twentieth Century. London: Lawrence King Publishing Ltd., 2008. 10. Bätzner, Nick. "Housing Projects of the 1920s: A Laboratory of Social Ideas and Formal Experiment." In City of Architecture, Architecture of the City, ed. Scheer, Thorsten, Josef Paul Kleihues, and Paul Kahlfeldt. Berlin: Nicolai, 2000. 11. Lane, Barbara Miller. Architecture and Politics in Germany 1918-1945. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968. 12. Forster, Wolfgang. Housing in the 20th and 21st Centuries. Munich: Prestel, 2006. 13. Le Corbusier. "The Athens Charter", from CIAM's "The Athens Charter" (1933), trans. Anthony Eardley. New York: Grossman, 1973. 14. Le Corbusier. "The Athens Charter", from CIAM's "The Athens Charter" (1933), trans. Anthony Eardley. New York: Grossman, 1973. 15. Forster, Wolfgang. Housing in the 20th and 21st Centuries. Munich: Prestel, 2006. 16. Wiedenhoeft, Ronald. Berlin's Housing Revolution: German Reform in the 1920s. Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1985. 17. Wiedenhoeft, Ronald. Berlin's Housing Revolution: German Reform in the 1920s. Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1985. 18. UNESCO. Housing Estates in the Berlin Modern Style: Nomination for Inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1239.pdf. FIGURES Epstein, Hans. "Berliner Mietskasernen." Photograph. 1929.. http://aaroncrippsblog.files.wordpress. com/2014/03/mietkasernes.jpg. (Accessed October 24 , 2014). 6. "Vor-Und Mietergarten". Photography. Hufeisensiedlung.info. http://www.hufeisensiedlung.info/fileadmin/uploads/images/_Geschichte/pan_BA_1-2_ONK___PAS_oD_Quelle_Roehricht.jpg. (Accessed October 24, 2014). 7. Buschfeld, Ben. "Hufeisensiedlung Tueren Details". Photograph. 2011. http://berlinerprojektfondskulturellebildung.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/hufeisensiedlung_tueren_details_divstrassen_2011_rgb_1280px_c2a9benbuschfeld.jpg. (Accessed October 24, 2014).

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM HUFEISENSIEDLUNG VICTORIA CHOW

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM "Luftbild der Großsiedlung Britz - Hufeisensiedlung." Photograph. Berlin.de, http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/aktuell/pressebox/includes/docs/doc473_hufeisensiedlung.jpg (accessed October 24, 2014).

The dialogue preceding the construction of the Chicago Tribune Tower proved to be a catalyst in the urban development of Chicago's central business district. The tower is located adjacent to the bridge constructed in 1920 to extend Michigan Avenue past the Chicago River. This led to extensive zoning changes of what is now North Michigan Avenue from industrial to high end hotel, retail and commercial buildings. Nicknamed "The Tribune Plan," the urban design of North Michigan Avenue was to follow a City Beautiful model which shared some similarities to CIAM principals listed in The Athens Charter, such as wide thoroughfares and green spaces. However, as opposed to the aesthetic based approach governed in this plan, such as setbacks, height restrictions and balcony lines, the approach dictated thirteen years later in the Athens charter was much more heavily focused on efficiency in transport and dwelling. The design of The Chicago Tribune Tower by Howells and Hood Architects is in the Gothic Revival style which shares the expression of verticality in the tall office building type such as practiced in the modernist movement. However, many of its elements such as its use of ornamentation opposes the ideals of modernism, as displayed by the same firm in The Daily News building constructed in 1929 during the CIAM movement.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

THE CHICAGO TRIBUNE TOWER Raymond Hood + John Howells 1923 Chicago, USA Andrew Falls

The Chicago Tribune Competition was held during a pivotal time in the city of Chicago’s zoning and urban planning history. The competition was first announced in June of 19221 prior to which there was much debate as to the redevelopment of North Michigan Avenue and it’s surrounding area. Although the discussion began as early as 1880, in 1913,2 it was officially decided that Pine Street, an area previously lined with industrial occupancies, would be linked with Michigan Avenue through a bridge over the Chicago River. This extended the existing business district to the north while providing a much needed connection between The Loop and The Gold Coast,1 two prominent nodes within the city. This new development was projected to follow the ideals of the City Beautiful movement as proposed by Daniel Burnham.1 Although the low rise uniformed cornice plan was never conceived, the street was widened as per the plan and City Beautiful ideals such as monumentalism and neoclassicism impacted many early highrise designs such as the Chicago Tribune Tower. The majority of the development of this area predated the CIAM conference and neglected most ideals that are reflected in modernest planning and architecture. The urban context not only had zoning implications which altered the design but the location of the specific site itself altered the design approach completely. Being located directly adjacent to the newly completed Michigan Avenue Bridge, meant that the building had two major frontages which were equally aesthetically important. This lead

to an approach focused highly on volume,1 and the building’s perception from both vantages rather than focusing on a single primary facade which is highly common in high-rises which adjoin others. The site itself was relatively small for a tower of its height. At only 100x135 ft1 the building’s footprint rendered a relatively small floor area which housed only 17 offices per floor.1 Amidst the development of Chicago’s newly defined downtown core, there was also much debate and development towards zoning law. When the competition was announced buildings were required to follow a strict zoning law which governed twenty one stories or 260 feet of programmable space with a 400 foot absolute maximum leaving the 140 feet of extra height as unprogammable volume for “ornamentation and creativity”.3 However, a mere three weeks after the Hood and Howells design was announced as the winner, The Chicago Temple Building had won a zoning dispute to be allowed to construct to 568 feet tall,3 creating a precedent which altered Chicago’s zoning and the Tribune Tower’s final design . After the “Temple Controversy”3 many proposed buildings were successfully coming fourth to Chicago council for zoning amendments. In response, the zoning of the district was changed to have no absolute restriction on height or programmable height so long as the volume stayed behind a 1:10 slope from the top of the 264 foot street line wall.3 Due to these changes in zoning bylaw the original scheme of a 260 foot, twenty one floor tower grew to measure 462 feet with thirty six usable floors.3 Despite the setback guidelines seeming to dictate the formal

approach of buildings, the Tribune Towers scheme presents an interesting response to the zoning. As displayed in image three, the ornamental buttressing visually unifies the main mass with the upper setback, allowing the eye to see the building as a whole rather than two parts.

The redevelopment of North Michigan Avenue from an industrial area to its high class office, retail, hotel and banking district that it is today was strongly influenced by many powerful steak holders from the area at that time. The Chicago Tribune Company itself was one of the key advocators for this new development, so much so that many coin it “The Tribune Plan.”3 Due to their ownership of the plot of land adjacent to what was proposed as the Michigan Avenue Bridge, if the development was approved the land value would skyrocket while providing the opportunity to create a national landmark. However, because the proposed plan included a widening of the street face, many did not support the plan such as the tenants of those thirty four2 buildings who would be evicted due to demolition. Despite the fact that the final design chosen was Neo Gothic, influences of early modernism were present in The Chicago Tribune Tower competition. Although predating CIAM and the bulk of the modernist movement, it is well known for being a pivotal battle between Modernism and the Beaux Arts. Due to the fact that the governing board chose the Howells and Hood design, it is clear that their Neo Gothic style

ANDREW FALLS

such as the Chicago Tribune to develop for the sake of capital gain meant that they were not concerned with their building as a single unit within a functioning city, they were instead concerned about personal profit and corporate values. This is the complete opposite from what the CIAM conferences later promoted in The Athens Charter, stating: “The ruthless violence of private interests disastrously upsets the balance between the thrust of economic forces on the one hand and the weakness of administrative control and the powerlessness of social solidarity on the other.”5 Indeed, when one examines North Michigan Avenue after the development boom of the 1920s, its values become apparent as shear opposite to CIAM. Instead of being an area which promotes civic equality, it is an area which promotes wealth, corporate values and the idea of luxury for those who afford it. The needs of the average citizen are not considered by the wealthy who developed it.

PLX 599

PRE-CIAM

The design for North Michigan Avenue and the Chicago Tribune tower both predate the CIAM conferences. This is evident in the lack of consideration towards social equality, efficiency, dwelling and attention to human scale. La Sarraz declaration, written in 19284 states: “Urbanization cannot be conditioned by the claims of a pre-existent aestheticism: its essence is of a functional order.”4 This quote displays the difference between the City Beautiful approach that Daniel Burnham proposed when designing North Michigan avenue and ideals behind

the modernist approach. Although Burnham was concerned with such efficiencies as linking nodes in the city through widened streets and new bridges, his main concern was the character of the buildings and what their design conveyed through a classical aesthetic.2 This had roots in social order through aestheticism which contradicts the CIAM idea of a utopia through a clean, efficient environment where the aesthetic does not communicate any political agenda accept for equality. Although the Burnham plan was not fully achieved, the ideals behind the City Beautiful remained influent, as displayed in the Chicago Tribune Tower Design. North Michigan avenue fell to a collective of single aesthetics rather than “of a functional order.”4 After the development of North Michigan Avenue began, Chicago incrementally exercised less control over the maintaining of street face, aesthetic and height of the towers being developed. In parallel to this, Chicago’s corporate real estate law which did not allow for corporations to construct towers beyond their personal needs for profit was lifted.3 The availability for corporations

THE CHICAGO TRIBUNE TOWER

shared encapsulated values adjacent to the City Beautiful and Beaux Arts movements which portrayed the ideals which the company wished to portray. The idea of beautification and classical order to develop a more civilized educated community as was proposed in the grand scheme for North Michigan Avenue was carried fourth in the Neo Gothic design. Of equal importance was the concept of aesthetic tradition to achieve a monument to withstand time. The idea of modernization, efficiency and internationalism weren’t present in the companies values.

FIGURE GROUND OF NORTH MICHIGAN AVE PRIOR TO 1900 REDEVELOPMENT 01 FIGURE GROUND OF NORTH MICHIGAN AVE AFTER REDEVELOPMENT 02 HOWELLS AND HOOD CONSTRUCTED FACADE COMPARED TO WALTER GROPIUS'S PROPOSED FACADE 03 THE CHICAGO TRIBUNE TOWER'S ORNEMENTAL RESPONSE TO ZONING 04

The expression of verticality as achieved in the design of The Chicago Tribune Tower can be linked to the ideas of the opposing modernist schemes, however, the ornamentation and lack of structural expression contradict any modern ideals that are expressed in the CIAM conferences. A similar neglect to modernist ideals is displayed in the lack of attention to natural lighting, efficiency in planning and orientation of the building.3 The tower only housed seventeen offices per floor, the plans of which lacked repetition, modularity or spacial efficiency. This was largely due to the primary design driver of the tower not being based upon a human in an office unit, but on the building as a landmark of corporate values.1 This is a clear opposite to the CIAM principals of spatial planning based primarily upon a human scale. As displayed in image two, an alternate modernist scheme by Walter Gropius (right) is compared to the Neo Gothic Scheme by Howells and Hood (left). This demonstrates shear opposites in expression, by a study of the fenestration alone one can begin to understand how the modernist design takes into a greater account the human rather than the object.

In point 89 of the Athens Charter it is stated that “Interrelationships within the urban space between dwellings, workplaces and the facilities devoted to leisure will be established…”5 The plan for North Michigan Avenue has been widely criticized for its lack of attention to both dwelling and green space.2 The corporate values neglected to see the benefit

of human well being towards productivity in their lack of relation to dwelling or green space. It is these capitalist values which jaded the governments intervention towards the planning of the Avenue, having it represent the interests of money over occupants. Prior to the development of North Michigan Avenue, the industrial land was very cheap, allowing for a space which all could use. This industrial area served the needs of the city and housed many jobs for the working class, who were then displaced in order to make room for the wealthy businessman. This capitalist intervention opposes the ideas of socialism though urban design which are apparent in the CIAM conferences. The previous industrial fabric (left) compared to capitalist objects (right) is displayed in image one. It is clear through the analysis of the planning of North Michigan Avenue and the design of the Chicago Tribune Tower that the tower itself did provide an appropriate response to the site and political agenda of the area. The symbolism of order, wealth and corporate values lend well to the wealth and grandeur of North Michigan Avenue. However, in both the planning for the avenue and the design of the tower, grandeur and wealth trumped the focus of a human within its environment. The lead to the Avenue turning into a conglomeration of such expression, lacking any spatial relationship to one another, while rendering The Tribune Tower itself as a mere demonstration of the lack of effectiveness of designing a tower as an object. The inhabitants of the tower and avenue would

benefit from an increase in light, air and space which were all demonstrated in Groupius’s design and later described as of utmost importance in the Athens Charter.

ANDREW FALLS THE CHICAGO TRIBUNE TOWER

1. Solomonson, Katherine. The Chicago Tribune Tower competition: skyscraper design and cultural change in the 1920s. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 2. Stamper, John W.. Chicago's North Michigan Avenue: planning and development, 1900-1930. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. 3. Schwieterman, Joseph P., Dana M. Caspall, and Jane Heron. The politics of place: a history of zoning in Chicago. Chicago, IL: Lake Claremont Press, 2006. 4. "CIAM's La Sarraz Declaration (1928)." Modernist Architecture. http:/modernistarchitecture.wordpress. com/2011/09/08/ciams-la-sarraz-declaration-1928/ (accessed October 25, 2014). 5. Association for Urban Planning." : The Athens Charter. http://www.planering.org (accessed October 25, 2014 6. Mumford, Eric. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Boston: MIT Press ,2000. 7. Mumford, Eric Paul. Defining urban design: CIAM architects and the formation of a discipline, 1937-69. New Haven: [Yale University Press], 2009. 8. Pridmore, Jay, and George A. Larson. Chicago architecture and design. Rev. and expanded. ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2005. 9. "Architecture: The City Beautiful Movement." Architecture: The City Beautiful Movement. http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/61.html (accessed October 20, 2014). 10. "Zoning." Zoning. http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1401.html (accessed October 25, 2014).

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM forum.skyscraperpage.com

NOTES

At the tail end of the second industrial revolution, the limits of height, and economic use of space within urban buildings were a priority amongst architects and stakeholders in the cities. With the mass production of Bessemer steel in 1855, and the first installation of a passenger elevator in 1857, the design of taller, lighter buildings was not only feasible, but preferred. These factors were instrumental to the Wainwright Building's completion in 1891, and consequently a period of rapid densification for St. Louis and the American city in general. Within a decade, the urban context of the U.S.A. had been radically altered, the success of Adler and Sullivan's skyscraper influencing a paradigm shift towards a taller city, and a better workplace. The Wainwright building's innovation with steel structure enabled a large amount of fenestration, which introduced ample natural light and air circulation. As more architects and cities adopted the skyscraper however, the surrounding urban space was inversely affected. The city streets were cloaked in shadow and induced hostile wind conditions, eventually causing those concerned for the urban habitat to take action. When the CongrĂ¨s International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) was formed in 1928, its goal was to prevent and improve the citys condition through judicious planning, and would bring the Wainwright Buildings interior conditions into harmony with its context.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

WAINWRIGHT BUILDING Dankmar Adler & Louis Sullivan 1890-1891 St. Louis, USA Matthew Ferguson

The Wainwright Building’s completion in 1891 marks a pivotal point in the evolution of urban architecture and the workplace. Standing on the corner of N 8th and Chestnut Street in St. Louis, Missouri; Adler and Sullivan’s iconic skyscraper marks the dawn of the corporate urban culture. When Ellis Wainwright commissioned an office building for the St. Louis Brewers Association, Sullivan’s first response was the desire for a tall, proud building1. Key to this vision was a lightweight steel frame structure, which allowed the design of large windows, and more natural light. This was of great importance in office spaces at the time, when good electric lighting had not yet been developed6. Sullivan’s final design used the proportions of the Greek column to order its appearance. “The first part is the heavy two-story base, which makes the building look solid and gives it a comfortable human scale. Above that, the second part is like the column’s shaft. (…) The third, topmost part is like the column’s decorative capital, where the building meets the sky.”7 The design also expressed its structure and height to the street through recessed spandrel panels and continuous piers. Physical Context

The new home of the St. Louis Brewers Association was needed to interact with its surrounding context. As a result, the main floor contained street level shops, and sitting directly above them the second floor housed public offices for the brewing companies. The remaining eight floors housed offices for

the Association, providing well lit, spaces which, thanks to an economy of scale, were relatively inexpensive. Upon its completion the Wainwright building was a centerpiece in Real Estate Row. Within 14 years however all of the surrounding residential buildings in the fashionable district had been replaced by higher rise office buildings5. One notable entry includes the Title Guaranty building by Eames and Young. At the street level public interaction was encourage by floorto-ceiling storefront glazing, intersected by columns containing the steel skeleton of the building. In 1984 the Title Guaranty Building and the International Buildings were demolished, in order to erect the Gateway One building, the final piece of the Gateway Mall. The Wainwright building remains intact due to historic preservation, and is surrounded by the parks and public open spaces of the Gateway Mall5. A major part of the Comprehensive Plan of 1907, but not started until 19406, the Gateway Mall is a block wide open green space running west from Chestnut Street towards to Gateway Arch. Part of the City Beautiful inspired plan to connect St. Louis’ most recognizable monument to the downtown core, the Mall received much criticism, due to the fact that it failed to increase pedestrian traffic, and it caused the demolition of several prominent historic buildings. Now the Wainwright building sits between parking garages and the uninspiring Gateway One building.

Social/Planning Context

The Wainwright building was most notable in its contribution to the corporate industrial culture of the St. Louis downtown, a culture which spread rapidly amongst the booming Industrial Centres of America. As one of several contenders for the world’s first skyscraper8, it signified to link between St. Louis and industrial sector. The presence of institutions like the Brewers Association and other industrial headquarters was the driving force behind dense urban development at the time. Businesses downtown flourished thanks to this movement towards living and working downtown, this would play a significant part in the later changes which occur to the city’s fabric. Whereas St. Louis had previously been driven economically by suburban industrial factories, the Downtown industrial shift would result in improved infrastructure, and expedited approvals for high density projects in the core. The end result was a short term tripling of density, and a booming city, which reflected the state of cities across the country. Privatization and Transformation

The Wainwright building, within the context of the streetscape it helped to form, had a great impact on the pedestrian street experience. Due to the building’s pivotal role as one of the first skyscrapers, and arguably one of the best designed, it can be said that it helped to create various poor urban conditions, including lack of identity and homogeneity. The success of the first

Functions and Nodal Planning

The office building in its current form, whether a part of an office park, a downtown core, or a part of Le Plan Voisin, owes its success in no small part to the Wainwright building. In Sullivan’s attempt to create a proud and tall building, he harnessed the qualities of a steel structure and ceramic cladding, two features which greatly reduced the needed amount of loadbearing structure on the exterior wall. The resulting design had larger windows than any previous tall building of masonry structure, and the result was an office building with ample natural lighting during the day2. In addition to the quality of the interior spaces, the economic benefits of density were clear2. Smaller parcels of land with a larger amount of floor plates reduced the cost of the site, and the money saved could be invested in more rentable space, making the building more profitable for investors. These qualities would later be recognized for its merits by CIAM members, and the presence of natural light in dense towers was an important part of the Athens Charter. This can be seen clearly in the planning concepts of Le

Corbusier, which relied heavily on dense nodes to create an urban environment. Sullivan’s optimization of space and light in the Wainwright building, is successful because of it’s functional clarity. It does not attempt to marry several different functions, but instead prioritizes a working enviroment. Working with the planning thesis that these spaces should naturally be seperate, on the building scale would be a large factor in the development of the four distinct uses of inhabiting, working, recreation, and circulation. The major difference lies in the implementation, where Sullivan helped to fabricate a city made up of tight corridors, CIAM stood for the implementation of large amounts of public open space to allow light between the buildings, as well as inside of them. The Human Scale and Intervention

This allowance for open space between buildings was in reality a response to the urban conditions that resulted from the movement started by Sullivan. The allure of a cheaper office building located in the heart of downtown was responsible for a

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM WAINWRIGHT BUILDING MATTHEW FERGUSON

skyscrapers encourage private interest in urban development5. Within five minutes of the Wainwright building, the majority of existing built form was torn down and reborn as projects of corporate and industrial presence. To counter this prioritization of the private over the public, plans were recklessly approved to replace many of these projects with parking garages and the Gateway Mall5. This period of rapid change lacked the control called for in tenet 74 of the Athens Charter, and as a result St. Louis has failed to achieve urban prominence. Beyond the Gateway Arch and the public waterfront, there is no “genius loci” that can be attributed solely to the city. The architects involved in CIAM acknowledged these issues not with small scale interventions, but instead with well-defined points and attributes for the city. The tenets of the Athens Charter, when applied to the urban context carefully with the public in mind, result in a very strong sense of identity and place, one which runs in opposition to the early fate of St. Louis 20th century.

Figure ground diagram 01 Daylight in the Urban Office 02 WAinwright building con struction photo 03

rapid increase in urban density between the 1890s and the early 20th century. While many members of cities at the time were thrilled by the rapid expansion, those planners and urban designers who looked to the future recognized, in certain cases perhaps too late, that vertical density combined with density of the city in plan was resulting in narrow streets which did not receive consistent desirable amounts of sunlight year long. Municipalities and local government responded to this issue in part through zoning ordinances with height and setback restrictions, but the problem still existed of the shadows cast by the buildings, which grew taller and taller as years went by. CIAM’s reaction was to encourage zoning of distinct areas based upon use. By separating office, industrial, and residential urban zones, and using generous public spaces and green areas to divide them, every part of the city could be executed in the way most fitting to it. Le Corbusier would take these ideas one step further in his proposals for nodal urban communities, where the city is not only ordered by function with divisions between each, but sectored based on single buildings. Either way, the sort of urban intervention proposed by the Athen’s Charter was in reality far too extensive to be fully implemented into existing cities, but the concept has been implemented on smaller scales in tandem with the idyllic concepts put forward by Burnham’s City Beautiful movement. The Gateway Mall is one such intervention, reprogramming a large city corridor as open space. While it may have met harsh criticism, the open space

has helped prevent St. Louis’ downtown core from becoming overcrowded, and overshadowed by development.

The Wainwright building is iconic in both its aesthetic delight, and in the role it played in the birth of the dense city. The building sits static amidst the constantly changing urban conditions of St. Louis, perhaps not a perpetrator, but an instigator of unremarkable streetscapes. In its height it displays both the economy of scale the city does best, and creates the shadows that must come with it. Despite the Wainwright building’s contribution to many of the issues of the dense urban city, it lays equal claim to the wonders and efficiencies of our urban developments. Furthermore, it was a major facilitator of St. Louis’ evolution from an industrial urbanity to a commercial city for the citizen. As such, the Wainwright must at least be described as appropriate and exemplary as a piece of change enacting urban design.

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1. "Historic Downtown." http://www.builtstlouis.net/opos/downtown.html. 2. Merwood-Salisbury, Joanna. Chicago 1890 : the skyscraper and the modern city. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009. 3. Protess, Dan; Baer, Geoffrey. 10 Buildings that Changed America. Chicago: Agate Publishing, 2013. http://ryerson.eblib.com/patron/FullRecord.aspx?p=1160517 (accessed September 15, 2014) 4. Raimist, Andrew. "Precedents in Architecture ." http://andrewraimist.com/2013/03/precedents-in-architecture.html. 5. Sandweiss, Eric. St. Louis : the evolution of an American urban landscape. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001. 6. Sveiven, Megan. "AD Classics: Wainwright Building / Louis Sullivan ." Archdaily. http://www.archdaily. com/127393/ad-classics-wainwright-building-louis-sullivan/. 7. The City of St. Louis. "Wainwright Building - City Landmark #7." https://www.stlouis-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural-resources/city-landmarks/Wainwright-Builiding.cfm. 8. Toledo, St. Louis & Kansas City Railroad. "St. Louis." http://alabamamaps.ua.edu/historicalmaps/us_ states/missouri/StLouis.html. 9. Twombly, Robert C. Louis Sullivan : his life and work. Toronto: Penguin, 1986. 10. Van Zanten, David. Sullivan's city : the meaning of ornament for Louis Sullivan. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. 11. "Wainwright Building." http://interactive.wttw.com/tenbuildings/wainwright-building.

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM City of St. Louis Planning and Urban Design Agency. "Wainwright Building." http://stlcin.missouri.org/history/structdetail.cfm?Master_ID=1361.

NOTES

In the late 1800's, the city of Chicago reached for the skies in with the help William Le Baron Jenney's engineering skills. Constructed of Iron and steel, the very first sky scraper was designed and built in response to the ever growing economic expansion of the United States. The Home Insurance Building stretched a mere 12 storeys when it was completed, a mere mid-rise in today's standards, however with surrounding buildings reaching a maximum of 5 to 6 storeys it was quite a feat of engineering. The building stood as a testament of things to come and sparked a sky scraper boom to build higher and higher. With buildings growing upwards, planning and zoning would be required to regulate the growth of the urban fabric. Soon Chicago's zoning ordinance would be written in 1923 to help regulate height and setback restrictions on new constructions. It is evident that there are no zoning restrictions guiding the design of the Home Insurance building; no prevalent set-backs on upper floors with regards to sunlight and fresh air for the streets. Just a stark solid form stretching straight up from the street level, and many other qualities that defy the streetscape later found in Chicago as a response to the CIAM.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

THE HOME INSURANCE BUILDING Le William Le Baron Jenney 1885 Chicago Illinois Dylon Feyen

Opportunity to apply new technologies arose in the two decades to follow the Great Fire. In 1875 Chicago and many insurance companies cried out for a safer building material and developed a citywide building code prompting an era of brick and steel-frame construction. And when The Home Insurance Company of New York was seeking to expand into the city, William Le Baron Jenny’s proposal for a ten storey Iron frame building was chosen and later revolutionized the construction and architectural industry. Throughout his life, Jenny dreamed of structures of iron reaching for the sky. He envisioned massive twentyeight storey wonders scaling the horizons of cities at a time where any building above 8 storeys was extremely rare. Masonry and stone structures were always limited by 01 height due to the weight and strength of the material. The tallest buildings through the mid 1800’s would have walls of up to a meter thick resulting in dim poorly ventilated spaces. Jenny wanted to change this and was gifted the opportunity through tragedy in 1871 when fire ravaged the city of Chicago.

Jenny’s building for the first Skyscraper was constructed of columns and beams of Iron as a skeleton for the building. He then cladded the structure in masonry that hung from the skeleton resulting in thinner walls and allowing for far more glazing than many of the neighboring buildings.5 This building method was so new and innovative that it literally frightened the public and those working on the project. City inspectors and representatives from the Home Insurance

company halted work on the project until convinced that the method was safe. Also during the time of construction, a newer technology was being developed and gave rise to steel, an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel was proving to be a much better material than iron alone, with a much greater tensile strength. Jenny decided to switch materials mid project and the storeys 5 through 10 were constructed of steel. When completed the building weighed half as much as the a masonry building of comparable height and was twice as strong.2

By 1885, the building was finished and the United States Economy was on the rise. Major companies were leading the financial market and the Home Insurance Company was one of them. By the time The Home Insurance Building in Chicago was completed construction, the company already wanted to expand. Instead of looking for a new location, Jenny proposed an addition to the building. After investing so much time and effort into the current building and design they took Jenny up on his offer. So Jenny designed a two storey expansion on top of the building which was later completed in 1888. This expansion further proved the flexibility of his technology. The building stood as a monumental structure. Towering over its neighboring buildings which only reached a mere 6 to 8 storeys. The building was massive, standing on the corner of West Adams Street and Lasalles Avenue without any setback. The Home Insurance building had an extraordinary amount of glazing for

a building of its time as well which would allow for a great amount of natural light and air circulation into the building. This allowed for a much wider design while still allowing healthy living conditions. These aesthetic and passive design features would later lend themselves in the development of the Chicago Zoning ordinance and later the Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) spearheaded by renown architect Le Corbusier. The .CIAM was first founded in 1928, around 30 years after the completion of the Home Insurance building. Many of the tenements were related to the concerns that arose from the new heights reached by architects around the world. At the time of construction, Jenny designed the building to be comfortable for the inhabitants while creating a large enough building to house the Home Insurance company from the big city of New york. Concerns for the external relations wasn’t a huge concern at the time as the city of chicago was planning the city vertically as there was very little room for sprawling in the core of the city. As there was no guiding committee like the CIAM, Jenny wasn’t restricted and was able to build using his new technology and meet the needs of the city. Jenny proved to the world that steel was a formidable material and helped pave the way for the race to the sky. The Home Insurance Building was a precedent like none other and provided the science that changed the world of architecture forever by unchaining architect on the limit of

When the Home Insurance building was first built in 1885, the average building height at the time was six storeys, reaching a maximum of eight or 9 depending on ceiling heights.3 Building like the Marshall Field Building, made of masonry and stone only reached the 6 storeys and had less glazing than Jenny’s Building.6 By the end of the Home Insurance Buildings life span in 1931, New York City Had completed Construction on the tallest building at the time, the Empire

DYLON FEYEN

The innovations of the skyscraper building technology and the need to essentially rebuild Chicago after the Great Fire in 1871 lead to the profession of local planning which was led by Daniel Burnham. Jenny consulted with Daniel on several occasions but most noteworthy was during construction when The Home Insurance company hired outside consultants to investigate Jenny’s work and Jenny sought counsel with Daniel.5 Later in his career Daniel wrote and published the Chicago Plan in 1909 which contained along with a number of other ideas; a long term vision of rationalized urban growth structured around the planned development of a modern central business district devoted

to financial and professional services and corporate-commercial activities.2 The ground, being devoted to business purposes, will become so valuable that the buildings will rise to the height permitted by law. These buildings will be used for offices by corporations whose plants are scattered throughout the wide territory of which Chicago is the metropolis; for shops and banks; for hotels; for theatres and other places of entertainment; for railroad passenger terminals; for churches and public or semi-public structures, all of which will be resorted to by hundreds of thousands of people who must pass daily into and out of this comparatively small area.

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Soon Chicago’s streetscapes were completely changing and these new super structures we impeding on the natural aspects of the streets below. When completed in 1892, a mere 4 years after the final completion of the Home Insurance building, the twentystorey Masonic temple was briefly the tallest building in the world at 302 feet above street level. Such heights were achieved through Jenny’s building method. At a time when municipal building codes focused on issues relating to health and safety through the regulation of building materials and the prevention of fire and disease, the bulky

and imposing Masonic Temple, like the Equitable in Manhattan, introduced the idea among various local groups and authorities in Chicago that some form of height limitation was needed to curb the excesses of unregulated urban growth.2 The City needed a way to regulate heights and setbacks for new constructions and soon passed the Chicago Zoning Ordinance in 1923. These bylaws would help regulate the height and setback restrictions of new constructions.2

THE HOME INSURANCE BUIDLIGN

height by using Jenny’s new and innovative building method.5 Architects and engineers began to design bigger and better, reaching higher and higher through every project. It truly was a competition that Chicago had a tremendous lead in. Between 1885 and 1893 Chicago entered a boom period of speculative skyscraper construction that even surpassed New York City. During this period Chicago added a dozen new office buildings between sixteen and twenty stories whereas New York City only added four structures of comparable height.7

Ground Map 01 Massing Relations 02 Artist Rendition of Home insurance building 03 Life Span Size Comparison 04 Street View 05

State Building. Reaching a staggering 443 meters at the very top point of the tower, this massive 102 Storey structure, belittled all other buildings at the time.

environment at the street level.

The Home Insurance Company with their building was the pinnacle cornerstone in the commercial move towards a dense central business district for Chicago. The Building, exemplified the building technology that William Le Baron Jenny had theorized and mastered for over a decade before itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s construction. It helped rejuvenate Chicago after the Great Fire of 1871 and revolutionized the construction industry. After the construction of The Home Insurance Building, building heights required intense study to maintain a healthy urban fabric. Chicago later implemented the Chicago Zoning Ordinance resulting in the limitations on height and setbacks from the street face.3

As much as New Yorkers would like to claim their city as the birth place of the Skyscraper, It simply isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t true. Jenny accomplished a lot in his life as an engineer and as an architect. However, being the grandfather of the skyscraper would have to be his greatest achievement. The Home insurance building and jennyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s technology was a staple for the world of architecture and opened the sky for architects to build higher and higher. It sparked a challenge for every architect and engineer to out build the next. Through this massive shift to building upwards, cities had to develop building codes to restrict heights and setbacks to provide a healthy

DYLON FEYEN THE HOME INSURANCE BUIDLIGN PRE CIAM

2. Turak, Theodore. "Remembrances of the Home Insurance Building." JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS 44, no. 1 (1985): 60-65. 3. Cooke, J.. "Compensated Taking: Zoning and the Politics of Building Height Regulation in Chicago, 18711923." Journal of Planning History 12, no. 3 (2013): 207-226. 4. A&E Television Networks. "Home Insurance Building." History.com. http://www.history.com/topics/home-insurance-building (accessed October 25, 2014). 5. Artefaqs Corporation. "The Home Insurance Building, Chicago." Chicago Architecture Info. http://www.chicagoarchitecture.info/Building/3168/The-Home-Insurance-Building.php (accessed October 25, 2014). 6. Kamin, Blair. "The Home Insurance skyscraper." chicagotribune.com. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/politics/chi-chicagodays-homeinsurance-story-story.html (accessed October 25, 2014). 7. Chicago's Other World's Tallest Building. Chicago Signature Properties Chicagos Other Worlds Tallest Building Comments. http://www.chicagosignatureproperties.com/chicagos-other-worlds-tallest-building (accessed October 25, 2014).

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IMAGE SOURCED FROM Turak, Theodore. "Remembrances of the Home Insurance Building." JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS 44, no. 1 (1985): 60.

NOTES

One of first skyscrapers offices, the Wainwright building, designed by Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan Architects, exemplifies an early rendition of modern building where form follows function. Through its programmatic layout and system organization, it demonstrates an early idea which foreshadows the theme of economic efficiency discussed in CIAM. In fact, the rational vertical organization of programs where mechanical room situates at the penthouse, public programs situates at ground level and offices at the upper levels become a norm for decades to come. Nevertheless, considering it was conceived in infant stage of modern architecture, it is difficult to say that the observed correlations are all applicable. Subsequently, this essay will closely observe the correspondences that exist between CIAM and the Wainwright building, and analyze whether they stem from similar motives. It will study contextual and political climate that existed during the design of the building, and it will be used to observe its implication on the urban planning of St. Louis. Then, these will be gathered to be used to analyze its impact on the design of the building.

Pre-CIAM 1850-1927

WAINWRIGHT BUILDING Dankmar Adler & Louis Sullivan 1890-1892 St. Louis, Missouri, USA John JinWoo Han

Introduction

The Wainwright building, designed by Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan, was built in 1891 in downtown St. Louis, Missouri. It was designed as an office building for Ellis Wainwright, a highly influential and powerful local brewer in St. Louis. The architects’ key design principle in this project in regards to an architectural sense of community includes defining the identity of a skyscraper by accentuating verticality in façade, and identifying early modernism through the recognition that the function should dictate the built form. The Congres internationaux d’architecture moderne (CIAM) is an organization that was founded in 1928 by Le Corbusier and a number of concerned architects. Its primary target was to discuss and reach a rational solution to establishing functional and healthy cities. In particular, CIAM IV (1941), in conjunction with the Athens Charter, supplies a profound knowledge to the field of modern urban planning and architecture. It is important to highlight that the Wainwright building was designed and conceived almost forty years priors to CIAM I (1928). Therefore, although the similarities could be found between the building and the tenets, the motives and intentions from which they stem are different.

The Physical Context

St. Louis has a downtown core that resides next to the Mississippi River. Originally, the direction of the downtown grid determined

by the Mississippi River was crucial to the early European settlers. This grid is almost always parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the river (Diagram 1). The Wainwright building is located at the center of the city between 7th Street and Pine Avenue. At this junction, the grid runs approximately 15 degrees skewed of true north (Diagram 1). The building itself covers approximately a quarter of a block. During the start and completion, neither the site nor the city was governed by zoning regulations or guidelines9. This provided Adler and Sullivan with a favorable environment from which to experiment with their idea of tall buildings. In 1876, St. Louis set its city boundaries, which ensued a lack of space for development given its rising population. This resulted in the creation of suburb communities, which completely surround the city in all directions. These communities are nicknamed “bedroom communities2” that connect to the city with a transit network of trains and streetcars (Diagram 2). This resulted in a process of suburban migration, which resulted in the downtown core being reserved for industry and business and people lived and commuted from the suburbs2.

Political, Social, and Cultural Context

Political and social factors on the urban planning policy of St. Louis during late 19th century as well as the design of the Wainwright building had an immense influence on the development of the city. Economically, the city was at its peak strength, allowing greater

job opportunities. This understandably resulted in rapid population growth, which doubled every decade from 1870 to 1910. Subsequently, social and political priorities catered toward business interests while civic and urban considerations were considered secondary2. Andrew Theising—a prominent urban researcher that specializes in the study of St. Louis—argues, “…the officials had personal and professional attachments to major industrial interests that resulted in a favourable atmosphere.”3 Similarly, the working class also ignored civic and public interests—for example, urban sanitation. Hence, St. Louis became notorious for its inferior urban infrastructure. In 1890, 56% of the public-street stock in St. Louis had not been graded, curbed, or paved – near last on the list.2 Clay McShane points out that “this was a period when gravel streets were considered ‘paved,’”2 an indication of the infrastructural quality of St. Louis in the 1890’s. As the civic and urban development was of secondary importance to public interest, government ignored infrastructural issues. In addition, Edwards argued that there was “a close tie between politicians, organized crime, labour union, and business interests that profited from maintaining status quo [which made it] difficult to promote civic interest over machine politics and dominance of industry.” This situation resulted in the private placement of lands and streets in St. Louis as a strategy “to fill the gaps” of infrastructural development.2 This model became popular among the wealthy and influential as a way to assert their superiority and power.9 In this context,

Mississippi Ri

St. Louis

Louis Bridge

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Illinois and St.

15%

JOHN JINWOO HAN WAINWRIGHT BUILDING

Similarly, the building has a large percentage of fenestration resulting in fresh air and ample natural light. Implementation of a

At the time of the inception of the Wainwright building, there existed a separation of city functions which mirrors CIAM’s urban schemes. CIAM calls for a rational separation of four different functions, namely dwelling, working, recreation, and circulation—where dwelling takes primary importance.5 Le

ver

Fundamentally, it is important to recall that the political and civic atmosphere in

steel structure allowed the building to have approximately 40% fenestration on the front façade. Sullivan explains, “The plan of the building, as will be seen by reference to the plan is of the form of the letter U, with a wide and light court to the north, and a widening of the alley on the west. By means of this arrangement, the building is so well lighted that every office or room in the building will have direct outside light and air” (Diagram 3).7 Then again, it is likely that this was a reactionary gesture to poor urban conditions of St. Louis during the period of its conception. Edwards points out that privately funded infrastructural projects that contrasted their undeveloped context, were used as a marketing ploy by private landowners.3 Similarly, the creation of desirable work environment resulted in positive corporate images.

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Relationship to CIAM

St. Louis during the time of the building’s construction clearly favored private interest over the public interest. The exploration for vertical building was more of a result of the projection of the image of a successful brewer. The Wainwright building’s height, as Sullivan says, was an aesthetic consideration that boasts its force and power to the streetscape of St. Louis.8 On the contrary, Le Corbusier’s functional vision calls for highrise buildings in order to increase density in urban setting while maintaining a level of adequacy in air ventilation and sunlight.6 This is well documented on tenet number 82 of the Athens Charter which outlines: “Town planning is a three-dimensional science, not a two-dimensional one. By introducing the element of height it will become possible to solve the problems of modern traffic and of leisure, through utilizing the free spaces thus created.”5 In contrast to St. Louis’s urban planning condition, CIAM calls for private interest to be subordinated to collective interest.”5

Ellis Wainwright approaches Adler and Sullivan for his office building. In The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered (1896), Sullivan argues that a skyscraper “must be tall, every inch of it tall. The force and power of altitude must be in it the glory and pride of exaltation must be in it. It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exultation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line.”8 From this excerpt, it is clear that the primary importance of the building’s exterior architectural language was to be focused on competing with other buildings within the urban fabric while cementing its place in the St. Louis’ urban landscape. The approval process for the building was quite straightforward as the political influence on cityscape during this period was almost negligible.9 It can be suggested, that even if there were resistance to the idea of high-rise building, Ellis would have used his influences to persuade government officials.

Grid's orientation towards Mississippi River 01 St. Louis' urban organization with Bedroom Communities 02 Natural light and air into the building through cross ventilation and large percentage of fenestration 03 Figure Ground Diagram 1895 04 Firgure Ground Diagram 2014 05

Corbusier states that while the Garden City pattern satisfies the individual, it loses the advantages of collective organization.6 Thus, he sought an alternative idea for the city, where he believes through legal means all useable ground should be regulated and distributed in controlled manner, “in order to bring the vital needs of the individual into complete harmony with collective needs.”6 In St. Louis, the urban planning has a similar division of functions, where workspace—downtown—clearly separated from dwelling space, and these (the bedroom communities) are linked through trains and streetcars (note that automobiles were not yet prominent during this period). However, this organization was not a planned process, but a reactionary response from individuals to growing population of St. Louis during the mid to late 19th century.

Nevertheless, the Wainwright building places itself in an important dialogue which led to the development of modernist theories and later the organization of CIAM. This building is an example of Sullivan’s manifesto “form should ever follow function.” Although ornamentation can be found on the Wainwright Building’s facades, it was organized rationally to amplify the architect’s intentions. For instance, the highly decorated cornice at the top of the building hides the mechanical penthouse, while the ornamentation at the middle of the building was used to accentuate verticality of the building. Similarly, the building’s vertical programmatic organization becomes an important prototype for subsequent highrise buildings.

Conclusion

The Wainwright building is a building that was highly influenced by the social and political context of its time. The correlations between the building and the tenets stem from different motives. Where CIAM was proactive in its intentions, the Wainwright building was more reactive and responsive. Alternatively, the building also directly expresses its influence through its compliance with Sullivan’s “form follows function” manifesto. Furthermore, it possesses rational considerations in its design, which showed a sign of deviation from then prevailing art-deco movement. Regardless of what the motives were, the Wainwright building provided the first healthy and functional highrise office building that influenced urban environments for decades to come.

JOHN JINWOO HAN

FIGURES

WAINWRIGHT BUILDING

1. "A History of St. Louis." A History of St. Louis. January 1, 1964. Accessed November 3, 2014. https:// www.stlouis-mo.gov/archive/history-physical-growth-stlouis/. 2. Beito, David. T., and Bruce Smith. "The Formation of Urban Infrastructure through Nongovernmental Planning: The Private Places of St. Louis, 1869-1920." Journal of Urban History, no. 16 (1990): 263-303. 3. Edwards, Mary, and Laura Lawson. "The Evolution of Planning in East St. Louis." Journal of Planning History, 2005, 356-82. 4. Lossos, David. "Early St. Louis Maps." Early St. Louis Photographers. Accessed November 2, 2014. http://stlouis.genealogyvillage.com/tracylewis.htm. 5. Macburnie, Ian. "Urbanization, Regulation & Design Part I." Lecture, PLX 599, Toronto, September 26, 2014. 6. Mumford, Eric Paul. "CIAM 4 1933, Functional City." In The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960, 73 82. 1st ed. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 7. Sullivan, Louis. "Wainwright Building :: Archival Image & Media Collection." Wainwright Building :: Archival Image & Media Collection. January 1, 1892. Accessed November 5, 2014. http://digital-libraries.saic.edu/ cdm/singleitem/collection/mqc/id/1402/rec/74. 8. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered." Lippincott's Magazine, January 1, 1896, 1-6. 9. Tranel, Mark. "Planning for Regional Governance in the St. Louis Area: The Context, The Plans, The Outcomes." In St. Louis Plans: The Ideal and the Real St. Louis, 55-59. 1st ed. St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press ;, 2007.

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM "Wainwright Building, St. Louis." Accessed November 4, 2014. http:// cdn.styleforum.net/a/a8/a8cb4b2e_Louis_Sullivan_-_Wainwright_Building_Seventh__Chestnut_ Streets_Saint_Louis_St._Louis_City_County_MO.jpeg.

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END IMAGE SOURCED FROM "Wainwright Building Construction 1890." Accessed November 5, 2014. hTtps:// c1.staticflickr.com/1/52/163161869_6b1c00e1e5.jpg.

The planning, design, and development of the Wrigley Building is explored critically in light of the ideological notions formed by the social, economic, cultural, and physical conditions of Chicago prior to the birthing of the CIAM and it's governing principles. The orientation of the building on the site is a direct response to the notion of civic obligation shared by William Wrigley Jr. and other prominent Chicago entrepreneurs. Daniel H. Burnham's 1909 Plan for Chicago inspired rational planning as to how goods and people moved through the city (a commercial organism), to which the site derives its dimensional irregularity, and the architects owe thanks for the opportunity to respond to the conditions of a water channel and prominent avenue on which to grace the public. The manner in which the street and river embankment were addressed architecturally was the outcome of co-operation between the public and private sectors. The building, in function and form, has character that stems from the emergence of skyscrapers into the American landscape as tools for establishing CBD's (central business districts). The upper features of the tower stand purely ornamental, incumbent gestures addressing building limitations outlined by the zoning laws that governed Chicago in the early 1920s'. The Wrigley Building successfully flaunts a style that predates the CIAM modernist push, meanwhile flourishing in the light of urban planning principles closely relatable to those that emerged in the following decade.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

WRIGLEY BUILDING Graham, Anderson, Probst & White 1920-1924 Chicago, USA Luke Kimmerer

The Wrigley Building, erected from 1920 to 1924, stands as one of the first structures to challenge and threaten the traditional fourblock character of Chicago. William Wrigley Jr., the prominent Chicago businessman recognized for his success as a manufacturer of chewing gum, engaged the architectural firm of Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White, looking to build a headquarters for his company. Graham commissioned the project to Charles G. Beersman, a promising young designer at the firm. By virtue of time and place, Beersman was blessed with the opportunity to design a building that responded to a complex set of conditions.

Of the four corners at the junction of the Chicago River and Michigan Avenue, Wrigley Jr. chose the northwest lot for the building. The bridge connecting North Michigan Avenue and Lower Michigan Avenue represents a shift in the street, resulting in a condition where the site, on it’s east side, meets the street at a diagonal. Coupled with the presence of a significant water feature, the city became abuzz with the notion that the Wrigley Building would become “the new gateway of the Greater Chicago” 1. The potential of the space inspired comparisons to the prominence of the Place de la Concorde in Paris. The Wrigley Building warrants praise in regards to its impact on the city, the American landscape, and its seemingly easy synthesis of contemporary, traditional, and local ideas. Flaunting a contemporary style that predates the CIAM modernist push, the building recognized on its lower levels a need for cooperation between the public and

private sectors and solved the problem (or opportunity?) that was the shape of the land. All achieved while pushing the construction envelope in an effort to become the novelty skyscraper in a growing commercial organism.

As a member of the Chicago Plan Commission, Wrigley shared with other Chicago entrepreneurs (of which some were commissioning their own buildings) a strong sense of civic obligation 2. At the root of this was Daniel Burnham’s 1909 Plan of Chicago. Businessmen of the Merchants Club approached Burnham with the endeavour of designing Chicago, and in 1906, he accepted the task. The resulting plan introduced radial and diagonal avenues, and a series of concentric routes to speed traffic in and around the city. The end goal being to create an efficient, orderly and beautiful city, with all its parts organically related 3. For decades after, the plan was recognized by the city as its official blueprint, but as is the nature of such plans, it was only partially realized. The physical character of Michigan Avenue, particularly where it meets the site of the Wrigley Building, can be attributed to Burnham’s dichotomy between the rationalization of the way goods and people move efficiently through the city, and an inherent need for art and beauty (value of culture) 4. Burnham’s plan was a venture seeking to revive the spirit of the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893. In 1890, the American House of Representatives selected Chicago over New

York to play host to an international fair, by means to announce that America had come of age as a civilization: it was the rightful heir of the Classical world5. Frederick Law Olmsted devised a plan for the fair and sought help from the architectural duo Daniel H. Burnham and John Wellborn Root to manifest the fair’s ideal into a physical reality. Burnham and Root in turn sought the help of architects, painters, and sculptors from New York and Boston. It was Burnham’s vision of a “White City” that enamoured eastern architects to partake. The empirical “whiteness” of the fair became a signifying element. Terracotta, a mixture of hemp and plaster sprayed with white wash dazzled, becoming the embodiment of “America the Beautiful” 6. The Wrigley Building was one of the first to have an exterior cladding made of this material. Only once large suitable panels were manufactured, could the architect transform this vision into a reality. Beersman, who had training in watercolour painting, baked six different shades (from grey to pale cream) of a special enamel finish, which created a condition where it appeared as though the building got lighter towards the top. The building aesthetic was devised upon the combination of European and North American influences. Beersman, who had been educated in the traditions of the BeauxArts style, and had travelled for a year in Europe, looked at the Giralda Tower in Seville to help derive the shape of the clock tower. In regards to ornament, he turned to a style called Francis I (for the King

We can attribute the height of the building and the top condition to the zoning limitations of the time. From 1920 to 1923, the building height limit for Chicago was 260 feet. Yet the upper part of the tower reaches a height of 398 feet. This is because everything above that 260-foot benchmark stands purely ornamental and unoccupied. The emergence of skyscrapers into the American landscape and how they contributed to the formation of Central Business Districts (CBD’s) is key to understanding the Wrigley Building’s presence in the city’s skyline. Work as a function of the city demands density, an

intensification of economic activity within a certain boundary. In response to this, Americans were convinced that skyscrapers were good for business 9. People were travelling by elevator as opposed to taxi. Office space is what shapes and organizes the CBD. The demand for a location in the centre subsequently increases land value. Thus, only very profitable activities can afford to locate there 10. William Wrigley Jr. looked at the Wrigley Building as an opportunity to put his company’s image on display, association in the mind of the public to the clean, white, airy buildings in Chicago 11 .

The CIAM was about creating a new social order or vision in regards to the planning of cities. It urged a push towards modernism and the use of rational development methods 12 . The “Functional City” as Le Corbusier outlined in the Athens Charter placed emphasis on four key functions of the city: housing, work, recreation, and traffic. The 1909 Plan of Chicago emerged by means of a planning regime that was influenced by the social, economic, and political forces of a period that represented a “changing

of the guard” in the American landscape. The most suitable use of skyscrapers was for office space. This meant that the work function of the city became the defining element of the downtown core. The tower became a spectacle, driven by economics. This is why the planning of Daniel Burnham and the intuition of William Wrigley Jr. can be considered rational thought. They recognized industrial innovation and cultural demands for monumentality, and responded architecturally in a sensible manner. The building was a novelty, unique to its time and place. Yet the opinion existed that it was given over to consumerist theatricality, not belonging to any new social order or vision at the time (it was flagrantly ornamented and traditionally axial) 13. The Wrigley Building was part of a much larger response to a changing condition in architecture and planning. The fourth convening of the CIAM produced the most significant theoretical approach to planning. Le Corbusier had ideas about density and how tall buildings could address the concept of “time-saving”. Remembering that a key focus of Burnham’s Chicago

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who popularized it in Europe) 7. Beersman, Graham, and Wrigley were aware of the emergence of contemporary architecture in New York. Skyscrapers appearing on lower Broadway gave them and other Chicagoans a taste for flat roofs and uniform cornice lines. It is perhaps when New York’s Municipal Building was designed in 1913 with its tower and classical style, that Beersman and the rest of Graham’s office accepted the possibility of the best of both worlds: classical dignity in combination with great height, a synthesis of aspiring monumentality 8.

Wrigley Building Site Circa. 1905 01 Wrigley Building Site CircA. 1941 02 Building Footprint vs. Public Space vs. Street 03

Plan was the efficient movement of people and goods throughout the city, the Wrigley Buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plaza condition can be looked at as a site-specific response to a much greater planning objective. By offsetting the faĂ§ade from the edge of Michigan Avenue, Beersman was able to create a consistent formal language between the different edge conditions of the site. Management of the river embankment, the implementation of a staircase connecting it to the street, denotation of the building entrance, and sensitivity to the bridge can be observed as early applications of the notion of rational site development (the focus of CIAM III). The collaboration between Beersman and the city lead to the formation of a gestalt, a unified summation of parts.

The Wrigley Building is a successful planning and architectural response to a client request. It represents the compilation of formal strategies that respond to the idea of civic obligation. The architect was approached with the chance to challenge the architectural character of Chicago. The master planning of Daniel Burnham provided an urban framework, a rationalized network to which the building owes the character of its site. In the wake of the City Beautiful movement, the building stood as a gesture signalling the styles of the old world: from the height of the new. The success of the Wrigley Building can be attributed to the combination of contemporary, traditional, and local architectural and planning ideas. We would like to think we could control all aspects of planning the built world,

and to an extent, we can. We can impose a rational order to our methods of design. But the reality is that cities flourish from a unique, incremental, human-based, series of interactions. By this notion, the Wrigley Building is an event. It was informed by those before it, and will inform those to come.

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Tambunan, Raymond. Wrigley Building at Night. 2012 1. Chappell, Sally. As if the Lights Were Always Shining: Graham, Anderson, Probst and White's Wrigley Building at the Boulevard Link. 291. Prestel-Verlag: München, 1987. 2. Chappell, Sally. As if the Lights Were Always Shining: Graham, Anderson, Probst and White's Wrigley Building at the Boulevard Link. 295. Prestel-Verlag: München, 1987. 3. Schaffer, Kristen. Daniel H. Burnham: Visionary Architect and Planner. 183. New York: Rizzoli, 2003. 4. Schaffer, Kristen. Daniel H. Burnham: Visionary Architect and Planner. 184. New York: Rizzoli, 2003. Stern, Robert A.M. Pride of Place: Building the American Dream. 310. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, New York: American Heritage, 1986. 5. Chappell, Sally. As if the Lights Were Always Shining: Graham, Anderson, Probst and White's Wrigley Building at the Boulevard Link. 294. Prestel-Verlag: München, 1987. 6. Chappell, Sally. As if the Lights Were Always Shining: Graham, Anderson, Probst and White's Wrigley Building at the Boulevard Link. 296. Prestel-Verlag: München, 1987. 7. Chappell, Sally. As if the Lights Were Always Shining: Graham, Anderson, Probst and White's Wrigley Building at the Boulevard Link. 297. Prestel-Verlag: München, 1987. 8. Ford, Larry R. Cities and Buildings: Skyscrapers, Skid Rows, and Suburbs. 11. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. 9. Ford, Larry R. Cities and Buildings: Skyscrapers, Skid Rows, and Suburbs. 11. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. 10. Chappell, Sally. As if the Lights Were Always Shining: Graham, Anderson, Probst and White's Wrigley Building at the Boulevard Link. 300. Prestel-Verlag: München, 1987. 11. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2000. 12. Chappell, Sally. As if the Lights Were Always Shining: Graham, Anderson, Probst and White's Wrigley Building at the Boulevard Link. 300. Prestel-Verlag: München, 1987. FIGURES Philips, David. View of Michigan Avenue Bridge and Northern Michigan Avenue, with Wrigley Building and Tribune Tower. Chicago Architectural Photographing Co.

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NOTES

The main focus in the following essay is to explore connections between Walter Gropius' Bauhaus and its teaching methodology in 1925-6 with the latter forming CIAM (The International Conference of Modern Architecture) conferences in 1928-1959. The Bauhaus' teaching methodology focused on a blending between industrial practice and visual art, which was not taught in a cohesive environment before. Many of the ideas established in the Bauhaus influenced the CIAM conferences. As the Bauhaus campus was built in rural Germany, it allowed for seclusion from conservative opinions and welcomed new ideas surrounding urbanism and post-war change at the same time that Nazism was beginning the evolve. Its students and professors challenged the ideas of traditional early 1900's housing, and in their experimentation, the utopian-like modern movement was realized which lasted well into the late 1900's and still exists today. When the CIAM conferences began in 1928, the ideas from the Bauhaus were brought to the table as Bauhaus professors such as visual arts teacher Laszlo MoholyNagy joined in on the discussions along side Walter Gropius. Not only were the ideas that were generated in the Bauhaus congratulated at the CIAM conferences, but the Bauhaus building itself was recognized as a masterpiece in modern architecture.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

THE BAUHAUS DESSAU Walter Gropius 1925-1926 Dessau, Germany Dana Latimer

The infamous Bauhaus that is recognized today was designed by Walter Gropius in Dessau, Germany, and is known as one of the first schools of design. Initially, the Bauhaus was opened in Weimar, Germany, where the existing Weimar School of Arts and Crafts unified with the city’s Weimar Academy of Fine Arts in 1919. The Bauhaus was the rebuilt in Dessau, Germany in 19245, lending itself to be part of the Pre-CIAM era (before the Congrés Internationaux de l’Architecture Moderne was established), although many CIAM principles are reflected and invented through the Bauhaus1.

As Walter Gropius opened the Bauhaus, he envisioned a design school of unified learning, combining a variety of disciplines that were able to explore and reimagine the material world. The Bauhaus’ teaching methodology focused on a blending between industrial practice and visual art, which was not taught in a cohesive environment before. The Bauhaus was a focus of international debate due to its radical ideas at such a critical point in German history2. Because of the Bauhaus’ ability to think progressively, many tenets in the Athens Charter have been a direct result of the Bauhaus teachings. The Creation of the Bauhaus in Dessau

In 1924, the Bauhaus in Weimar was no longer feasible, conservative authorities were restricting funding to the school, so it was forced to leave. The school offered itself to many different German towns, such as Frankfurt, but the Bauhaus received an offer

from the small town of Dessau. Dessau offered two pieces of municipally owned property for development of the school facilities and the masters’ housing. With new land available, Gropius was able to design and construct a new building which reflected the Bauhaus’s ideas refined over the previous five years3.

Dessau is located in central Germany where it is bordered by the Mulde River to the east and a large forested area called Mosigkauer Heide to the east (see Image 1). Although located in at remote area in Germany, it was beneficial for the Bauhaus as it provided freedom from the conservative opinions it had faced in Weimar. The site was accessed by an adjacent train station, allowing ease of transportation to the school and allowed for exportation of mass-produced Bauhaus designs4. The building consisted of three separated rectangular blocks that bridged a road. On one side of the road was the first block which was composed of classrooms, laboratories, and other teaching spaces. On other side was a combination of the auditorium and canteen, workshops, and some residential units. The connecting bridge held the administrative facilities. The Bauhaus aesthetic was of a new modern style, developed while the Bauhaus was still in Weimar. Some of its features include steel frame construction and a glass curtain wall. The Bauhaus was designed in a pinwheel formation, which in ariel view hints at the form of airplane propellers, connecting the Bauhaus to its industrial community5.

The Bauhaus was constructed during a very critical point in German and World history. WWI had just come to an end in 1918, and Germany was economically failing due to its debts to France and Great Britain. It tried to renew itself by way of social spending and infrastructural revitalization. As Germany was in a very vulnerable state, it started falling under the power of Adolf Hitler, which later resulted in the Second World War6. Even though Germany was economically and politically failing, the Bauhaus still remained a strong and unified design community. Although the Bauhaus was established on the uprising of Nazism, modernists still felt as though it was a masterpiece of modern art7. Planning and Zoning

In approximately 1870, Germany was among one of the first countries to adopt zoning bylaws. Germany focused its zoning plans on preserving large amounts of untouched land, such as the adjacent Mosigkauer Heide to the east of Dessau. Germany’s zoning ideas also affected residential housing, where only a certain percentage of land had to be left as open space. At this time, by-laws regarding road allowances were not yet established as the automobile was not a popular means of transportation. Building heights restrictions were established after The Athens Charter was released to the public8. The Bauhaus Influence on CIAM and the Athens Charter Walter Gropius was not only the founder of the Bauhaus, but

The Mulde River

Train Tracks

Mosigkauer Heide

The Bauhaus

the finished dwelling10. This principal was brought through in the CIAM conferences as the architects looked at the city as a whole relative to the small residential units within the city.

After the third CIAM conference, Gropius developed the ‘High-rise Steel Apartment Building’ model displayed at the German Building Exhibition in 1931. His model of the building was inspired by the steelframe construction that had already been developed and tested in the construction of the Bauhaus years earlier11.

Other Bauhaus teachers such as László Moholy-Nagy influenced the CIAM conferences as well. Moholy-Nagy was a teacher in the preliminary courses, exploring at composition and colour12. Gropius was influenced by László Moholy-Nagy’s utopian and constructivist ideas. Gropius’ massing of the Bauhaus building was inspired by the effects and composition of Moholy-Nagy’s paintings. Gropius described the Bauhaus in relation to painting as, “hovering relations of planes and the kind of ‘overlapping’ which appears in contemporary painting”(see

Image 3 which shows the “overlapping” in terms of Gropius’ description and MoholyNagy’s unique Bauhaus constructivist art)13. Moholy-Nagy attended the fourth CIAM conference which resulted in the creation of the Athens Charter. An important tenet of the Athens Charter can be seen in the design of the Bauhaus, “All residential areas should be provided with sufficient open space to meet reasonable needs for recreation and active sports for children, adolescents and adults”14. Gropius designed an auditorium space in the Bauhaus which was meant for students to participate in school dances and other communal activities15. Another tenet of the Athens Charter apparent in Gropius’ design was “Connections between dwelling and place of work are no longer reasonable: they impose excessively long journeys to work”16. The Bauhaus included enough residential units within the Bauhaus building so students did not have to travel far to be integrated into the studio environment. Also, professors housing was built in very close proximity to the Bauhaus so they didn’t have to commute either. The final tenet of the Athens Charter to be discussed is “Workshops, which are intimately related

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he also contributed ideas to the Congrés Internationaux de l’Architecture Moderne ( CIAM) after his resignation as Master of the Bauhaus in 1928. Gropius attended the 3rd CIAM conference in 1930 in Brussels where his ideas were the topic of discussion. The conference was focused on residential density and Gropius made a speech entitled “Low-,Mid-, or High-rise Buildings?”. Gropius argued that the best buildings were one story houses on the outskirts of the city, providing “the greatest quiet seclusion, and repose”, or the ten to twelve story apartment building in “localities of high land utilization”9. This is an idea that is directly relative to the Bauhaus building in Dessau; the Professors housing was located a short distance away and consisted of lowrise homes, whereas the students had a six-storey apartment building inside of the Bauhaus, which can theoretically be related to the idea of an apartment building in a busy city. The ideas that Gropius brought forward to CIAM were direct ideas that were taught in the Bauhaus to its students. One main focus of the Bauhaus was to develop modern housing, from the unit to the whole; from the simplest household appliances, to

dessau key plan 01 figure-ground 02 section and bauhaus art relation 03

to urban life, and indeed derive from it, should occupy well designed [sic] areas in the interior of the cityâ&#x20AC;?17. Gropius designed the Bauhaus in a curtain wall system that allowed for ample lighting within many of the workshops in the building. The curriculum of the Bauhaus was organized around the philosophy of the workshop as a hands-on learning environment. Eventually, curriculum evolved to include the practice of mass-production as a source of revenue for the students18.

The important idea to note is that the Bauhaus was not simply creating a standardized aesthetic to be repetitively taught and reproduced, the Bauhaus ideology was a method of creating and designing in ways that involved progressive thinking and discussion. The Bauhaus designs started with a simple starting point of the geometric shape, later evolving into something new which was both practical and aesthetically pleasing. This is alike the CIAM conferences, all of the design leaders were brought together on common ground, to take the present ideas of planning, and architecture, and evolve them into more practical and functional societal ideas. The Athens Charter is a document that still today provides insight into the formalities of the design world. Without the Bauhausâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; contribution to many of CIAMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s members, some of these principles may not be of existence today. Therefore, it was not just the physical structure of the Bauhaus in Dessau that proved to be influential on modern architecture, it was the whole journey of the Bauhaus school that has influenced lives

today and will continue to influence future generations.

NOTES 1. Frampton, Kenneth, "Chapter 14: The Bauhaus." In Modern Architecture: A Critical History. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 1992. 2. Weston, Richard, "Bauhaus." In Key Buildings of the 20th Century: Plans, Sections and Elevations. 2nd Ed., American ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 2010. 3. Bauhaus, "The Bauhaus Building by Walter Gropius". http://www.bauhaus- dessau.de/the-bauhausbuilding-by-walter-gropius.html. 4. Bauhaus, "The Bauhaus Building by Walter Gropius". 5. Bauhaus, "The Bauhaus Building by Walter Gropius". 6. Castillo, Daniel, "German Economy in the 1920's". December, 2003. http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/ marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/Econ20s.html. 7. Weston, Richard, "Bauhaus." In Key Buildings of the 20th Century: Plans, Sections and Elevations. 2nd Ed., American ed. New York: W.W. Norton &, 2010. 8. Liebmann, George W. "Modernization of Zoning".http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/ files/regulation/1996/4/v19n2-8.pdf 9. Mumford, Eric. 2009. "CIAM and the Communist Bloc, 1928-59." The Journal of Architecture 14 (2). 10. Buszek, Maria. "Bauhaus Dessau"Principles of Bauhaus Production". http://www.mariabuszek.com/kcai/ ConstrBau/Readings/GropPrdctn.pdf 11. Poppelreuter, Tanja. "Social Individualism: Walter Gropius and his Appropriation of Franz M端ller-Lyer's Idea of a New Man". Oxford Journal. http://jdh.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/37.abstract 12. Bauhaus, "The Bauhaus Building by Walter Gropius". http://www.bauhaus- dessau.de/the-bauhausbuilding-by-walter-gropius.html 13. Weston, Richard, "Bauhaus." In Key Buildings of the 20th Century: Plans, Sections and Elevations. 2nd Ed., American ed. New York: W.W. Norton &, 2010. 14. The Getty Conservation Institute, "Charter of Athens: 1933". Harvard University. http://www.getty. edu/conservation/publications_resources/research_resources/charters/charter04.html 15. Bauhaus, "The Bauhaus Building by Walter Gropius". http://www.bauhaus- dessau.de/the-bauhausbuilding-by-walter-gropius.html 16. The Getty Conservation Institute, "Charter of Athens: 1933". Harvard University. http://www.getty. edu/conservation/publications_resources/research_resources/charters/charter04.html 17 The Getty Conservation Institute, "Charter of Athens: 1933. 18. Bauhaus, "The Bauhaus Building by Walter Gropius". http://www.bauhaus-dessau.de/the-bauhausbuilding-by-walter-gropius.html

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Built in the business district of Chicago, the Monadnock Building is conceived by the architect John Wellborn Root as the solution for the new urban city. It outlines concepts that are the forerunners of the CIAM principles later unveiled by the Athens Charter .Root perceives the city as a division of functions such as housing, recreation and work and he sees the task of creating architecture in a city as a collective social project that deviates from personal artistic expression. This is in a way analogous to the CIAM conversation of the importance of the urban planner. The conception of the Monadnock building aims to simplify the presence of the commercial sector of the urban city, and thus accentuating the other functions of city such as dwellings. Ultimately it defines the spatial divisions of the urban fabric. Adhering to the city's zoning ordinance, the architect is able to build on a narrow footprint that allows for a functional perimeter layout for air and light while conserving space.The building also takes a revolutionary approach to traditional office tower design of the time through its ultra simplistic and functional form and its rejection of ornamentations, foreshadowing a modern urbanism on functionalism. Root's take on architecture and urban planning as executed in Manadnock building can be perceived as the founding ground of CIAM ideas in the pre-CIAM era.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

THE MONADNOCK BUILDING Burnham & Root 1891-1893 Chicago, USA Jing Yi Liang

Chicago during the 19th century is undergoing rapid growth socially and economically. The constructions of business skyscrapers in Chicago are flourishing, most of them adopting to similar ornamented aesthetics. Designed by Burnham and Root in the late 19th century, the Monadnock building is one of the highest masonry skyscrapers.1 The building is commissioned by Burnham and Root’s usual client, Boston developer Peter Brooks, whom they have done couple of commercial buildings for already.2 Sixteen stories in height, the Monadnock building is a thin slab building of masonry construction with an expression of ultra-simplicity and rigid functionalism. John Wellborn Root, the chief architect in the conception of the project, regard it as the solution for the new urban city.3 Root perceives the city as a division of functions, and the task of creating architecture in a city as a collective social art that deviates from personal artistic expression.4 The conception of the building aims to simplify the presence of the commercial sector of the urban city, thus defining spatial divisions of the urban fabric. Its departure from the traditional architectural expression that is peculiar to all Chicago skyscrapers of the time delivers the architect’s conscious intention of creating social reform through architecture and urban planning. Such intention is analogous to the later CIAM conversations of urbanity. Root’s take on architecture and urban planning as executed in Monadnock building can be perceived as the founding ground of CIAM ideas in the pre-CIAM era, foreshadowing a modern urbanism and functionalism.

The Monadnock building is situated at the corner of Jackson Street and Dearborn Street in the business district of Chicago.5 The site is located on a continuous strip of narrow lots created by two streets that bisect the city blocks in the area.6 Other thin slab buildings such as the Fisher and Old Colony share similar depth and height of the Monadnock. The powerful street facades created by these buildings constitute to a new continuous urban element that can be uniquely identified in downtown Chicago.7 The long facade of the building is facing Dearborn street, with street level store fronts serving the pedestrian flow of Dearborn Street.8 Traffics flows from both Jackson Street and Dearborn street continuously. The Narrow site of the Monadnock allows all offices to have access to daylight through windows to the street, yielding a design where offices are arranged on the periphery of the plan.9 Stairs, elevators and circulation paths are arranged along the inner strip of the building . Projecting Bay windows are added to increase useable office space. The programming of the building exemplified an effective and functional plan for office building, providing for light, convenience and economy of space(fig.03).10 The conception of the Monadnock building occupies a five year period due to influences of site conditions, current political and cultural context, and city zoning ordinance.11 During this period, Chicago commercial culture is in the form of concentrated office buildings within a compact district, where the more height, the more profit. In 1881,

Peter Brooks acquired a lot 100 square feet on Jackson Street at a cost of $118,000.12 However the lot was currently dominated by warehouses and is remotely isolated from the rest of the office district(fig.01).13 Planning could not begin until the site is financially viable.In 1882, the city council adopted an ordinance that would open up Dearborn Street south from Jackson Street. The new ordinance reduced the lot to about 100 feet by 68 feet , producing a narrow foot print.14 Slowly the business district encroached on the site making it financially viable for building(fig.02). Yet there are rumors of an ordinance to restrict building heights and to require complete fireproofing of all high buildings. This causes the initial conception of a 14-16 stories building drop down to a 12 stories building in order to secure a building permit. As design is still ongoing, in May 1889, another ordinance that propose to restrict the height of any commercial building to the width of the street it faced was drawn.To evade the proposed new building height ordinance, a 16 stories building proposal is submitted to the building commissioner before the ordinance become solid and is approved.15 Unsurprisingly the new ordinance is later objected by various political figures of the time where opponents claimed that unlimited height is the solution for the compact business district of Chicago. CIAM : Functionalism v.s. Ornamentation

When the building’s final scheme is first published, its striking simplicity arouse intensive discussion.16 Reactions to it are

The rigid functionalism of the Monadnock building triggers another new conception: the task of creating architecture as social projects situated in the new urbanism.22 This conception later became the basis of many CIAM discussions. In this respect, Root as the architect steps back from the project from the personal artistic point of view, and engages it as a collective social art in the context of urbanity . Thus he is responding to the planning of the overall urban environment in his design of the Monadnock building. The plainness of the Monadnock building expresses the aspect of commercial building in the overall urban plan. Root is not designing the building in terms of how it looks aesthetically , but how it signifies the commercial sector in the urban fabric. Discarding personal interest,

CIAM: Separation of Functions

The Athens Charter discloses that division of functions should be the basis of urban planning.24 The four functions, namely dwellings, work, recreation and transportation, should be considered when conceiving the city, with emphasis on dwelling. Root, designing decades before CIAM, starts to experiment with the division of functions using the Monadnock building. Critic Barr Ferree again commented on

JING YI LIANG

CIAM: Building as Social projects

Root’s service is to define the urban plan for a common interest: the problem with the expression of commerce. This is certainly a new social phenomena, bring building into the context of the actual social and economic world, establishing the relationship between content and form. This conception of the importance of the urban planner is analogous to the conclusion of the Athens charter, where it is outlined that “private interests should be subordinated to the interests of the community”.23 Ultimately, the planner overwrites the artist, as manifest in the Monadnock building and Athens Charter.

MONADNOCK BUILDING

The functional city” again presents problems of urbanization in terms of functionalism. In discarding ornamentation and pursuing only the structural and functional expression , Roots design become the pioneer of the later CIAM discourse of functionalism.

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PRE-CIAM

bipolar. Devoid of any ornamentations, Root takes a revolutionary approach to traditional office deign by basing the building solely on functional construction. It is a pure expression of business, serving for the one and only purpose of commerce in the new urbanism.17 Its modern aesthetic leads to its association of being the pro-modernism or the “embryonic functionalism”.18 New York Critic Barr Ferree called it “ the epitome of Chicago’s artistic resolution of the problem of the high-rise commercial building”19; Richard Neutra and Behrandt described it as “ a building completely fitted to its context and purpose”.20 However one must be reminded that the building is born in an era where ornamentation was the norm. Critics questioned the design as a plain response to commerce without the mediation of design; some called it the work of pure engineering. Yet decades after the conception of the project, CIAM discussions confirmed the importance of functionalism as proposed by Root in his design of the Monadnock building. In the 1928 La Sarraz Declaration, a point was made that “urbanism should be devoid of aesthetics and based on functions”.21 Later in the fourth CIAM conference, the theme of “

Before Develoment 01 After Development 02 Functional planning 03 Business Block In Repose 04

Root’s design that “it corresponds to an ideal, the truthful external expression of internal nature, life or purpose”.25 If the external expression of the business is simple and pure, that what is suggested of the internal purpose? The answer is obvious that for Root, the commercial sector of city the should be of subliminal presence.26 It is revealed through Root’s writing that the the business block should be of blindness and invisibles. He felt that the current business building is imposing itself too much on the city dwellers, and that the simplifying of the business block would relieve the eyes of the city dwellers. Thus the business block, as one of the functions of the city , is tamed to accentuate the rest of the functions, mainly dwellings. As agreed with the CIAM principles, Root thought that the most creative, whimsical architectural moves should be reserved for the house, and the business building should be of “simple massing, uncomplicated skylines, and plain surface with monochromatic material to create a sense of ‘repose’”(fig.04). The idea of architecture in repose is analogous to the idea of suburban living, where the harm of city living can be removed through architecture.27 This is an attempt to make the city “ a restorative natural environment” , such as those of towers in parks provided by CIAM. Conclusion : Model for the Utopian Future Plans

Years after the completion of the Monadnock building, European utopian writings of future cities such as CIAM flourished, many

featuring the skyscrapers as the agents of social reform.28 The interests in sky scrapers often concern with technology and mechanic, rarely do they emphasize on the aesthetics. Where did these writers look for when considering the high buildings? They turn to Chicago city skyscrapers for modeling their own vision of urbanism. They believe that the ills of the industrial city can be transformed into a ordered and efficient city with sky-scrapers. Among the high buildings in Chicago the Monadnock is certainly one that is the closest to their ideals, where its monotonous form provides the basis of their future Metropolis. Root’s take on architecture and urban planning as executed in Monadnock building can be perceived as the founding ground of CIAM ideas in the pre-CIAM era. Bland as many thought of it , it is indeed appropriate for the compact business district of Chicago as it gives new identity to a rapidly growing urban phenomenon.

NOTES

FIGURES

MONADNAOCK BUILDING PRE-CIAM PLX 599

1. Monroe, Harriet. John Wellborn Root. Park Forest: Prairie School Press, 1966.,103. 2. Hoffmann, Donald. The Architecture of John Wellborn Root. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,1973.,156. 3. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity." PhD diss., Princeton University, 2003.,97. 4. Condit, Carl W. The Chicago School of Architecture: A History of Commercial and Public Building in the Chicago Area, 1875-1925. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.,69. 5. Hoffmann, Donald. The Architecture of John Wellborn Root,156. 6. "The Monadnock Building : Based on 'The Monadnock Block' by the Commission on Chicago Historical and Architectural Landmarks." American Association of Law Libraries. Accessed October 22, 2014.,1. 7. "The Monadnock Building : Based on 'The Monadnock Block' by the Commission on Chicago Historical and Architectural Landmarks",1. 8. Monroe, Harriet. John Wellborn Root, 137. 9. Hoffmann, Donald. The Architecture of John Wellborn Root, 165. 10. Monroe, Harriet. John Wellborn Root, 135. 11. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 97. 12. Hoffmann, Donald. The Architecture of John Wellborn Root,156. 13. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 97. 14. Hoffmann, Donald. The Architecture of John Wellborn Root,156. 15. Hoffmann, Donald. The Architecture of John Wellborn Root,161. 16. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 103. 17. Hoffmann, Donald. The Architecture of John Wellborn Root,155. 18. Monroe, Harriet. John Wellborn Root, 103. 19. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 105. 20. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 114. 21. Gunay ,Baykan.The History of CIAM and Team 10.â&#x20AC;? METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture 8, no. 1 (1988): 28-29. 22. Condit, Carl W. The Chicago School of Architecture: A History of Commercial and Public Building in the Chicago Area, 1875-1925, 69. 23. Gunay ,Baykan.The History of CIAM and Team 10,29. 24. Gunay ,Baykan.The History of CIAM and Team 10,29. 25. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 105. 26. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 127. 27. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 144. 28. Merwood, Joanna Rachel. "The Mechanization of Cladding: The Chicago Skyscraper and the Constructions of Architectural Modernity, 169-170.

JING YI LIANG

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM J. WAYMAN WILLIAMS, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY

REFERENCE IMAGE SOURCED FROM HOFFMANN,DONALD.THE ARCHITECTURE OF JOHN WELLBORN ROOT,175

Ralph Walker had a huge interest in the New York City 1916 Zoning Resolution. Therefore, his design of the BarclayVesey Building which sits on West Street, Manhattan, New York, was the finest outcome that showcased the true accomplishment of the new skyscraper vision. In designing the Barclay-Vesey Building, Walker took advantage of the zoning resolution and studied the building form starting from its height, massing, zoning, and light provision to the surrounding streets. The building has a solid horizontal base which extends on the site boundaries, then sets back dramatically with buttresses and sculptures to the top high portion of the building. Ralph Walker, unlike other architects, didn't want to use any historical based ornament in his building so he designed his own ornamental vocabulary. He used a minimal amount of ornamentation detailed on limestone on the top of his building. Consequently, the lack of ornamentation in the design of the Barclay-Vesey building was the key feature that started to shine the light towards the direction of CIAM principles. Ralph walker was successful by designing a building that corresponded both to people's life style, and took into account all aspects of physical context, social and cultural context, and planning context.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

BARCLAY-VESEY BUILDING Ralph Walker of Mckenzie Voorhees and Gmelin 1923-1926 Manhattan, New York Judy Manouk

Taking a look at the skyline of Manhattan, one is immediately struck by a similar pattern of tiered skyscrapers doting the landscape. The Barclay-Vesey Telephone Building; designed in the Art Deco style by Ralph Walker of the firm McKenzie, Voorhees & Gmelin Architects, is one of the first buildings that conforms to the architectural principals established by the CIAM, as well as the zoning ordinances established by New York’s Zoning Resolution in 1916.Walker was very influenced by new orientations towards urban planning and was interested in how to turn the zoning law to his advantage. Doing so, his design responded with a set of dramatic setbacks sitting on the streets of New York which successfully took into account all aspects of its physical context, social and cultural context, and planning context. Physical & Planning Context

Originally built from 1923 to 1927 as the headquarters for New York Telephone, The Barclay-Vesey Building, presently known as the Verizon Building, is a 32 story building located at 140 West Street between Barclay and Vesey Streets, in the TriBeCa neighborhoods of Manhattan.1 It now stands opposite to the World Trade Centre site. After World War I, there was a demand of a new telephone service.2 with shortages in space due to the incline of the Telephone services, it was required for the telephone company to build its own building. Since the design was for a Telephone company, Walter designed his building on “machine-like”

scheme, where the exterior were to reflect the modern technological innovations of the interior.3 The Barclay-Vesey Telephone building is a prime example of modernist structure both in terms of design and functionality with the accordance through CIAM principals. By 1916, the first zoning legislation was passed in New York City. This was created to regulate and restrict the size of buildings, as well as their density and separation. According to Kinch, the ordinance for the first time introduced a separation program based on three districts: residential, commercial and industrial buildings 4. Moreover, it separated the zoning based on height as well, separating these ordinances based on the five districts of New York. Lastly, the Ordinance regulated zoning based on minimum and maximum planning based on lot percentages. The specific zoning ordinances of the BarclayVesey building required that “75% of the lot was a restricted height, while 25% could have any height and steel fronts were not permitted to use higher than one or one and a half times the street” 5. According to Kinch, “the resultant of this zoning ordinance was a wedding cake for skyscrapers” 6, which Walker and his time took advantage of in their design. In this particular way, BarclayVesey is a combination of an 11 storey platform below an 18 storey tower, though challenges persisted as Walker’s clients wanted to maximize space while creating an aesthetically pleasing building.

In accordance with these zoning policies, an application was required to pursue the plans, and this it often faced a number of setbacks in terms of its final construction. After 1916, the Zoning Ordinances made it that once an examiner decides the application is complete, a public hearing would be held to give final approval. In his way, Walker’s building can be seen as a self-disciplined iteration of CIAM’s ordinance of architecture in lieu of urban planning. In this case the building represents a distinctive example of modernism. The Barclay-Vesey building is situated right on the waterfront, in an area of relatively low-rise commercial buildings. Its proximity to the waterfront made that it should appeal to ornamentation at the top, rather than near the bottom, though it was also meant to be experienced from the ground level as well. This presented unique design problems for Walker and he had to make several revisions to his design in accordance with the Zoning ordinances 7. From close up the BarclayVesey building was built with a design vocabulary of matching complex surfaces of stone with the local context and area, taking into account its use for commercial purposes as well. Social and Cultural Context

In terms of its social and cultural context, the Barclay-Vesey building stands an excellent example of a project meant to address space shortages and congestion. According to Cheng, “as Manhattan’s streets became more

advantage of the setbacks and created more indents to create openings for sunlight to provide natural light for the employees. Finally, The litany of buildings doting Manhattan’s skyline today is evidence of how these urban planning ideas have worked out, highlighting the ways in which similar tiered constructions emerged out of this social and cultural context. Relationship to CIAM

According to CIAM principals developed as per the Athens Charter, architecture was to endeavor broader issues within urban planning, such that social problems faced by cities could be resolved by strict—albeit functional—segregation, and the distribution of wider space intervals with the construction of skyscrapers. Barclay-Vesey’s design dramatically redefined the core aspects of modernist architecture 9, both in terms of its key design orientation (its physical features), and through its correspondence to the Zoning ordinances set out at the time.

The principals set out by CIAM pertain to the concept of “The Functional City”,

which Walker’s construction addresses using design principals emphasizing human movement rather than ornamentation. The CIAM discourse on urbanism therefore can be seen as a key aspect of Walker’s design ( even though it was not published till years after in 1943 in a heavily edited version by Le Corbusier) .10 The key physical features of Walker’s design emphasized the materiality of the structure itself. According to architectural historian Caeleigh Kinch, “the overall design of the Barclay Vesey building is a step forward in the direction of CIAM principles in the way that the building is devoid of ornamentation scene for a small amount near the roof of the building” .11 As such, the building must be seen within the cultural and social climate of planning in terms of Zoning Ordinance, which was at this time governed by the Building Districts and Restrictions and the Heights of Buildings Committee.

The 32- stone story building has physical features that give it personality, visual presence, and compliance to zoning ordinances, rendering it as a telling example of modernist principals in skyscraper design

WEDDING CAKE MASSING

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM BARCLAY-VESEY BUILDING JUDY MANOUK

congested in 1915, official found the need to provide a set of guidelines to protect land value” 8. The urban scale design implemented by Walker was meant to reflect the social and cultural context of a congested Manhattan, respective of the Zoning ordinances offered by city officials. Because of the congestion and social context faced by Walker, the architect was forced to design step by step configurations that conformed to elements of urban planning, ideas firmly placed within the discourse of Modernist architecture. Hence, in Manhattan it became a public concern that pedestrian experience should govern city planning, such that the buildings under ordinance were meant to conform to the surrounding context with similar designs and guidelines meant to protect land value. The Barclay-Vesey building in this respect provides an active arcade for people to interact and socialize at ground level, so it can be seen as a direct response to the cultural and social context of architecture in service of urban planning, in which public interest in zoning emphasized conformity to zoning ordinances and regulations. Walter also believed that building is built by the people for the people. Therefore, he took

Corner Detail 01 Diagram 02 In Context 03 Figure - Ground, 1915 04 Figure - Ground 2014 05

and aesthetics. The ornamentation in the design of the Barclay-Vesey building was the one element which differed from CIAM principals. Nevertheless Walter solved the issue and made his building follow the line of CIAM by not using any historical based ornament in his design, instead, he designed his own modern ornamental vocabulary. He used a minimal amount of ornamentation detailed on limestone on the top of his building.12 Walker’s knowledge and talent in combining the big heavy arrangement of masses with his own personal touch of ornament is what made the building a memorable one.

of monumental important to the history of moderns, both in terms of its physical features as well as aesthetically through the context of its design principals, ordinances and elements of zoning theory embedded within its stone. As such it typifies the idea of “the functional city” put forth by CIAM, aggregating several key design principals into a uniformed whole. Engaging in formalized architectural principals taking into account the social purpose of building design, Walker’s Barclay-Vesey building can be seen as marvel of modernist aesthetics.

Conclusion

Just as the rejection of Le Corbusier’s entry for the Palace of the Soviets effected relations in architecture, so too did Walker’s design of the Barclay-Vesey building bring about instrumental change to the history of architecture in the West. Walker’s building represents a distinctive shift towards architecture that embraces CIAM principals relating to urban planning, and can thus be contextualized within social and cultural considerations as well. From the façade through to the intervals and conformation to zoning ordinance principals, the BarclayVesey building is a stunning example of architecture envisaged with humanist principals. The form and function of the building take into account CIAM principals that took into account ideas proposed by some of modernisms greatest minds. It can therefore be considered a building

IMAGES SOURSED FROM Gonetz,wally,.NYC Financial district BarcalyVesey Building last modified , Jan 6 2007. Accessed November 7 2014, http://www.nyc-architecture.com/LM/LM070.htm 1. Adams, Thomas. "The Skyscrapers of New York." The Town Planning Review. May 1, 1926. Accessed September 16, 2014. http://www,jstor.org.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/stable/10.2307/40101683?search=yes&searchtext=the skyscrapers of new_york_ town_planning_review&searchuri=/action/dobasicsearch?query=the skyscrapers of new york tow planning review&prq=town planning review&hp=25&acc=off&wc=on&fc=off$so=rl&racc=off&. 2. Ibid 3. Ibid 4. Department Of City Planning. Barclay-Vesey Building Landmarks Preservation Commission (ocober,1,1991). http://www.neighborhoodpreservationcenter.org/db/bb_files/B010.pdf (accessed September 16 2014) 5. Ibid 6. Adams, Thomas. "The Skyscrapers of New York." The Town Planning Review. May 1, 1926. Accessed September 16, 2014. http://www,jstor.org.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/stable/10.2307/40101683?search=yes&searchtext=the skyscrapers of new_york_ town_planning_review&searchuri=/action/dobasicsearch?query=the skyscrapers of new york tow planning review&prq=town planning review&hp=25&acc=off&wc=on&fc=off$so=rl&racc=off&. 7. Ibid 8. Nash, Eric P. Manhattan skyscrapers. New York, Princeton Architectural press. 1999 9. Boyd, Jhon Taylor, Jr. The New York Zoning resolution and its influence Upon Design.Architectural Record 48, 1920. 10. Young, Michelle. How Zoning Shaped the New York Skyline.untapped cities (blog), July 2, 2011. http://untappedcities.com/2011/12/07/how-zoning-shaped-the-new-york-skyline/ (accessed September 16 2014) 11. Ibid 12. Nash, Eric P. Manhattan skyscrapers. New York, Princeton Architectural press. 1999

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM BARCLAY-VESEY BUILDING JUDY MANOUK

NOTES:

In the 1890s, Chicago saw the rise of innovated modern skyscrapers in response to its rapid growth and crowded business district. The Marquette Building heavily influences Daniel Burnham's 1909 plan because of its design and relationship to the public. Its architecture helped develop a common style and feel that was new to Chicago. One of the ideas was the tripartite design which gave the new office building integrity and caught the public's attention. Other ideas include the Chicago window, which maximized light and air flow to each floor. The architects Holabird and Roche became specialists in Chicago Style because their concept drawings help determine new restricted building height limits and zoning for skyscrapers in Chicago. To conclude Chicago's demand for skyscrapers expressed the cities prosperity, competiveness and pursuit of urban renewal. At the time, the Marquette buildings role became an influential component of the urban landscape that predicts the fundamental ideas of the CIAM including Preservation, Innovation and Program Planning. This essay will investigate the planning and growth of Chicago's central business district and how the Marquette Building influenced ideas of the CIAM.

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

MARQUETTE BUILDING Holabird & Roche 1895 Chicago, Illinois Mike Mulvey

Introduction

Completed in 1895, the Marquette Building was designed by Chicago’s leading architectural firm Holabird and Roche. Holabird and Roche designed many of Chicago’s early skyscrapers. The Marquette Building is an example of the “Chicago School” style based on three key design principles: the steel frame, tripartite façade and the Chicago window. This essay will show how these design principles relate to the city and key tenets from the Athens Charter. The city of Chicago had reached a population of one million and there was massive demand for architecture. Any client could erect a skyscraper but it was Owen F. Aldis who perfected them. Aldis’s development guidelines on creating a profitable skyscraper improved the successful Marquette Building and had a relationship to CIAM principles on program planning. The Marquette building is an example of architectural preservation. This essay will show how the Marquette relates to the Daniel Burnham’s 1909 Plan of Chicago and the Athens Charter tenets on building legacy. Site

After the Great fire which nearly destroyed a third of the city, land prices especially business blocks became very expensive.1 The Marquette Building sits on the corner of Adams and Dearborn Street in the Loop, which is the central business district of Chicago. Since Dearborn Street was heavily favoured real estate, investors including Owen Aldis and the Brooks Brothers jump on the

was heavily favoured real estate, investors including Owen Aldis and the Brooks Brothers jump on the business properties. Near the end of the 19th century, Dearborn Street had the world’s busiest train station and pedestrian flow was everywhere. Since the train station was at Dearborn and Polk Streets, ticket offices were located in the Marquette’s ground floor. This is an example of how planning guided pedestrian flow from the train station to the Marquette Building. The demand for office space made Dearborn Street a prime location for new skyscrapers and it resulted in a purely business-centred downtown.2 The Marquette Building’s program included a maximized commercial space with stores on the ground floor. Upper floors provided flexible office space. Information concerning the site

Chicago was chosen to host the 1893 World’s Fair. The event attracted money, people and business and it played a key role in the creation of the City Beautiful movement. The economic context is crucial in understanding Chicago’s growing popularity. It was becoming the trading center of America and it attracted investors from the east who were anticipated about the new construction technologies. When the construction of the Marquette began in 1893, the nation went into an economic depression. Construction costs were down, which was good for the client, Owen Aldis. He was a major player in real estate and managed twenty percent of the city’s downtown office space.8 Funded by the Brooks’ brothers, he assumed leadership of

downtown office space.3 Funded by the Brooks’ brothers, he assumed leadership of the Marquette Building Company and commissioned designs from Holabird and Roche. The Loop saw the rise of modern skyscrapers because of Aldis’s basic set of design guidelines that convince investors. Zoning

The city zoning laws almost prevented the Marquette Building from reaching its original height. Holabird and Roche had the slight advantage of obtaining permits before the bill limiting buildings to 39.6m was passed. This shows how early skyscrapers were almost altered and how architects can use future zoning bylaws to their advantage. Currently the Marquette building stands at 17 stories, but the 17th floor was added in 1950. The total building area is 3,238 m2. The “Capital E” shaped floor plan allows light into the offices. The main entrance is on this east façade which is the spine of the “E”.4 In 1911, the City council adopted a measure to remove all downtown sidewalk obstructions because sidewalks were becoming too crowded. This was important to Chicago, because it serves as a guideline for future urban planning. Building Legacy and Preservation

There are key tenets in the Athens Charter that are similar to ideas in the Marquette Building. In order for a building to be preserved it must be a strong example of modernism and serve the public trust. The tenet from Legacy of History states that fine ar-

To Train Station

Adams St.

St.

MIKE MULVEY PLX 599

Adams

MARQUETTE BUILDING

n the 1880s and 90s the development of Chicago’s architecture was referred to as the “Chicago School”.9 The Marquette is significant because of its fireproof steel frame and Chicago windows. The Athens charter states that modern technology is needed to enrich

Dearborn St.

One of the principal points in Daniel Burnham’s 1909 plan was the arrangement of

CIAM Three Design principles

of its fireproof steel frame and Chicago windows. The Athens charter states that modern technology is needed to enrich the art of the building by including scientific innovations.10 This relates to the Marquette Building because it used many innovations to improve the overall building. For example, the structural steel-frame became the skeleton where the brick and terra cotta would be hung. It is an improvement because it was lighter, cheaper and faster to construct. Also the new Chicago window was an improvement on light because of its divided central plane. It had flanking windows to provide better air flow. This was also an improvement to the overall building because at the time air conditioning and air handling units were not used. The Athen’s Charter also states the progress will be influence by political, social and economic factors. This refers to the planning of the Marquette Building because Chicago was in high demand for skyscrapers and pursuit of urban renewal. The progress of new construction technology had an influence on Holabird and Richard, Alder and Sullivan, and Daniel Burnham. Chicago architects prided themselves on simplicity in their work because it had a direct link to the

PRE-CIAM

Burnham’s Plan

Daniel Burnham’s 1909 plan was the arrangement of streets and avenues within the city to improve movement to and from the business district.7 The plan proposed new diagonal streets that surrounded the Loop. The addition of relocated railroad facilities allowed the Business district to expand.8 The outer circuit of roadways was called the Roosevelt Road. Burnham realized the success of the Marquette Building and the business district, so expanding was necessary. By focusing on Burnham’s point about transportation, it gives importance to the central business district of Chicago. Referring back to building preservation, the protection of downtown was what most citizens wanted. Burnham’s plan incorporated the Marqeutte Building and other early skyscrapers because they would be beneficial in Chicago’s future.

Dearborn St.

The tenet from Legacy of History states that fine architecture, whether individual or grouped, should be protected from demolition.5 The CIAM believes that good architecture should be left alone including the Marquette building. Another tenet states that grounds for the preservation of buildings should be that they express their earlier culture and that their retention is in the public trust.6 This means that historic buildings that still serve the public should not be demolished. For instance, in 1970 the future of the Marquette Building was unknown because Chicago was intent on developing modern high-rise office towers. Through community planning and the preservation movement, Chicago was pressured to change their mind. In 1975, the Marquette Building gained landmark status. The planning and design of the Marquette impacted the CIAM rules on building preservation in the Athens charter, due to its architectural significance and popularity with the citizens of Chicago.

Chicago 1863 Before the Great Chicago Fire 01 Chicago 1890 Pre-Marquette Building 02 Chicago 1900 Post-Development 03 Marquette Building Axo 04 Marquette Building Axo Showing Office Floor 05

Chicago architects prided themselves on simplicity in their work because it had a direct link to the “Chicago School” style.

CIAM Development Strategies and Program Planning

100

Similar to the Athens Charter tenets of program planning, Owen Aldis completed his own basic set of design guidelines on building a profitable skyscraper. The Marquette building is planned on Aldis’s approach. One of the guidelines states that an office building that gives off the most light and air is the best investment.11 This concept appears in the Marquette’s Chicago windows. Another guideline states that public entrances need to make a lasting impression on the user.12 The Marquette’s entrance occupies the eastern central portion including a large lobby. The last important guideline states that a typical layout should be arrange for intensive use.13 This meant that a large number of small tenants is better than a large space for large tenants. This is evident in the Marquette Building’s flexible division of interior space. Aldis’s development strategies relates to the detailed analysis on program planning which is one of the tenets in the Athens Charter. It states that the planning should study natural resources on site, economic assets, social needs, and spiritual aspiration.14 Also it should be carried out by specialists. The client and architect were more than qualified because of their long experience with Chicago architecture and planning. In the case of the Marquette Building, the development strategies are directly related to

the Athens Charter’s analytic studies on program planning. Conclusion

To conclude Chicago’s plan for skyscrapers expressed the cities prosperity, competiveness and pursuit of their own private goals. The Marquette Building was influential in future planning of Chicago because of the success of the central business district. It relates to the CIAM principles of building preservation, innovated building techniques and program planning on all levels. At the time, the Marquette building was the answer to Chicago’s growing population and a new form of modernism. It is refreshing to see that it has survived, prospered and remains highly influential throughout its history.

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7136/7664773514_6501515bd7.jpg 1. "The Marquette Building - The MacArthur Foundation." Accessed October 25, 2014. http://marquette.macfound.org/. 2. Bright, Wendy, The Rise and Fall of Marquette Building. MacArthur Foundation, http://marquette.macfound.org/ 3. Ibid 4. Abstract: Charter of Athens, 5. Ibid 6. McClendon, Dennis, The Plan of Chicago 7. Ibid 8. Waldheim, Charles, Chicago Architecture 9. Abstract: Charter of Athens, 10. MacArthur Foundation, http://marquette.macfound.org/. 11. Ibid 12. Ibid 13. "Abstract: Charter of Athens (1933)." Abstract: Charter of Athens (1933). Accessed October 25, 2014 http:// www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/research_resources/charters/chater04.html. 14. Bluestone, Daniel M. Constructing Chicago. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991 15. Bright, Wendy. "The Rise and Fall and Rise Again of Chicago's Beloved Marquette Building." The Chicago Architecture Blog. February 28, 2013. Accessed October 25, 2014. http://www.chicagoarchitecture. org/2013/02/28/the-rise-and-fall-and-rise-again-of-chicagos-beloved-marquette-building/. 16. Condit, Carl W. The Chicago School of Architecture: A History of Commercial and Public Building in the Chicago Area, 1875-1925. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. 17. Waldheim, Charles. Chicago Architecture: Histories, Revisions, Alternatives. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. 18. Hudson, Leslie. Chicago Skyscrapers in Vintage Postcards. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2004. 19. Korom, Joseph J. The American Skyscraper, 1850-1940: A Celebration of Height. Boston: Branden Books, 2008. 20. "The Marquette Building - The MacArthur Foundation." Accessed October 25, 2014. http://marquette.macfound.org/. 21.. McClendon, Dennis. "The Plan of Chicago A Regional Legacy." Home Page | The Burnham Plan Centennial. May 1, 2008. Accessed October 25, 2014. http://burnhamplan100.lib.uchicago.edu/files/content/documents/Plan_of_Chicago_booklet.pdf. 22. Saliga, Pauline A. The Sky's the Limit: A Century of Chicago Skyscrapers. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. 23. Shepherd, Roger. Skyscraper: The Search for an American Style, 1891-1941 : Annotated Extracts from the First 50 Years of Architectural Record. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. FIGURES Notes page Photo: http://marquette.macfound.org/images/uploads/090_lg.jpG

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM MARQUETTE BUILDING MIKE MULVEY

NOTES

101

The Weissenhoffsiedlung is representative of the collective contribution and desire to further the state of dwelling and construction for the post war era. After World War I, building redevelopment focused primarily on standardization, construction and functionalism. This lead to the development of the Weissenhoffsiedlung Exhibition held in Stuttgart in 1927. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was commissioned by Deucheland Werkbund to develop a master plan for the Weissenhof Estate, having 17 other architects contributing to various schemes, but all in accordance to new principles of dwelling and urban planning. The project gave emphasis on the essential theme of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;new dwellingâ&#x20AC;?, which for CIAM the dwelling was seen as one of the main proponents for ensuring a successful society. Experimenting with elements such as enclosure, scale, materiality and flexibility were used as variables, in part serving as elements that contribute to CIAM tenets of creating an architecture of social change. The organization and figure-ground relationship which Weissenhofsiedlung executed rethought traditional rigid planning, treating both front and back yards equally. This contributed to a non-hierarchical and more free-flowing organization. This paper will investigate the context in which the Weissenhoffsiedlung project is developed and how it influenced the development of CIAM principles and future development in Stuttgart. The principles which inspired the conception of Weissenhofsiedlung proved promising to solidify an agency for CIAM tenets and a solace for the post war era.

102

PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

WEISSENHOFSIEDLUNG Mies van der Rohe 1925-1927 Germany, Stuttgart Nivin Nabeel

103

Introduction

104

Shortly after the First World War, the emphasis on prefabricated components and truth to material were essential wartime lessons that ignited the rethinking of building methodology3. Subsequently, the building practice redeveloped to focus primarily on standardization, construction and functionalism. A brief post-war period of peace and reconstruction of Germany brought about an era of architectural experimentation4. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was commission by Deucheland Werkbund to develop a master plan for the Weissenhof Estate6. Meanwhile, there were struggles in building houses due to shortage in essential project time and lack of supervision3. This endorsed the emergence of the Weissenhoffsiedlung Exhibition held in Stuttgart in 1927. The project gave emphasis on an essential theme of “new dwelling”. As a primary designer of the project, Mies organized sixteen different architects including Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius to build various schemes for his master plan5. The plan consisted of twenty-one buildings differing slightly in form compromising of sixty dwellings. Each architect shared similar principles and built in close proximity to demonstrate new ideas of different housing prototypes5. Although the forms were different, the formula of construction was derived mainly from “skeletal construction”3 that created flexible floor plans. They investigate various elements such as organization, enclosure, sizes of spaces, materials and flexibility. This

brought about the idea of forward thinking that was applied in planning and urban design. This style became necessary due to the efficiency of it and fulfilling demand of house shortage post war. Site

The Weissenhof estate is situated on a hillside on the outskirts of Stuttgart. This site was destined for public affordable housing development. The site is topographically sloped and curved and the housing units placed on it were rectilinear which contrasted the landscape. Reyner Banham calls the planned buildings place on the slope, “terrain sculpture in the shape of rectangular blocks and terraces being placed in a particular patter” (Image 01). The Siedlung brought a new attitude to urban structure, the figure ground became a neutral datum while the buildings which were still seen as figures had no relationships to any existing pattern1. Although the plan was initially to be for low income housing units, Mies brought the attention of an experimental housing proposal that was selected by majority by the council of Stuttgart in 1926. His proposal was not just a response to housing shortage but also an investigation of uniformity and standardization. This includes using the use of same materials for all buildings, door, windows, floors, and ceilings6. Due to the experimental nature of the project, the zoning laws and regulation can be lenient3. When placing the layout of this project, Mies shrived for a coherent layout for a possible artistic approach by

the contributors where each group worked independently and had the freedom to do so6. The idea remains united as it derives from interlocking forms, and close proximity of the buildings that follows the initial master plan. This system left each architect an artistic outlet and freedom to what to do in their lots, which could have its positive or negative implications. The proposed layout received numerous criticisms including the inefficiency of site use, houses are scattered and not aligned creating wasted spaces. Although the building complex promote rationalization and open floor concept plans, the site is not used rationally where there is a need of multiple sewer lines for the complexes instead of having a main sewer line3. Despite the negative implication, each proposed building received two front yards since the building is accessed from both sides, where each look alike, there is no hierarchy between the yards1. This allows a full access of sunlight to the apartments (Image 03). The buildings placed on a hill looking out at the river of Stuttgart giving the project importance and attracted interests from around the world during the exhibition5. Society, Politics, Culture

Granting the devastating effects of war politically, physically and socially, the demand for manufacturing industry increased. The German nation was confronted by urgent need of a constitution to maintain a political and cultural identity to set itself as a state. Previous power has died and new power could only take place

on five design principles: standardization, normalization, functionalism, rationalization and efficiency. Relationship to CIAM

The success of the Stuttgart show led to the founding of the International Congresses of Modern Architecture founded in 1928, a series of events held by prominent architects of the time. The main objective is spreading the principles of the modern movement. This congress occurred at the same time this building was being constructed which had a great influence on the approach of the design and defining the principles of the projects. This later labelled the building as international architecture which was established through this building. Le Corbusier is a member of Deutscher Werkbund, and a conspicuous member of CIAM which helped the project to articulate issues regarding housing. These topics stressed the need for a new conception of architecture recognizing that the transformation of the social structure and of the economic order is inevitably related to transformation of architecture.

The Deutscher Werkbund project being experimental set a perfect example of the application of CIAM principles. “The Werkbund, must become the conscience of the nation, People must believe in it; they must be convinced that it promotes all that is good and forward-thinking”3, said the architect Hans Poelzig one of the contributing architects in the project. The Werkbund wanted to set an example: to show an exemplary work in an exemplary way. This is why it welcomed a project that is lean in terms of zoning and allowed a link between art and architecture for an opportunity of revolutionary work. It directly related by emphasizing importance to efficiency and rationalization. Although as mentioned previously, the plan of the Weissenhof estate site was not ideal to address formal CIAM principles due to its inefficiency, but the layout of the homes proposed maintain many of CIAM housing principles highlighted regarding functionalism, light access and transportation. Health is another concern of the CIAM conference5. This is also manifested in the weissenhofsiedlung project

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM WEISSENHOFSEIDLUNG NIVIN NABEEL

under the basis of equality, by embracing all sectors of people without the need to identify, wealth, sex, or origin. The architecture at the time had been crippled by war years and in need of repair. Politics and business were intersecting to provide housing shortage solutions. Economic respect in building rental units calls for rationalization, and standardization of production4. These demands for flexibility in accommodation, and diverse housing needs desire the application of “Skeleton construction” as a building system. This system permitted a rational production process with varying internal divisions. This system didn’t only aid with the chronic housing crisis post war and increase in population but also provided an appropriate response to the issue. Housing became an ultimate utopian goal by architects to provide solutions for. Many construction solutions were provided by the architects. For instance, Walter Gropius developed a solution for on-site assembly and Adolf Schneck standardized his two-one family house introducing supporting center wall that expands across the building3. These solutions shaped the principle of modern thinking and focused design achievements

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weissenhof estate Figure - Ground Before/After 01 LE Corbusier's Piloti Applied 02 Mies open plan concept and light access from east and west, fully glazed 03

by providing a minimum amount of solar exposure that is required in all dwellings5,2. For reasons of hygiene, the buildings should not be built along transportation routes, and modern techniques should be used to treat soil and provide healthy green spaces around the constructed buildings. The intelligence of construction did not just stop at fabricating but also at placing the windows and letting light in the apartments throughout the day which constitutes to the CIAM principles regarding daylighting introduction to dwellings. The apartments did not abstract each other from light but instead they were scattered and light was able to enter the building at all time. These units also had multi-fucntional rooms due to the lack of dividers and existence of Piloti across the units2 (Image 02). The living rooms for instance were turned into dormitories by night. These techniques were implemented using Le Corbusier’s “the five points of a new architecture” which was also influenced by the CIAM principles2. The development of this housing complex was proposed through a physical model done by Mies on Sept, 1925, when creating these masses he gave sizes and dimensions that were appropriate to fulfil healthy interior spaces through providing occupancy size, depth of apartments for sufficient sizes, and placement of the building in relation to the sun.

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Following years of planning, the construction of Weissenhoffsiedlung only acquired five months to complete3. This time record

is maintained due to the efficiency of prefabrication and standardization processes and collaboration of architecture with the production industry which is encouraged through CIAM principles. This project was only the beginning of the systematic approach to construction that stemmed mass production and efficiency in building. Through a period of economic recession, radical increase in population, and revived assurance that Germany will build its future and overcome its past became a binding agent for exploitation of ideas and incorporate it in the fabric of the city. This encouraged collaboration of different industries to create a new definition of architecture of that era known as International style.

NIVIN NABEEL

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Web: http://www.mai-nrw.de/uploads/pics/weissenhof01_01.jpg 1. Eisenman, Peter. "Folding in Time." Written into the Void: Selected Writings, 1990-2004. New Haven: Yale UP, 2007. 26-33. Print. 2. Cohen,Jean-Louis. Le Corbusier. Hohenzollernring: TASCHEN GmbH, 2004. 3. Kirsch, Karin, and Gerhard Kirsch. The Weissenhofsiedlung: experimental housing built for the Deutscher Werkbund, Stuttgart, 1927. New York: Rizzoli, 1989. 4. Macel, Otakar. Mies van der Rohe: architecture and design in Stuttgart, Barcelona, Brno: Vitra design museum.. Milano: Skira, 1998. 5. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 6. French, Hilary. Key Urban Housing of the Twentieth Century. New York: W.W. North & Company, 2008 FIGURES CONCLUDING IMAGE SOURCED FROM Web: http://schatkamer.nai.nl/system/pictures/281/original/ OUDJ_ph404.jpg?1310565165.

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The Equitable Building was considered to be one of the tallest office buildings of its time, but also a thorn to neighboring businesses in the city of New York. The impacts of unregulated zoning in planning and architecture will be discussed in this paper. Without any form of control to regulate how buildings were designed, planned, and how it is situated on a given site, architecture could damage the surrounding context of its urban environment as well as its neighbors rather than make a positive impact. Additionally, without stressing the importance of building regulations, architecture can become more of an obstacle to city development. However, in 1916, the state of New York issued its first zoning ordinance to prevent further planning disasters, such as the Equitable building, from ever repeating. This created lot area restrictions, building setbacks, and height limitations. Additionally, the regulations helped shine a new light for architects and redefined what a skyscraper should be, and created the iconic stepped facades seen in New York today. Although there may be some benefits in free planning, the overall impact to its context and its neighbors diminishes the health and value of the city.

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PRE-CIAM 1850-1927

EQUITABLE BUILDING Ernest R. Graham 1913-1915 New York City, Manhattan Jinsuk Oh

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Introduction

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The Pre-CIAM era dates from 1850 to 1927, and was a time when planning and zoning regulations were not strictly legislated, regulated, or maintained. The 1915 Equitable Building in New York, Manhattan, reflects the mistakes and consequences of poor planning. The client for the building was Equitable Life Insurance, and wanted to create more offices for its tenants, as well as rentable spaces, and was designed by Ernest R. Graham, a disciple of Daniel Burnham who was involved in the planning and design of the 1893 Columbian Exposition1. The exposition boasted on the elegant features of neoclassical architecture. Moreover, the exposition inspired the City Beautiful movement which honored a city made beautiful and better through architecture1. Graham was inspired by the City Beautiful as well, as the building emphasizes more on monumentality and beauty. The building was designed butting to the property line, and had a density of 30 times the area of the site, which was approximately 1.2 million square feet2. In response, Ernest Flagg proposed lot area restrictions, and D. Knickerbocker Boyd proposed the notion of building setbacks from public streets3. These concerns gave birth to the 1916 Building Zone Resolution, which proposed stepped facades past certain heights, and set the precedent for the 1924 Standard State Zoning Enabling Act, which laid the basic foundations for zoning and planning in the Unites States3. All these new and strict regulation developments improved pedestrian-level comfort and

safety, and accommodated natural lighting and ventilation, which were a part of the main purpose of CIAM4. The 1916 Zoning Enabling Act mirrored some of the initial ideals and plans of the CIAM discourse from 1928 to 1939. These discourses also addressed the need of managing density in the city, to maintain psychological and social context and demands, as well as having considerations on a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s neighboring industries to name a few4. General Context

The Equitable building is situated on 120 Broadway, sandwiched between Pine and Cedar Street. The 42 storey building housed approximately 13 000 people, which would crowd around the narrow thoroughfares like sardines3. Moreover, the massive structure blocked out natural light from neighboring buildings, crippling local businesses, and choked the flow of ventilation and local transit3. Additionally, the site also restricted access for firemen due to its sheer height relative to the width of the street and narrow laneways2. The main program of the building was to house the prospering Equitable Life Insurance company tenants, along with several rentable spaces throughout the building3 and was originally commissioned to replace the old Equitable Building, which stood a meager eight storeys compared to its 42 storey sister. The Equitable Building resembled much of the Beaux-arts and neoclassical themes, with an internal structural steel as its frame, and a limestone paneling for the cladding5. Another interesting

feature of this building, which was almost revolutionary at the time, was the usage of several passenger elevators5. This need to boast about passenger elevators being in a building could have driven the ambition for the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s height5. Building History

With numerous buildings being proposed, each with various heights and densities, the city planners were not fully aware of the potentials of steel construction3. Moreover, there were no succinct regulations regarding planning during this time; it was mostly under development and did not have much influence on how a building, particularly a skyscraper, should be built within a city context3. The publicâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reaction were concerned about the amount of shadow that the building would cast on its neighboring buildings, and some even suggested that the lot should be divided into segments, allowing for more development, or committing the lot to be a park space3. However, by the time public proposals and local regulations were established to minimize the impact of buildings, construction for the 42 storey Equitable Building was well underway2. Introductian to CIAM Standards

In the light of CIAM standards, it did not comply with one of the basic, yet fundamental purposes of planning: design strategies which held a strong conviction to improve the needs of the public through architecture4. The planning behind the 1915 Equitable Building

The consequences of the 1915 Equitable Building was unpleasant at the human scale. With regards to the first CIAM during 19281930 in Chateau of La Sarraz, Switzerland, it did not comply with the general welfare of its neighboring industrial societies3. During the time of the building’s conception, most cities did not have access to florescent lighting, and local businesses relied heavily on the supply of natural light. However, the mass of the building cast a seven acre shadow onto the site, blocking out the most precious source for industry. Moreover, it neglected the third CIAM conference ideals, held in 1930 by Brussels “Rationelle

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EQUITABLE BUILDING

Architects did not have a strong grasp on the architectural potential of skyscrapers because of its constant change; from observing the verticality of the Equitable Building and several other structures found in New York, the only potential expression architects could conceive was how much they could extrude the site, with minor changes to its massing. With regards to CIAM, it did not fulfill the fundamental criteria for planning, which were addressed in the earlier CIAM discourses. The building did not pertain

Negligence of Context

Bebauungsweisen” regarding “Psychological and Social Demands” surrounding highrise and mid-rise buildings. The building’s design initially started at the same time when planners were thinking of ways to accommodate more natural light and air circulation. Consequently, the project team neglected both the concerns of microclimate as well as the public’s proposals for alternatives5. When the building was built on site it unloaded more than 13 000 tenants into the busy thoroughfares, intensifying the compactness of streets6. Furthermore, when pedestrians strode between buildings, the non-setback nature of the building created a “strip of sky” which intimidated several locals and occupants. This negative impact of the building relative to its context and site did not meet the demands of the “Functional City” discussed in 1931-1939, where areas with higher densities suffer the consequences of poor development4. Most citizens feared that if unregulated planning and architecture continued to take root in New York, the entire city would be covered in shadow, and quite literally7. This rising concern of the loss of real estate value from tall buildings, as well as all of New York

JINSUK OH

Consequence of Free-Planning

to the amount of its occupant density in relation to the context of the site4. Moreover, as stated in the third CIAM discourse, the building did not fulfill its role in improving psychological and social conditions of its site4. In connection with the main, yet general, purpose of CIAM, architects have forgone their roles as social transformers through architecture, and became more absorbed in how tall they could build4.

neglected the overall impact of the structure relative to its surroundings, the diminishment of natural light and ventilation, and the amount of congestion, both at a pedestrian and transit level4. The 1916 Zoning Bylaw was addressed based on the issues of natural light, ventilation, and reduce the building’s impact to the street through stepped facades, respecting the general scale of the pedestrian as well as lowering the density6. Moreover, these actions had subtle references to the early CIAM discourse standards mentioned in the first and third conferences4.

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Context (1910) 01 Context (1966) 02 Mass vs Zoning 03 Shadow Digram 04

being plunged into darkness, spawned the 1916 Zoning Regulation which would bolster the standards of planning, and enhance the architectural expression of Skyscrapers, enabling both planning and architecture to be up to par with standards, which would redirect their focus to servicing the general needs of the few4. 1916 Zoning Regulation

The 1916 Zoning Regulation was implemented to supply light and air to streets with regards to the rise of tall buildings by implementing setbacks and restrictive lot densities. This allowed for wider streets which would reduce the impact of pedestrian concentration and the creation of a street wall which respected the pedestrian scale2. Moreover, the requirement of stepped facades created an overall dense base structure, and a slender top as the building progressed vertically, which also helped in reducing the overall density of a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mass. Furthermore, once the overall lot coverage of the building occupied 25%; there were no limits on how tall that component of the structure could reach. This opened many doors for architects, who were struggling to investigate the architectural potential of skyscrapers, and created many different expressions through building form2.

the amount of infrastructural damage it had relative to the overall context of the site. Moreover, it did not comply with CIAM topics discussed in the first and third conferences, which dealt mostly regarding the well-being of neighboring industrial societies as well as the psychological and social wellness of the people. However, it did pose as a wonderful reminder on the potential outcome of poor planning. Through the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behemothlike nature, and how it has raised both public and municipal concerns on the impact of unregulated zoning and planning, the Equitable Building stands as a monument, reminding and attributing to the traditional role of the architect as a social transformer. 03

Conclusion

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In brief, the overall conception of the project is not appropriate according to CIAM standards because of poor consideration of local impact of industries and people, and

JINSUK OH

1. Daniel M. Bluestone, Columbia University, (September 1988).Detroit's City Beautiful and the Problem of Commerce Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. XLVII, No. 3, pp. 245-62. 2. Christopher Gray, October 20, 2014, 1915 Equitable Building Becomes a 1996 Landmark,September 8, 1996, http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/08/realestate/1915-equitable-building-becomes-a-1996-landmark.html . 3. The Equitable Building and the Birth of NYC Zoning Law, last modified March 15, 2013, http://ny.curbed.com/archives/2013/03/15/the_equitable_building_and_the_birth_of_nyc_zoning_law.php . 4. Mathew Pilling, September 14, 2o14, Eric Mumford: The CIAM discourse on Urbanism 19281960 (2002), Architecture + Urbanism: A Blog from the MA Architecture + Urbanism course at the Manchester School of Architecture, Thursday 31 March 2011, http://architectureandurbanism.blogspot. ca/2011/03/eric-mumford-ciam-discourse-on-urbanism.html 5. New York Architecture, http://www.nyc-architecture.com/LM/LM059.htm . 6. The Birth of the Skyscrap er: The First U.S. Zoning Law, http://ci.columbia. edu/0240s/0242_2/0242_2_s7_text.html . 7. Eric P. Nash, Manhattan Skyscrapers Revised and Expanded (New York, Princeton Architectural press 2005) 25 FIGURES CONCLUDING IMAGE SOURCED FROM "New York City in 1925". Accessed September 10, 2014. http:// img142.imageshack.us/img142/1253/newyorkcity1925wk8.jpg

EQUITABLE BUILDING

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM "1019." 1019. Accessed September 10, 2014. http://www.nottingham. ac.uk/3cities/large/1019.HTM.

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Modernism was an emerging concept in the 19th century in North America, the period in which the Prudential Building, designed by Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler of the Adler and Sullivan firm was built. It stood as one of the earlier commercial skyscrapers in the developing downtown district of Buffalo, New York. Although completed in 1896, 32 years before The International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM) was founded, it is clear that planning and zoning strongly influenced the design. The CIAM, organized by Le Corbusier aimed to better the world through the design of modern architecture and through the implementation of urban planning. Although the Guaranty building was built before the CIAM emerged, it was designed in accordance with a number of their principles. The building was split up in to three clearly visible sections in order of its programmatic function. This gesture makes it evident that planning played a key role in shaping the buildings mass. This essay argues that the design of the Guaranty (Prudential) Building is in accordance with CIAM principles although built almost half a century before its establishment.

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PRE-CIAM 1850 - 1927

PRUDENTIAL BUILDING Louis Sullivan 1895-1896 Buffalo, New York, USA Oluwatobi Omisore

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Introduction

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The Prudential Building (then Guaranty Building) was completed in the year 1896, a period in time where modernism was an emerging concept in North America. Situated right on the corner of Church and Pearl Street, in the city of Buffalo New York, the building sits 12 storeys tall. It stood as one of the earlier commercial skyscrapers in Buffalo as at the time. It was also the same period in time in which hydroelectricity was transmitted from the Niagara Falls to Buffalo. A few other famous buildings where completed within the same year: The Williams-Pratt Mansion, Brisbane Building, the Lenox Hotel, and the Otto building. The project was designed by Louis Sullivan (one of the most important architects of the time) and his partner Dankmar Adler of the Adler and Sullivan firm. Some of Adler and Sullivan’s notable buildings include the Stock Exchange Buildings in Chicago and the Wainwright Buildings in St. Louis. Along with the Prudential building, these three buildings were at the leading edge of American architecture and skyscraper design, hence, Louis Sullivan has been considered as the ‘Father of the Skyscraper.’ Sullivan designed this building based on his philosophy “form follows function”, a belief based on the principle that a building should be shaped based on its intended function or purpose. With this in mind, the building was divided vertically into four zones: the basement, housing the mechanical and utility area, the ground level, which made room for public areas and street-facing

shops, the identical office floors, and the last zone consisting of elevator equipment and utilities. Sullivan rejected the traditional designs of the 19th century to celebrate the steel skeleton skyscraper’s verticality, “he wanted a bold architectural style for the new building type that would express the confidence and prosperity of the United States at the end of the 19th century.”1 Physical Context

The site on which the building was built was bought by Hascal L. Taylor, a local oil magnate who commissioned Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan to build what he originally dreamt of being the “the largest and best office building in the city”2 , as a monument to himself. On the contrary, the final monument stood to symbolize Sullivan’s accomplishments. Upon Taylor’s unforeseen death a few months after the building plans where completed, the Guaranty Construction Company of Chicago acquired the property and completed the building. After completion, the building stood 152 feet tall as the tallest in the city. The site was strategically chosen adjacent to the then County and City Municipal building along with a number of institutional buildings, “the intention was to attract high quality tenants such as lawyers through proximity, desirable amenities and the captivating design of an avant garde architect like Sullivan.”3 Along with the Prudential Building, the Ellicott Square Building, built to be the largest retail building in the world two blocks away, stood as another major private building project in

Buffalo at the time. Sullivan admonished the Prudential Building as a “sister” to his prototype skyscraper in St. Louis, the Wainwright Building (1890-1892). The two buildings share a number of characteristics: corner lot location, simplicity of form, and richness of detail. Although very much alike, “the underlying steel-frame construction behind the red terra-cotta tiles is more apparent in the Prudential building.”4 Sullivan’s design for this project, although practiced alike in the Wainwright two years back, was pioneering in part “because of their setbacks, which enabled light and air to penetrate more rooms more deeply, including those at the interior of the lot.”5 In alignment with his reasoning he felt that the major problem tall buildings faced was proving enough light to its adjacent streets. “The problems posed by tall buildings of providing adequate light and air for tenants and the streets, as well as the matter of pedestrian congestions, led Sullivan to propose a formula of ratios between building height and thoroughfare widths utilizing setbacks”6 . Through his design, he demonstrated his concern about negative social consequences of design. Political & Social Context

Buffalo’s downtown district was just developing at the time. Engineering features were just being introduced and setting a pace for development and economic growth for the city. Within the same year of the Prudential Buildings completion, hydroelectric power harnessed from the Niagara Falls was just

ambitions.

CIAM & Planning Influences

In the year 1928, an instrument of propaganda was conceived to advance a new way of thinking architecture. This organization went by Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne - CIAM (International Congresses of Modern Architecture). Their main goals where to: “formulate the contemporary program of architecture, advocate the idea of modern architecture, forcefully introduce those ideas into technical, economic and social circles, and see to the resolution of architectural problems.”7 Although built several years before the fruition of CIAM, Sullivan designed the Prudential Building in alignment with their principles. Sullivan’s most known phrase “form follows function” was one of the key elements in the American Modernist Movements. In that sense, Sullivan clearly broke the building into four distinct layers; the first layer below grade, allowing space for service and mechanical rooms, the second layer on grade to serve as public/open space, the third layer, a series of floors layers one on top of the other making

room for offices, and lastly the fourth layer terminating the building, housing room for some more services. The clear division of programmes clearly drove the shape of the building.

The visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines was a strong theme driving modernism and the CIAM alike. Sullivan also emphasized verticality in the Prudential Building. “The Prudential expresses ideas in its integration of bold, uplifting vertical lines, intricate ornament, and material.”8 As at the time the Prudential Building was being built, traditional European skyscraper of its kind made use of strong horizontal lines to deemphasize verticality. Sullivan rejected this to celebrate verticality. The space between the windows that run vertically through the entire building was a strategic move made to emphasize vertical lines. In addition, one would say that modern architecture was primarily driven by the advancement in technology and engineering. This in turn enabled Sullivan build up vertically, becoming one of the tallest skyscraper in the city.

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM PRUDENTIAL BUILDING OLUWATOBI OMISORE

being brought to the city, hence, illuminating the entire city. One can see an optimistic future for the city if Buffalo. Not only was the city rising in prominence in its built environment, there was also a rise in prominence in the city’s political venture. As the Prudential Building was just in fruition, Grover Cleveland, the 22nd president on the United States and former mayor of Buffalo, was just being re-elected. Upon observation of the Prudential Building, it is clearly evident that the City of Buffalo had some semblance of planning. Sullivan’s building does not stand alone, in close proximity were the Elliot Square Building, the old Post Office, the St. Paul’s Cathedral and many more. All followed the same governing rule of a setback away from the streets allowing adequate room for a healthy pedestrian flow. In addition to the setbacks, building use must have been strongly considered; buildings around the Prudential where of similar or complementary programmatic use, hence an effective alignments of building typology. The City of Buffalo was based on tree plans in response to, its statistical growth, the movement of people and their wealth, and the city’s civic

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Figure Ground prior developement 01 Figure Ground post developement 02 Prudential Buildings clear division of program 03

Common themes of modernist architecture are: the concept of “Truth to materials”, which means that the true appearance of a material should be seen rather than concealed or falsely represented as something else, materials at 90 degrees to each other, and the visual expression of structure. The Terra cotta used as a building material is true to its kind. Terra cotta uses clay to form a variety of shapes. This is probably why Sullivan was interested in this material for ornamentation. The Prudential Building is only one of Sullivan’s projects entirely clothed in ornamentation. Although the ornamentation used in the building are of an organic nature, the material composition was fairly rectilinear and of a 90 degree angle to each other. The Prudential building is an outstanding example of his innovation, using a steel skeleton structure.

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The site was intuitively placed on a four way street intersection of Church and Pearl Streets of the downtown district of Buffalo. The street layout of the city was based on a grid system. This not only allowed for efficient pedestrian and circulation flows, but also creates rectilinear shaped lots. The Prudential Building and other buildings placed on these lots generated their forms as an extrusion of their lot lines, using up their maximum buildable area. The average building heights in Buffalos downtown district at the time was about seven storeys tall while covering close to a hundred percent of their lot areas. This created an increase in population density, and vehicular and pedestrian traffic within the area. The

repetitive nature of these buildings along the street set up a street wall along the Church and Pearl Street. Le Corbusier suggested that “the increase of population density within downtown urban centres by building vertically rather than horizontally.”9 Adler and Sullivan embraced Le Corbusier’s idea by exceeding the heights of the surrounding buildings at the time, creating a greater density for the area it held.

modernist themes where the driving force on which the CIAM was based on. Although the International Congresses of Modern Architecture (CIAM) was established about half a century after the Prudential Building was built, one might argue that Sullivan designed the in line with and potentially influenced the principles on which the they were founded upon.

Conclusion

Louis H. Sullivan, a notable architect important to the history and the development of the modernist movement in the early 20th century, designed the Prudential Building in accordance with modernist themes. These

1. "Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building: Hodgson Russ LLP." Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building: Hodgson Russ LLP. http://www.hodgsonruss.com/Louis-Sullivans-Guaranty-Building.html (accessed October 19, 2014). 2. Kowsky, Francis R.. Buffalo architecture: a guide. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981, 66. 3. "Prudential Building." Prudential Building. http://www.triposo.com/poi/W__119506011 (accessed October 19, 2014). 4. Ibid. 5. Sullivan, Louis H., and Robert C. Twombly. Louis Sullivan: the public papers. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988, 76. 6. Ibid 7. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000,10. 8. . Kowsky, Francis R.. Buffalo architecture: a guide. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981, 68. 9. The Athens Charter. Nouv. ed. New York: Grossman, 1973, 64-65 10. Ballantyne, Andrew. Architectures: modernism and after. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2004. 11 . Kowsky, Francis R.. Buffalo architecture: a guide. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981. 12. "Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building: Hodgson Russ LLP." Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building: Hodgson Russ LLP. http://www.hodgsonruss.com/Louis-Sullivans-Guaranty-Building.html (accessed October 19, 2014). 13. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 14. "Prudential Building." Prudential Building. http://www.triposo.com/poi/W__119506011 (accessed October 19, 2014). 15. Sullivan, Louis H.. Kindergarten chats and other writings. New York: Dover Publications, 1979. 16. Sullivan, Louis H., and Robert C. Twombly. Louis Sullivan: the public papers. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. FIGURES 1. "Adler and Sullivan's Wainwright and Guaranty Buildings." ride travel live. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2014. <http:// shredworld.wordpress.com/2011/03/11/adler-and-sullivans-wainwright-and-guaranty-buildings/>. 2. "Prudential Building." Prudential Building. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2014. <http://www.triposo.com/ poi/W__1195060

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Riverside Illinois, a suburban division of Chicago was designed by the first landscape architectural firm in the United States, Frederick Law Olmstead and Calvert Vaux. This suburb represents the quality of living sought after by many. Its purpose developed for the introduction of a stress free environment for those working in the stressful urban context. An amalgamation of the proximity and density of urban living and the healthful properties of the country life. CIAM principles state that area designated as a residential zone shall be accompanied by green area. It was in the interest of Olmstead to develop large parcels of land for the proprietary purpose of being close to nature. The planning of Riverside regulated many of the natural geographical components to be maintained, as CIAM states, residential zones shall maintain many of the existing natural elements. Planning a building setback of substantial distance increased the breathability and the amount of light entering the streets, written by CIAM, the alignment of dwellings shall be set far back from roads and infrastructure. All of these principles implemented in Riverside work to establish a healthy neighborhood. Olmstead may have predated the congress of CIAM, but its principles are highly developed and executed in Riverside Illinois.

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THE VILLAGE OF RIVERSIDE Frederick Law Olmsted & Calvert Vaux 1869-1875 Riverside, Illinois Marcus Parisi

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30ft. setback

Olmstead was a keen advocate of nature and its presence within society. He was a conservationist as well as a prophet of naturalist philosophy.3 Prior to the principles of the International Congress of Modern Architecture, Olmstead believed in the power, both philosophically and psychologically nature serves as an order of fundamental nourishment.4 His work sought to maintain the emotional and symbolical interaction of the environment. It was not only in the physical design of Riverside that Olmstead sought to naturalize, but also the subconscious design. The streets are named according to naturalists, horticulturists and philosophers of his inspiration. Bartam Road intersects with Michaux Road and Nuttal Road.5 Figure 01

but a decision that works for the city itself. The curvilinear roads discourage fast paced traffic, and increase the pedestrian use of the road. Figure 01. Olmstead wanted those in the community to promenade throughout the parks and green space, enjoying what the environment had to offer. The promenade is a social custom of great importance

required tree on property

Located adjacent to the Des Plains River and approximately 14 miles from Chicago, Riverside Illinois affirms its place as America’s first successfully planned town.1 The subdivision, designed by the Architect Frederick Law Olmstead and his partner Calvert Vaux, was developed by the Riverside Improvement Company. This was an organization that aimed to develop a new town just along the outskirts of the growing city of Chicago. Emery Childs, the purchaser of the 1600 acres of the soon “Riverside,” and the owner of the R.I.C, looked at Frederick L. Olmstead and his partner to design a town rich with natural content and emotion. This project came just as Olmstead was reaching the midway point in his career. To date, he stood as a leader and innovator in landscape design, with the recent completion and success of Central Park, New York in 1857. Already with a strong knowledge of planning and confidence in execution, the office of Frederick Law Olmstead and Calvert Vaux were highly confident in their innovation to planning. One that may serve as precedent to the many “Garden Cities” to follow in the Americas. In 1868, Olmstead and his partner were asked to conduct a study of the 1600 acres purchased by Childs, called the Preliminary Report of the Proposed Suburban Village at Riverside, near Chicago . Olmsted’s analysis was geared in detail to the already established environmental elements, the Des Plains river to the west, the railroad to the south, the city to the east and the abundance of oak-hickory forests all around.

This study brought Olmstead and his partner to the conclusion that the new town shall be a rural, self contained community providing all of the civilizing advantages found in the city.2

road

The City and the Suburb

The Execution

Following the Preliminary Report of the Proposed Suburban Village at Riverside, near Chicago, Olmstead and the Riverside Improvement Company continued to develop the property according to Olmsted’s plan. As executed, the roads of the town are winding and sinuous. Olmstead registered a network of roads that reduced the number of perpendicular intersections. A decision that would work not in the favor of the surrounding cities as a transportation route,

Society - Politics - Culture

Riverside is the product of a detailed knowledge of European cities and their sprawl into the countryside. This era of the Industrial Revolution brought many into the city as well as pushed many to the cities edge; creating an urban expansion. Olmsted focused on the maintenance of the rural culture whilst pursuing the amenities of the urban community that were thought to heighten human livability.9 Reducing the anxieties of the urban lifestyle by placing the community in an all natural setting. Nature, was critical in the execution of Riverside, it is as part of the community as its people are, the town thrives on the preservation of their environment. This commitment to the connectedness of development and open space welcomed the town of Riverside Illinois as a National Historic District in the United States.10 CIAM

Within the contract Olmstead penned in his proposal for the development of Riverside, several bylaws were to be passed in order

for the design to be fully met. The lots are roughly one hundred and fifty feet in length, this depth allows for the dwellings to be setback thirty feet from the road.11 This not only ensures successful noise reduction, but holds primary importance as admitting light to enter into the streets. As the principles in CIAM state, buildings shall be proposed so that light can be sufficiently obtained on street level. Olmstead not only maintained light on this level, but served to increase the air quality of the streets by instructing home owners to plant one tree as well as many shrubs on their property to ensure the natural beauty of the streetscape.

A very powerful design component Olmstead and his partner put forth into the plan for Riverside was the decision to make the roads and paths curve in a sinuous and river like fashion. There are many benefits to this approach to infrastructure, not at a development level, but at a level of personal wellbeing and health. Riverside is the product of careful integration amongst the natural resources, a proximity to nature is key to the success of any place of habitation. CIAM principles dictate a remoteness to

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in all the large towns of Europe. It is an open-air gathering for the purpose of easy, friendly, unceremonious greetings, and for the enjoyment of a change of scene.6 These winding roads, Figure 01A, created triangular plots where roads met. These lots were then planned as parkland. This works to ensure that no dwelling is located no more than one thousand feet from publicly used, privately operated green space. The plots operating the dwelling units are located within the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;leaf likeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; arrangement of roads. Outlined in the Proposal for Riverside, all dwellings must be setback thirty feet from the property line and all residents shall plant one tree at the front of their property. This assures that the livability of the street maintains adequate light and good air, as well as preventing the ugliness of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s home to batter the street it views.7 On the southern edge of the town, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad boars straight through. This railroad offers the city a mode of commuter transportation in and out of the city. The advantages of its locality have made the location of Riverside highly superior to those of the other suburbs.8

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Street Section 01 Home of William T Allen, a major investor in the Riverside Improvement Company 02 Plan of Riverside 03 Old 'Regan Hotel' 04 Keyplan of Riverside 05 Figure ground Sample [122 dwellings Area: 215250m2 (53 Acres) Average Area Per Household: 4-6 (5) Number of People in Sample: 610 Density: 11.5 persons/acre ] 06

nature that is not only beneficial to a healthful maintenance of life but to the success of the communities in the future. A lack of it would aggravate the order of public health.12 The winding roads and pathways of the town provide and manage a careful network of green spaces. These spaces are privately owned but publically functioning spaces; maintained diligently by the town.13 These parks, as specified in the towns planning guidelines, are no more than one thousand feet from any one dwelling, ensuring the proximity of oneself to a park is minimized. Additionally, it is stated by CIAM that the provision of green space is crucial to the natural maturing of communities; a location for the provision of games and activities, a recreational facility, and an open field. Furthermore, Olmstead, in his Preliminary Report of the Proposed Suburban Village at Riverside, near Chicago, made it absolute importance to maintain the Des Plains River on the western edge of the town. The river bears within it a strong connection with life, the flowing nature of the river emulates a symbol for the town. A place of natural congregation and community. The town is the careful orchestration of the total landscape composition.14

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At the time prior to the development of Riverside Illinois, Chicago had a booming population 250 000. Olmstead understood that due to the technology of the day, buildings could no longer become taller, so those seeking housing in the city must develop the countryside along the edges of the city. A booming population growing

along the horizontal plain meant the destruction of the natural environment. As illustrated by the Athenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Charter, when the density of a structure increases to over 400 inhabitants, the natural transition for the city is to become a slum.15 Riverside not only was the success of the preservation of the countryside, but also the un-densification of the city. This was Olmstedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s delivery for the un-tensioning of the urban lifestyle. Cities, at the time posed an extremely stressful living and working condition. Riverside, with its newly developed rail-line into the city offered the luxury of the country and the amenities of the urban city. Olmstead challenged the notion of nature being capable of subverting the anxiety associated with the urban life and pushed to reduce the density of the town.16 Riverside Illinois was achieved with an acute awareness of the natural elements. Its success in defining the country within the urban city lay skillfully in the design by Frederick Law Olmstead and his partner Calvert Vaux. The project fits suit to the principles developed in the Athenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Charter by the International Congress of Modern Architecture. It predates this text by 58 years, but its substance was laid in Riverside well before its publication. Riverside is the successful image of the urban life.

NOTES

1. "Village of Riverside ." Village of Riverside . N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2014. <http://www.riverside.il.us/index.asp?Type=B_BASIC&SEC={DC4955B9-2DBD-4383-A011-14F34A625889}>. 2. "Village of Riverside ." Village of Riverside . N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2014. <http://www.riverside.il.us/index.asp?Type=B_BASIC&SEC={DC4955B9-2DBD-4383-A011-14F34A625889}>. 3. .Maloney, Cathy Jean. The Gardener's Cottage in Riverside, Illinois: living in a "small masterpiece" by Frank Lloyd Wright, Jens Jensen, and Frederick Law Olmsted. Chicago, Ill.: Center for American Places at Columbia College Chicago :, 2009. The Athens charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 4. .Maloney, Cathy Jean. The Gardener's Cottage in Riverside, Illinois: living in a "small masterpiece" by Frank Lloyd Wright, Jens Jensen, and Frederick Law Olmsted. Chicago, Ill.: Center for American Places at Columbia College Chicago :, 2009. 6. Preliminary report upon the proposed suburban village at Riverside, near Chicago. New York: Sutton, Bowne, 1868. 7. . Maloney, Cathy Jean. The Gardener's Cottage in Riverside, Illinois: living in a "small masterpiece" by Frank Lloyd Wright, Jens Jensen, and Frederick Law Olmsted. Chicago, Ill.: Center for American Places at Columbia College Chicago :, 2009. 8. Preliminary report upon the proposed suburban village at Riverside, near Chicago. New York: Sutton, Bowne, 1868. Beveridge, Charles E., Paul Rocheleau, and David Larkin. Frederick Law Olmstead: designing the American landscape. Rev. ed. New York: Universe, 1998. 9..Maloney, Cathy Jean. The Gardener's Cottage in Riverside, Illinois: living in a "small masterpiece" by Frank Lloyd Wright, Jens Jensen, and Frederick Law Olmsted. Chicago, Ill.: Center for American Places at Columbia College Chicago :, 2009. 10. Beveridge, Charles E., Paul Rocheleau, and David Larkin. Frederick Law Olmsted: designing the American landscape. New York: Rizzoli, 1995. 11. Beveridge, Charles E., Paul Rocheleau, and David Larkin. Frederick Law Olmsted: designing the American landscape. New York: Rizzoli, 1995. 12. Beveridge, Charles E., Paul Rocheleau, and David Larkin. Frederick Law Olmstead: designing the American landscape. Rev. ed. New York: Universe, 1998. Print. 13. The Athens charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 14. The Athens charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 15. Beveridge, Charles E., Paul Rocheleau, and David Larkin. Frederick Law Olmstead: designing the American landscape. Rev. ed. New York: Universe, 1998 FIGURRES IMAGE 03: Yahoo!. 20081103-IMG_0230 Gas Lamp on Blackhawk.â&#x20AC;? Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/14600413@ N03/3007148169/in/faves-riversideillinois/ (accessed October 25, 2014)..

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM: Yahoo!. "20080927-IMG_0070 Sun Rays at Indian Gardens." Flickr. https://www.flickr. com/photos/14600413@N03/2899640402/in/faves-riversideillinois/ (accessed October 25, 2014).

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At the turn of the 20th century, New York was titled the "city of towers" by critics for embracing the idea of vertical construction, which was then boldly represented by the Singer Tower. Standing tall at 612 feet, forty-seven storey, Singer Tower held the title of tallest building when it was completed in 1908. Ernest Flagg, the architect commissioned for the project, had denounced the idea of skyscraper and was on a mission to reform the idea of vertical construction. By first constructing a uniform base on two of his already existing projects on site, Singer Building and Bourne Building, he was able to build the slender tower with French-style colour scheme and modern steel frame methods. The city which Flagg envisioned demanded buildings with thin towers, which were setback from the main faรงade to permit light and air on the grade level. In 1916, the Skyscraper zoning legislation was enacted at Flagg's request, which then influenced the future vertical construction within the city. Subsequently, the modern ideas discussed at CIAM supports this construction, since it signifies bold expression of vertical construction that greatly influenced the zoning laws of the city. Not only was it able to open future possibilities of vertical construction, but also present practical ideas that are beneficial and necessary for the inhabitants of the city. Ironically, formerly the world's tallest building was destroyed in 1968 to make way for One Liberty Plaza, making it the world's tallest building ever demolished.

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SINGER BUILDING Ernest Flagg 1906-1908 New York City Ishan Patel

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Introduction

A new concept of urban form was emerging in lower Manhattan in early 20th century, which made height its primary principle as the image of the city. In the past, located in New York City at Broadway and Liberty Street, the Singer Tower once held the title of tallest building standing at 612 feet for one year. It was completed in 1908 with fortyseven storey, in less than twenty months with no serious accidents.1 Primarily designed as a headquarters for the Singer Sewing Machine Company, the tower opened up future possibilities of vertical construction in the New York City with the ambitious goals of Ernest Flagg, the architect. Afterwards, this approach to reform the architecture in the city in relation to the vertical construction can be supported by the modern ideas discussed in the CIAM conference. Its construction not only displayed the potential materials’ embodied, but also helped to pass the Skyscraper zoning legislation in 1916, which then allowed further vertical construction if the set rules were followed accordingly. City History

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New York City as we know now has been under constant change since its discovery in early 16th century by the Europeans. It provided great potential as a trading port because of body of water in its outer core. Afterwards, as the time progressed the land was altered extensively by human intervention and especially the Industrial

Revolution. The period from the 18th to the 19th century brought major changes in transportation, technology, agriculture, and manufacturing fields, and is what came to be known as the Industrial Revolution; a period of great change. It impacted economics, politics, and social realms, which was a major turning point in history. New technology had made inventions like elevator and crane possible, which then allowed the cities to progress with the construction of skyscrapers. In addition, the current city grid in New York City was created thanks to the Commission’s report of 1811, which was an orthogonal system that encouraged rectilinear buildings.

the functionality of the architecture was improved. The structures are forced upward by the insistent demand of commercial and business interests.4 However, the rise of the skyscraper entailed the negative impact on human scale. The higher the architecture in the city became the darker the street level transformed, which eventually led to lower pedestrian activities around the city. As

Flagg’s Response

The Commissioner’s grid had empty streets with few homes, and by the early 20th century buildings up to twenty storey were making its way to Manhattan with the rapid sale of land. The land does not have to be allocated permanently, but rather grow naturally to a function that best suits the time. According to Flagg, the land values are fixed on basis of high buildings, and by setting low height not only the area but also the value of the land can be reduced.2 However, commercial realm were beginning to make transition to skyscrapers, as means of displaying their status in the city. In the case of the Singer Sewing Machine Company, they intended to occupy all space in the tower above the thirty-first floor and lease out the space below.3 Furthermore, by having the company located within a single building

rise structures were designed. The design satisfied need for dense concentrations of office space, reasonable light and air inside the office and on the street, and became a memorable icon that would define the future high-rise construction in the city.

During this negative influence on the social realm, was the time when Ernest Flagg was commissioned by Frederick Bourne, head of Singer Company, to design the Singer Tower. The architectural form was a complex compromising two low blocks and a high tower; all of which were built were Flagg but during different time. His work initially began with a ten storey structure called Singer Building in 1897. In addition, the company acquired Bourne Building on Liberty Street, adjoining the Singer Building on the north, by 1906.6 Flagg’s task was to create a uniform fourteen-story roof line as the base, on which he placed the sixty-five square foot slender tower of thirty-three storey.7 It was the first tower to only use three quarters of its lot area. His mission was to change the ways in which the high-

Excavation and foundation work began in mid-September of 1906, and the building officially opened, with only a few interior details left to be completed, on May 1, 1908.8 Problems encountered during the project were successfully solved in designing and construction of the structure. No expense was spared in providing approved modern device for the comfort, convenience, and safety of tenants on upper floors with magnificent views.9 Furthermore, the laws at the time did not forbid erection of vertical buildings still, so there was freedom of design. One of the problems faced during the construction process was the space required for machineries, where no pieces were damaged during the erection and the material work was only done in New York City.10 It consists of total of 850 columns in the building,

Beginning

Structure

where fifty-four of them are located in the basement; generally two storey in length, with few columns in basement being four storey in length. The structure overall was a perfect marriage between BeauxArts rationalism and Modern French style. Additionally, the materiality of the building was carefully presented, this included brick, and limestone, which contrasted with iron and glass skin and the central shaft of iron and steel.11 Flagg illustrated his scheme of solution for the skyscraper problem in this construction, which he wished would be adopted all over the congested building area on Manhattan Island. Influence

Flagg’s design truly preceded the 1916 Zoning Resolution. He was suggesting that only lower parts of tall building should be allowed to occupy the entire plot, and the tower should be restricted to one quarter of the lot only. Rapid growth within the city forced the planners to look at zoning restrictions, which brought the 1916 Zoning Resolution to life. Singer Building became an ideal model to regulate this zoning off from.

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM SINGER BUILDING ISHAN PATEL

noted by Flagg, “only limit to the height of buildings in American cities is financial one […] whether our high buildings are good or bad, we have them, and will continue to have them, so the question is how can we make the best of them?”.5

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singer building and other vertical constructions 1906 figure-ground of the site, 1906 figure-ground of site, present new vertical construction approach height distribution for singer building singer building perspective at human scale

The city turned to this structure and saw its consideration of human scale, and because of that they placed restrictions on height and setbacks for future developments. Singer Tower had become a well-recognized icon around the world that planners studied to improve the conditions of their own cities. They further developed this consideration of human needs, and assigned certain areas as strictly residential and others as commercial, which ensured the uniqueness of both areas.

Afterwards, the creation of CIAM in 1928, organization that viewed architecture as a tool to improve economic, social, and political conditions of planning, further signifies the construction of the Singer Tower. This project is the beginning of the solution CIAM searched for to improve the failing cities. A prime example, of its importance can be noted by Le Corbusier, one of the founders of CIAM, and his interest in New York City’s urban planning and its 1916 Zoning Resolution, which was later adopted by CIAM. This bold expression of vertical construction developed by Ernest Flagg not only opened future opportunities of verticality, but also presented practical ideas that are necessary for the inhabitants of the city. Improving the human scale in a large urban setting in relation to economic, social, and political conditions were all the principles that Flagg followed ahead of time, which were later seen in CIAM. Conclusion

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Unfortunately, on November 16, 1961 the

Singer Sewing Machine Company announced their transition to Rockefeller Center, and the Singer Building was sold to Webb & Knapp. Afterwards, it was bought by United States Steel in 1964, and later demolished in order to make way for One Liberty Plaza in 1968. Ironically, formerly the world’s tallest building was also the world’s tallest building ever to be demolished. Even if, the building was demolished, it is an influential icon in the planning and architecture realm that is observed by many planners and architects to solve the issues of high-rise within the urban setting. Its collaboration of innovative design approach and human scale requirements has truly made Singer Tower a notable structure, even if it only sixty year life span.

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57801451327/the-singer-building-new-york-circa-1908. (accessed October 21, 2014).

1. Carl W. Condit and Sarah Bradford Landau, Rise of the New York Skyscraper 1965-1913 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), 357. 2. "Skyscraper and the skyline of the future", New York Times (1857-1922), May 10, 1908, http://ezproxy.lib. ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/96789840?accountid=13631. (accessed September 10, 2014). 3. Condit and Landau, Rise of the New York Skyscraper 1965-1913, 355. 4. Skyscraper and the skyline of the future, May 10, 1908. 5. C. J. Mar, "Are American cities going mad architecturally?", New York Times (1857-1922), August 6, 1911, http:// ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/97212367?accountid=13631. (accessed September 10, 2014). 6. Condit and Landau, Rise of the New York Skyscraper 1965-1913, 355. 7. Gregory Gilmartin, John Massengale and Robert A. M. Stern, New York 1900: Metropolitan 8. Architecture and Urbanism 1890-1915 (New York: Rizzoli International Publications Inc., 1983), 170. 8. Condit and Landau, Rise of the New York Skyscraper 1965-1913, 357. 9. Otto Francis Semsch, A History of the Singer Building Construction: Its progress from Foundations to Flag Pole (New York: Trow Press, 1908), 7. 10. Ibid, 32. 13. Gregory Gilmartin, John Massengale and Robert A. M. Stern, New York 1900: Metropolitan 14. Architecture and Urbanism 1890-1915, 170. FIGURES

1. Otto Francis Semsch, A History of the Singer Building Construction: Its progress from Foundations to Flag Pole (New York: Trow Press, 1908), 9. 4. "An artist's rendering of the Singer Building." http://keithyorkcity.wordpress.com/2012/10/02/the-singerbuilding-tallest-building-ever-destroyed-until-911/. (accessed October 21, 2014). 6. Otto Francis Semsch, A History of the Singer Building Construction: Its progress from Foundations to Flag Pole (New York: Trow Press, 1908), 19.

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NOTES

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The approach to urbanism as conducted by CIAM influenced how urban development is formed in major metropolitan establishments such as New York City. During the early 20th century, building zoning in regards to setback and massing were not regulated suitably. Builders exploited the square footage creating streets that were always in shadow. CIAM principles dealt with problems of the emerging 'skyscraper' building by insisting on regulating building setback and building form. This principle played a large role on how buildings preceding 1916 were designed. The 1916 Zoning Resolutions of New York, which were a precedent to CIAM, advanced the positions of where buildings were given setback restrictions; . The Equitable Building; built a year before the 1916 regulation exploited the lack of restrictions on zoning that applied to New York buildings by designing the skyscraper's massing to be on the property line; destroying the sunlight on the street. The building incited reform to zoning due to the shear mass that the building has to surrounding streets; casting permanent shadow on nearby buildings. The Equitable Building is a symbol of the death of the first generation of skyscrapers that populated New York City; showcasing the problems that occurred when zoning regulations do not consider the effect buildings have to adjacent buildings and streets.

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PRE-CIAM 1850 - 1927

EQUITABLE BUILDING Ernest R. Graham with Peirce Anderson 1915 New York City Daniel Petrocelli

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Introduction

New York City starting at the mid 18th century was a battleground of banks, companies, and insurance companies; looking to make a statement through their flagship buildings. Among them; insurance companies such as the Equitable Life Insurance Company “…founded the company…as a shoe-string operation in a tiny office, Equitable grew phenomenally … becoming in 1886 the largest life insurance company in the world.”1 The first headquarters of the Equitable building largely changed the game in terms of the New York Office building. The precedent of the New Equitable building site; the Old Equitable building designed and built by Gilman & Kendall and George B. Post in 1868-70 that took advantage of iron skeleton construction, a innovative fireproofing system and the first passenger elevators in an office. It was the fire of the Equitable on January 9, 1912 demised the Old Equitable Building.2

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After the demise of the First Equitable Building, investor Du Pont invested in the erection of the new building with the Equitable Company. The president of the Insurance Company was quoted with saying the Equitable would never undertake anything so extravagant [As the old Equitable Building]. Commission went to Ernest Graham, a partner of Daniel Burnham’s firm. Graham was the successor and in the process of reorganizing Daniel Burnham’s firm shortly after his death, during the time of the Equitable Building Commission. Grahams

firm endowed much success between 1912 to 1929 due to the use of Beaux Art in American Buildings, with classical base, shaft, capitol organization. Specificity

The Equitable was constructed on the same lot of the previous building destroyed by fire. Coleman Du Pont was vested, and agreed to invest in the project of the new building. Originally the old building’s site was chosen due to insurance companies in the mid 19th century building and moving into new buildings on Broadway that were just north of Wall Street. “Rivalry between insurance companies often manifested itself in architectural terms”4 The old building competed architecturally by being of grander scale and two times taller than competitors. Project Plan and Massing

Design of the new building stemmed from pragmatic needs of the Company, as there was no interest of a corporate symbol after the fire of the old building. “Du Pont and Graham designed and built the largest building that could be squeezed onto its site.”5 The building was designed as an “Ocean Liner”; meant to carry the most office workers with luxury and safety at the cheapest cost. Anderson and Graham as a result had designed the building on the organization of the older base shaft capitol layout, and not as a tower, like many contemporaries. These contemporaries, like the Singer Building (1908) reflect the

infancy stage of CIAMs emphasis on thin, tower buildings that allow density without sacrificing light and airiness. The Equitable rose straight up from the lot line, and was cladded in the traditional manor of beaux art. The old building had the first public elevator; so the new building included 50+ elevators to service the 1.2 million square foot area in the 38-story H pattern building. Context

Physical context of Equitable building was chaotic. Nearby Trinity and U.S. Realty Company Buildings were of Gothic-style that built in 1906-07. These buildings straddle their property lines, offering virtually no light on the street between them due to the 21-story verticality. The buildings to the south of 120 Broadway are the American Surety Building completed in 1896, being one of the first buildings that encompassed the tripartite typology in New York. Just south of the Equitable Site is the Bankers Trust Company Building (1914) with a 34-floor height; using a more contemporary tower form prefacing early CIAM principles. Existing Buildings on the Trinity Church square include the American Express Co. Building (1905-07), a tripartite beaux art building with 26 floors, and a trio of buildings; the Empire Building ( 1898), the American Express Building ( 1917), and Adams Express Building (1912) on the south of Trinity Church with heights at around 21 Floors. A similarity exists within context in that most buildings use the entire lot, with no form of setback as they climb up. The Equitable Building follows a similar

Starting the mid 1800s, banks and insurance companies had capital reserv e to create public recognition, and innovation. Marketplace competition had created rivalry within the framework of architecture. The tripartite or base shaft capitol scheme of building was popular in late 1800s due to large building area providing economic feasibility as well as a bold vertically accentuated aesthetic. In the early 1900s buildings such as the Singer Building, and the Metropolitan Life Insurance Building began using towers to achieve height requirements; however the intention of the Equitable Building was not to make a statement in height; and hence resorted to traditional American skyscraper design. The Trinity and U.S. Realty Company Buildings (1906-07) in front of 120 Broadway stirred up much debate over zoning, as they encompass the entire lot, continuing up 21 stories. These buildings were heavily criticized by the public due

to the proximity to the church and the degradation of light that exists because both buildings are straddling the street. CIAMs principles developed as a result of this form of construction. CIAM Influence: Planning and Zoning

The Equitable Building; built a year before the 1916 zoning change did not have any regulation by the city to govern the height and massing of buildings on city lots. Building codes prior to 1916 dealt with insuring safety; and not on what kind of bulk a building can have. Ernest Graham and Anderson designed solely to get the most from the lot size; ignoring all form of context the building has outside of its walls. The building incited reform to zoning due to the shear mass that the building had to surrounding streets; a major point that CIAM advocates. “…As the new technology of steel cage construction and elevators combined with rising prices to push office buildings ever higher, demands grew for

DANIEL PETROCELLI

There was considerable amount of public attention shortly after the announcement of construction. Neighbors feared the lack of sunlight that their offices will have as a result. Adversaries to the Equitable Construction proposed a park be placed on the site; city park officials asked Equitable to donate the land for a park, which was rejected.6 The plan to extend New Street through the Equitable block was also pushed, separating the city block in two. The finished building stirred up much debate on the regulation of massing. The Equitable was not the sole cause of the zoning regulation of 1916, however it was one of the increasingly immense buildings constructed when there

were serious zoning discussions. The building solidified the decision in regulating building mass in the 1916 zoning ordinance; prefacing CIAMs discussions of pressing issues of the design of the modern city.

BUILDING

massy form to neighboring buildings. The first iteration of American skyscraper used technology of iron frame and elevators to increase height however the consideration of the street and the physical context weren’t considered in the introverted mass of the Equitable Building. After the zoning ordinance of 1916, and the introduction of CIAM principles in urban building, architects recognized and dealt with the concerns of the early American skyscraper.

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Broadview Street View 1899 01 The Old Equitable Building 02 Figure Ground Preconstruction (Not to Scale) 03 Figure Ground of Adjacent Sites (Not to Scale) 04 The Equitable (black) and massing (red) that abides by the 1916 Zoning Ordinan ce 05 Detailed Plan on Grade 06 Site map outlining heights of buildings 1913 07

laws regulating their height and bulk.”8 A critique on the Equitable Building states: “It was said that the Equitable blocked ventilation, dumped 13,000 users onto nearby sidewalks, choked the local transit facilities…The noon shadow…enveloped six times its own area…It cut off direct sunlight from the Broadway fronts of buildings as tall as 21 stories. …Property owners claimed a loss of rental income”9

Architects had mixed thoughts on the idea of regulation; Architect of the Trinity tower Francis Kimball expressed “[The city] should just allow skyscrapers to be built with no regulation”10 Ernest Flagg, architect of the Singer Building promoted regulation to be put on building mass advocating for regulations of buildings in 1908, and advised for a permit on twenty five percent unlimited height. The New York Regulation of 1916 encouraged a stepped façade tower construction that would later define the environment of the growing modern city, catalyzing CIAMs discussions on the topic.

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At the time of the towers construction, little administration was done to affect the shape and form of the tall building in New York. The Tenement House Act of 1901 regulated and inhibited the construction of dark, poorly ventilated residential buildings, and much debate over a law that hindered the building of massive buildings such as the Equitable was not in effect until 1916. In relation to CIAM, the 1916 zoning ordinance reacts to and addresses much of what CIAM advocated against. Before 1916, the only

protection from buildings like the Equitable building was the lack of technology. With the advancement in structural technology and elevators; buildings need to be regulated in terms of size and bulk to ensure proper light, ventilation and well being of cities inhabitants. Similar issues that existed in New York in the Early 1900s is parallel to the discussions of CIAM 3 in 1930, where there is the debate on heights of buildings. “…Reasoning in city planning should not be strictly economic but also should take into account Psychological and Social Demands.”11 Like in the Tenement House Act of 1901, it wasn’t until conditions of buildings become unfavorable to the public and the economy that the city reacts and puts laws in place. Like CIAM, Municipal and political administration of planning and of architecture is a reactive force meant to better and weigh out both public and economic interest. The Equitable Building is a symbol of the death of the first generation of skyscrapers that populated New York City; showcasing the problems later discussed in CIAM when zoning regulations do not consider the effect buildings have to adjacent buildings and streets.

06 Fig. 16, Equitable Building 120 Broadway (aka 104-120 Broadway, 70-84 Cedar Street, 2-16 Pine Street) Manhattan. Landmark Site: Borough of Manhattan Tax Map Block 47, Lots 1001 and 1002. Source: Sanborn Manhattan Landbook, 1994-95, pl. 3

FIGURES

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Orfila, Carles. "Equitable Building." Flickr. August 4, 2010. Accessed October 20, 2014. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ carles9/4860286152/sizes/l. 2. LPC. "Equitable Building." Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC). http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/html/home/home.shtml (accessed October 24, 2014). Fig. 26.Equitable Building, Broadway, Dunlap, David. "Consumed120 in Fire, Cloaked in Ice,Manhattan Equitable's Headquarters Fell 100 Years Ago." City Room Consumed in Fire Cloaked in Ice Equitables Headquarters Fell 100 Years Comments. http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/08/consumed-infrom the northwest showing the Broadway andAgoCedar Street facades fire-cloaked-in-ice-equitables-headquarters-fell-100-years-ago/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0 (accessed October 24, 2014). Photo: Carl Forster 7. Lobos, Donath. "ARCHITECTURE AND MODERN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES." Http://marhi.ru/AMIT/2008/4kvart08/Lobos/Article. php. January 1, 2008. Accessed October 20, 2014. http://marhi.ru/ 8. Scholars GeoPortal." Scholars GeoPortal. January 1, 2014. Accessed October 25, 2014. http://geo2.scholarsportal.info/.

EQUITABLE BUILDING

1. LPC. "Equitable Building." Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC). http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/html/home/home.shtml (accessed October 24, 2014). 2. Dunlap, David. "Consumed in Fire, Cloaked in Ice, Equitable's Headquarters Fell 100 Years Ago." City Room Consumed in Fire Cloaked in Ice Equitables Headquarters Fell 100 Years Ago Comments. http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/08/consumed-in-firecloaked-in-ice-equitables-headquarters-fell-100-years-ago/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0 (accessed October 24, 2014). 3. Betts, Mary Beth. "Guide to New York City Landmarks, New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission Andrew S. Dolkart The Architecture of New York City: Histories and Views of Important Structures, Sites and Symbols Donald Martin Reynolds New York: A Guide to the Metropoli." JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS 54, no. 1 (1995): 70-81. 4. LPC. "Equitable Building." Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC). http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/html/home/home.shtml (accessed October 24, 2014). 5. Curbed Staff. "The Equitable Building and the Birth of NYC Zoning Law." Curbed NY. http://ny.curbed.com/archives/2013/03/15/ the_equitable_building_and_the_birth_of_nyc_zoning_law.php (accessed October 24, 2014). 6. Graham, Ernest Robert. Equitable building. New York: Equitable Office Building Corp., 1914. 7. Landau, Sarah Bradford, and Carl W. Condit. Rise of the New York skyscraper, 1865-1913. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. 8. White, Norval, and Elliot Willensky. AIA guide to New York City. 4th ed. New York: Crown Publishers, 9. Chappell, Sally A. Kitt. A reconsideration of the Equitable building in New York. Chicago: Society of Architectural Historians Journal, 1990. 10. Dolkart, Andrew. "The Architecture and Development of New York City with Andrew S. Dolkart." Columbia University. http://ci.columbia.edu/0240s/0242_2/0242_2_s7_text.html (accessed October 25, 2014). 11. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000

PRE-CIAM

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM: The Bowery Boys: New York City History: Before Woolworth: The Early Towers of Lower Broadway at the Birth of the Skyscraper Boom. The Bowery Boys: New York City History. April 17, 2013. Accessed November 3, 2014. http://theboweryboys.blogspot.ca/2013/04/before-woolworth-early-towers-of-lower.html.

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Around the turn of the 19th century, skyscrapers were rapidly increasing in major urban centers such as Chicago as a result of changing social and economic conditions. The United States was emerging as a global power in financial, banking, and commercial sectors. The skyscraper would be needed to accommodate the institutions and personnel of these sectors. The Pittsfield Building in Chicago Illinois was completed in 1927, designed by Graham, Anderson, Probst and White. In Chicago, it was the tallest skyscraper at the time, which inevitably impacted the city and surroundings as well as future development downtown. As the urban core was rapidly growing in size and density, planning and zoning would be required to regulate the growth of the urban fabric. The building's design follows Chicago's 1923 zoning ordinance, regulating the building height, setbacks, and form. This is evident in the massing of the building as it has set-backs on upper floors which allow more natural light to reach the street level. The Pittsfield Building responds to a greater context in the urban center which contributes to the city around it. The formal qualities seen through zoning and planning help elaborate practices in urbanism in this period prior to the CIAM.

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PITTSFIELD BUILDING Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White 1927 Chicago, Illinois, USA Nahal Rahnamaei

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Introduction

140

The Skyscraper is a pervasive feature of the contemporary city; perhaps the most recognizable manifestation of metropolitan life. While the skyscraper is synonymous with Manhattan and New York, the birthplace of this building typology is actually Chicago, which has a long history of building tall towers and displays numerous examples of Skyscrapers amongst its skyline. Of these many skyscrapers, the Pittsfield Building built in 1927 and designed by Graham, Anderson, Probst and White is in many ways representative of the early 20th century skyscraper. The building was constructed with a steel structure, which was a fairly new technology at the time, and consisted of a terra-cotta faĂ§ade that was applied using a typical masonry system. These design features encompassed a combination of art deco and gothic revival detailing.2 The building is located in The Loop, Chicagoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s central business district which is home to the commercial core and City Hall. The property was developed by the estate of Marshall Field, the famous retail industrialist, and was named after Pittsfield, Massachuetts, where Marshall Field obtained his first job. Skyscrapers that preceded the Pittsfield Building in American cities were often extremely massive and oversized and in many ways disregarded the context of the city surrounding it. The Pittsfield Building will be examined in regards to the connection it had with the city of Chicago that surrounded it and issues that concerned the design and realization that were in fact related to topics

covered in the first CIAM conference in 1928, which occurred right after the completion of the building. Site and Program

The Pittsfield Building reveals initiatives in reaction to urban context, as Graham, Anderson, Probst and White were conscious and considered the city surrounding the site and how the mass would affect the neighboring sites. It can be noted that city blocks were changing as new building technologies were allowing vertical growth. Blocks became smaller and neighborhoods became more porous, allowing for easier pedestrian and vehicular traffic, natural light penetration, and real estate opportunities. ( Figures 01 & 02)The building had been made possible by the 1923 zoning ordinance that allowed building over the height limit of 264 feet provided the structure above the limit did not exceed 25 percent of the area below and one-sixth its volume. It also abided by the required setback of one foot in ten from all lines of adjacent property. The lower portion of the Pittsfield building is twentyone stories high, while the tower extends another seventeen stories. Setbacks occur at the twenty-second floor, thirty-fifth, and thirty-eighth stories. The Pittsfield building was the first in Chicago to take advantage of the provision of the zoning law that allowed direct special express service without transfer to higher floors.3Several buildings in the early stages of the development of the skyscraper took on the efficient shape and mass of the first skyscraper built in 1885,

the Home Insurance Building in Chicago. To maximize gross floor area and to keep the structure simple, the rectangular shape of the lot due to the orthogonal city grid is extruded vertically. Planning practice and theory began to integrate itself in to the building practice in growing urban cities such as New York and Chicago. It is apparent that these practices would heavily influence the design of skyscrapers as they were the predominant driving force for growth in the city. The skyscraper would create streets that were dominated by tall buildings creating a canyon form at grade. In effect, this creates an unpleasant experience for not only pedestrians but also surrounding buildings of lower height. Outside of the aesthetic and physical disadvantages, it was believed that the skyscraper would negatively affect the environment quality in the dense cores of cities, particularly in regards to air pollution and poor natural light. The mass of a given building has the tendency to shadow neighboring properties and buildings, as well as the street and walkways. One of the most prevalent solutions to this problem is the act of pushing the building wall back from the street as it is increasing in height, in other words, a setback. The setback of the building wall reduces the amount of sunlight that the building blocks out for surrounding sites. ( Figure 03)With these concerns developing in the early era of the development of skyscrapers, an act of planning cities would begin as early as the mid-1890s and the Pittsfield building was in accordance to this.

Although the Pittsfield building was designed and constructed prior to the first CIAM conference in 1928 organized by Madame de Mandrot, the design considered some of the topics discussed at the conference. The Athens charter was engaged in formalizing the architectural principles of the Modern

In regards to Town Planning was one of the issues covered in CIAM I, the Sarraz Declaration, 1928. It stressed the importance of the functions of collective life in both urban and countryside context. In the case of the Pittsfield Building, the planning considers the function of life in its surroundings as it has considered setbacks and massing in order to minimize its contrasting form on the rest of the buildings.

NAHAL RAHNAMAEI

CIAM

Movement and considered architecture as an economic and political force that could be used to improve the society through the design of buildings and urban planning. It can be seen that similar ideas were being considered toward the end of the 1920â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s that were formally discussed and expressed in the Charter. Topics covered included general economic systems, town planning, the importance of public opinion, and architecture in relation to its state. The process of the realization of the Pittsfield building touches upon several of these topics and may have been a part of the influence of the Sarraz Declaration.

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The Pittsfield Building was the tallest skyscraper in the city of Chicago when it was built. It demonstrated an understanding of the urban fabric of Chicago and the existence and conditions of surrounding sites as several setbacks were designed to reduce the mass of the building as it increased in height. Urban design was a strong factor in the overall design of the building, as the simplest design would call for an extrusion of property line. These setbacks which progress as the building rises chip away from its potential bulky and massive building envelope which would have cast a substantial shadow on surrounding areas. The form of the Pittsfield building was in many ways shaped by the defined city planning in addition to planning ideas that were prevalent at the time. In effect, the Pittsfield building can be considered as a reaction to the lack of attention given to urban design in the design of skyscrapers in previous years.1 The building can be seen as a unit which integrates in to the city of Chicago in a formally and culturally. The building considers urban conditions beyond the space that is bound by its own property

lines. This demonstrates the beginning of responsible and considerate design, as it considers the conditions of its surroundings. The design of the Pittsfield building relied heavily on two building advancements that were the fundamental elements required for the construction of skyscrapers: the safety elevator and the fireproof steel frame. In effect, these two technologies allowed for the integration of massive structures in to preexisting communities, particularly cities, and this posed many questions for architects, city planners, and government. The Pittsfield Building demonstrates how the skyscraper can present new opportunities for the growth of cities while maintaining its connection to the urban fabric, which played an important part in the role of city planning.5

THE PITTSFIELD BUILDING

Planning Context

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1909 figure-ground diagram 01 1927 figure-ground diagram 02 massing & sunlight 03

The Pittsfield Building can also be considered to take note of the General Economic System discussed in the CIAM conference. The idea of modern architecture includes the connection between the concept of architecture and that of the general economic system. The building was conceived in a time of great economic growth in North America, and the design of the building expresses ideas such as rationalization and standardization. The maximum repetition of floor plates and the minimum setbacks represent a leap in architecture. The use of steel in the building shows how the simplification of labour and minimum work on site can be economically beneficial. The Pittsfield Building may have been one of many projects in its era to prove this efficiency to be of importance and to be part of discussion in the CIAM conference.6 The design of the building included a fivestorey interior atrium that was surrounded by balconies and shops, detailed with marbles, brass, and gothic style carvings. The grandness of this feature along with the primary function of the building that was office and commercial shows the importance of growing economy of the time. The district in which the building is located also reflects the economic and social circles that would benefit from the building. This reflects the architecture in relation to the state, as economic growth was a huge factor in the design.

Conclusion

As the urban population grows and cities densify, it is apparent that the skyscraper will continue to lead society, in terms of both architecture and social aspects. It is important that the design of be carefully regulated as such masses have immense effects on the social and physical environment. The Pittsfield building is an example that can be considered in terms of building to site to greater city relationship. It is a formal representation of planning theory in the real world and shows that tall buildings and density can be appropriately and successfully achieved in our cities, considering their compliance with existing framework. Its realization just before the first CIAM conference shows that there was a connection between social ideas

in regards to architecture near the 1920s. Whether or not the Pittsfield Building directly influenced the Athens Charter, its design contributed to problems and possible solutions and guidelines that the Athens Charter discussed.

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FINAL IMAGE SOURCED FROM Zekas, J. YoChicago. Accessed October 24, 2015. http://yochicago.com/is-fornellitower-the-best-apartment-deal-in-the-loop/29131/

THE PITTSFIEL BUILDING

NAHAL RAHNAMAEI

FIGURES

PRE-CIAM

1. Artefaqs Corporation. "Pittsfield Building, Chicago." Chicago Architecture Info. http://www.chicagoarchitecture.info/Building/1086/Pittsfield-Building.php (accessed September 15, 2014). 2. Chappell, Sally Anderson. "Part Two: Principle Works." Architecture and Planning of Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White, 1912-1936: Transforming Tradition. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1992. 184-189. Print. 3. Cooke, J.. "Compensated Taking: Zoning and the Politics of Building Height Regulation in Chicago, 1871-1923."Journal of Planning History 12.3 (2013): 207-226. Print. 4. Mazur Berg, Alicia. Pittsfield Building. Landmark Designation Report. City of Chicago: Department of Planning and Development, December 12 2001. (accessed September 15, 2014). 5. Moudry, Roberta. The American skyscraper: cultural histories. New York: Cambridge University Press,2005. Print. 6. Ross, Wolfe. "CIAM's La Sarraz Declaration (1928)." Modernist Architecture. 8 Sept. 2011. Web. 1 Nov. 2014. 7. Saliga, Pauline A., John Zukowsky, and Jane H. Clarke. The Sky's the limit: a century of Chicago skyscrapers. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. (accessed September 15, 2014). 8. Sexton, R. W.. The logic of modern architecture; exteriors and interiors of modern American buildings,. New York: Architectural Book Pub. Co., 1929. (accessed September 15, 2014). 9. Zukowsky, John, and Mark Jansen Bouman. Chicago architecture and design, 1923-1993: reconfiguration of an American metropolis. Munich, Germany: Prestel ;, 1993. (accessed September 15, 2014).

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Crocker, J. Wikipedia, www.Wikipedia.com. Last modified 2010. Accessed October 24, 2014. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2005-10-13_1600x2400_chicago_pittsfield_building.jpg

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The Woolworth building was a marvel of the 20th century because of its height, construction and cost. For urban planners and architects, the building was an example of how setbacks could have an effect on the scale of a design and its environment. Among many other buildings in the New York skyline, the Woolworth building served as a precedent for the urban planners and architects who would go on to found CIAM. Its conception helped shape the 1916 New York zoning ordinance which provided a more ridged outline for building heights and zoning in the city. Before the founding of CIAM in 1927, members and associates of the organization were studying these buildings and the impact they had on the skyline. At the time of the Woolworths construction, European planners were beginning to theorize the concept of modernity and how it could be implemented in architecture to improve the conditions of western society. As early as 1912, surveys were sent from Berlin to study the advantages and disadvantages of the skyscrapers in New York. Their findings were later published in a report called Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung, which in turn had an influence in the ideals of CIAM. The scale of the building and the methods used to construct it, helped to lay the foundations for the modern movement.

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WOOLWORTH BUILDING Cass Gilbert 1913 New York City, NY, U.S.A Kiente Sanipe

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Introduction

146

The Woolworth Building, known as the “cathedral of commerce,” was constructed from 1910 to 1913 in the financial district of lower Manhattan.1 Renowned American architect Cass Gilbert was commissioned by Frank Woolworth, who at that time was the country’s most successful businessman in the field of retail. Cass Gilbert, born in 1934 in Zanesville Ohio, was a graduate of MIT and worked at McKim, Mead and White before establishing his own firm in New York.9 The Woolworth project became one of Cass Gilberts biggest endeavours and arguably the most influential of his career. Mr. Woolworth wanted the building to reflect and promote the success of his company. 3 This prompted Gilbert to design what would be the tallest building of its day. The Woolworth Building used the newly adopted steel-frame construction to achieve its height of 385 ft (55 stories). 3 Much of the building’s interior and exterior skin was designed in accordance to the beaux-arts aesthetics Cass Gilbert learned at MIT. 2 He used neo-gothic expression on the exterior to denote the skeleton of the building and to reference the structural achievements that were associated with the style (i.e. flying buttresses).8 Although there were no set rules on lot coverage and height setbacks, Gilbert did recess the mass at a certain height. This was most likely to further realize the architectural expression he was trying to achieve, rather than a solution to solve the problem of daylight and air penetrating the street. 3 Nonetheless, the building

would serve well as a precedent for building reformers and modernist innovators. The Physical Context of the Woolworth Building

The building was situated in lower Manhattan, in a dense area of primarily commercial buildings. The main entrance to the Woolworth Building was on Broadway, one of the busiest streets in the city. This particular portion of the street bordered City Hall Park. The opening of space in a sense relieved the area of its congestion and allowed room within the dense urban fabric. To the east of the building, past the city hall, lay the Brooklyn Bridge, which carried heavy volumes of traffic to Manhattan (figure 1-2). The streets surrounding the Woolworth Building were fairly wide compared to the typical congested streets of the 1900s. At one point, the basement of the Woolworth Building led directly to nearby subway line which today is abandoned. 1 The building sat nearly back-to-back with another office tower (currently occupied by the Moody’s Investors Services) , together taking up over two full blocks stretching from Broadway to Church Street. Gilbert designed the ground floor and basement levels to occupy the entire site area. The next 27 floors above the rectangular shaped lobby level took on a “U” form to bring daylight into the office spaces at the core of the building (figure 3). The shape also allowed for the creation of a skylight on the lobby level. 1 These plans follow a straight forward programmatic formula of offices occupying the parameter,

with elevators, circulation and mechanical programming in the centre. Above the 28th floor, the building volume was set back, reducing the area of above levels drastically. From levels 28 to 43, the floors took on a square shape roughly a third of the area of the floors below. The final floors above stepped back one more time until finishing with a spire cap on the top. New York at the Turn of the Century

As New York emerged from the 19th century, its population expanded at a rapid rate. With the influx of immigrants into the lower east side of Manhattan, overcrowding and congestion became a serious issue. During this time, the city’s economy had mushroomed in the area of business and finance. Since the city was competing as an international power, this prompted many companies to invest in large office towers in the heart of the city that would show their economic might and facilitate the space needed to work. 1 The development of the skyscraper was very controversial at the time. Individuals saw a moral dilemma in the issue, noting that “towers were replacing church steeples”. 8 The unrestricted heights and scale at which these buildings were built incited building and zoning reformers to call the problem into question. By 1910, city officials were in the process of creating rules and regulations that would restrict buildable lot area and impose setbacks for buildings of a certain height. 6 During this period, the reformers looked to the Woolworth building as a suitable template for how the 1916

Influence of Building on CIAM Principals

Although the Woolworth Building was constructed well before the foundation of CIAM in 1928, the building, like many other towers in the New York skyline, helped inform theories on verticality, space and zoning. During the 1900s, the modernist movement began sprouting across Europe, leaving behind the beaux-art mandates in exchange for something that suited the contemporary world.3 Le Corbusier, being the key advocate of CIAM, took advantage of his role by implementing many of his ideals into the founding principles of the group. By 1910, the skyscraper had already become a

staple in United States architecture because of the expansion of the country’s economy in the area of finance and business. These buildings were not only built to facilitate work, but to promote companies. Europe, by contrast, had established height limitations in many major cities, which posed a problem for their expanding business sector. 1 Centres of commerce like Berlin began to study America’s use of office towers, mainly in New York and Chicago, in the hopes of changing their cities’ commercial fabric. Though the height limitations stayed in place, it inspired European modernists to theorize the ways in which verticality and density could be used to improve the built environment. Peter Behrens, one of the key leaders in the early modernist movement, influenced Le Corbusiers’ fascination with the tower and its potential as an agent of change in architecture. Behrens took a keen interest in the development of the New York skyscrapers and made prototypes of his own.5 During Le Corbusier’s time of employment at AEG under Behrens and Walter Gropius (another key figure in CIAM), he would have absorbed some of their ideas on the subject. In regard

to Berlin, Peter Behrens commented that the city “must be graspable as a closed architectural image...a horizontally developed city requires corporeality and this can only be obtained through compact vertical mass.” 5 In the years to come, the same principle could be seen in the 1922 scheme for the contemporary city.

The Woolworth Building was part of an important period of time when towers of the Manhattan skyline were pushing the envelope in terms of scale and their effect of the city below. These buildings as a collective helped inform CIAM’s principles in various ways. Among many other buildings of the New York skyline, the Woolworth Building was a precedent in a scale that the Athens Charter was moving towards. The 1943 Athens Charter, which took much of its material from Le Corbusier’s previous studies such as the contemporary city and the radiant city was greatly influenced by the New York skyscraper. Le Corbusier implemented the idea of verticality. Tenet 82 of the Charter explains that “Introducing the element of

PLX 599 PRE-CIAM WOOLWORTH BUILDING KIENTE SANIPE

zoning regulation should treat the massing of buildings. It showed the sensible scaleto-mass ratio, provided setbacks at a certain heights and continued them as the building ascended further. 6 Designers reveled in its appropriate use of material to denote its skeletal form. The city beautiful mandate of Cass Gilbert to present high quality aesthetics did not get in the way of his desire to show the advanced steel-framed building structure. 1

147

Lower manhatten pre-construction (circa 1900) 01 Lower manhatten post-construction (circa 1915) 02 solid void relationship of plans 03 Building massing 04

Conclusion

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Given the circumstances of the site, it seems that Woolworth Building is an appropriately conceived structure. It showed an advance awareness of how the skyscraper typology should be designed in its given context. The building’s contribution to the forming of the 1916 zoning resolution as well as the CIAM ideas of height, technology and zoning

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDU

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

The Charter makes clear that technological advancement is necessary in creating buildings that achieve CIAM standards. Tenet 90 notes that in order to fulfill the CIAM principles, “it is essential to utilize the resources of modern techniques, which, through the collaboration of specialists, will support the art of building with all the dependability that science can provide, and enrich it with inventions and resources of the age.” 10 Cass Gilbert would have wholeheartedly agreed with this statement, considering the Woolworths advanced use of steel wind bracing, elevators with air cushions, and access to underground transit. 7

expressed in the Athens Charter are proof of its importance as a building of the 20th century.

ODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

height will solve the problems of modern traffic and leisure by utilizing the open spaces thus created.” 10 Although the Woolworth Building did not set out to use height for that reason, the building site gives a rough ( relatively skewed) version of this scenario: a tower, main street and green space (figure 2 open space). It should be noted that this scenario was meant for residential areas, whereas the Woolworth Building was in a commercial area.

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Woolworth Building. Digital image. CLIQUE NOVA YORK. N.p., n.d. Web. <http:// cliquenovayork.blogspot.ca/2012/09/comprar-apartamento-em-new-york.html>. 1. "AD Classics: Woolworth Building / Cass Gilbert." ArchDaily. http://www.archdaily.com/477187/ad-classicswoolworth-building-cass-gilbert/ (accessed October 25, 2014). 2. Blodgett, Geoffrey. Cass Gilbert: The Early Years. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001. 3. Gilbert, Cass, Barbara S. Christen, and Steven Flanders. Cass Gilbert, Life and Work: Architect of the Public Domain. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001. 4. "How Zoning Shaped the New York Skyline." Untapped Cities. Comments. http://untappedcities. com/2011/12/07/how-zoning-shaped-the-new-york-skyline/ (accessed September 15, 2014). 5. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 6. "NYC Zoning - About New York City Zoning." http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/zone/zonehis.shtml (accessed October 23, 2014). 7. Schuyler, Montgomery, and Bruce Rogers. The Woolworth Building. New York: [F.W. Woolworth], 1913. 8. Schuyler, Montgomery. "The Towers of Manhattan." The Architectural Record XXXIII, no. II (1913): 19. 9. "The Architect." Cass Gilbert Society. http://www.cassgilbertsociety.org/architect/bio.html (accessed October 25, 2014). 10. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 11. `What is Enlightenment" In The Foucault Reader, 32-50. Edited by Paul Rabinow. New York: Pantheon, 1984. FIGURES LAST IMAGE SOURCED FROM Woolworth Building. Digital image. Wired New York. N.p., n.d. Web. <http://imageshack.com/f/273/woolworthbuildingaboveparkrowa.jpg>.

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Weissenhofseidlung was a model housing development built in Stuttgart during 192627 as a part of an exhibition titled "Die Wohnung"(The Dwelling) sponsored by the city & Deutsche Werkbund (German Arts & Crafts Society). 17 architects from all across Europe were chosen under the direction of Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe for the design of 33 houses with 63 apartments were commissioned. This essay describes the various architectural aspects of the project while exploring its direct & indirect influences on CIAM (CongrĂ¨s International d'Architecture Moderne), its principles & the urban planning of the city. The solidarity of architects gave rise to the founding of CIAM a year later. Weissenhofseidlung can be considered as a precursor to the principles adopted by CIAM, mainly, in regards with housing & urban planning. "Efficient living", "fast construction", "mass production" & "dwelling as a major part of the city", were paramount in Weissenhofseidlung, which were further encouraged by the CIAM. City of Stuttgart was going under a massive rebuilding. Relatively new planning ideas were implemented which were observed in Weissenhofseidlung. This project was considered as an exemplar in the city planning as it abandoned repetitive, rigid patterns for more spatial, flowing grouping of housing units & an emphasis on 3-dimensional master plans conformed to many of the CIAM's principles. Weissenhofseidlung holds a significant position in the context of CIAM & its principles & also the city planning of Stuttgart.

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WEISSENHOFSEIDLUNG Mies Van Der Rohe 1926 Stuttgart, Germany Hrishikesh Tailor

151

152

Weissenhofseidlung was a model housing development built in Stuttgart during 192627 as a part of an exhibition titled “Die Wohnung” (The Dwelling). It was sponsored by the city & the Deutsche Werkbund ( German Arts & Crafts Society). It consisted sixty housing units, formed as part of a civic housing programme which focussed on topics of experimental construction methods & modern building materials. 17 architects from all over Europe, including the pioneers of modern architecture like Le Corbusier & Walter Gropius were chosen under the direction of Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe for the design of 33 houses & 63 apartments were commissioned. The key design principle of the project was to demonstrate ‘rationalism’ & ‘standardisation’ in terms of design & construction of the buildings. Through this project, Mies wanted to contribute to the “phenomenon of New Living” & improve the “spatial quality of living space”. All of the architects articulated their solutions for “living arrangements of the modern big city dweller”, combined with the usage & execution of relatively new building materials & efficient construction methods. As a result of these concepts, archetypal buildings for “cost-effective mass production” were designed with great architectural diversity. Rationalism was achieved by designing simple volumes & forms making the construction relatively easier. It was devoid of overly decorative elements. Principles of regularity were applied while achieving the functional aspects with ease was an important intention. Mies tried to promote standardisation by having horizontal

windows of identical size & similar sized structural elements because it enabled various elements to be mass manufactured off site thereby, reducing costs & increasing efficiency of on-site assembly & construction. In Corbusier’s design of “Citrohan” house, he implemented the idea of “house as a machine for living in” by using prefabricated structural systems & assemblies. Mass production led to higher efficiency. Mies used steel frame construction for his apartment building. Similar ideas were explored by Corbusier which he further advocates in the CIAM (Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne) conferences & in his books. Efficient living was a topic of importance in CIAM conferences.

Weissenhofseidling was based on the theme of “the dwelling”. Hence, in response various architects designed living spaces in all the scales, for example, Le Corbusier’s single/double family homes, J. J. P Oud’s Row houses, Mies’ apartment block, etc. Experiments were done at all scales. Weissenhof was already chosen as a site for expansion of housing projects. It was a relatively hilly, empty region on the outskirts of Stuttgart. Mies saw this as an opportunity as the contours provided him with desirable site conditions to create a better “living experience” which was further explored by the CIAM in later years. He created block models & set design parameters as if they were design guidelines for other architects to follow. It included restrictions on using angled surfaces & forms to keep all the buildings & houses uniform & rectilinear.

These guidelines also reflect the way city of Stuttgart were implementing changes in their own bylaws. Small single family houses were grouped together along the slope of the site while Mies’ Apartment block was higher up with views towards the site. It dominates the site & turns the traditional block outside in: instead of a perimeter block around a courtyard a thinner block sits alone. The framed construction allowed flexibility with various configurations of internal partitions. The building also allows for easy repetition & extension. The block is four storeys in height with rooftop terraces. Corbusier & his cousin Pierre Jeanneret who later were an integral member of CIAM built Citrohan House which is a pair of semi-detached houses. Corbusier’s 5 points of architecture are clearly visible while he incorporates ongoing ideas of the exhibition by creating a rationally symmetrical structure, using steel frame & increasing efficiency of the design. He further propagates this idea during the initial CIAM conferences. Walter Gropius, another future member of CIAM designed a pair of single family homes. These homes were regularly structured following a rational, simplified grid. These houses show Gropius’ long-lasting interest in the subject of prefabrication. Here, industrially produced components can be put together in several ways to allow a degree of choice for the user & the developer as well. The political & social context of the site was heavily influenced by the aftermath of the First World War. Mass devastation of properties was caused. Soldiers were

The Exhibition was considered as an achievement. About 500,000 visitors came to see the Weissenhoffseidlung. Ideas were published worldwide increasing its popularity. As a result of the large conglomerate of architects & professionals, contacts were made & maintained. Such a solidarity of architects gave rise to the founding of CIAM a year later (June 1928). Mies led the Weissenhofseidlung project, however he was never a part of the CIAM. Le Corbusier & Pierre Jeanneret were among the founding members of CIAM. Le Corbusier had his own ideologies regarding contemporary architecture & planning which were both seen in his Citrohan House & further CIAM conferences. Other architects who were a part of both, CIAM &

Weissenhofseidlung include Walter Gropius, Victor Bourgeois, Josef Frank & Mart Stam. These architects working on creating certain design guidelines which they promoted in the CIAM meetings were widely published all over. The first CIAM Congress was the outcome of efforts from numerous avenues, most importantly including the international campaign in favor of Le Corbusier’s League of Nations design, & the Weissenhof meetings, involving members of the Berlin Ring & the Swiss Werkbund in 1927. CIAM was conceived as an “instrument of propaganda to advance the cause of the new architecture” that was demonstrated in Weissenhofseidlung in the 1920’s. All the members met for the first time a year after Weissenhofseidlung was realized in 1927 at Chateau of La Sarraz, Switzerland wherein they formed founding principles also known as “La Sarraz declaration”

The ideas used in Weissenhofseidlung form a precursor to the principles of CIAM. The CIAM secretary penned the goals of CIAM at La Sarraz were to express the architectural program through modernism while forcefully inducing this idea into the “technical, economic & social” realms

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buildings no longer remained in repetitive, rigid pattern but in a spatial & more flowing clusters. Irregular three dimensional master plan was desired. Stuttgart district council approved the proposal for the project despite the representatives of German national & Communist parties voted against it. The project was approved after Mies made several iteration of his initial master plan to suit the urban planning principles of the city.

returning, hence the demand for housing rose sharply. City of Stuttgart was hit by severe inflation in 1923 which affected the middle class workers the most. This again added to the housing crisis. The cultural situation in Stuttgart was characterized by thinkers trying to find solution for various crisis through art. Deutsche Werkbund was formed to bring such thinkers together. They found inspiration in the manufacturing industry & thus, it initiated a dialogue of housing crisis being solved by prefabrication, mass manufacturing, etc. To implement the above idea into practice, the exhibition “Die Wohnung” was created. Through this exhibition, the city wanted to promote its image as being a progressive leader in terms of town planning by seeking assistance of leading architects of the time. The urban planners promoted Weissenhofseidlung as its exemplar for its planning ambitions. Emphasis was given to improving the quality of life by setting up design guidelines. For example, the height of apartment block was limited to four storeys to prevent extensive shadowing over the houses. Large windows were desired to maximize the light entering the rooms. Traditional terraced buildings were to be replaced by a concept where

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figure ground diagram before the project 01 figure ground diagram after the project 02 principles of efficiency in standardisation 03

& to see to the resolution of architectural problems. Technical & economic aspects of Weissenhofseidlung were paramount as they formed the basis of the need for efficient, prefabricated systems. It was the first time architects were able to gather & build within a set parameters while promoting modernism. Modernism was about going away from the past & getting rid of ornamentation to pave way for rational, simplified deigns. Architects showcased this main characteristic through rectilinear smooth volumes of buildings, with sharp edges. Weissenhofseidlung inspire CIAM members to explore the idea of efficient construction using new materials even further. Their main agenda of CIAM II meeting (1929, Frankfurt) was to demonstrate the use of assembly-line methods for socialist ends. The proposed second CIAM Congress was given the theme “the Minimum Subsistence Dwelling” the focus being on design solutions to the problem of high rents for low wage earners which was also exactly the reason behind conception of Weissenhofseidlung. In the third congress, Gropius argued that city planning should be psychologically a socially desirable while taking care of the economic efficiency. Mies understood these aspects while preparing the master plan for Weissenhofseidlung. Hence, he refrained from going higher than 4 storeys & also situating apartment block in the higher contours to avoid an unpleasant perception of space caused by huge buildings.

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An important principles that came out of CIAM was of the “Functional City” (1930s) where the delegates introduced planning

principles used in Weissenhofseidlung such as removal of street wall, favorable solar orientation for healthier indoor environment. They emphasized the idea of 3-dimensional master plans which Mies propagated in Weissenhofseidlung plans. “Dwelling” was the first in the hierarchy of the four functions of the city. Weissenhofseidlung was a result of the discovery of the fact that housing was an important part of the city. CIAM had major influences in Urban Planning. One can find the roots of its principles in Weissenhofseidlung. The functional city advocated having separate districts for separate functions. Stuttgart realized that early on, thereby, locating an area solely used for residential development. The seventh congress of CIAM explored

land-use legislation, unity of visual groups & researching new construction techniques. Weissenhofseidlung has the seeds of such concept. The smaller buildings are grouped together to having a pleasing “visual unity” while new materials were enthusiastically explored during the project & even after it was constructed since it had a testing facility.

To conclude, it can be said that Weissenhoffseidlung had major direct & indirect influences over many CIAM & planning principles. Though, most of the ideas existed even before the project was built, the project provided an opportunity for all the modernist ideas to unite under one name & showcase its benefits. This finally lresulted in the formation of a larger conglomerate a year later known as CIAM.

1. Cohen, Jean. "Weissenhofseidlung." In Le Corbusier, 1887-1965: The Lyricism of Architecture in the Machine Age. KoĚ&#x2C6;ln: Taschen, 2004. 2. Davies, Colin. "Citrohan House." In Key Houses of the Twentieth Century: Plans, Sections & Elevations. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. 3. Jones, Peter. Modern architecture through case studies. Oxford: Architectural Press, 2002. 4. Kirsch, Karin, & Gerhard Kirsch. The Weissenhofsiedlung: experimental housing built for the Deutscher Werkbund, Stuttgart, 1927. New York: Rizzoli, 1989. 5. Ibid.,9 6. Ibid.,10 7. Ibid.,12 8. Ibid.,34 9. Ibid.,38 10. Ibid.,84 11. Macel, Otakar. Mies van der Rohe: architecture & design in Stuttgart, Barcelona, Brno: Vitra design museum.. Milano: Skira, 1998. 12. Ibid., 136 13. Ibid,.139 14. Ibid,.142 15. .Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 16.Stankard, Mark. "Recovering Mies Vander Rohe's Weissenhof: The Ultimate Surface." Journal of Architectual Education , May 2002, 55/4: 247 55, no. 4 (2002): 247. 17."Weissenhofsiedlung." Weissenhofsiedlung. Accessed September 12, 2014. http://www.weissenhof2002. de/english/weissenhof.html.

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM "DAP" DAP accessed November 3, 2014 http:// www.architecturalpapers.ch

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The formless, rapid growth of Chicago informed a plan to organize its built environment. Regarded as a practical urban visionary, Daniel Burnham took part in the establishment of The Plan of Chicago, proposing urbanization to be the defining factor of modernity. In order to serve the functional needs of a densely populated city, the Plan sought to take the city apart and restore it ensuing high aesthetic standards. Situated in the Printing House Row District, the Monadnock Building designed by Burnham & Root and Holabird & Roche, is one of Chicago's early skyscrapers. It served acclimatization towards urbanization during the Pre-CIAM period of 1850-1927. The construction of the Monadnock Building utilized the technique of masonry bearing walls with a metal interior structure. The use of an interior steel skeleton allowed the development of a taller building, without the sacrifice of usable land area. This aided in the spatial layout of the city, as well as a solution to define streets and public spaces. As a result, the Monadnock Building was regarded as a unique response to the rapid growth of the business society, while unifying science, commerce, and art. The simplicity and lack of ornamentation turns slowly towards modernity, allowing CIAM principles to emerge and develop the conversation of urbanism.

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MONADNOCK BUILDING Burnham & Root and Holabird & Roche 1891-1893 Chicago, Illinois Jamie Tong

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Introduction

In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed much of the city’s central business district. Following the fire, the city was quickly reconstructed and greatly spurred in economic and population growth.1 Olmstead believed that the city needed to improve on their building techniques. The World’s Columbian Exposition, designed in 1893 by Burnham and Olmstead, was a proposal for a new city plan following the Beaux Arts principles of symmetry, balance, and splendor. During the implementation of the World’s Columbian Exposition, The Monadnock Building was simultaneously being developed. Located at 53 West Jackson Boulevard in the southern Loop of Chicago, the building designed by Burnham and Root was a unique response to the rapidly urbanizing business society.2 The building is an abstract combination of pre-Greek Egyptian forms and suggestive of an Egyptian pylon.3 The total absence of exterior ornamentation on the north half of the building focuses on its form and structure, while the south half of the building displays an early application of classical architectural principles. The Monadnock Building marks a historic transition into the development of structural methods, projecting CIAM ideals and principles for the following years. 4 Context

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In 1885, the construction of the Chicago Board Trade Building made nearby streets the city’s prime financial district. This drove up the property values towards the southeastern

end of the Loop. The construction of the Monadnock Building contributed to the growing economic sector of the southern end of the Loop.5 The Monadnock Building was also designed to operate as four separate office buildings, primarily serving independent professional firms.6 As Chicago grew more quickly, the population in the 1890s increased by 600,000. Transportation became an important issue, due to highly congested traffic and a lack of order to pedestrian flow. Before Burnham’s Plan of Chicago was integrated in the city, streets were narrow and the network system was undeveloped. Electric streetcars and the first lines of the elevated railway system opened in the 1890s.7 Illustrated in Figure 1 is a figure-ground plan of the surrounding site of the Monadnock Building in 1890. The amount and basic forms of buildings can be compared to those in Figure 2, which shows a figure-ground plan of the present site. Due to the rapid growth of the city, lot sizes have become smaller while more buildings have been constructed. Presently, the Jackson Street subway station, serving the Blue Line, is located on the Dearborn Street side of the building.8 Due to the development of the World’s Columbian Exposition, Burnham and Olmsted contributed to a revival of Beaux Arts architecture. Considered one of the world’s most influential fairs, the city became a leader in modern architecture and in developing a vertical city.9 Monadnock Building

The Monadnock Building is located on a site

belonging to the Printing House Row District. It was originally the center of Chicago’s printing and publishing industry. The area is composed of the Harold Washington Library, the largest public library in the world, and the Loop campus of DePaul University.10 The southern Loop of Chicago started to develop after the construction of the Dearborn Street train station. This boosted the commercial activity in the area, attracting printers and publishers for commercial development.11 At the time, the city proposed an ordinance restricting the height of buildings to 46m. The original design for the Monadnock Building was 16 storeys high, thus a permit was applied for and was granted on June 3, 1889. At the time of construction, the surrounding area composed of one-storey houses, making it unusual to propose a 16 storey building on the site. Due to the unique scale of the building and the progressive growth of the economy near the southern end of the Loop, the building aided in bringing success to the area. Overall, the building was to be designed with minimal ornamentation and projections. The north half of the building was composed of loadbearing walls; 1.8m thick at the bottom and 0.46m thick at the top. The north half is the tallest building ever built that is supported primarily by brick walls. The south half of the building was built in the same way, but is entirely supported by steel frame construction. It displays an early application of classical architectural principles as well as a development in structural systems.12 Together, the two parts of the building makes up a frontage of 130m with small

Since the Monadnock Building was designed while the World’s Columbian Exposition was taking place, it drew upon design principles of French neoclassical architecture – symmetry, balance, and splendour. The idea of simplicity was to be embraced, leading to a design free of ornamentation. While developing the Functional City, Le Corbusier believed that height is an essential element in determining urbanism. Height was one of the main issues during the design phase of the Monadnock Building. It was a very unique and ambitious approach to improving the economic and

In light of emerging CIAM principles, the Monadnock Building aimed to meet social and economical needs, while keeping in mind a modern and urban design approach. The design development of the building starts to create a conversation with the key principles that arose from CIAM. While the building was constructed in two phases, both stages continually aimed towards a modern approach while creating a new identity for the urban core of the city. The lack of ornamentation on the north half of the building further emphasized structure and modern architectural elements. When the south half of the building came into development, Holabird & Roche wanted to achieve the same height, but with a lighter structure. The south half of the building was achieved by supporting the building

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Success was brought to the southern Loop of Chicago after the rebuilding of the city due to the Great Chicago Fire. The urban core of the city was to be built with immense solidity, aiming to modernize the city. The Monadnock Building paved paths for taller buildings to commence in the area. Great heights were brought to buildings as they became feasible, and businesses favoured their operational efficiency and symbolic

CIAM

social development of the urban core. Aside from the simplicity of the façade, the height of the building drew attention to the site. It was used as a means of defining the streets and public spaces. Developing the verticality of the building also led to more rentable spaces, thus opening more opportunities for business.17

JAMIE TONG

Economic Development

potential. The development of the core also progressed in a social aspect. The Monadnock Building rented out very quickly and was the largest office building in the world. An increase in congestion developed towards the southern Loop of Chicago.15 “Architecture as a social art” became a manifesto for CIAM. The Monadnock Building was influential on the further development of the southern Loop of Chicago, allowing for more high-rise buildings to arise. It was also an economic tool in driving business towards the south.16

THE MONADNOCK BUILDING

entryways. The slight inward curve of the parapet and progressive rounding corners from bottom to top makes the building subtly proportioned and scaled. The lack of ornamentation projects a powerful and expressive composition in horizontal and vertical lines.13 The narrow form of the building was a result of how the adjacent streets bisected the city blocks in the area. Figure 3 shows how the side streets guided the development of the narrow building lot. The narrowness of the building also allows for natural light to pass through all of the 300 offices, while skylights bring natural daylight into the open stairwells.14

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Figure-ground 1890 Figure-ground present Building and site axo Exterior image in 1912

entirely by a steel frame with a brick faĂ§ade, presently termed curtain wall construction. It displayed an early application of classical architectural principles. Most of the highrises that preceded the Monadnock Building followed the use of steel frame construction.18 Conclusion

The success of the Monadnock Building in terms of its economic, social, and architectural contribution starts to develop the path for discussion of CIAM principles. With the rapid growth of the city, the building responds to its demands at the time in a unique way. It was an extreme approach to modern architecture, and developed new structural techniques. The Monadnock Building takes its first steps into modern architecture with its lack of ornamentation, allowing for the building to speak with purpose and a functional expression. With its ambitious proposal of 16 storeys, it helped rebuild the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic and social sector. The building can be seen as a precursor to the CIAM period in how it resulted in the overall economic and social benefit of the city. The building not only made a monumental mark for itself in architectural design, but also sparked a new approach in the urban development of Chicago.19

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1 Chicago - Monadnock Building 1912 Postcard. 2012. (http://chuckmanchicagonostalgia.wordpress. com/2012/03/19/postcard-chicago-monadnock-building-aerial-nice-version-1912/postcard-chicagomonadnock-building-aerial-nice-version-1912/).

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1 "Chicago Fire of 1871." History.com. http://www.history.com/topics/great-chicago-fire (accessed October 24, 2014). 2 "History." Monadnock Building. http://www.monadnockbuilding.com/history.htm (accessed October 25, 2014). 3 Hines, Thomas S.. Burnham of Chicago, Architect and Planner. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. 4 "History." Monadnock Building. http://www.monadnockbuilding.com/history.htm (accessed October 25, 2014). 5 Salisbury, Joanna. Chicago 1890: The Skyscraper and the Modern City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009. 6 "History." Monadnock Building. http://www.monadnockbuilding.com/history.htm (accessed October 25, 2014). 7 "Chicago in the 1890s." The University of Chicago Library. http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/collections/ maps/chi1890/ (accessed October 23, 2014). 8 Solomon, Alan. "Printers Row: One-Time Printing District Becomes a Popular Residential Area." Explore Chicago. 9 Bluestone, Daniel M.. Constructing Chicago. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991. 10 Solomon, Alan. "Printers Row: One-Time Printing District Becomes a Popular Residential Area." Explore Chicago. http://www.explorechicago.org/city/en/neighborhoods/printers_row.html (accessed October 25, 2014). 11 "Printers Row." A View on Cities. http://www.aviewoncities.com/chicago/printersrow.htm (accessed October 22, 2014). 12 "History." Monadnock Building. http://www.monadnockbuilding.com/history.htm (accessed October 25, 2014). 13 Condit, Carl W.. The Chicago School of Architecture: A History of Commercial and Public Building in the Chicago Area, 1875-1925. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. 14 Keohan, Thomas G.. Preserving Historic Office Building Corridors. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1989. 15 "Global Chicago." Encyclopedia of Chicago. http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/277. html (accessed October 25, 2014).- 17. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 16 - 17 Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 18 - 19 "History." Monadnock Building. http://www.monadnockbuilding.com/history.htm (accessed October 25, 2014).

JAMIE TONG

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM The Monadnock Building. 2012. By Patrick Hummel. (http://blog. nhstateparks.org/monadnock-trails-report-10-20-12/).

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Welwyn Garden city is one of the first communities guided by modern planning. Welwyn was founded in 1919 by Ebenezer Howard, embodying his Garden city concept. The town included the benefits of the city and the country, such as low cost living, ample parkland, clean air, sufficient sources of work and transportation, sociable qualities, sense of community, and natural lighting and green space to inhabitants. The garden city concept arose from social and physical need. Cities were becoming over-crowded with poor living standards in the late 19th century due to negligible planning of cities, and unmitigated sprawl. The desire for stable, healthier lives, coupled with the shortage of housing after World War One led to the creation of Welwyn Garden City. Housing was set back from the main streets and railroads, and separated from industrial sites, careful juxtaposition of residential and industrial areas allowed for selfsufficient communities as well the inclusion of parks and trees in the city. These main ideas are present in both the Garden City concept and the Athens charter. However, the Athens charter focused on larger apartment buildings and working with existing cities, the garden city concept described new towns of low density with houses and small apartments that would be created outside of existing cities.

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WELWYN GARDEN CITY Louis de Soisons 1919 Hertsfordshire Zac Topp

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Welwyn Garden City Ideals

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The industrial city of England was a hazard to the working and lower classes health. In London, years of sustained growth coupled with little zoning regulations and planning had reduced many neighbourhoods to slums. Nearing the end of the 19th century, it became apparent that social reform was needed. Ebenezer Howard, a stenographer for parliament, listened in to current issues and formed his own response. His ideas were articulated in his 1898 publication: To-Morrow: a Peaceful Path to Real Reform, and later re-published as Garden Cities of To-morrow. His ideas called for a new type of city; one that incorporated the ideals of both the country and the city, and left out the inconveniences of both.1 His pushed for the implementation of his ideas and built Letchworth Garden City in 1903. After seeing his first project take off, he founded Welwyn Garden City in 1919. Welwyn was built north of London in Hertfordshire. Howard hired Louis de Soissons, an architect trained at the Royal Academy in London and The École de Beau Arts in Paris,2 to produce a master plan based on his reforms. Welwyn incorporated zoning through aesthetics and physical separation of building types. Welwyn used density, infiltration of gardens, buffer zones as well as green belts to improve working class health. These ideas were studied by the Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) and were incorporated in the Charter of Athens. The Charter of Athens was a document that cumulated the thoughts of urban planning and design of prominent

architects and designers of the modern era. Welwyn also incorporated Howard’s public ownership principals, where the city company owned the land and used rents and incomes to better the conditions of the residents. Natural Context

Howard proposed that garden cities should be built in the country. They could translate the low cost of land into low rents and open nature infused plans. The city plan was a regional one that included the surrounding country. Howard and his investors bought a large estate put up for auction by Lord Desborough. He also purchased more land from Lord Salisbury and ended up with around 2400 acres of land.3 The land was largely undeveloped farm land. Underneath the fertile soil were deposits of sand, gravel, and brick clay. Most of the city was built on a large plateau in the middle of the land with excellent drainage and soil quality. The Site was divided by the Great Northern Railway mainline, a busy artery connecting the northern England to London’s King Cross station, and two branch lines. To the west of the site was the Great Northern Road, a historic, well-traveled, stagecoach route leading from London to Edinburg. These two means of transport meant that London, which was 32km away was easily reachable for citizens of Welwyn.4 Conceptual Context

Country and cities have long been the

opposite of each other, and the turn of the 20th century was no different. Cities like London had been improving their hygiene, but were still centres for disease. Tuberculosis and influenza were leading causes of deaths. The great influenza outbreak of 1918 killed two hundred and fifty thousand people in Britain,5 with cities being especially hard hit. Cities had higher death rates then birth rates.6 However their economic disposition led to many people to move there. The country was a healthier place, birth rates exceeded death rates and people lived in relatively well lit, fresh aired, verdant cottages estates. The agricultural revolution had modernized farming and caused tradition labourers practice to become unsustainable. Many people were left without sufficient income. Welwyn embodied the garden city concept and tried to incorporate the benefits of both without the problems. The city of Welwyn had very little government interference. The only involvement was In July 1921; the housing act allowed Welwyn to apply and receive a loan from the new Public Works Loan Commissioners.7 Most control originated from the parent company, Welwyn Garden City Limited. The parent company dealt with fund and rent collection as well as the expenses and subsidiary companies. The Parent company appointed Louis de Soissons as head architect, who controlled and regulated the zoning of the town. Building schemes, heights and plans had to be approved by de Soissons; many buildings were drawn up by him. The only pre-existing zoning conditions for the site were the railway needed a 650ft way leave.8

ZAC TOPP

In the industrial city, conditions of the average resident were appalling. High cost of land led to multiple people crammed into small living spaces. The buildings had little access to sunlight, fresh air, and green spaces. The Garden city sought to fight all of these conditions. By developing farmland it kept rental prices low. It set down a maximum density of ten houses per acre, and an average of eight houses per acre.11 This helped produce houses that were economically feasible, but still received plenty of sunlight, and ventilation. Loius de Soissons -following Howard’s ideals- sought to integrate as much greenery with the houses as possible. Trees

were planted along the streets and in cul-desacs, houses had ample back lots for personal gardens, and natural views and forests were preserved. Circulation was originally done with narrow gravel roads with grass shoulders, keeping the rural feel of the land. An official greenbelt was formed around the town, to preserve the views and beauty of the land. The industrial area was segregated from the residential spaces by the railway setback as well as playing fields and garden, helping keep the residential section free of pollution. The living conditions of Welwyn proved to be beneficial and popular with the public, by 1927, the population had reached 6149.12 The CIAM looked at residential conditions as well, and set up several guidelines that are similar to Welwyn, including proliferation of verdant spaces, buffer zones between residential and industry, and permanent green belts. One difference was how the CIAM proposed to handle density. Higher density was promoted by the charter; attainable by using modern building materials like steel. Welwyn did not utilize modern materials and technologies, and mainly consisterd of two-storey houses. The Garden City Concept dealt a great deal with social reform of the land ownership

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In the industrial city, growth had led to factories being pushed out to the peripheries of cities, increasing commuting times for some workers, and polluting the adjacent homes of others. The Garden city sought to increase health and travel times with its plan. One of chief principals was the segregation and grouping of different land uses. (Figure 3) Residential sections were grouped together along the edge of the town. They shared similar characteristics such as cul-de-sacs and curved meandering roads. Also, the houses were built in groups, sharing the same characteristics; early ones had mansard roofs, later had gabled, and almost all were built in Neo-Georgian style.9 The Commercial and Institutional core was located centrally, along balanced grid like streets of the main parkway. Welwyn Garden city created industrial land on the east side of the railway. This location allowed the industry to take advantage of rail transport, building their own spurs to facilitate the efficient shipping of their products, and it allowed extra workers to come in from London. The industrial buildings shared a

common aesthetic with elegantly designed reinforced concrete structures.10 These zoning ideas proved to be sustainable decisions, creating a beneficial town for the working class. They were similarly found in the Carter of Athens. It identified that “places of work – factories, craft workshops, business and public administration offices, and commercial premises – are no longer rationally located within the urban complex” ( Athens charter, 1943) and decried that they needed rationalized and central grouping.

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CIAM Principles

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construction process 01 zoning in planning 02

system, one area that the Athens charter did not. Howard had extensively researched a co-operative land ownership system, determining that it was feasible with the current market conditions. He believed that the profits made off of rent of the working class should be returned to the community; spent on public buildings and amenities. This was tried in Letchworth but it never was fully realized. The public ownership principal was tried again in Welwyn. To implement this idea, a parent company called Welwyn Garden City Limited was set up with a large margin of control over Welwyn. The company was run by a board of directors, elected by shareholders. The company managed the town well, keeping rent low while managing and maintaining a network roads, sewers, water and gas. The parent company also had undertakings that ran the gravel and sand pit, the theatre, a plant nursery, playing fields, commercial buildings and many others. This system worked at initialization, but operating costs rose throughout the early 20th century. Many sub-companies were sold off and the parent company itself was incorporated into government ownership as a new town in 1947.13 Although this idea was not fully successful for Welwyn, it was principles were applied to modern housing co-ops with success.

1889, before modern inventions like the car were widespread, because of this, the design of Welwyn did not address automobiles. It implemented many of Ebenezer Howardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s beneficial ideas on social reform. Welwyn incorporated zoning and planning, using it to segregate different land uses. It also used design principals such as low density, incorporated greenery as well as designated gardens, buffer zones and green belts to produce a healthy environment for residents. It also pioneered modern public land ownership practices with its innovative shared town ownership principles. Many of these ideas were featured in the Athens Charter, and developments around the world.

Conclusion

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Welwyn proved to be a successful development. It provided good quality housing and was self-sufficient. One short fall was its design principles were formed in

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1 Howard, Ebenezer, and Frederic J. Osborn. Garden cities of to-morrow. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1965. Print. 2 "The Louis de Soissons Partnership." Practice history. http://www.louisdesoissons.co.uk/history/ (accessed September 15, 2014). 3 Macfadyen, Dugald. Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement.Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1970. Print. 4 Norman Lucey. "Sir Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement." Sir Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement.http://www.rickmansworthherts.freeserve.co.uk/howard1.htm (accessed September 14, 2014). 5 "1918 Influenza: the Mother of All Pandemics - Volume 12, Number 1-January 2006 - Emerging Infectious Disease journal - CDC." 1918 Influenza: the Mother of All Pandemics - Volume 12, Number 1-January 2006 - Emerging Infectious Disease journal- CDC. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2014. <http://wwwnc. cdc.gov/eid/article/12/1/05-0979_article>. 6 Reader, John. Cities. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2004. Print.7 Macfadyen, Dugald. Sir Ebenezer Howard and the town planning movement.Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1970. Print. 7 Norman Lucey. "Sir Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement." Sir Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement.http://www.rickmansworthherts.freeserve.co.uk/howard1.htm (accessed September 14, 2014). 8 Osborn, Frederic J.. Genesis of Welwyn Garden City; some jubilee memories.London: Town and Country 9 Planning Association, 1970.10 "A factory in Welwyn Garden city." Concrete Quarterly 29 (1956): 2-6. http://www.concretecentre.com/pdf/cq_029.pdf (accessed September 14, 2014). 10 Soissons, Louis de. Report of the Welwyn Garden City Development Corporation;.Welwyn Garden City, Eng.: Welwyn Garden City Development Corp., 1949. Print. 11 Hertfordshire regional planning report, 1927. Westminster, London: W.R.Davidge, 1928. Print. 12 Norman Lucey. "Sir Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement." Sir Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement.http://www.rickmansworthherts.freeserve.co.uk/howard1.htm (accessed September 14,2014

COVER AND FINAL IMAGE SOURCED FROM Soissons, Louis de. Report of the Welwyn Garden City Development Corporation;. Welwyn Garden City, Eng.: Welwyn Garden City Development Corp., 1949. Print.

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The architectural history of Scotland's urban approaches to site planning and development during the pre-CIAM era stands uniquely apart from the CIAM strategies of the modern design movement. The focus of this paper will investigate how planning and urban design of New Lanark successfully informed both the site and its inhabitants throughout plans, objectives, massing, and political, social, physical and cultural contexts. Originally designed by David Dale and modified by Robert Owens, analysis of New Lanark's Pre-CIAM style of urban landscapes brought rationality and enlightenment to its residents. Isolated, ordered, and manipulative planning and architectural practises were produced as a result of CIAM's tenets. Modern urbanization had segregated the development of urban planning and architecture from its primal source: the people. Unlike the ideas of the CIAM, New Lanark was an innovative urban site that proposed humane concern for the entire community population through functional planning of industrial, residential and community buildings. It was an integrated environment that promoted work, identity, experiential atmospheres and other sufficient community conditions for the residents' well-being and quality of life. The values and successes of building and designing equally to benefit the environment and the well-being of its inhabitants was New Lanark's approach of an industrial fabric. This paper illustrates that urban planning and architecture based on CIAM doctrines disconnect from the beneficial opportunities that New Lanark once provided.

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VILLAGE OF NEW LANARK David Dale & Robert Owen 1786-1968 South Lankshire, Scotland Samantha Turchyn

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Pre-CIAM versus CIAM The Pre-Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne era, also known as the Pre-Modern society, was a period in architectural history where urban approaches to site planning and design development stood uniquely apart from the CIAM strategies of the modern design movement. This history of differentiation in urban design techniques of projects had shifted dramatically from simple human concern to the domination of economic and political power. Organized by a group of European Modernist Architects in 1928, the CIAM formalized architectural principles that fundamentally affected the future of urban societies across the globe.1 As society had become more industrialized during the 20th century, the CIAM believed it was important to strive for greater efficiency by embracing new technologies and promoting change from complex agricultural settings to uniformly standardized environments. Their strategies demanded new ways of maintaining individualized power over a uniformed population through highly authoritative principles of design. The influences of the CIAM constructed a forced urban plan that omitted previous characteristics of what true communities were all about. In relation to the isolated, ordered, and manipulative planning and architectural practises that were produced as a result of CIAM’s tenets, urbanization had segregated the development of urban planning and architecture from its primal source: the people.

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In comparison to an urban modern landscape that based methodologies on control and rigid functionality, the Pre-CIAM era was a time where

improving the standard of living in relation to site dominated the purpose behind planning and actually building. The architectural history of Scotland’s urban approaches to site planning and architecture during the Pre-Modern era stands in significant contrast to the techniques established by the CIAM. Illustrated throughout plans, objectives, massing, and political, social, physical and cultural contexts this differentiation can be clearly seen through the analysis of historic precedents dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries. The planning and design of New Lanark located in South Lankshire, Scotland is a project that should definitely be recognized as a successful canon of architectural history achieved prior to the doctrines of the CIAM. Like New Lanark, slavery and poverty were fundamental features of early cities. The immigration of the poor into cities for a better quality of life led to challenges of population explosions. “During this period Scotland was a country that was in the forefront of the struggle to improve the lot of the working class”.2 Offering tremendous innovative ways to improve the outcomes of the Napoleonic war crisis in Europe, New Lanark had become recognized as a successful and healthy utopian village solution for the explosion of poverty and for the future growth of urban landscapes.

planning ideas published by the CIAM, Owen’s philosophy of industrial urban planning was to demonstrate that it was not necessary for industrial enterprises to treat its workers poorly to be profitable. Instead he believed that basing planning methodologies on improving the standard of living in relation to site would not only bring health benefits for the local people but it would also act as a key motivator for higher productivity. In a speech made by Owen in 1816 he states, “I know that society may be formed so as to exist without crime, without poverty, with health greatly improved, with little, if any misery, and with intelligence and happiness increased a hundredfold”.4 New Lanark was essentially an experimental project where Owen tested his utopian schemes of improving health, education, well-being and rights of the working class. He proposed a planned community for those affected by the war crisis in hope that they would find refuge from common poverty and unemployment during that time. By implementing “social and welfare programmes” to the existing industrial environment, New Lanark had evolved into a new influential social model for the future of industry.5 It was style that the CIAM disregarded and failed to incorporate in their future movements of planning and architecture.

Situated next to the basin of the River Clyde, one of Scotland’s largest rivers, New Lanark became the primary location for cotton mill production.2 Taking advantage of the natural water power provided by the waterfalls of the river offered new opportunities for a self-sufficient community. Originally founded by David Dale in 1786 and later modified by his son-in-law Robert Owen, New Lanark had become a successful business area in industrial working.3 Unlike the contemporary

In light of the conclusions stated in the Athens Charter for the future of urbanisation, history has “obviously taught us that urban plans based on the CIAM principles became a failure”.6 Instead of taking a totalitarian approach by controlling the pattern of urban growth through zoning and replication of projects for economical purposes, New Lanark was successful for its egalitarianism practises. Maintaining the idea that all inhabitants are equal can be seen through the physical context

Owen’s plans and ideas concerning pedestrian flows can be seen through the analysis of historic photographs and paintings. These artifacts show unique planning techniques that divided work from living, learning and play without fully isolating either into separate unequal entities. “Reservoirs were cut through rock to build long tunnels for storing and carrying water to the mills during summer months to continue mill operations”.8 The use of a man-made reservoir cutting through half of the site allowed Owen to create a boundary for pedestrian circulation. Although the site was not physically separated into two divisions, the central waterway allowed for a visual organization of community movement. Streetscapes above and below the reservoir were both equally planned long and wide. The only difference between the two was that the streets closest to the mills allowed flows for horse and carriage and transportation of goods and waste. The areas encompassing the remainder of the village programme were designated primarily as walking-oriented streets for the health and safety of the local peoples. It can be seen that through the project of New Lanark, physical context of a

In terms of social and cultural contexts, New Lanark at the time was recognized as a significant factory village that qualified as a model for future community visions. When Owen took charge of New Lanark he believed that it was essential to have happy workers and make money.5 Owen’s idea of providing residences with home, work and educational opportunities within the same village area was praised for its production of happy and comfortable people with minimal illnesses and bad behaviour. New Lanark at the time contained only approximately 2,500 people.7 It was a lowdensity village community that was very close knit and everyone knew each other. Individual identity played a significant role in New Lanark’s utopian scheme. It was a society where all locals lived, worked, learnt and interacted together as an intertwined group. Beyond the four main mills that manufactured cotton, Owen also provided housing, education and welfare spaces that was unique to factory communities. In addition, Owen introduced a nursery and day school that brought not only evening classes, but dances and bands as well.5 His urban-rural practises go even farther to support well-being and happiness by welcoming

New Lanark Village

River Clyde

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River Clyde

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landscape can be modified through urban planning and architecture to meet the needs and vision of a true working community.

THE VILLAGE OF NEW LANARK

was still able to achieve humane moral, social and environmental values that the modern movement failed to incorporate.

PRE-CIAM

of Owen’s design. His new plans for the factory village illustrates a programme of residential, industrial and community buildings that could be easily accessible to all of its inhabitants. Each type of programme was articulated as identical rectangular buildings of 3 to 4 storeys in height. The forms and massings had no higher or lower value than another. In fact materiality of good proportion, sandstone masonry and simplicity of detail could be seen as a reoccurring architectural theme throughout the village.7 Therefore this technique allowed the idea of various social classes and gender values to dissolve and create one intermixed community. The valley of the Clyde where the community evolved was a naturally constructed site, but its odd orientation did not take away from anyone’s adequate living conditions. By incorporating wide streets adjacent buildings were planned far enough apart to allow sunlight into the lower floors of every housing block. Not only was the built fabric focused on providing equal living conditions for the villagers, but the open public green spaces were too. Owen introduced a woodland park where villagers could enjoy the sunshine and fresh air. He even implemented housing block gardens where residents could grow their own vegetables and herbs for their families and the fellow community. Lacking the symmetry of contemporary grid-planned cities, New Lanark

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Ground Figure Plan (Pre-Development) 01 Ground Figure Plan (Post-Development) 02 Exterior Perspective & Reservoir Divison 03 Site Plan Programming Zones 04

a village store where workers and their families could buy good quality food at fair prices. The village of New Lanark simply seemed like the Scottish dream. Jam-packed with various cultural gathering spaces and social opportunities this particular society exemplified the true meaning of planning a “community”.

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“A community is a strong network of unified individuals characterised by similar interests, connectedness, equity, respect for diversity, and recognition of interdependence”.9 During the Pre-CIAM era projects like New Lanark portrayed “community” as a straightforward notion. Defined through spatial proximity of programme, experiential atmospheres and environments for equal opportunities, New Lanark was one successful village community that functioned together as a whole. “The community exhibits the general appearance of industry, temperance, comfort, health, and happiness. These are and ever will be the sure and certain effects of the principles, and when applied with judgement, will effectually reform the most vicious community existing”.10 Ever since the establishment of the CIAM’s doctrines on urban planning and architectural design, the true structure and value of a public society began to disintegrate. Qualities including health conditions, equality and ideal happiness for all citizens became lost in the desperate search for economic interdependence. During the CIAM era it was important to step away from the traditional thinking that a community was a group of people with human values and instead interpret it as a geographical location with potential for profit and power. Landscapes that were seen as one element became separated by the conclusions of the Athens Charter. Modernist orthodoxies influenced cities to be designed full of “high widely spaced

apartment blocks of carefully functional zones, separated from one another by acres of landscaped green belts”.11 Urban planning and architecture of the Modern Movement began to segregate away from its initial roots shifting to money as the focal point. During this period people were used as mere tools for authoritative gains. Treated like living machines people became the main sources of income. Without residences there would be no buildings, but a world without inhabitants did not exist and so people were forced to find a place to live. People living in urban cities became victim to the economic game. As Owen once stated, “to those termed heroes and conquerors, or to their followers; for their minds have been trained to consider the infliction of human misery”.10 Members of the CIAM essentially took large populations of people and organized them vertically on the same piece of land. It was a tactic where value for the site’s land became no match for the profit made by the selling of each unit above. People were literally encouraged to live in massproduced vertical towers where every unit looked no different from another. Living in these spaces masked the sense of individual identity and took away from the importance of personal skills that people once shared in New Lanark’s village. Is this what “community” is all about? Where economic isolation of individuals prevailed over working and living together as a group? In relation to the CIAM’s planning strategies humane concern and the sense of belonging disappeared. All of Owen’s work to plan and construct an urban village based on strong bonds and community values seemed to be forgotten. Alison and Peter Smithsons’ concerns for the future of cities could be seen at the CIAM’s 1953 Congress. “Belonging’ is a basic emotional need- its associations are of the simplest order. From ‘belonging’- identity- comes

the enriching sense of neighbourliness”.11 Worried that this vision would lead to “sterile cities, devoid of community spirit and characterised by individual isolation” the Smithson’s proved that the principles of urbanization missed the point of what true communities require.11 It can clearly be identified that the urban planning of New Lanark was ahead of other factory villages of its time. The era prior to the formalization of the CIAM demonstrated a need for environmental functionality with the progression of industrialization. New Lanark’s successes in planning and architectural strategies provided proof that communal harmony within a natural rural-urban setting was possible. “Owen’s general theory was that character is formed by the effects of the environment upon the individual”.12 His approach to design was neither rigid nor invasive to the surrounding environment. It was a simple layout of buildings, streets and open spaces that lay parallel with the River Clyde and allowed inhabitants to maintain identity and happiness throughout all indoor and outdoor spaces of the village. Like Owen the CIAM encouraged neighbourliness too. However, the community they advocated for was a forced, rigid, man-made and an artificial failure. “What should have been a space for everyone, became ‘lost space’ – a lost space of which nobody cares, which is used as left-over space for parking cars, a space where people feel unsafe and disoriented”.6 The Modern Movement created a period that deprived lives from the natural necessities of community and identity values. Analysing the accomplishments of New Lanark and the downfalls of the CIAM principles it is clear that urban planning and architectural design are vital to human happiness.

Walkable Street Pedestrian-Oriented

River Clyde

Industrial Street Carriage-Oriented

Artificial Reservoir

Housing Rows Dale’s House Owen’s House Nursery Building Village Store School Lodges Mills Cotton Stores & Preparation Rooms Iron & Brass Foundry Mechanic’s Workshop Gasworks Dundaff Linn Waterfall Lade Water Channel Formation of Character” Institution

FIGURES 1, 2, 5, 6 New Lanark Case Study. Painting. South Lankshire: New Lanark Heritage Site. Online. Accessed October 21, 2014. http://www.newlanark.org/learningzone/newlanarkcasestudy.php 3: New Lanark Visitor Centre. Photograph. South Lankshire:Visit Scotland,2014.Online. Accessed October 21, 2014.http://www.visitscotland.com/info/see-do/new-lanark-visitor-centre-p255251 4: Brooke,Henry. "Portrait of Robert Owen". Painting.London, 1834. Online. Accessed October 21, 2014. http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait.php?search=ap&npgno=943&eDate=&lDate=

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Site Plan Legend

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River Clyde

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New Lanark Village

1 "CIAM (Congres Internationaux D'Architecture Moderne)." OpenLearn. November 26, 2001. Accessed October 17, 2014. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/ciam-congres-internationaux-darchitecture-moderne 2 Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, s. v. "Lanarkshire". Accessed October 17, 2014. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/328962/Lanarkshire 3 Donnachie, Ian, and George Hewitt. Historic New Lanark. Oxford: Alden Press, 1993. 55. Accessed October 17, 2014. http://books.google.ca/books?id=B1NalVQplPQC&pg=PA142&dq=New+Lanark+had+become+a+successful+business+area+in+industrial+working&hl=en&sa=X&ei=LfNKVLHHEsyiyATOn4JQ&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=successful%20business%20area%20in%20industrial%20working&f=false 4 "A Revolutionary Utopia at New Lanark." The AA. Accessed October 18, 2014. http://www.theaa.com/ walks/a-revolutionary-utopia-at-new-lanark-656478#background 5 "New Lanark Case Study A Wee History." Children & Cotton Learning Zone. Accessed October 18, 2014. http://www.newlanark.org/learningzone/newlanarkcasestudy.php 6 Van Lent, Roel. "The Urban Question." In The Rise and Fall of CIAM Urbanism. 2008. Accessed October 18, 2014. http://www.roelvanlent.com/essays/THE%20RISE%20AND%20FALL%20OF%20CIAM%20URBANISM.pdf 7 "New Lanark - an Introduction." New Lanark Conservation. July 2002. Accessed October 19, 2014. http://www.newlanark.org/introduction.pdf 8 "WORLD HERITAGE LIST Nomination Form." WHC Nomination Documentation. September 2001. Accessed October 19, 2014. http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/429rev.pdf 9 What Is a Community? Performed by Anthropologist Dr Dominic Bryan and Sixth Form Students. Northern Ireland: Youtube, 2014. Film. Accessed October 19, 2014. http://www.citationmachine.net/chicago/cite-a-film/create 10 Owen, Robert. "A New View of Society." Essays on the Principle of the Formation of the Human Character, and the Application of the Principle to Practice. Accessed October 19, 2014. http:// socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/owen/newview.txt 11 "Peter and Alison Smithson." OpenLearn. November 26, 2001. Accessed October 20, 2014. http://www. open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/peter-and-alison-smithson 12 Kreis, Steven. "Robert Owen, 1771-1858." The History Guide Lectures on Modern European Intellectual History. May 14, 2004. Accessed October 20, 2014. http://historyguide.org/intellect/owen.html

03 (Image 6)

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Towards the dawn of the 19th century, with the urban economic boom and the rise of urban density from the industrial evolution came unsanitary and overpopulated cities. The establishment of the Marshall Field Wholesale Building by H.H. Richardson arguably marked the birth of what many people term 'The Chicago School' brought much inspiration to urban reform ideas, including the preliminary inspirations for CIAM, the influential 19th century modernist group. The building was an unprecedented scale, demonstrating technical achievement in structure, and materiality. Ultimately it set a new language in urban typologies became a new statement of urban commercial form. The early years of CIAM share many similar ideas that the building explores and as a result it can be said that Marshall Wholesale buildings has influenced new ideas in planning and architecture that arguably lead to the foundation of CIAM. The extent of the buildings influence can be explored from two major standpoints. Firstly, the Marshall Field Wholesale Building created a new urban typology from its unprecedented form and scale. The other is that H.H. Richardson's innovative architectural thinking of urban form is understood through a tectonic appraoch. From these two standpoints, the Wholesale Marshall building was monumental in its influence towards planning Chicago, and gave rise to early Pre-CIAM ideas that rose to impact the creation of CIAM.

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MARSHALL FIELD'S WHOLESALE BUILDING H.H.Richardson 1885 Chicago, Illinois Roger Xu

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Introduction

Chicago has always been a city well known for its architecture and cohesive design at the urban scale. Its architectural style in particular has been refined and developed into its own school of architecture. One particular building, sitting arguably at its pinnacle is the Marshall Wholesale Building, by Henry Hobson Richardson. The building was commissioned in 1885 by the wealthy entrepreneur Marshall Field who focused on two types of services: wholesale goods and retail merchandise. Richardson’s approach to this project was intended to create a commercial structure that would reflect the power and boldness of modern commerce.1 The building was situated in an enormous site block, yet Richardson was still able to creating a monumental building that was subtle in the overall context, a landmark without being intrusive. In light of CIAM ideas and the Athens Charter publication, this paper will examine the building from an urban and planning perspective; an approach on the context informing the architecture. The store was an important landmark at its time, significant for two key ideas. Firstly the building develop a new representation of typology for Chicago; an emphasis on urban commercial form. The other idea being that the building developed a new sense scale, from its whole to its tectonic and materiality. These two ideas arguably played an important role in developing CIAM ideas, especially in regards to scale, height, zoning and social considerations.

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Site and Program

The Wholesale store was located in Chicago a central railway hub and supplier of good for the American west. Retail was the glamour of the city and the site was in the heart of it, a heavy commercial district. The site itself is situated on a massive lot, which was actually collected over a period of time from 31 different separate lots2 as seen in Figure 1. This generated an entire block that left Richardson to work with and a problem of how to create such a massive building in an elegant and efficient way. Furthermore given that it occupied the entire block, it had four corner conditions to deal with. The building covering over 500,000 square feet in gross area in seven stories was rather large considering its relationship to its neighbouring buildings.3 The large scale forced Richardson to give particular attention to the streets. Being in a large commercial district with broad streets at right angles, the Wholesale building was surrounded with an openness of movement and traffic. On the site there was a tremendous business and excitement, especially given an intersection of two major streets at Adams Street and Franklin Street (figure 2).4 Social, Political, and Economic Context

Chicago was a city of rapidly increasing population during the 1800’s as a result of the industrial revolution. On one hand Chicago rapidly expanded from the accumulation of capital, and financial economic forces, and the birth of the middle class white collars

expanding the consumer culture. On the other hand, given the mass immigration and increase of lower class led to overcrowding, poor sanitary conditions, and pollution.5 With the aftermath of the Great Chicago fire in 1873, the need to rebuild only accelerated the problems with the urban density. With economics and retail as key priorities, it resulted in buildings like the Marshall Wholesale Store dominating the downtown core. At the time the zoning laws in Chicago limited it to 130ft, thus in this district all the buildings were relatively similar in height.6 Thus due to the immense size of the building, the design of the Marshall Wholesale Building would have a tremendous presence in that district.

The Congrès Internationaux D’Architecture Moderne – CIAM (founded 1928), was an organization of key European architects propagating the principles of the modernist movement. One of the most important ideas they spread was the Functional city and its four functions. The terrible city conditions in Chicago, and focus on private sector are evident precursors to the creation of CIAM. The Chicago municipality in attempt to resolve the increasing building density and scale limited the height in 1893 - 1923, not long after the Wholesale building was commissioned. Despite this the growth of the city, and buildings destroyed the remaining vestiges of “humane urban order” as a result of a proper urban plan. Skyscrapers soon dominated the Chicago skyline, which led to the demolishing of the Wholesale building as a result of a need to create garages.7

ROGER XU

CIAM preached a need for balance between land use of commercial, residential and industrial. Given that it was a heavy commercial district, this would have been another factor that led to the reasoning to CIAM’s ideas. Dense districts are what CIAM lead to believe was creating congestion. Furthermore the density took always from the relationship to human scale that they felt was crucial.13 Given the lack of urban protocols, and the focus on private

PRE-CIAM

Understanding these two key ideas are the connection of the Marshall Field Wholesale Building in the architect’s reaction to the urban context. However at the period of commission, there were few restrictions limiting what could be built, as land use designations, setbacks, and porosity ratios were non-existent. As a result these conditions were what influenced CIAM’s antithesis. For CIAM their first congress strongly advocated for a contemporary architecture that resolved around the needs of working masses. Even for Le Corbusier, despite bearing interest to architecture as a solution, their radical ideas were rather socially inclined.11 Given that the site and building itself were very capitalist, prompting on celebrating the commercial

MARSHALL FIELD WHOLSALE STORE

CIAM: The Functional City

aspect of the building. The functional city is ultimately what CIAM envisioned, with a focus on dwelling, recreation, work and transportation. Zoning and land use is specified. The wholesale building scale of the site created several dark streets despite ( as noted in figure 3) being wide streets. Furthermore a congestion of traffic and pedestrian was not uncommon given that this was a commercial district and especially given the influence of an entire block from the Wholesale building. The close density of the buildings would especially be unflavoured by le Corbusier, and spreading out the density vertically through high towers from his radiant city and through open space.12

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The building had a clear expression of its internal program, expressed by the volume, surface texture and free expression of structure. Its design is a precursor to Louis Sullivan’s functionalistic approach, in which he greatly praises, “…here is a man for you to look at. A man that walks on two legs instead of four, has active muscles, heart, lungs and other viscera; a man that lives and breathes…”.8 This functionalistic approach is important to note because it is not simply driven by an architectural focus but also a need to celebrate the commercial typology within the greater context of Chicago. It can be seen that form illustrated boldness to urban commercial typology through its form by expressing the building as simple and direct. The sheer scale of the building itself was a symbol of commercial power and culture. In addition to the formal approach, particular attention should be noted for Richardson’s tectonic understanding. The building was situated on an entire block yet was able to still maintain a subtle emphasis on its scale and unity through materials. The

dimensions of the blocks were important. By amplifying the material scale, the tectonics of the architecture is what became focused upon.9 Through a harmonious relationship between solid and void, despite large glazing proportions, the material still empowered the building to give a subtle dominating presence in the context.10

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Diagram of site: illustrating density in site in relationship to the Wholesale Building 01 building pre construction illustraitng lot division befor being converted to one large lot 02 Red illustrating the wholesale building in context and narrowness of streets 03

interests, and in accordance to CIAM ideas, it would have been looked in disdain. A lack of guidelines was especially disdained to Le Corbusier as a lack of oversight and planning. Evidently, these issues attributed to the neglect of specific urban objectives that Le Corbusier was attempting to address. Conclusion

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The legacy of the Marshall Field Wholesale store was not a matter of unprecedented technical achievement in scale. Instead it should be seen an idea come to fruition on such a large scale; the idea of a bold, and strikingly memorable architecture that had a cohesiveness at the urban scale. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s put forward a compelling new typology; an exploration of the department store and glorifying the idea of modern commerce. Moreover recalling Richardson tectonic design to building as a whole it clearly shows consideration of urban scale. Considering CIAM principles itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clear that many of the issues generated in lieu of their ideas were a direct result of the lack of planning guidelines, and consideration for greater scale in urban context. The building was by no means a direct influence to the future of skyscrapers that would dauntlessly dominate the skyline. That being said, because of its relentless in density and scale are what created poor urban character, and thus further encouraging CIAM members to advocate for skyscrapers. Nonetheless, its unprecedented design perhaps can be seen as a baseline for innovation in the 19th century.

FIGURES 1 & 2. Base Image from "O'Gorman, James . "The Marshall Field Wholesale Store: Materials toward a Monograph." JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS 37, no. 3 (1978): 178. 3 .Base Image from " http://tigger.uic.edu/depts/ahaa/imagebase/intranet/chiviews/page191.html (Accessed 02,11.2014) FINAL IMAGE SOURCED FROM James Welling, Corner" http://jameswelling.net/projects/25/395" (Accessed 02.11.2014)

MARSHALL FIELD WHOLESALE BUILDING PRE-CIAM PLX 599

1 Condit, Carl W.. The Chicago school of architecture: a history of commercial and public building in the Chicago area, 1875-1925. Chicago:.61. 2 O'Gorman, James . "The Marshall Field Wholesale Store: Materials toward a Monograph." JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS 37, no. 3 (1978): 177. 3 'Gorman, James . "The Marshall Field Wholesale Store: Materials toward a Monograph." JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS 37, no. 3 (1978): 183. 4 Barr, Jason. "SKYSCRAPERS AND SKYLINES: NEW YORK AND CHICAGO, 1885-2007 Journal of Reigonal Science 53, no. 3 (2013): 387. 5 O'Gorman, James . "The Marshall Field Wholesale Store: Materials toward a Monograph." JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS 37, no. 3 (1978): 176. 6 MacBurnie, Ian. "Urbanization, Regulation &Design: Part 1." Class Lecture, PLX599 - The Human World from Ryerson University, Toronto, September 19, 2014 7 Hitchcock, Henry Russell. The architecture of H.H. Richardson and his times. [Rev. ed. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1961. 273 8 Condit, Carl W.. The Chicago school of architecture: a history of commercial and public building in the Chicago area, 1875-1925. Chicago:.62 9 Hitchcock, Henry Russell. The architecture of H.H. Richardson and his times. [Rev. ed. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1961. 273 10 O'Gorman, James . "The Marshall Field Wholesale Store: Materials toward a Monograph." JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS 37, no. 3 (1978): 193. 11 Biberstein, Rene. "Planning the American Landscape" Class Lecture, PLX599 - The Human World from Ryerson University, Toronto, September 12, 2014 12 Le Corbusier. The Athens charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973.. 79 13 Frampton, Kenneth. "The vicissitudes of ideology: CIAM and Team X, critique and counter-critique 1928-68." In Modern architecture: a critical history. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 1992. 269 14"What is Enlightenment?" In The Foucault Reader, 32-50. Edited by Paul Rabinow. New York: Pantheon, 1984

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Sam, S. "Marshall Wholesale Building, . https://classconnection. s3.amazonaws.com/326/flashcards/3127326/png/screen_shot_2013-04-18_at_13435_ pm1366317292403.png" (Accessed 02.011.2014)

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CIAM 1928-1959 In 1928, the CongrĂŠs Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne was founded by a group of prominent architects whose focus was to discuss the principles of the modern movement. The initial meeting in La Saraz, Switzerland established their perspective on the fundamentals of architecture and planning, and their responsibilities towards society. The group of architects believed that a modern city should be built on current social, economical, and political issues. Throughout the course of 32 years, CIAM held 11 congresses that discussed various ideas of modern city planning and architecture. They embraced emerging building and planning techniques to achieve what they believed to be a functional city. In particular, the fourth congress (1933) - identified as 'The Functional City' - addressed issues of density, zoning, efficiency and healthy living environments. An example being the idea of relieving density by expanding vertically, introducing the third dimension of height to city planning and allowing light, space and air to enter the congested urban context. CIAM 4 led to the publication of the Athens Charter in 1943, by Le Corbusier, a main proponent of CIAM. The tenets outlined in the charter detail the concerns of the city and propose ideals by which a functional city should be built upon. CIAM became very influential during the post-war period, generating both support and opposition from members of the architecture and planning community. The following essays examine how various international architecture and planning projects responded to principles of the modern movement conceived during the time that CIAM was active.

In 1956, the new elected president of Brazil envisioned of creating a new capital city that would represent the step towards modernization and industrialization in Brazil. Brasilia was selected as the new capital city, designed with an approach to Le Corbusier's "Functional City" which was documented in the CIAM IV Athens Charter in 1943 as a guide to modern urbanism and city planning. Brasilia was planned by Lucio Costa, as a traditional capital city, that uses a bi-axial plan and a monumental core, surrounded by a green belt, demonstrating its dominance in the urban context. The city was planned to provide appropriate locations for residences and offices that are exposed to sun light and open spaces, connected by express highways that are the means of circulation in the city as referred in the Athens Charter. The National Congress building was built between 1957 and 1960. Designed by Oscar Niemeyer who was the chief architect at the time of Brasilia's development. The building sits centrally on the monumental axis, imposing order due to the central core and a powerful presence which can be seen from the building's composition of high rise concrete towers and circular domes. Positioned in between two vertical highways that showcases the central power of the Federal government, influencing a hierarchy in the surrounding areas.

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NATIONAL CONGRESS OF BRAZIL Oscar Niemeyer 1957-1960 Brasilia, Brazil Omar Ahmed

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Introduction

In 1956, the Brazilian President, Juscelino Kubitschek committed his government to the erection of a new federal capital city within the country’s remote interior. It was a birth of a new society, with all traditional barriers cast aside.1 The key steps to constitute a two century old vision was to build an original metropolitan city from scratch, on an empty native land to be a manifest contrast to the corruption and ignorance of the old Brazil. Thus allowing it to be as a city of the future with no references to the past, practices that would be seen in other great cities of Brazil. The Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) was to act as a guide for modern urban planning and the buildings within Brasilia.

The president and an international jury selected a team of innovative modernists to manifest this vision following the new found principles of CIAM. Lucio Costa was chosen as the urban planner, Oscar Niemeyer was chosen as chief architect, and Roberto Burle Marx as the landscape architect.2 The highlight of the entire city lies within the governmental buildings in the centre of the Federal District, the National Congress of Brazil, which was to capture the main idea behind the erection of Brasilia. Niemeyer was influenced by constructivism, with confidence to successfully apply original and modern ideas into the design of Brasilia’s political centre. The National Congress building appears as a large simple abstract structure which adheres to the functions of

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its spaces and does not reflect any Brazilian heritage or any design of Brazilian traditional government buildings. Program and Site

After the presidential election in 1956, president Kubitschek’s top priority was to create Brasilia. Thus, construction of the city began immediately on an empty site in the wilderness, nearly 1000 kilometer from Rio de Janeiro and 1620 kilometers from the northeast coast.3 Lucio Costa depicted the urban city in an airplane plan or the pilot plan ( Plano Piloto) that comprised of the wings to represent the residential district, the fuselage to represent the cultural and commercial district, and the cockpit to represent the seat of power, the Federal District, where the civic buildings, including the National Congress of Brazil is located. With the guidance of CIAM planning principles, Costa designed the city by segregating the habitation, recreation and work zones through greenery, traffic flows, and by function, while connected by vast highways. The city plan consisted of three main components arranged on a perpendicular two-way axis, with the main monumental axis stretching from east to west. 4

Renowned architect, Oscar Niemeyer, and his team designed civic buildings, including the executive, legislative, and judiciary palaces, as Brasilia’s celebrated icons. Along the sequence of public buildings, mainly designed by Niemeyer, the monumental axis abuts the capital’s foremost civic spaces,

the National Congress building and the Three Power Plaza. The plaza consisted of a set of buildings arranged around a public Esplanade square which concludes the monumental axis. The square created a separation between the National Congress of Brazil, Presidential Palace and the Supreme Court. After some time an element was added to the project, the Museum of the Foundation of Brasilia at the centre of the square behind the Congress, which was not a part of the original planning. The National Congress building host’s two houses, the chamber of deputies and the federal senate. It is the main landmark of the monumental axis on the east side, as it establishes one of the three corners of the Three Powers Plaza located to the west. Niemeyer positioned the building perpendicular to the monumental axis, enhancing its presence in the visual cone of the ministries. He produced a horizontal platform- block, occupying the entire width of the central lawns in the Esplanade, where behind and beyond the plaza is a vast natural landscape. The Esplanade Square is distinguished by its accessibility to all social classes and the great variety of activities it accommodates. It is a space designed to be flexible, enabled for those who use it for their mutual purposes, that becomes a site of public demonstrations and riots directed against the state as Brasilia went through a radical transformation.

National Congress building’s aesthetics embrace a formal style of modernism, demonstrating an analogous design approach to Le Corbusier’s methods,5 including the use of white shades, slick vertical and horizontal elements, and glazing curtainwalls. Niemeyer remained loyal to modern materiality and used treated concrete or white marble for exterior walls. He has also retained to another essential CIAM principle, the cleanliness and simplicity of the materials and the form. However, Niemeyer’s designs differed from the typical CIAM modernist as he began to manifest organic forms out of dislike for right-angles, which were a common element found in the

The two bowl shaped volumes are positioned on either side of the towers on the platformblock, with their direction inverted in relation to each other.

The two Towers are glazed and stretched unnoticeably as they appear light and transparent. The opaque bowl shapes on the platform-block do not interfere with the predominant sense of transparency: their relatively small volume in relation to the entire complex, making them look more like sculpted adornments6. The long platform-block standing perpendicular to the Esplanade and the earthworks redefined and improved the layout of the set of monuments in the Ministries Esplanade and the Three Powers Plaza – an interesting interface between the urban design and

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CIAM

The strict governmental regulation of zoning and planning in the city and its Federal District is evident in the city’s hierarchical street system and the in-humane scale of governmental buildings, emphasizing the political power. The grand Esplanade square in front of the National Congress demonstrates the unity and the supremacy of the Three Powers. It is a symbolic center for the state, where the working people of ministries are the nearby users. Whereas the vitality of this Esplanade lies within the traditional mix-use square, that depended on the blend of users from nearby residences, commerce, and administration. The state planning agency controlled all the land at the site, there were no private property owners,

CIAM and Planning

paramount European modern architecture. In his design for the National Congress, he used wide horizontal blocks with a tall rectangular vertical element, unified with two circular domes and transparent elements. The vertical element consists of two 100-metre-tall twin towers, placed alongside the Esplanade. 5

OMAR AHMED

The National Congress building architecturally symbolizes the new political ideals of the 1960’s. Its aesthetics synthesizes the monumental presence that represents political power of the federal government in Brazil. It also represents the monumental scale that Lucio Costa envisioned, assembling a strong symbolic and civic impression.

unlike in European and American cities.4 The city was planned to have a unified strategy that focused on creating a balance between housing, work, recreation and traffic. However, since the national style was yet to find its ultimate form, Brasilia resulted in a patchwork of styles as new building styles and strategies emerged in Brazil from constructivism and post-modernism.

NATIONAL CONGRESS OF BRAZIL

Planning within the Context

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Site Plan 01 Site Condition 02 Perspective 03 City Plan 04

the architecture for the Brazilian capital. The width of the Esplanade was increased by about 50% in relation to Lucio Costaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s original conception, making the proportions of the space more harmonious and balanced. Daylight and views of a landscape are important CIAM principles established to achieve optimal living. Although, most CIAM based structures appear bulky and heavy, the bowl-shaped volumes that are supported by the platform block, appear to hover lightly on the ground from a distance to achieve minimal visual interruption through the empty spaces between them and the twin towers. To obtain the desired transparency, the landscape architect also designed the complicated landscaping of the terrain.7 The removal of earth from the area in front of the Congress transformed the central lawn into a giant ramp that slopes gently down to the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main entrance in the platform-block only now revealed. The lateral roadways, however, they have been kept at the same level as the roof of the platform-block (these only slope steeply down to the Plaza behind once they have passed the Congress building).

to its social context at the time. The real, existing Brasilia became quite different from the original vision of integrating living of all social classes. Instead of being a classless administrating city, it was marked as a city that staked spatial segregation according to social class. The modern planning principles have been applied in a scheme where most do not have an income for adequate living. No adequate pedestrian transportation routes were available to participate in communal interactions. Brasilia and the National Congress building as its symbol, successfully depicted Brazilian governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s eager for change, along with the rest of the developing world through its clear detachment in planning and typology from the traditional urban city of Brazil.

Conclusion

While Costa and Niemeyer believed that they were elevating the banished crowded slums, difficult environmental conditions such as, disease, crime, pollution and lack of public services, they actually lacked in finding appropriate solutions to the problems.8 However, Brasilia seems to not have been planned appropriately according

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OMAR AHMED NATIONAL CONGRESS OF BRAZIL

1 Matoso Macedo, Danilo, and Sylvia Ficher. "Brasilia: Preservation of a Modernist City." The Getty Conservation Institute. //www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/ newsletters/28_1/brasilia.html. 2 UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Brasilia."http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/445/. 3 Scott, James. 'The High Modernist City'. Yale University, 1998. http://isites.harvard. edufsdocs/icb.topic206786.files/4405_Readings/Nov_26_Readings/JCScott-The_High_ Moernist_City.pdf. 4 Cultural Heritage Policy Document. "Charter of Athens 1933" The Getty Conservation Institute. http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/research_resources/charters/charter04.html 5 Holanda, Frederico. "Of Glass and Concrete" Internal versus External space relations in Oscar Niemeyer's Architecture'. Ref043, Universidade de Brasilia, Departmento de Historia, Brasilia, Brazil 6 Medeiros, Valerio. Sobreira, Fabiano. Holanda, Frederico. "The National Congress Palace: Niemeyer's masterpiece facing a functional conflict". Ref123, Universidade de Brasilia, Brazil. 7 Del Rio, Vicente. "Beyond Brasilia - Contemporary Urban Design in Brazil." California Polytechnic State University. 8 John R, Gold. "The Town Planning Review" Liverpool University Press, Vol. 69, No. 3 (Jul., 1998), pp. 225-247. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40113797 9 Sta,p Papdaki. "The Work of Oscar Niemeyer". Second Edition. New York: Reinhold Publising Corporation, 1951. P5,49 10 Stierli, Martino. "Building No Place." University of Zurich http://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/abs/10.1080/10464883.2013.769840#.VBdNvPldWRM. 11 Hawke, Robyn. "Latin American Architecture " Oscar Niemeyer Inspired spaces, www. inspiredspaces.au FIGURES 3 http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=23624&page=

CIAM

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM: http://openbuildings.com/buildings/brazilian-national-congress-profile-44692

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The research will focus on showing how the collaboration of many leading architects such as Le Corbusier and Oscar Niemeyer which led to building a project with a significant political and cultural importance. The study is to showcase the different alternatives that were proposed prior to choosing the site for construction of the united nations headquarters and why this specific site was chosen and the impacts it had on the political and cultural agenda of the time ( a short period after the end of the WWII), another important aspect the will be explored is the collaboration of world leading architects such as Le Corbusier and Oscar Niemeyer, the building had a rather unconventional design process, rather than holding a design competition, the UN decided to choose a planning and a design team consisting of architects and planners chosen by the member Governments and allowing them to collaborate and each member to come up with their own unique scheme, which later on with combination of schemes 23 and 32 (Le Corbusier and Oscar Niemeyer) the final design came to be the building that stands in new York today. The study will also illustrate the relationship and the significance the CIAM convention and regulation had on the design of the project: for instance the building does not comply with all the cities planning and safety regulation but through lobbying and political pressure the design was approved and constructed

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CIAM 1928-1959

THE UNITED NATIONS HEADQUARTERS Oscar Niemeyer, Le Corbusier 1947-1953 New York, USA Soroush Arabi

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With the Second World War coming to an end the nation’s involved in the conflict sought to create and organization replacing the ineffective League of Nations to prevent such conflicts from happening in the future. The United Nations headquarters stands on the eastern shore of Manhattan, on the banks of New York City’s East River, the building has become an acclaimed modernist architectural landmark.1 In an ambitious attempt to match the United Nations’ own spirit of international cooperation, it was created through the collaborative effort of a multinational team of leading architects that included, amongst others, Oscar Niemeyer and Le Corbusier. In December 1945 the Congress of the United States unanimously resolved to invite the United Nations to establish its permanent home in the USA. Thereafter, a special United Nations site selection committee was formed, which Le Corbusier was also a member of this committee, while the UN had dreamed of constructing an independent city for its new world capital, the committee looked at possible locations in such places as Philadelphia, Boston and San Francisco, while consideration was given to areas north of New York City, crowded Manhattan had not been seriously investigated. Through an offer by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., to purchase the site for the UN, the present site was accepted by a majority of the General Assembly in December 1946, The site chosen by the United Nations was a 17 acre (69,000 m2) run-down area of slaughterhouses, light industry and a railroad barge landing. Once the site was agreed upon, the next task was

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to design the Headquarters itself. Delegates decided that the United Nations home should be the joint project of leading architects from many countries. Wallace K. Harrison of the United States was appointed chief architect and given the title of Director of Planning and jointly with Le Corbusier both architects were appointed responsible for the design of the new headquarters.2 The headquarters of the United Nations is a complex in New York City. The complex has served as the official headquarters of the United Nations since its completion in 1952. It is located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of Manhattan, on spacious grounds overlooking the East River. Its borders are First Avenue on the west, East 42nd Street to the south, East 48th Street on the north and the East River to the east. The term “Turtle Bay” is occasionally used as a metonym for the UN headquarters or for the United Nations as a whole. The property of the United Nations headquarters was originally a slaughter house before the donation took place. While the United nations had dreamed of constructing an independent city for its new world capital, multiple obstacles soon forced the Organization to downsize their ambitious plans. The diminutive site on the East River necessitated a “Rockefeller Center”-type vertical complex, given the size of the site even though it was very generously proportioned it could not have accommodated the program although out is landscape and rather had to be housed in a tall office tower. The planners determined that the presence of firm bedrock near the

surface that Manhattan sits on which most New York skyscrapers rest would facilitate construction it was decided to locate the Secretariat Building at the south end of the site to facilitate access to and from public transport systems along 42nd Street, the primary artery of midtown Manhattan. The structure’s north-south orientation was selected partly for reasons of appearance and partly because a tall building on an eastwest axis would have thrown its shadow over much of the site. The designers conceived of a park-like plateau, from First Avenue to the river’s edge, from which the buildings would rise. To utilize the area right up to the river, they decided that the landscaped expanse and the Conference Building would be cantilevered over the Franklin D. Roosevelt Drive. Before the final design of the building was chosen there was about 45 different design proposal for the site, during daily meetings from February to June 1947, the collaborative team produced at least 45 designs and variations.3 After much discussion, Harrison, who coordinated the meetings, determined that a design based on Niemeyer’s project 32 and Le Corbusier’s project 23 would be developed for the final project, the complex as built, however by Le Corbusier and Niemeyer merging their schemes 23–32, and this, along with suggestions from the other members of the Board of Design Consultants, was developed into project 42G.4 This late project was approved with some reductions and other modifications per an agreement with the city, the buildings

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The project was conceived at the light of CIAM and during the introduction of the “new York CIAM chapter for relief and postwar planning” a chapter in CIAM which looks back at the principals achieved by the 1933 Athens chapter to establish a charter for world reconstruction, which can be said had a direct influence on the design of the UN headquarters as heavily influenced by design and planning ideals of Le Corbusier at the time, at the first post war CIAM meeting in July 1945 Le Corbusier emphasized the importance of Athens charter for any future work of architecture and also he mentioned to believe that “architecture is a form of religion” thus should be idealistic and independent and not to mix with politics.6

After the Allied victory, New York had emerged into a global political center and after being chosen as the city to host the UN’s new headquarters Le Corbusier traveled to the US to take part in the site selection committee and partake in the design process alongside Wallace Harrison,7 in the account of his role in the selection and design process he wrote;” in 1928, at Chateau of La Sarraz, the CIAM was born. Real precursor of our united nations, this congress, having harmonized what might be called the “dissenters” of architecture and urbanism. This doctrine is now established.8. Out of the designing body there were 5 CIAM members including Le Corbusier himself others such as Oscar Niemeyer were not members of CIAM, the final schemes, Right after his arrival in New York, Oscar Niemeyer met with Le Corbusier at his request. Le Corbusier had already been lobbying hard to promote his own scheme 23, and thus, requested that Niemeyer not submit a design9, lest he further confuse the contentious meetings of the Board of Design. Instead, he asked the younger architect to assist him with his project. Niemeyer began to absent himself from the meetings. Only after Wallace Harrison and Max Abramovitz

HEADQUARTERS OF THE UNITED NATIONS

UN rules override the laws of New York City, but it does not give immunity to those who commit crimes there. In addition, the United Nations Headquarters remains under the jurisdiction and laws of the United States, although a few members of the UN staff have diplomatic immunity and so cannot be prosecuted by local courts unless the diplomatic immunity is waived by the Secretary-General.6

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met some but not all local fire safety and building codes but never the less with very strong political and financial backings the plans were approved and the discrepancies with the city’s building codes were simply overlooked. With the plans approved, action to carry them out moved ahead quickly. The 270 residential tenants were relocated at the Organization’s expense, the meat packers and bargemen departed, and the existing buildings were demolished. The construction contract was awarded in January 1949 to a combination of four large New York building firms. Nineteen months later, on 21 August 1950, the Secretariat workers moved into their new offices. The Dag Hammarskjöld Library Building, designed by Harrison and Abramowitz, was added in 1961.5 The site of the UN Headquarters has extraterritoriality status, the site is owned by the United Nations. It is an international territory. No federal, state or local officer or official of the United States, whether administrative, judicial, military or police, may enter UN Headquarters, except with the consent of and under conditions agreed to by the Secretary-General of the Organization.. This affects some law enforcement where

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New York City Zoning map, The Special United Nations Development Distric 01 dionated site 02 Site Programming 03

repeatedly pressed him to participate, did Niemeyer agree to submit his own project. 45 designs were evaluated by the team6, and Niemeyer’s project 32 was finally chosen. As opposed to Corbusier’s project 23, which consisted of one building containing both the Assembly Hall and the councils in the center of the site as it was hierarchically the most important building,10 Niemeyer’s plan split the councils from the Assembly Hall, locating the first alongside the river, and the second on the right side of the secretariat. This would not split the site, but on the contrary, would create a large civic square the final schemes, 42G, with combining Le Corbusier and Niemeyer design, became the basis for the Constructed project.11

The UN headquarters embodies the notion of national collaboration even through its design process, it has come to existence through collaboration of architects and planners from all around the world, although worth mentioning that the site selected for the project was rather controversial and even the building itself, as described by some CIAM members as the silo for the officials and a monuments to the irrational spirit,12 it still stands to be one the most iconic works of architecture and planning in the modern history, the project pays significant amount of attention to its surrounding and sets to create a significant landscape alongside New York’s East river and it’s a reminder of direct influences of post war planning CIAM principals of relief transforming less desirable areas into great urban platform which the UN headquarters has set the

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example for many other project in this city and many others locations.

SOROUSH ARABI HEADQUARTERS OF THE UNITED NATIONS CIAM

Hamilton, David. "United Nations Headquarters in New York." New York Ciy. Accessed November 11, 2014. http://www.boomsbeat.com/articles/1470/20140320/amazing-photos-of-the-united-nationsheadquarters-in-new-york.htm 1 Dudley, George. A Workshop for Peace: Designing the United Nations Headquarters. Cambridge MA: MI Press, 1994. 5-28 2 FACT SHEET: HISTORY of UNITED NATIONS HEADQUARTERS. Vol. 2. New York: UN Department of Public Information, 2008. 3-11. 3 Dudley, George. A Workshop for Peace: Designing the United Nations Headquarters. Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1994. 32-65 4 Dudley, George. A Workshop for Peace: Designing the United Nations Headquarters. Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1994. 212-296 5 FACT SHEET: HISTORY of UNITED NATIONS HEADQUARTERS. Vol. 2. New York: UN Department of Public Information, 2008. 10 6 Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, MA.: MIT, 2000. Print. 159 7 Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, MA.: MIT, 2000. Print. 1608 Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, MA.: MIT, 2000. Print. 160161 9 CIAM Collection, 1928-1970: An Inventory." CIAM Collection, 1928-1970: An Inventory. Accessed November 12, 2014. http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~des000032014 10 Pearlman, Jill. Inventing American Modernism: Joseph Hudnut, Walter Gropius, and the Bauhaus Legacy at Harvard.. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2007 print. 74. 11 PAPADAKI, STAMO. OSCAR NIEMEYER - THE MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE SERIES. NEW YORK: GEORGE BRAZILLER, INC., 1960. 58-64 12 Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, MA.: MIT, 2000. Print. Pg 162

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Curran, Andrew. "Amazing Photos of the United Nations Headquarters in New York." Architecture Landmarks. Accessed November 11, 2014. http://www.firstpost. com/world/sandy-caused-major-damage-to-u-n-headquarters-official-512002.html.

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The Lever House by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill is the refined synthesis of the ideas of Mies Van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, and Walter Gropius, with the intent of creating the epitome of the ideal office tower for the modernist era. Its formal expression of programmatic elements was permitted by a zoning ordinance in The New York City 1916 Zoning Resolution. The Lever House reinterpreted these pre-existing zoning regulations and applied CIAM principles to create a revolutionary architecture that inspired planning and created a vernacular widely used in corporate modern America. It is a rational resolution of a vertical and horizontal slab through the implementation of cubist and functionalist syntax and methodology. The slabs functionally signify separate programs of work and company leisure while holistically embodying the Unilever image of a homogeneous corporate family, hygiene, and an antecedent of modern corporate America. The prevalence of Le Corbusier's five principles, and thus those of CIAM, signify the migration of European ideology into corporate modernism in the United States. The Lever House and subsequent erected buildings that applied the modernist vernacular of setback towers contributed to the passing of the 1961 Zoning Resolution, encouraging future New York construction to build in light of CIAM tenets.

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LEVER HOUSE Skidmore Owings and Merrill 1950-1952 New York, USA Daniel Bassakyros

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The Search for a New Ideal

During the construction of the Lever House, The United States was going through a change in identity to recover from World War II and battle against the threat of Communist Russia in the Cold War. Located at 390 Park Avenue, The Lever House was built in 1952 as an office tower on podium to act as a new and expanded headquarters for The Lever brothers while giving a revolutionary and improved image for the corporation. The Former President of Unilever Charles Luckman had a vision for the building to house the Unilever family exclusively 1. The American Architecture firm Skidmore Owings and Merrill helpeded lever house encouraged the setback glass box skyscraper to be an American vernacular of the international style. Project architect Gordon Bunshaft served as a driving force that synthesised the ideas of Mies Van der Rohe, Le Corbusier's principles, Walter Gropius, and thus CIAM tenants into the building in order to strive for a new ideal for the Zeitgeist 2 3 . The Site

The sites use in the early and mid-1800s was a commonly used railway track which undesirable site conditions made it only appropriate for manufacturing and industrial use 4. As the rail lines reduced and eventually were sunken, noise and air quality became appropriate for residential and commercial use. The rise in residential population and vehicular congestion lead to the narrowing of

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medians in the streets. Presently, the ground plane is heavily used by pedestrians and roads range from four to six lanes wide. The height of the Lever House is a lustrous 94 metres, which allowed it to be a startling contrast to the older residential masonry buildings in the area. The dense financial core of New York was selected for the new home for Unilever, for it served as an influential area capable of projecting a corporate image towards locals and Americans from afar. A public Lobby with central courtyard is located on the ground floor. An employee lounge and general office facilities are located on the second floor. The podium is topped with an employees cafeteria and terrace. Floors four to twenty-two, located were a stacked plan containing the Lever Brothers offices. The programs are laid out very legibly and efficiently within the envelope. Social, Political, and Cultural Context

The American product-consuming nuclear family in the suburbs and employees in capitalist skyscrapers are opposite ends of the American work day, but are both part of the same influences and context. In the post war era, individualism was supressed and collectivism emerged. The threat of communist Russia meant that staying together as a country was imperative in maintaining a national moral. The Lever House has immense symbolism and association with the organization culture of the 1950s known as the Organization man. In the work place, this involved making decisions collectively and being loyal to the

principles of the corporation. The idea of the homogenous corporation living under one roof in the case of the Lever house is an example of maintaining a unified image within corporate America5 . Unilever soap advertising placed the company in daily advertising rhetoric, contributing to the image that families buying Americanbrand products is a patriotic and American act. Planning Context

Much of the design proposed to Unilever was already completed in 1948, as it was initially conceived as a vision for the Ideal Office Tower of the Modernist Era. The formal expression of programmatic elements was permitted by the zoning ordinance "Article 3, Chapter 9, Ordinance D" in The New York City 1916 Zoning Resolution. The ordinance states that when a building is at 25% lot area coverage, it can rise to any height without setbacks. The Lever house had a floor area ratio (FAR) of only seven with a gross floor area of 19,470m2, compared to a permitted FAR of 10 to 15 6. As a result of such a low FAR, the scale density of the building was considered very underdeveloped and avantgarde for a context which called for high density and high rent. The setbacks on the front and rear yards permit a tall narrow mass that keeps lot coverage very low above the podium. The zoning for 390 Park Avenue makes its use C6 General Central Commercial; making allowable uses to be for offices, retail use serving the New York metropolitan area, and high-value custom manufacturing 7 .

The setback of the vertical mass essentially was a result of maintaining the integrity of Le Corbusier's Five Principles when in a dense urban context. The nature of doing such a move in a dense context with limited landscaping area made the move to setback a large portion of the building highly necessary if to follow the tower in a park idea. The decision to setback of the building provided north-south sun exposure and created a pocket of air in the city. CIAM - Five Points of Architecture

CIAM - Le Corbusier's Radiant City

CIAM'S tenants regarding pedestrians and vehicular relations have been implemented through the construction of a parking garage underneath the Lever House. This prioritization of vehicular transportation accommodates for the growing use of the automobile. It also encourages Le Corbusier's idea of commuting between dwelling and workplace and the physical separation between pedestrians and vehicles. The rational design process of Gordon Bunshaft in part explains the high modernist approach of the Lever House's use of advanced materials

and technology to create a hygienic, efficient and repetitively arranged building 9 . The building is the first building to be cleaned on the outside through the use of maintenance gondolas, expanding CIAM's idea of a hygienic building to its exterior. The vertical slab has no operable windows as to not allow polluted air from the outdoors inside the building, and to allow for the operation of an active air conditioning system. The podium is raised on pilotis allowed inclusivity by allowing the public into the courtyard. The Lever House courtyard accessible to the public gives the building a sense of social servitude, for it was Luckman's intent to have a building with an image that states that Unilever is saying, "Welcome to all people" 10 .

Methodologies of CIAM- Functionalist and Cubist Syntax According to CIAM tenets, there was a focus to rationalize architecture through defining program formally, also known as functionalism. Cubism Rationalizes design intent through representing design processes, and structural forces through an

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The use of pilotis permitted freeing of the ground plane to encourage pedestrian

congregation and interaction. The free plan not only allowed flexibility within the office, but encouraged Organization Man culture in the workplace. The free faรงade permitted plenty of natural light through the use of a curtain wall which alluded to the hygienic aspect of Unilever soap. The garden roof terrace was a by-product of the 75% lot setback and its function held to be dedicated exclusively for leisurely purposes for office workers, thus making the terrace capitalistic in its merit.

DANIEL BASSAKYROS

Subsequently erected buildings that applied the modernist vernacular of setback towers for public plazas contributed to the passing of the 1961 Zoning Resolution, encouraging future New York construction to build in light of CIAM tenets through incorporated parking requirements and increasing floor area by up to 20% as per Article 3, Chapter 3, Section 33-13 8 . Setback Design Intent - Garden Towers

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pre lever house 1927 - organic ground conditions between interstices of buildings is prevalent 01 post lever house 2013 - organic interstices are "filled in" from redeveloepment 02 setbacks to fulfill 1916 zoning resolution ordinance 03 avenue study from front lot as per traditional 1916 zoning resolution. view is jagged and obstructed 04 avenue study from front lot as per setback ordinance 1916 zoning resolution. view is simplified and clear 05 courtyard 06 exterior night view 07

objectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s edge, corner, and face conditions. It is functionalist in the sense that the programmatic elements are clearly defined in the masses. Cubist principles are seen due to the fact that the podium is separated from grade via pilotis and a reveal is created between the podium and vertical slab to give an explicit change in form and function. Conclusion

The decision to limit the occupied area of the building envelope served as millions of dollars of free advertising, therefore returning positive results and contentment to the investors 11 . The lever house adhered to the idea of collective conformity, and the pursuit of the dollar which in the end does progress the culture of the organization man to unite and improve national American identity during the Cold War Future construction in light of the Lever House of similar vernacular has unfortunately lead to the redundantly applied monuments of American capitalism with their arguably alienating plazas 12 . This calls for the assessment for architecture and urbanism of if the good intentions of Corbusian Utopianism within CIAM and in the context of a capitalistically vigorous environment has truly lead to the ethical treatment of the city and its inhabitants. Ultimately, whether the public plazas are more successful for the image of the corporation or for the use of the people, The United States is still a prosperous and engaging cityscape.

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4 Minn, Michael "Lever House" New York. http://michaelminn.net/newyork/buildings/midtown/lever_house/ (accessed Novemeber 9, 2014). 9 Adams, Nicholas. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill - SOM Since 1936. pg. 68 Milan: Phaidon, 2007

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DANIEL BASSAKYROS

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1 9, 10,11. Adams, Nicholas. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill - SOM Since 1936. Milan: Phaidon, 2007. 2 Gargiani, Roberto. La colonne: nouvelle histoire de la construction. PPUR presses polytechniques, 2008 4 Gray, Christopher. "When Vanderbilt Did Not Get His Way." The New York Times. September 10, 2009. http://www. nytimes.com/2009/09/13/realestate/13scapes.html (accessed November 4th, 2014). 5 Polo, Marco. "Ideas, Technologies and Precedents III - The End of Utopia and the Search for a system." The End of Utopia and the Search for a system. Toronto, April 24, 2014. 6 York, Department of city planning - City of new. Zoning Districts - Commercial Districts: C5. n.d. http://www.nyc. gov/html/dcp/html/zone/zh_c5.shtml (accessed November 2, 2014). 7 Commision, City Planning. "Zoning Maps and Resolution." New York: Department of City Planning, December 1961. 8 Planning, City Planning Commisision - Department of City. The City of New York - Zoning Handbook. New York, December 1961. 12 Plunz, Peter Madsen and Richard. The Urban Lifeworld: Formation Perception Representation. London, Ontario: Routledge, 2002.

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM: Lever Architect: SOM (Gordon Bunshaft) (1951). Source: Chimary Bleue, New York 2012, Digital Image. Available from: Flickr, https://www.flickr.com/photos/88017382@N00/7792762976/ (accessed November 8, 2014).

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The world's first and arguably most prominent housing complex is l'Unité d'Habitation de Marseille. It was CharlesÉdouard Jeanneret-Gris, better known as Le Corbusier, who designed the complex with the help of Nadir Alfonso. The goal of this project, which saw the light in October of 1947 and was completed five years later, in 1952 was to achieve a novel form of accommodation - one that would house a large number of people in a limited amount of space. Indeed, it was the dire economic state of war-stricken France in the mid-twentieth century that inspired Le Corbusier to undertake this project whose primary goal was to alleviate France's shortage of housing. In addition to the complex's pragmatic value and its social progressivism, its significance is rooted in its role as the precursor of the Brutalist movement in architecture. This paper will first trace the process and formation of l'Unité d'Habitation de Marseille. Second, it will investigate the ways in which l'Unité adheres to the Charte d'Athènes (Athens Charter) and the principles of the Congrès internationaux d'architecture moderne. For the purpose of this analysis, it is important to note that Le Corbusier published the Athens Charter and that he was a member of CIAM. Finally, this paper will discuss the inclusive role of l'Unité as a selfcontained accommodation.

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UNITĂ&#x2030; D'HABITATION Le Corbusier 1947-1952 Marseille, France Imane Boury

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L’ Unité d’Habitation is recognized as Le Corbusier’s summary of ideas proposed in several of his previous work. The fiveyear construction process which started in 1947 marks the realization of his ideas of the vertical neighborhood serving several function and surrounded by green areas as shown in figures one and two.

Since the project was concerned in bettering the standard of living of the masses by creating an adequate housing model, in its most primitive stages during the post-war years, it examined situational housing concerns, urban planning, potential and ideal living conditions, as well as zoning. More precisely, Le Corbusier endeavored to focus on two concerns: Firstly creating complexes that would be a city within itself, complexes that would not only serve as housing for but that would also act as self-contained units with nurseries, supermarkets, stores, communal spaces, and so on; and secondly separating living and working spaces. Le Corbusier had tried to address these issues in many of his previous proposals but his suggestion had been criticized as overly drastic and clashing with the actual city conditions. Le Corbusier aimed to create a sense of order to reign in the chaos of the cities by creating massive buildings with zoning separations. For l’Unité d’Habitation de Marseille, Le Corbusier, transposed his thinking on individual housing to the context of collective living, by trying to find harmony between instinctive human principles of the individual and the collective 1 . In other words, the “collective” was represented in the vertical nature of a

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complex as well as its communal and shared spaces, while the “individual” presented itself in the bare standards of accommodation ( i.e. an apartment per person or family). The combination of the collective and the individual result in a sort of architectural mise-en-abîme: a city within a city. Yet, because Marseille was undergoing a lot of changes in its planning and construction because of the war destruction and subsequent rising costs, Le Corbusier had to curb many of his endeavours. While the original proposed plan boasted several buildings which would form a greater complex that would be surrounded by large green spaces for collective use, the actual project consisted of only one eighteen-story building which was built on the grass in the middle of an extensive park covering 3.5 hectares. Bathed in sunlight, l’Unité d’Habitation de Marseille faces the east and the west and has no opening towards the north, and its side is exposed to the Mistral2. The building extends to 165 m in length, 24 m in depth, and 56 m in height. It contains a total of 337 apartments of 23 different types of configurations which can house up to 1600 people3. Each different type of apartment configuration was adapted to specific requirements. For instance, some apartments were designed for families with up to ten members, while others were designed for individuals such as students. The whole building is built on a series of pilotis so that the ground floor is open and reserved for green areas, play areas, and pedestrian use,

along with bicycle and car parking, as seen in figure 3. The intermediate level functions as a “street” with service facilities, shopping, and offices; there is also another intermediate level situated on the seventh and eighth floors, as seen in figure 4. The roof houses other communal facilities: open air theatre, a kindergarten, a gym, running track, and a small swimming pool. The remaining floors house the 337 different types of configured apartments, as seen in figure 5.

Hence, l’Unité d’Habitation de Marseille is the summary and the result of all of Le Corbusier’s development ideas and theories of the last thirty years of his architecture career. Furthermore, l’Unité can be perceived as a condensed expression of Le Corbusier’s architectural and city-planning philosophy, in which he “wove intricate links between the town, housing and architecture, leveraging synergies between this trio with a view to proposing a new breeding ground for housing” 4. Le Corbusier had developed ideas that would offer solutions for housing problems in several of his city concepts. He outlined many of these solution in the concept he proposed for Paris in Contemporary City in 1922 or in the concepts of Radiant City in 1933. Although he started off with drastic concepts, there is a noticeable progression for more suitable housing planning as he gradually proposed more concepts. Le Corbusier tried to implement his urban planning schemes in asmall scale construction similar to that of l’Unité d’Habitation de Marseille which was intended to become the blueprint other

Indeed, both Le Corbusier and CIAM believed that Functional City and Radiant City would serve as outlines of social reform. CIAM demanded that housing district buildings not be built along transportation routes, and that modern techniques be used to construct high apartment building spaces situated wide apart from one another in order to free the soil for large green parks9. The Athens Charter, on the other hand, set guidelines under titles: living, working, recreation and circulation10. In addition, living zones were to be separated from working spaces with green spaces that would serve as buffers. All these concepts aimed to separate zones. In terms of social context, the goal was to forge a classless society, and to improve “city-like by creating community spaces to improve the communal spirit” 11. The complex made use of the “Modular System”12, innovative building techniques, as well as techniques to control sound, light, and ventilation. Finally, special perspectives were presented for the building. The latter is also recognized for its unique spatial

organization of its units. Not all of Le Corbusier’s ideas, however, have been as successful13. A lot of construction issues arose with this building Le Corbusier attempted to use new and innovative building techniques. As these were unprecedented, many failed to properly perform, and lot of modifications had to be put in place to transform or hide these imperfections, “Le Corbusier used the imperfections inherent in the building system, such as deformations in the wood of the plank moulds, as textures with distinct expressive characteristics”14. In conclusion, because of Le Corbusier’s unparalleled influence as an architect and his ties to important architectural bodies, many important questions arise when analyzing his Unité. Does the project portray the concepts addressed by Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne? Does it resolve all the issues in order to create a better living space for its inhabitants? Did other problems rise after the construction of the building? More to the point, the project did attempt to address questions of how to reorder the chaotic city and create a utopian prototype. However, many of Le Corbusier’s plans and ideals remained theoretic and were not executed concretely. Thus, it is clear that

UNITE D'HABITATION

During this period of time principles of planning and urbanism were not stable. CIAM proposed new building strategies and advocated principles based on the analysis of existing urban social, topographical, and climate conditions 6. It promoted the rational distribution of functional elements; By the fourth CIAM design approach became more specific with the “four functions” of dwelling, work, transportation, and recreation. CIAM’s goal was that cities must be understood as part of an economic, social, and political whole, bound with the complexity of geographical and topographical circumstances 7. The development of ideas slowly shifted from the pursuit of political gain to the search of biological harmony. These principles later became the basis of postwar planning. Le Corbusier suggested that between the two contradictory and hostile fate of the individual and the collective a point of equilibrium could be found 8. He later on published what could be described as his own version of the CIAM IV, which is known as the Athens Charter. This prospect was much brighter then the previous and became the main document of

the CIAM functional city approach for the years following the war.

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open play area, and parking for both cars and bicycles 01 service facilities, shopping and offices 02 337 different configured apartments 03

Le Corbusier had to make compromises and even abandon his more drastic proposals and that he follows the principle ideas proposed by the CIAM conferences and the Athens Charter. The question remains, then, about whether or not these proposed theories can be well executed in real life. And indeed, while l’Unité created an adequate environment and better living conditions for its inhabitants, those guidelines outlined by CIAM and Le Corbusier that had been followed to the dot failed to predict that a building should be more involved with its surrounding rather than act as a small selfsustained city. Presently, the building mainly serves as just housing since other communal activity spaces have been taken away because of the new surrounding building. Today l’Unité is more of a successful project as it is now a very influential building as it is distinguished as one of the first post war buildings. Despite the argument that CIAM could have led to controversial results that remain with us today and the many difficulties it encountered, it remains a key point of interest for the city of Marseille and its architecture, as well as for the development of housing. Le Corbusier’s Unité is often described as a timeless work, both as a piece of architecture and a social statement, and it is one of his most influential later works. Le Corbusier was of great impact on urban design; his project now serves as a prototype and is great inspiration for ideal housing planning as it has set foundations for future design thinking. Today still, l’Unité houses some of its original occupants.

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM http://www.archdaily.com 1 Jose Baltanas. Walking Through Le Corbusier: A Tour of His Masterworks. (London: Thames & Hudson, 2005), p113 2 Le Corbusier, The Complete Architectural Works, vol. 5, 1946-1952, (London, 1970), p190 3 Jose Baltanas, Walking Through Le Corbusier: A Tour of His Masterworks, (London: Thames & Hudson 2005), p113 4 Jacques Sbriglio, Le Corbusier: L'unité D'habitation De Marseille Et Les Autres Unités D'habitation à Rezé-les-Nantes, Berlin, Briey En Forêt Et Firminy, (Basel: Birkhäuser, 2004), p182 5 Jose Baltanas, Walking Through Le Corbusier: A Tour of His Masterworks, (London: Thames & Hudson 2005), p114 6 Eric Mumford, Defining Urban Design: CIAM Architects and the Formation of a Discipline, 1937-69, ( World Print 2009), p7 7Ibid, p16 8Ibid, p11 9 Eric Mumford, The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960, (The MIT Press 2000) p85 10 William Curtis, Modern Architecture since 1900, (Phaidon Press, 1986), p173 11 Jacques Sbriglio, Le Corbusier: L'unité D'habitation De Marseille Et Les Autres Unités D'habitation à Rezé-les-Nantes, Berlin, Briey En Forêt Et Firminy, (Basel: Birkhäuser, 2004), p225 12 Baltanas, Jose. Walking Through Le Corbusier: A Tour of His Masterworks. London: Thames & Hudson 2005. p113 13Willy Boesiger, Le Corbusier, (London: Thames and Hudson 1972), p176 14 Jose Baltanas, Walking Through Le Corbusier: A Tour of His Masterworks, (London: Thames & Hudson 2005), p115

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The post-war Pruitt-Igoe complex of St.Louis, Missouri between 1952-74 was a 33 11-storey towered public housing redevelopment project that inherently failed its purpose to abolish slums and "remove" poverty and accommodate low to middleincome black and white tenants around the city's downtown core. It was demolished 20 years after erection and was seen as an architectural and urban public housing failure, concluding the "death of modernism." In attempt to decelerate black/coloured ghetto expansion and provide fresh highdensity public housing after predicting (but fundamentally miscalculating) future population increases, the St. Louis Housing Authority commissioned architecture firm Hellmuth, Yamasaki, and Leinweber to design according to the authority's project constraints. Early planning and design intents of the complex was directly influenced by modernist-urban ideas of the Functional City stemming from the CongrĂ¨s internationaux d'architecture moderne (CIAM, 1928-59) and more acutely the Athens Charter, including: separation from cars via "streets in the air", outdoor communal spaces between floors, local amenities, and having the three essential joys of urbanism (as deemed by Le Corbusier) of plentiful sunlight, space and greenery. However, the failure of Pruitt-Igoe was affected not only by the final form and outcome - nor solely those urban planning ideas - but also by unrealistically tight economic and social pressures within a complex context. The urban planning scheme of Pruitt-Igoe will be discussed critically alongside these contextual matters which is crucial to its failure in entirety.

CIAM 1928-1959

THE PRUITT-IGOE COMPLEX Minoru Yamasaki 1954 St. Louis, Missouri, USA Jessica Hoang Chen

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Introduction

The 1940s post-WWII period changes were not accurately anticipated for in the city of St. Louis, Missouri. As one of only four other cities in the U.S. with a trending white-middle-class population decline (rise of suburban life), along with an accelerating increase of poor black/ coloured people moving into the emptying town, the City Council decided that many districts in needed to undergo urban renewal plans. Creeping slum belts and blighted neighbourhoods towards the downtown area became a growing concern to the revival of the city, as well as to private interests looking to develop1. Thus, Minoru Yamasaki of the architecture firm Yamasaki, Hellmuth, and Leinweber was commissioned by the St. Louis Housing Authority in 1950 to redevelop the slums of the DeSoto-Carr neighbourhood. The result was the Pruitt-Igoe Complex, a 33-block, 11-storey high-density public housing project. The firm’s initial approaches to the design of the complex were considerably influenced by the Athens Charter’s guidelines for living standards along with some of Le Corbusier’s ideas on urbanism, including his 1922 “Functional City” concept, his 1933 “Radiant City” concept,2 and his “three joys of urbanism,” in providing an abundance of sunlight, space and air.3 Only 20 years after being erected in 1954, was entirely demolished in 1974, and has international recognition of being a public housing failure and the “death of modernism.”4

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The Program & Site

Pruitt-Igoe consisted of mainly residential public housing apartments as it was continually stripped of additional communal program for the minimizing of budget and costs as administered by federal authorities funding the project. The site of Pruitt-Igoe was a very large, undisrupted 33-acre plot of land on the northwest corner of Cass Avenue and N. Jefferson Avenue (Fig. 01), targeted to be one of many an urban renewal projects, especially to remove slums. The construction of Pruitt-Igoe’s 33 apartments led to the removal of at least 10 public streets from the pre-existing neighbourhood (Fig. 02), in which the new block of land the complex sat on did not have any distinguished “public” walkways to get through. It is implied that Pruitt-Igoe was interpreted as private property. Most pedestrian traffic and other vehicular traffic were likely to have been around the block, along Cass Ave., N. Jefferson Ave and directly east and south ( Fig. 03). The Conext

It would be unreasonable to say that the architects – from a profession with integrity, discipline and social responsibility while valuing Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) propositions at the time – would have had ill intentions in the design. Instead, Yamasaki physically masked and further isolated the severe existing social problems of poverty and racial segregation with an inherently well-intentioned design,

sculpted and dictated by intense economic pressures – the internal complexities behind Puitt-Igoe were not directly confronted. Despite adhering to most of the Athens Charter’s tenets, it seems that Pruitt-Igoe existed within a setting in which private interests were more valued than public interests – a complete opposite of what the charter and CIAM ideals supported. Therefore, the architecture and design of Pruitt-Igoe itself cannot entirely be put to blame. Under the United States Housing Act of 1949, the Pruitt-Igoe public housing project was given funding for 2,400 units for a high density estimate of 15,000 tenants. These low-rent units were catered to the poor residents in order to stop further poverty and slum expansion.5 The resolution to lift the residents out of poverty, however, stopped there. Although a Supreme Court decision and the project itself initially allocated half its units to white residents and half to black/coloured folk, the predominantly middle-class white population had already began shifting to the suburbs. Additionally, many people did not want to live next to or associate with the black community or slum residents. For the residents, “it was the problem of coping with poverty in America that led them to violence, vandalism, and welfare dependency.”6 There was a deeply embedded structural racism in St. Louis, in which, unfortunately, the architecture of Pruitt-Igoe continued to reinforce by physical isolation from the rest of the city.7 Only in 1947 did there exist an approved Comprehensive Plan (Official Plan) for

minimally informed of the urban planning connotations that rose. This goes against CIAM beliefs that new urban planning should be a work of both parties. In Light of CIAM

Yamasaki’s design process changed substantially due to continual low-cost demands, but the final project still holds onto many essential roots from CIAM II of 1929 “Die Wohnung für das Existenzminimum” concepts and mainly major elements from the Athens Charter, notably in the Habitation, Leisure and Main Points of Doctrine sections. Based on the Habitation and Leisure chapters of the Athens Charter, it is mandatory for the living spaces of Pruitt-Igoe to always have the best “conditions of nature,” also called the “three raw materials of urbanism,” namely sun, space and verdure for mental sensibility and well-being.11 Because each apartment was 11-storeys tall, they were well-spaced apart in order for these three essential factors to be realized. Each tower was long and narrow to maximize light, air and views. Residents received an almost luxurious view of the city, another important

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factor in dwelling design as promoted by CIAM. Initially, Yamasaki had intended for the complex to be surrounded by immense vegetation and landscaping to serve as buffer zones between the traffic on the streets and the outdoor spaces. However, because of high upkeep costs, the PruittIgoe became a concrete wasteland.12 Even so, the juxtapositions of the complex units within the block still detach and distance themselves away from the borders to the streets, in contrast to previous building placement along the streets (Fig. 03). The open spaces also intertwined with the daily lives of the residents, but also attracted unwanted guests who could easily sneak into the apartments. There were no outdoor spaces with a defined purpose (or continual surveillance) as suggested by CIAM, which made these areas leftover negative space. The glazed interior “communal” galleries on every floor implied a pedestrian “street in the sky” zone, away from the dangers of vehicular traffic. CIAM and the Athens Charter pushed the separation of streets and housing for safety and health reasons – pedestrians and people shouldn’t have

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St. Louis that outlined city growth and development for the next 25 years. The goals consisted of maintaining a wellfunctioning metropolitan centre and planning the physical future (including new family dwellings, parks, wider streets and transportation provisions) for a 10% increase in population as “confidently” predicted by the Plan Commission.8 There was an underlying urge to attract people into the city and reverse decentralization trends. Interestingly, the Zoning Ordinance for St. Louis has been last revised in 1926 to-date. Many of the ordinances were based off of circumstances during the war. Some issues that were tied to the design of Pruitt-Igoe included no population density regulations ( Yamasaki had to adjust his design according to the density that the St. Louis Housing Authority determined9), insufficient residential areas/districts, twice as much area zoned for commerce than is used, more than twice as much zoned areas for industrial purpose than is used, and obsolete or inadequate text regulations.10 Almost all of the approvals for the design were up to the Housing Authorities and dictated by Federal Authority funds, both likely to have been

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desoto-carr neighbourhood before 01 removal of existing public streets 02 figure ground of pruitt-igoe 03

to succumb to the dangers and toxic fumes from cars, and so people belonged away from streets. The Athens Charter also notes that collective institutions or communal amenities like medical services, schools and supply centres should be considered “extensions of the dwelling.”13 As the project density was increased, money for landscaping and services (such as gyms, playgrounds, a proposed grocery, even public bathrooms) disappeared, and the sole public building left was a “community centre” where housing authority offices were set up to collect rent and administrate the project. Architect Gyo Obata, who worked with Yamasaki, recalls that “[Yamasaki] tried and fought at every turn [for amenities].”14 There are implications that almost nothing was being done for the public good as soon as the buildings started falling apart. The authorities had no concept of land ordinance in Pruitt-Igoe for green spaces or clear building heights and distances in the neighbourhood – combined with the needed density, all sense of diversity and scale were lost. This further strengthens the loss of public hopes to private interests and lack of will to genuinely help these particular communities. Conclusion

When Pruitt-Igoe opened, many described the housing project as a gift – a new place to live that returned their dignity and sense of living rightfully like the rest of the population,15 a value pushed by CIAM as a response to severe living conditions

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of labourers. However, the final execution of the project was massively out of scale and hurt by private interests/government funding issues. Although Pruitt-Igoe initially physically solved issues of public health and under-maintenance prevalent in the ghetto, the plain, repetitive and highly uniform apartments created a stark removal of past remnants and may have contributed to loss of community, history and familiarity. This eminent difference of the new complex to the rest of the St. Louis urban fabric also identified itself later in the wrong ways, segregating the black/coloured impoverished community. Without critical social remediation or political action unbiased by racism, PruittIgoe and its residents were eventually left to fend for themselves in the midst of degraded, feared and unaffordable concrete shells. Working within CIAM and Athens Charter principles alone may have generalized the reality of the Pruitt-Igoe neighbourhood and community. Yamasaki and private entities would have had to analyze the situation carefully before finalizing a design strategy and micro-zoning for the public’s needs. Pruitt-Igoe had replaced a slum with another: “While it is natural for architectural critics to focus on the stuff design is made of: space, proportion, structure, form and other essential elements of building, it is unnatural to ignore the social, economic, and political structure of society that ultimately shapes what architects do, how they do it, and why.”16 Pruitt-Igoe was a housing project that missed the true meaning behind CIAM principles.

NOTES

1 Bristol, Katharine G. "The Pruitt-Igoe Myth." Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), 1991, 163-71. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://www.pruitt-igoe.com/temp/1991-bristol-pruitt-igoemyth.pdf. Cend贸n, Sara F. "Pruitt-Igoe 40 Years Later." AIA RSS. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://www.aia.org/ practicing/AIAB092656. 2 "Habitation." In Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter, 53-65. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 3 Birmingham, Elizabeth. "Reframing the Ruins: Pruitt-Igoe, Structural Racism, and African American Rhetoric as a Space for Cultural Critique." Western Journal of Communication 63, no. 3 (1999): 291-309. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/ docview/202690182?accountid=13631. 4 Bristol, Katharine G. "The Pruitt-Igoe Myth." Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), 1991, 163-71. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://www.pruitt-igoe.com/temp/1991-bristol-pruitt-igoemyth.pdf. Cend贸n, Sara F. "Pruitt-Igoe 40 Years Later." AIA RSS. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://www.aia.org/ practicing/AIAB092656. 5 "Land Use And Zoning." The City of St. Louis Missouri: Comprehensive City Plan 1947. April 1, 1945. Accessed October 20, 2014. https://www.stlouis-mo.gov/archive/1947-comprehensive-plan/landuse3. shtml. 6 Birmingham, Elizabeth. "Reframing the Ruins: Pruitt-Igoe, Structural Racism, and African American Rhetoric as a Space for Cultural Critique." Western Journal of Communication 63, no. 3 (1999): 291-309. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/ docview/202690182?accountid=13631. 7 Bristol, Katharine G. "The Pruitt-Igoe Myth." Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), 1991, 163-71. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://www.pruitt-igoe.com/temp/1991-bristol-pruitt-igoemyth.pdf. 8 "Land Use And Zoning." The City of St. Louis Missouri: Comprehensive City Plan 1947. April 1, 1945. Accessed October 20, 2014. https://www.stlouis-mo.gov/archive/1947-comprehensive-plan/landuse3. shtml. 9 "Habitation." In Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter, 53-65. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 10 Birmingham, Elizabeth. "Reframing the Ruins: Pruitt-Igoe, Structural Racism, and African American Rhetoric as a Space for Cultural Critique." Western Journal of Communication 63, no. 3 (1999): 291-309. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/ docview/202690182?accountid=13631. 11 "Habitation." In Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter, 53-65. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 12 Birmingham, Elizabeth. "Reframing the Ruins: Pruitt-Igoe, Structural Racism, and African American Rhetoric as a Space for Cultural Critique." Western Journal of Communication 63, no. 3 (1999): 291-309. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/ docview/202690182?accountid=13631. 13 The Pruitt-Igoe Myth. DVD. Directed by Chad Freidrichs. New York: First Run Features, 2012. 14 Birmingham, Elizabeth. "Reframing the Ruins: Pruitt-Igoe, Structural Racism, and African American Rhetoric as a Space for Cultural Critique." Western Journal of Communication 63, no. 3 (1999): 291-309. Accessed September 19, 2014. http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/ docview/202690182?accountid=13631. FIGURES 1, 2, 3 Original Images From The City of St. Louis Missouri Website: https://www.stlouis-mo.gov/archive/1947-comprehensive-plan/plates.shtml

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM: Volner, Ian. Photograph. New documentary "The Pruitt-Igoe Myth" tells of the rise and fall of America's most infamous housing project, http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/ culture/2012/02/5195485/new-documentary-pruitt-igoe-myth-tells-rise-and-fall-americas-most-i (accessed November 7, 2014).

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The human quality along with a sense of unity became something that was severely lacking in the designing and construction of buildings after the war. The Amsterdam Orphanage uses a design approach that goes against the functionalist's rigid approach, which focuses more on the rational function of a building rather than the individual identity in designs as well as the design in relation to the surrounding context. Aldo Van Eyck's design shows that he didn't fully embrace the CIAM's beliefs such as building on a human scale but losing the individual identity in favor of function, instead opting to moving away from traditional architecture with functionalism by attempting to combine both approaches. The design uses individual cubes that are connected together to form a complex shape with transitional spaces in between that lets the individual cubes to keep their own uniqueness, but allows flexibility in programming. The plan utilizes exterior and interior spaces by putting an emphasis on the circulation allowing the design to focus on the individual human scale. The placement of the building allows the orphanage to connect to the surrounding context by utilizing the rest of the open square site as a transitional space to the city, and to the exterior circulation that is formed by the surrounding context. The orphanage's design does break away from postwar architecture and reconnect with the city around it by mimicking how the "whole" is formed by the "individuals"much like in a city.

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AMSTERDAM ORPHANAGE Aldo van Eyck 1955 - 1960 Amsterdam, Netherlands Wang Chiu

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Introduction

The Amsterdam Orphanage was commissioned by the city of Amsterdam to house 125 children from ages of a few month old babies to 20 year olds. The Amsterdam Orphanage by Aldo Van Eyck was built in the Congrès internationaux d’architecture modern (CIAM) era between the years 1957 and its completion year on 1960 on the outskirts of the southern edge of the city’s 20th century master plan to extend Amsterdam. The Amsterdam Orphanage’s design shows Aldo Van Eyck’s stance on the ideas and principles of the Congrès internationaux d’architecture modern, where he accepts some of the points made such as building on the individual scale, sunlight being available as a requirement for dwellings, etc. Some other ideas that the Amsterdam Orphanage’s design utilizes are “twinphenomena”8 where in Aldo Van Eyck’s opinion the interaction between two opposing aspects or concepts creates harmony. With the design of the orphanage he uses the idea of the house which is something that is singular and compact with the idea of the city, which is comprised of several different areas forming this larger unit. It is actually in the “inbetween or doorstep”8 areas of the building where Aldo Van Eyck describes as the point where “‘architecture ‘breathes in and out’, a place whose visualized ambivalences satisfy essential human ones.”8

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Site Information

The Amsterdam Orphanage is located in the southern part of the city of Amsterdam, on the north east corner of the site at the intersection of IJsbaanpad and Amstelveenseweg being as close as possible. The Amsterdam Orphanage was designed by Aldo Van Eyck in order to replace the old 16th century orphanage which at the time was not up to the living standards needed for the orphans of World War II. There are two main on the east and the north side of the site with pedestrian flow coming from both those sides, there is also one entrance for cars to parking lots on the north side as well. The programming of the orphanage shows that spaces that deal with the public like offices and the gym and theatre as well as service spaces like the garage or the service entrance and store rooms are pushed to the north side. Whereas on the other hand the living spaces would be blocked off in a sense from the public as they are behind the public spaces. There is also an exterior courtyard space with bike racks put toward the north side as it is more publicly used, while on the southern and western sides there is a private park / play area as well as a slightly more public play area closer to the main road on the east side. Social, Political, Cultural, Planning Context

The world was still recovering from the chaos and the fighting left over from World War II, rebuilding of cities and re-establishing of order in chaos was the main priority at the

time. CIAM had brought a new way of rethinking the principles needs of a city and its people’s living conditions in the midst of all this chaos from the aftermath of the war and from the industrial revolution. The Amsterdam 20th Century Master plan or Plan Zuid (1917) proposed by H. P Berlage was to move the architecture of the new area away from the traditional housing designs as well as increase the amount of green spaces. Aside from expanding the amount of affordable housing for worker class citizens, also sought to create wider roads/highways based on the avenues in Paris. The main road on the east side of the site is a major means of circulation as it leads to an airport. Project in Light of CIAM

CIAM‘s influence around 1950s to 1960s was diminishing, although it improved living conditions with the new ways of thinking, there were issues with how the building design from the CIAM era was focused so much on functionality and rationality to the point that it ignored ideas that gave a building its identity stumping the creative aspects of design. Aldo van Eyck focuses on two main concepts in designing this orphanage; he utilizes the idea of relations being formed in the transitional or inbetween spaces. The second concept is focused on the shaping of numbers as a major driving force in the creation of the building’s identity. One of the things important aspects of planning was the placement of interior transitional spaces and how they were made with the perspective that children and how

each module had access to other modules addresses one of the issues from the preCIAM era where spaces were insufficient and poorly organized. The Athens Charter makes a point of how insufficient spaces should be replaced by sufficient open spaces that are distinct in their programming which is what the Amsterdam Orphanage accomplished with its ‘interior streets’ connecting all these individual spaces together. The Amsterdam Orphanage addresses the issue of a lack of human identity and zoning on an individual level in designs in the CIAM era architecture with its design as well as demonstrating another way of planning in a city. But unlike the driving point of separating the four major functions which CIAM does, this design pursued the idea of reconnecting with the road as a means of access by placing the orphanage as close as possible to the intersection. This closeness to the intersection allowed the orphanage to reconnect with the surrounding context with its form that appears porous while still maintaining a sense of privacy with the organization of the modules blocking the interior spaces from outside views. The Amsterdam Orphanage does conform

to the Athens Charter’s point on how every dwelling should have sunlight as a requirement; this is one of the major points created by CIAM based on the previously poor living conditions.

The concept of shape in numbers is an idea that forms out of Aldo Van Eyck’s belief that “a house must be like a small city if it’s to be a real house, a city like a large house if it’s to be a real city”9. The idea is that a urban element is taken and is used to create a form by utilizing a pattern of repetition. And with the repetition he proposes that the elements wouldn’t lose their identity as individuals but they would come together through the shape that is created by the repetition thereby forming a new identity as a whole with “unity through diversity”9. In this sense Aldo Van Eyck is expressing his beliefs in that architecture as a reflection of human society is always changing but at the same time has to acknowledge what has still stayed the same. This idea of representing the change in society while at the same time holding on to what has stayed the same is a primary

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they are “a completely unique type of human being which experiences their surroundings in a fundamentally distinctive perspective.”5 These spaces are put in between the living spaces of the orphans and the large exterior court yard space as a transition to help ease the feeling of “leaving home and going home”3. These interior transitional spaces were also designed specifically with the exterior cladding materials so that it incorporates the sensation of being outside but with a roof. The living spaces themselves are divided into eight different departments by age ranges. The transitional spaces are a part of what Aldo van Eyck calls the “interior street”8 with is essentially the interior circulation in between the different modules, but it is not a continuous space rather it is different breaks of spaces that allow the user to experience a “simultaneous awareness of what is significant on either side”3 These interior streets being is to be seen as an intermediary space designed to get the children to move around as if they were outside playing, as well as encouraging visits between different modules. These ‘interior streets’ , the exterior play areas, as well as the placement of these modules so that

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Aerial overview 01 Site diagram 02 Program diagram 03 Light study 04 Circulation diagram 05

driving force in the design of the orphanage. The geometry of the building is formed from the modern interpretation of the architectural orders. All the modules of the orphanage form an orthogonal grid and each module each has concrete columns at the four corners of the cupolas that have several circular skylights to allow in sunlight with concrete beams that are comparable to architraves with a long oblong slit in the middle. These columns, beams and oblong slits as well as the clear orthogonal grid allow the user as well as the public to be able to identify where there is a program space. The design of the ‘interior streets’ is comparable to cloisters from the Romanesque, while the private play area, being closed off in a sense also can be reminiscent of a cortile from the Renaissance. The combination of these two traditions forms this module that has this centered space, which is marked by where the columns and ‘architraves’ are under its cupola. The modules emulate the classical tradition of immutability and rest with its each module centered on its own individual space, which when combined with the repetitive or cellular ordering pattern creates a form that embodies and invokes movement. The third tradition that is combined with Romanesque and Renaissance traditions is the “vernacular of the heart found in archaic cultures”8 where vernacular of the heart is referring to the “results of collective forces – ‘extensions of collective behaviour’” 1. The private play area along with the modules reflects another twinphenomena relationship where Aldo Van Eyck attempts to take the

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idea of centralization and decentralization and combine them in this building. As the module themselves are centered on their own space in a representation of the “positive qualities of a centralized scheme”3 on a cellular level whereas the overall form is suggesting that the private play area is supposed to be the center of the building. However the play area is placed off centre to the south showing a decentralized scheme provides the opportunity to have these interior streets to allow access to the rest of the building but also provide their function as intermediary spaces. The relation between the play area and the modules also shows what Aldo Van Eyck describes as “architecture ‘breathes in and out”8 as the intermediary spaces provide the breaks in the continuity of the spaces where it transitions into the outdoor environment whether it is through windows or the space is just open to the exterior.

Conclusion

The Amsterdam Orphanage tries to merge the idea of a functional city without losing its identity as a building. The design reflects Aldo Van Eyck’s personal view that a house is a small city and as such it should achieve unity through the interactions of diverse elements much like how a city functions. All the while staying true to the fact that Aldo believes that architecture as a reflection of society should show what hasn’t changed and what has changed, the Amsterdam Orphanage is an appropriate example of the first step towards moving away from the CIAM era.

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Accessed October 24, 2014. http://ad009cdnb.archdaily.net/wp-content/ uploads/2011/07/1311048486-11.jpg. 1 Lammers, Harm. "Unravelling and Reconnecting Aldo Van Eyck in Search of an Approach for Tomorrow." Potentially... January 11, 2012. Accessed October 20, 2014. http://taak.me/wp-content/ uploads/2013/05/Harm_Lammers-Potentially.pdf. 2 Mienke, Simon Thomas. "Chapter 5: Design for Debate, 1960s to the Present." In Dutch Design: A History, 188 - 189. London, UK: Reaktion Books, 2008. 3 Van Ecyk, Aldo. "Orphanage, Amstelveenseweg, Amsterdam, 1955-60." In Aldo Van Ecyk, Works, 88 109. Bussum, The Netherlands: THOTH Publishers, 1999. 4 Accessed September 13, 2014. http://pab.pa.upc.edu/pdfs/orfanato.pdf. 5 Orphanage Space Analysis Mcfeeters. September 29, 2009. Accessed September 13, 2014. http:// mirandamcfeeters.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/orphanage-space-analysis-mcfeeters.pdf 6"Orphanage Body Analysis." Accessed September 14, 2014. http://mirandamcfeeters.files.wordpress. com/2009/11/orphanage-body-analysis-mcfeeters.pdf.. 7 Pilling, Matthew. "ARCHITECTURE URBANISM." Eric Mumford: The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism 19281960 (2002). March 31, 2011. Accessed September 13, 2014.http://architectureandurbanism.blogspot. ca/2011/03/eric-mumford-ciam-discourse-on-urbanism.html. 8 Strauven, Francis, and Aldo Van Eyck. Aldo Van Eyck's Orphanage: A Modern Monument. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers ;, 1996. 9 Strauven, Francis. "Aldo Van Eyck - Shaping the New Reality From the In-between to the Aesthetics of Number." CCA - Centre Canadien D'Architecture. May 24, 2007. Accessed October 18, 2014. http:// www2.cca.qc.ca/pages/Niveau3.asp?page=mellon_strauven&lang=eng 10 "The Plan to Build Amsterdam South." The Plan to Build Amsterdam South. Accessed October 20, 2014. http://www.amsterdamtourism.net/plan_south.html. . END IMAGE SOURCED FROM "Architecture of Doom." : Photo. Accessed October 24, 2014. http:// architectureofdoom.tumblr.com/image/13400037727.

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The Lake Shore Drive Apartments, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, displays Chicago, Illinois' use of Le Corbusier and the International Congresses of Modern Architecture's (CIAM's) urban planning principles. The site of the two towers is located along Lake Shore Drive, a boulevard that runs parallel to the lake bringing commuters into the city. It is this relationship to the major roadway that provides the site with it's qualities, amenities and zoning restrictions. The development and rebuilding of Chicago, followed in tangent with ideas of zoning, became a contributor to the character of the city. The placement of buildings and their allocated building typology began to shape this new emerging urban fabric, with residential development given high priority. Parameters placed on the built environment limited buildings to a set of rules and restrictions. In turn affecting the size, shape, height, and material usage. The organization of the city and its individual parts - buildings, infrastructures, parks etc. - took form in the consideration of the general health of the city and its occupants. The positioning of the apartments within the city and their inventive method of solutions are a practical example of designing within restrictions while maintaining social concerns.

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860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments Mies van der Rohe 1949-1951 Chicago, Illinois Joseph Costanza

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Introduction

The Lake Shore Drive Apartments, designed by Mies Van Der Rohe for the real estate developer Herbert Greenwald, are a testament to Mies’ creativity and ingenuity. Built between 1949 and 1951, in Chicago, Illinois, the two identical towers at 860 and 880 Lake Shore Drive over look the shoreline of Lake Michigan. Positioned at right angles to one another the two apartment structures address both the restraints of zoning and the ideal design principles of the International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM). In doing so Mies addresses the site in such a way that elevates it’s importance through the creation of a void space. Freeing the ground plane caused legal concerns for Mies; his solution, apart from maintaining a freed ground plane, allowed him to maintain adaptable interior spaces. The exterior, with a regular façade, uses modern construction techniques in addressing issues related to the cost of living. The Lake Shore Drive Apartments, placed within the organized fabric of Chicago, are tangible examples of restraints and ideal design principles put into practice. Context

Located across from the shoreline of Lake Michigan, the site of the Lake Shore Drive Apartments is cut into a trapezoidal or triangular-like site by Chicago’s unique grid. This grid, developed after the Chicago Great Fire and furthered by the conceptual idea of the Burnham plan, is established by the

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intersection of a regular grid with a series of boulevards that concentrate toward the heart of the city. The site of the apartments borders the scenic boulevard of Lake Shore Drive ( hence the name), one of many boulevards into the city. Lake Shore Drive created a buffer between the towers and the shoreline of Lake Michigan. The shoreline, once a place of vegetation and leisure had been replaced in earlier years by a paved bike path.1 It still attracts walkers, joggers and cyclists. After the Great Fire of 1871, in an attempt to rebuild the city, waste was dumped at the shorelines of Lake Michigan.2 Much of the central part of the city’s waterfront today, including the site of the Lake Shore Drive Apartments, sits on what was once landfill.3 As the city began to expand it, including over the lake, new regulations on the built form were established.

increasingly dense.6 The densification of the city called for taller more ambitious designs. In 1942 volumentric restrictions were established in response to the growing trend of maximizing the site area and allowable height limits.7

Planning

The city began to grow and the need for new residential structures soon became apparent. Established in 1943 the Master Plan of Residential Land Use for Chicago ( 1943 Master Plan) placed high priority on high-density residential buildings, focussing it’s efforts along the lakefront.4 Remaining vacant until construction began, 860 and 880 Lake Shore Drive and surrounding area was zoned as a ‘presently non-residential’ area ripe for rebuilding.5 From then till 1965 and onward till today the entire area has been developed and zoned as a residential space ( Figure 01-02). In accordance with the 1943 Master Plan residential structures became

his presentation, Easteren explains how the street wall typology, common in medieval towns, shelters sunlight and in turn creates undesirable street conditions. Moving away from the lot line construction allows more light to filter onto the street below, making circulatory and leisure spaces more enjoyable by creating the feeling of open, unobstructed space. In furthering the unobstructed ground plane Mies elevates the Apartments on columns, creating arcades that encircle the entire first floor of both towers. In elevating the apartments Mies symbolically elevates the ground plane (Figure 04). With this simple move Mies raises the importance of the site, celebrating it as a space of leisure and natural beauty, as Walter Gropius advocates for in his CIAM III lecture Low, Mid- or High-Rise Building?.11 In raising the apartments Mies was obliged to conform with Chicago building codes, threatening the structural purity of the two Towers. Mies’ Towers were one of the first to ever use exposed steel.12 Prior steel structures commonly showcased a steel structure covered in masonry or concrete.13 Expressing the structure on the exterior caused a number of issues, the most notable being the exposed

Lincoln Park

Preserved Lakefront

JOSEPH COSTANZA

Highly dense buildings soon began to appear all over the city as the city became more populated--Mies’ Lake Shore Drive Apartments were some of the earliest highdensity residential buildings in Chicago’s history.8 Much of their local planning came from the city. From the preserved waterfront strip to the east, Lake Shore and Grant Park to the south and Lincoln Park to the North, the site in it’s conception, and in some similar aspect today, easily accesses a number of parks and natural landscapes through the main scenic roadway of Lake Shore Drive ( Figure 03). This artery into the city makes travel North and South of the city extremely easy. A number of semi-public, public and private buildings cushion the apparment towers from the downtown office core of Chicago. Although, in the initial conception of Mies’ towers, a strip of industrial buildings helped to further make the separation, they have, with de-industrialism, been replaced by semi-public, public and private buildings. In some sense, the location of the Lake Shore Drive Apartments, in relation to it’s surrounding amenities, mirrors, but on a

much smaller scale, Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse (Radiant City), which can be seen as a starting point for the theories behind CIAM and it’s first conference only 4 years after the publication of Ville Radieuse in 1924.9 The buildings relationship to inspirational planning minds of CIAM is credited, more or less, to the planning of the city. Mies, in his relationship to the site and orientation between the 2 towers further addresses issues that Le Corbusier and CIAM had addressed. The two towers, oriented on the site at right angles to one another, create an outdoor green space that faces the water. The east facing green space buffers the apartments from the busy Lake Shore Drive. Although not the ideal practice of principles by CIAM, working within the restrictions of the site, Mies is able to elegantly seporate circulation and living by infusing a leisure space between the void space created by the Towers. By developing 2 separate apartment buildings and setting them back from Lake Shore Drive, Mies has successfully separated from the traditional street wall typology that Cornelius van Easteren argues against in his 1931 The Functional City presentation.10 In

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load-bearing steel elements, “…the local building code… stipulated that the loadbearing elements should be coated with two inches of concrete.”14 In adhering to the Code while maintaining the structural integrity of the expressed structural material, Mies also chose to encase concrete covered members in non-load-bearing, rolled steel.15 This Technique allowed Mies to maintain the steel column expression throughout all the floors. Each floor designed the same, yet each floor having the possibility to be different. In their initial conception Mies attempted to use this free plan, created by the column structure, as one large space to be divided and sold as per occupant; but he was eventually pressured into dividing the floors into rooms.16 Neverthe-less, each floor maintains the ability to be divided as need be. Proof of this flexibility lies in the arrangement of the rooms today, as many apartments in the two towers have been combined to form larger, more functional rooms.17 According to Eric Paul Mumford, CIAM believed that “…architecture should serve the many and not the few.”18 The Lake Shore Drive Apartments’ ability to adapt to different occupants, needs and uses addresses the inherent philosophy of CIAM. The flexibility in the plans of the Lake Shore Drive Apartments mirror design principles presented in CIAM’s 1929 Franfurt conference.19 Ideas of the Frankfurt conference are also found in the innovative facade design. Made up of prefabricated elements the facade construction made erecting the two buildings fairly easy.20 First the steel I-beams, attached by a steel plate, were hoisted into place, each spanning

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1933 Figure-ground map (not to scale) 01 2014 Figure-ground map (not to scale) 02 Key plan (not to scale) 03 Plan & Section of first floor (not to scale) 04 Exploded axonometric of facade construction (not to scale) 05 (1) steel I-beams and steel plates (2) aluminum frame (3) window panels

the equivalent of two floors in height -these steel sections frame the window placements. Next came the windows. First the aluminum frame were fitted between the steel sections and second came the window panels themselves (Figure 05). The use of prefabricated elements, a fairly new building technique at the time, sped up construction and thus lowered the overall cost of construction. This “enabled them ( Greenwald) to sell the apartments at 10 percent below market price…”.21 Through the use of innovative technology and modes of construction Mies was able to address the growing issue of high rent for the low wage demographic.

design, created social impacts by marketing to the low wage demographic. Mies’ design, though viewed at a much different scale then the ideas of CIAM, is reflective of CIAM’s philosophy in creating a flexible and enjoyable environment where architecture serves to elevate and accentuate the natural world around it. 1

Conculusion

Built just north of the heart of Chicago, along Lake Shore Drive, Mies’ 860 and 880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments stand today as an iconic image of modern architecture. Following within the restrictions of zoning and the beliefs of CIAM, the 2 apartment structures display a harmonious relationship between restraints and ideals. The towers’ location, symbolically mirroring the planning idea of Le Corbusier and CIAM, is a testament to the planning of Chicago. The orientation of both apartments on the site breaks away from traditional construction, opening up the site, further emphasizing it’s importance. Structural creativity and ingenuity furthered the freedom on the ground plane while developing a flexible, adaptable space for occupants. New construction techniques, easily utilized because of the structural

FIGURES Schweinberg, Lindsey. '860-880 Lake Shore Drive.' Do.co,mo.mo_US. May 1, 2014. Accessed October 24, 2014. http://www.docomomo-us.org/register/fiche/860880_lake_shore_drive

860-880 LAKE SHORE DRIVE APARTMENTS CIAM PLX 599

1. 'City of Chicago' Planning and Zoning Bureau. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. https://gisapps.cityofchicago. org/zoning/liability.html?Submit=Accept 2. 'Forgotten Chicago." Maps. Chicago Daily News, 22 Dec. 2008. Web. 20 Oct. 2014. http:// forgottenchicago.com/resources/maps/maps/ 3. "The University of Chicago Library." Government Maps of Chicago in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/collections/maps/chigov 4. Wetmore, Thomas Bemis. The comprehensive plan of Chicago, December 1966. Chicago: Chicago (Ill.). Dept. of Development and Planning, 1966. 5. "The University of Chicago Library." Government Maps of Chicago in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/collections/maps/chigov 6. Wetmore, Thomas Bemis. The comprehensive plan of Chicago, December 1966. Chicago: Chicago (Ill.). Dept. of Development and Planning, 1966. 7. Schwieterman, Joseph P., Dana M. Caspall, and Jane Heron. The politics of place: a history of zoning in Chicago. Chicago, IL: Lake Claremont Press, 2006. 8. 8. French, Hilary. New urban housing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. 9. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 10. Pilling, Matthew. "ARCHITECTURE + URBANISM." Eric Mumford: The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism 1928-1960 (2002). N.p., 31 Mar. 2011. Web. 20 Oct. 2014. http://architectureandurbanism.blogspot. ca/2011/03/eric-mumford-ciam-discourse-on-urbanism.html 11. Diefendorf, Jeffry M. . "FROM GERMANY TO AMERICA ." WALTER GROPIUS AND MARTIN WAGNER ON SKYSCRAPERS AND THE PLANNING OF HEALTHY CITIES. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. http://www. docstoc.com/docs/27018328/FROM-GERMANY-TO-AMERICA-WALTER-GROPIUS-AND-MARTINWAGNER-ON---PDF 12. --- New urban housing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. 13. --- New urban housing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. 14. --- New urban housing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. 15. --- New urban housing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. 16. --- New urban housing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. 17. "860 | 880 Lake Shore Drive." 860 | 880 Lake Shore Drive. http://860880lakeshoredrive. com/860880lakeshoredrive/LandingPage/hp_normal.html (accessed October 20, 2014). 18. - The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 19. Wolfe, Ross. 'Le Corbusier's "CIAM-2 (1929)".' Modernist Architecture. N.p., 14 Sept. 2011. Web. 18 Oct. 2014 http://modernistarchitecture.wordpress.com/2011/09/14/le corbusier's-ciam-2-1929-1929/ 20. --- New urban housing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. 21. --- New urban housing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Blessing, Hedrich. '860|880 Lake Shore Drive Buildings.' History|Research. Accessed October 24, 2014. http://860880lakeshoredrive.com/860880-lake-shore-drive-buildings/.

JOSEPH COSTANZA

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Analysis of Manhattan's Lever House designed by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill (SOM) is conducted with respect to the New York Zoning Resolution of 1916 and the Athens Charter of the CongrĂ¨s International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM). A skillful architectural response to the zoning regulations resulted in an unprecedented podium and tower scheme of pure geometric form. The slender vertical tower functionally and distinctly defines the office areas; while a raised horizontal podium, capped with a private roof garden, revives the street corner and provides ample sunlit public and private spaces. These design elements are user-focused and contribute to improving urban street-level activity and the office environment. The design approaches that comprise the mid-century modern building highly conform to the principles outlined in the Athens Charter resulting in a successful scheme for a modern and healthy office building.

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CIAM 1928-1959

LEVER HOUSE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill 1952 Manhattan, New York City Andreh Custantin

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Introduction

Built in New York during the post-war era, the Lever House was designed for Lever Brothers; a company of British origin that manufactures synthetic soap detergents1. The corporation envisioned a new and clean headquarters that is distinct and represents the values of the company – right on the cutting edge of household products2. Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill, a fairly new and modernist architectural firm, was commissioned to design the new headquarters. Gordon Bunshaft, a proponent of the International Style, was the chief designer on the project and worked closely with the Lever’s CEO, Charles Luckman,who was also trained as an architect3.

At the time, large commercial buildings, with maximized buildable and rentable areas, were subjected to strict zoning limitations, which resulted to a typical layer-cake design4. To ensure a building design that outshined their competitors, the corporation chose aesthetic over profit by reducing the program size to only accommodate the required staff5.The corporation’s vision and modesty, in conjunction with Bunshaft’s modernist principles and understanding of the zoning bylaw, produced the city’s first fully sealed and glazed skyscraper rendered in pure geometric form6.Due to the sealed envelope, the first automated window washing system was devised also functioning as built-in advertisement, which is suitable for a company that manufactures soap7.The contrast with the stately stone Rue Corridor of Park Avenue could not have been more stark8.

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Site and Program

Located on 390 Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, the Lever House sits on the east end of a typical city block. The 34,830 square foot parcel has 200 feet of frontage onto the west side of Park Ave, flanked by 53rd and 54th street, and Madison Ave further west enclosing the city block9.Park Ave is a large, double-wyth avenue that is divided by vegetated islands and accommodates the majority of pedestrian and vehicular traffic. The side streets are considerably smaller and provide one-way traffic in the east (54th Street) and the west (53rd Street) directions. At the time of completion, the buildings in the immediate vicinity to the Lever House were mid-rise masonry-clad with facades articulated with ornamented cornices and punched fenestrations.

The twenty-four storey, 302 foot tall, headquarters is intended to accommodate office functions and has a gross area of 289,584 square feet10.The functions are vertically separated through out the building in the following order: public, staff, executive, and mechanical. Below grade, a single level parking garage accommodated sixty-three parking spaces11. Above, pilotis were utilized to elevate the lot-sized podium which creates the street-level public realm and entrance lobby. The single storey, horizontally formed and voided, podium houses the support functions of the building. The roof of the podium accommodates openair amenity spaces that compliment the third storey cafeteria at the base of the tower. The following seventeen storeys of the tower contain the office program and are succeeded

by the executive penthouse. The tower is capped by a concealed mechanical space, which continues the form of the tower. Context

Originally located in a headquarters outside of Boston, the rapid success of the company prompteda move to Manhattan to establish a prominent corporate image in the realm of successful businesses12.The triumph of the company is measured by the choice of site which fronts on Park Ave; one of the most prominent avenues in Manhattan and home to the most expensive real estate in the country. The success of the company is attributed to the economic boom, advertisement, and technological advancements in automated production. During this period, the American consumer was praised as a patriotic citizen13. Returning veterans invested money they had saved up during the warin housing, automobiles, clothing, furniture, and other household goods14. They were interested in new products that would modernize their lives15. Additionally, television provided a potent medium for advertisements to reach inside American homes, which further contributed to the desire for consumer products, including synthetic soaps16. Therefore, manufacturers, including the Lever Brothers, rapidly flourished as they satisfied the growing market by utilizing automated production, which decreased labor and increased profit margins17.

The architectural language of the punched fenestrations of typical mid-century buildings communicates a sense of individualism. However, the homogenous glazed façade,

Zoning

The New York Zoning Ordinance of 1916 was still in effect during the 1950’s and governed the built forms of the New York skyline, including the Lever House22. Eventually, it was evident that the original 1916 framework needed to be completely reconsidered and

after numerous studies and public debates, the current Zoning Resolution was enacted and took effect in 196123. The built form was a direct product of skillful and purposeful adherence to the zoning regulations with respect to form and height. The height regulation is articulated in Article III, clause 9b and states the following:

“If the area of the building is reduced so that above a given level it covers in the aggregate not more than 25 per cent of the area of the lot, the building above such level shall be excepted from the foregoing provisions of this article. Such portion of the building may be erected to any height, provided that the distance which it sets back from the street line on each street which it faces, plus half the width of the street, equals to 75 feet. But for each per cent of the width of the lot on the street line that such street wall is less in length than the width of the lot, such wall may be erected four inches nearer to the street line.”24 In response to these limitations, the tower was designed to an area of 8,700 square feet per floor, which is approximately 25% of the 34,830 square foot parcel – conforming

to the aforementioned regulation clause. Moreover, the placement of the tower meets the setback requirement with respect to the frontage on 53rd and 54th street. The 53 feet of frontage covered by the tower along Park Ave is approximately 27% of the 200foot lot frontage25. The remaining 73% of frontage allows the tower to be built 24 feet closer to the street, which permits the tower to abut the property line. Skilful conformity to the zoning regulations enabled the Lever House to rise in pure geometric form and stay true to its modernist nature. CIAM

The Lever House is comprised of numerous design elements which highly conform to the principles outlined in CIAM; the Athens Charter in particular. The main focus of the charter is to utilize design considerations, which will provide for healthy environments. Healthy environments are established through the provision of sun access, natural sunlight, clean air, and views26. Moreover, the provision of healthy open public spaces is also a mandate within the charter27. Observations in the charter outline the lack of verdant areas within cities, which are referred to as

PLX 599 CIAM LEVER HOUSE ANDREH CUSTANTIN

of the Lever House, broken by equally spaced vertical mullions communicates a sense of conformity, which relates to the social condition of mid-century America. Conformity among Americans during the post-war era is attributed to political conflicts, social pressures, and mass media. “Pressures brought to bear by the Cold War, its attendant super patriotism, and the rise of McCarthyism mad Americans reluctant to take risks that might make them stand out”18. Moreover, American individuals responded to contemporary influences brought forth by friends and acquaintances19. Additionally, mass media portraying ideal American families, beliefs, and values were broadcasted nation-wide20. This further diminished individualism as Americans began to share common attitudes, entertainment, cultural tastes and preferences in consumer goods21.

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zoning 3d 01 ciam section diagram 02 figure ground 03

‘the authentic lungs of the city’28. Further observations mandate thatsun, space, and vegetation are the key indispensible elements to living beings and urbanism29. The base of the Lever House was set on pilotis to freeup the ground plane for public use. The strategic positioning of the tower, with the broader dimension facing south permits for maximum sun exposure andprovides for a large plane of ideal sun-bathed space to be open for planting. Moreover, the center of the base was removed to allow sun access to the street-level garden below, which contributes to the quality of space beneath the podium. The podium roof accommodates vegetated leisure spaces, which provide for a healthy environment and extended views. The provision of these sun-lit spaces contributes to the physiological and psychological wellbeing of the Lever employees. Additionally, the proximity of these private and public open spaces to the working class also adheres to CIAM requirements.

The charter, specifically tenet 28, requires the use of modern techniques with respect to construction and materials to provide opportunity to seek optimum sun exposure, pure air, and views30. The modern construction methods and materials of the Lever House correspond to the mandate. The structure is a combination of concrete and steel members, which allow the slender tower to rise twenty-four storeys31. The use of expansive glazing supported by steel and aluminum members allow natural light to penetrate into the workspace while providing views to the second floor gardens and the city32. Furthermore, the building

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was designed “so that an executive could drive from the suburbs, park, have lunch in the third-floor company cafeteria, even play a round of shuffleboard on the landscaped second-floor terrace, and go home – all without ever setting foot in the dirty, chaotic city”33. To further improve the working environment and health of employees, the building was fully sealed and climate controlled to ensure the highest air quality while preventing polluted city air from entering the workspaces34. Conclusion

The under-sized Lever House caters solely to aesthetics and the benefits of the employees rather than commercial profit. This design approach conforms to the notion of “output” outlined throughout CIAM, which requires that a product must sufficiently satisfy human needs fully rather

than commercial profit35. The building, from design to conception, satisfies the core values of CIAM by focusing on the user’s health and well-being through the provision of sun, air, space, and vegetation. The design approach, form, and aesthetic of the Lever House established a new image of corporate architecture and became a stepping stone for future high-rise buildings in New York City. “In the end, Bunshaft had not only satisfied his clients with a clean and simple, yet cutting edge new headquarters, but he created an unprecedentedly faithful work of modern architecture, with all its simplicity, lightness, and humanity, within the context of the looming city.”36

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM www.tomsachs.org; www.SOM.coM Johnson, Amanda. New York Architecture: a History. 141-144. New York, New York: Universe Publishing, 2003. 1 Reiss, Marcia. Architecture in Detail: New York. 64-67. London: PRC Publishing Ltd., 2003. 2 Nash, Eric P. Manhattan Skyscrapers. 163.New York, New York: Princton Architectural Press, 1999. n.d. Lever House. Accessed October 14, 2014. http://www.som.com/projects/lever_house n.d. 3 Nash, Eric P. Manhattan Skyscrapers. 163.New York, New York: Princton Architectural Press, 1999. Johnson, Amanda. New York Architecture: a History. 141-144. New York, New York: Universe Publishing, 2003. 4 n.d. United States History - The Postwar Economy: 1945-1960. Accessed October 15, 2014. http:// countrystudies.us/united-states/history-114.htm. 5 Dunar, Andrew J. "America in the Fifties." 167-193, 232-233. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 2006. 6 The Rise of American Consumerism. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/ general-article/tupperware-consumer/ (accessed October 15, 2014). 7 n.d. United States History - The Postwar Economy: 1945-1960. Accessed October 15, 2014. http:// countrystudies.us/united-states/history-114.htm. 8 Dunar, Andrew J. "America in the Fifties." 167-193, 232-233. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 2006. 9 n.d. New York City Planning - About Zoning. Accessed October 18, 2014. http://www.nyc.gov/html/ dcp/html/zone/zonehis.shtml. 10 1916. Building Zone Regulation. Zoning By-Law, New York City: City of New York. 11 Reiss, Marcia. Architecture in Detail: New York. 64-67. London: PRC Publishing Ltd., 2003. 12 Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 13 Johnson, Amanda. New York Architecture: a History. 141-144. New York, New York: Universe Publishing, 2003. 14 P. Manhattan Skyscrapers. 163.New York, New York: Princton Architectural Press, 1999. 15 Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 16 P. Manhattan Skyscrapers. 163.New York, New York: Princton Architectural Press, 1999.

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The implications of zoning and context on urban development will be analyzed through the work of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's 860-880 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois. Considered to be the first example of a freestanding glazed building, the project was influential regarding modern architectural design and planning. Developed in the late 1940s, the apartments contradict modernism's rigidity of functionalism derived in CIAM's guidelines of the 'functional city'. The cultural and physical context of Chicago were critical in the planning of the project, providing the necessary building science, technology and financing to support Mies' reinterpretation of modern man's identity within urbanisation. As a result, the relationship between modernism and human experience establishes a connection that previously lacked meaning within the pure rationality of the International Style. Using the concept of independent architecture, Mies controls the design, allowing for the individual to form their own sense of place. The structural and compositional clarity embodied in the design of 860880 Lake Shore Drive delineates from the mechanization of functionalism bringing identity to both user and space. This intentional delineation from functionalism forms a progressive re-identification of urbanism, one that is further developed in CIAM's branch, Team X, as a contemporary approach to forming meaningful urban environments.

230

CIAM 1928-1959

860-880 LAKE SHORE DRIVE Mies van der Rohe 1949-1951 Chicago, USA Jonathan Day

231

The Lake Shore Apartments, built in Chicago, Illinois between 1949 and 1951 are recognized as one of the more influential contributions to the post-war development of high-rise architecture; revitalizing Modernism’s impact on urban landscape and planning. Commissioned by real estate developer Herbert Greenwald and designed by architect Mies Van Der Rohe, 860-880 Lake Shore Drive were the first freestanding high-rise buildings to be completely glazed and utilize a structural steel skeleton.1 The towers are representative of Mies’ progressive views on modernism and the International Style; a derivation of functionalism influenced by the absolute rationalism of urban development conceived by the Congrès internationaux d’architecture modern (CIAM). With the Lake Shore Apartments, Mies develops a new typology deviating from the ‘functional city’; a new sense of urbanism based on an active public realm, establishing relationships with the surrounding context and building at a human scale through a derivation of form that supports his minimalistic approach to structure without eroding one’s sense of place. As a result, a new precedent for high-rise construction and densification is established, as a reinterpretation of modern man’s identity within the urban fabric. The Site

The apartments are located along the eastern shoreline of Chicago; residents are able to take advantage of the scenic views and amenities provided by having proximity

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to Lake Michigan’s waterfront and the urbanized benefits of being near the loop of the city’s core. The project consists of two 26-storey cooperative apartments that are perpendicular in orientation. In doing so, the orientation maximizes the buildable area of the trapezium like site in which the buildings are situated. This was also done as a design solution that originated from the requirements of a land swapping deal with Northwestern University, which stipulated that any development on the site would preserve the lake’s view from the parcel of land west of 860 Lake Shore Drive.2 As the site is located directly along the Lake Shore Drive expressway, there is reliable accessibility and relatively no fear of future urbanization impacting the vista of Lake Michigan. The location of the buildings and use of orientation develops a new provocative sense of exposure; a new form of architectural expressionism formed by Mies’ use of floor to ceiling glazing and foresight of future urbanization.3 The site is utilized to form a new urban pattern; a modern development that forms a unique relationship in scale with the close proximity to the fast moving traffic of Chicago’s major thoroughfare while maintaining a pedestrian friendly atmosphere formed by access along the extensive walkways and integrated promenades.4 The ground floor is an open plan, emphasizing Mies’ concept of architecture independent of site,5 and strengthening the transition between interior and exterior space along with horizontal and vertical circulation.

Urban Context

The influence of Chicago’s planning and development have grown out of its urban context. The approach to urbanization is a result of the Chicago Fire, a disaster that in 1871 provided the opportunity for the city to rebuild and redefine itself as a modern city.6 This event initiated the development of the ‘Plan of Chicago’ during the early 1900s; providing guidelines intended to control the city’s cultural and economic identity as seen through the initial introduction of Daniel Burnham’s City Beautiful Movement.7 As the population and industrial footprint grew, zoning ordinances were introduced; in order to control development, protect the public and deter fire. The first Ordinance, in 1923 began to divide land by use-residential, apartment, commercial and manufacturing, it also set the maximum height to 400 feet whereby only the first 260 feet may be occupied. Included in the by-laws were a private zoning restriction that commenced the racial segregation that plagued the city’s development throughout the 20th century.8 After the Great Depression, Chicago experiences a period of rejuvenation and growth. This results in the city initiating the 1942 Ordinance and Planned Development guidelines in order to generate attractive living options directed at a potentially higher-income white collar population. As a result, surface parking becomes discouraged and downtown residential high-rise buildings could not be built to the 400 foot maximum height, but rather are restricted by a floor area ratio (FAR); introducing the concepts

The Congrès internationaux d’architecture modern (CIAM), from its origins at the Chateau of La Sarraz, Switzerland, in June 1928 has been a propaganda tool; an instrument intended to advance the planning of new architecture based on the international avant-garde of modernism.13 The most significant theoretical approach came in the 1930s with CIAM IV’s theme ‘The Functional City’. This urban theory known as the Athens Charter, developed a conceptualization of an urban setting that promoted a rigid functional approach to zoning that utilized a single densified typology of housing. 14 This standardized approach to planning is one intended to support a densified urban

Prior to immigrating to Chicago, Mies contributed to CIAM’s earlier movement and collaborated on projects such as the Weissenhof public housing, which helped to establish some of the original perspectives of residences being a ‘machine for living’. However, in the United States, Mies’ perspectives on the International Style changed dramatically as advancements in building science and technology allowed for his vision of pure minimalism to take form. With the Lake Shore Apartments, Mies establishes the purity of the vertical steel skeleton, one expressed throughout the interior and exterior of the form.15 These high-rise buildings of Modernism originate Mies’ absolute expression of Minimalism; a single typology absent of the influences of programme. The development of the

PLX 599

CIAM and Planning

JONATHAN DAY

The design of the Lake Shore Apartments is very much a result of its context and time. Herbert Greenwald, an idealist, provided Mies freedom to explore his vision of urbanism as long as the architect remained in the budget of $10.38/ft2.10 In addition Mies also had to work within the political context of the city. The fireproofing bylaws had the greatest effect on the aesthetics of the structure as they required a complete encasement of concrete around the steel frame. Therefore, to emphasize the materiality, Mies used non-structural I-beam rails on the exterior as an architectural element to balance the planning requirements. Furthermore, the two buildings were also designed to meet the height requirements without the need of a variance. In order to do so, Mies split the floor space equally amongst each building, and

economy with a rational, simplification of urban development and transportation. Though these ideas were based on elements of urban planning that were already being developed in the 1920-30s, its influences on urban planning proved to be rather sterile; forming urban environments suppressed by a lack of identity.

860-880 LAKE SHORE DRIVE

Context Influences Planning

connected by a promenade as a way to justify the project as a single building.11 In doing so, the FAR of 45% and height of 284 feet, allowed for a density of 271 residential units on the otherwise tight site. To accommodate this number of occupants Mies incorporated a 2-level underground parking garage with a capacity for 100 cars.12

CIAM

of setbacks with height and lot coverage. In doing so, an apartment building needed to conform to a maximum of 144 feet times the lot dimensions (approximately 288 feet with an FAR 12 at 50% coverage).9

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1943 figure ground (1/4 mile radius) 01 2014 figure ground (1/4 mile radius) 02 vehicular and pedestrian circulation 03 public and private spatial relationship 04 relationship between f.a.r. and form 05 relationship between site and context 06 Influence of 1942 zoning ordinance 07

The Lake Shore Drive Apartments formulate Mies’ concept of a formal typology independent of site, however, Mies also shows significant attention to the delicate relationship between context and the individual; a relationship that is defined through the architect’s attention to the site’s planning and development. This theory, is a unique contrast to the rigid industrial approach to urban planning that is fostered by CIAM; a concept that ultimately leads to the development of Team X and its search for the individual’s identity within the modern city.17 Though Team X, was not established until 1953, Mies’ approach to Lake Shore Drive suggests that even during the peak of functionalism and CIAM’s influence on urban planning, the impact of a rigid rationalized template for urban design is of a concern regarding the cultural and social backgrounds of our cities. With 860-880 Lake Shore Drive, a dichotomous relationship between these perspectives emphasizes this struggle; rejuvenating an approach to site and its

234

Conclusions

building footprint

The 860-880 Lake Shore Apartments brought about a revival of Chicago’s tradition of rational design and expressionism.18 With this single project, Mies contradicts the current trends established by CIAM guidelines and the Industrial Style in an effort to redefine the meaning of modernity. The Lake Shore Drive apartments promote more than innovation in structural design and the feasibility of industrialized construction, they speak of the potential when good architecture is developed around sensible planning. It only seems appropriate that Chicago, the city that developed the skyscraper would be responsible for setting the stage for establishing a new precedent for Post-war high-rise construction. Here, with the completion of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive, Mies brings new meaning to ‘Less is More’,19 establishing a redefined relationship between architecture and urban planning; a unique balance that was responsible for bringing life back into Modernism.

144 ft

Looking to the Future

surroundings that nurtures the relationship to the project’s context. This simultaneously allows for the modern man to create its own identity within the urban fabric.

100% lot coverage

284 ft

apartments initiated an industrialization of architecture16; two volumes that utilize a modular system to simplify the structure to that of a human scale. This leads to a new perspective on urban living; a sense of place formed by an active, welcoming public realm derived by an efficient collaboration between architecture and development planning rather then the sterility of pure economics and functionalism.

45% lot coverage

FIGURES ALL FIGURES BY THE AUTHOR 1. Figure 3-5 Site Plan Template: Found in Blaser, Werner. Lake Shore Drive apartments. (Basel: Birkhauser, 1999), 32. 2. Figure 6 Context Template: Retrieved from "860-880 Lake Shore Drive Sales Brochure." 3. Accessed October 17, 2014. http://860880lakeshoredrive.com/its-place-in-history/. 4. CONCLUDING IMAGE SOURCED FROM "860 nad 880 North Lake Shore Drive." Connecting the Windy City. Accessed October 17, 2014. http://www.connectingthewindycity.com/2013/11.ui.html/.

860-880 LAKE SHORE DRIVE CIAM PLX 599

22. Blaser, Werner. Lake Shore Drive apartments. (Basel: Birkhauser, 1999), 10. 23. ibid, 13. 24. Abrams, Janet. "Modernity...860-880 Lake Shore Drive in Chicago." Metropolis. no 3 (1992): 76-77. 25. City of Chicago. 860-880 Lake Shore Drive (Chicago: Commission on Chicago Historical Architectural Landmarks, 1980), 10. 26. Blaser, Werner. Lake Shore Drive apartments. (Basel: Birkhauser, 1999), 13. 27. Schwieterman, Joseph P. and dana M. Caspall. The Politics of PLace: A History of Zoning in Chicago. ed. Jane Heron. (Chicago: Lake Claremont Press, 2006), 6. 28. ibid, 11. 29. ibid, 28. 30. ibid, 34-39. 31. Schulze, Franz. Mies Van Der Rohe: A Critical Biography. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1985), 244. 32. Schwieterman, Joseph P. and dana M. Caspall. The Politics of PLace: A History of Zoning in Chicago. ed. Jane Heron. (Chicago: Lake Claremont Press, 2006), 38-39. 33. Carter, Peters. Mies van der Rohe at Work. (London:Phaidon Press Limited, 1974), 54. 34. Mumford, Eric. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism: 1928-1960. (Massachusettes: MIT Press, 2000), 9. 35. Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. (London: Thames & Judson ltd, 2007), 269-270. 36. Blaser, Werner. Lake Shore Drive apartments. (Basel: Birkhauser, 1999), 11. 37. ibid, 13. 38. Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. (London:Thames & Judson ltd, 2007), 275. 39. City of Chicago. 860-880 Lake Shore Drive (Chicago: Commission on Chicago Historical Architectural Landmarks, 1980), 2 40. Mies van der Rohe Society. "Mies: The Man, The Legacy."Accessed October 17, 2014. http://www. miessociety.org/legacy.

COVVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Dicket, Kevin . " 860-880 Lakeshore Drive." Photograph taken June 7, 2014. https://www.flickr.com/photos/iamhydrogen/14365004231/.

JONATHAN DAY

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236

The Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) aimed to rethink architecture that embraced economic, social, and cultural conditions, while becoming more industrialized to achieve maximum efficiency with pure form. Among the group's ideals, cultural venues, functional zoning, and tall inner city buildings were major factors that influenced many North American cities. During the era of CIAM (1928-1959) New York City was evolving. The city's urbanization was constantly challenging the 1916 zoning ordinance, a document CIAM was encouraging to be revisited. The concept of incentive zoning became a result of this frustration; additional floor area would be granted in exchange for public amenity space. In 1958, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe responded through his project, the Seagram Building. This project catapulted the modernist ideas of CIAM into a physical form that was manifested by the zoning related frustrations of the time. Industrial design was shown through the metal bronze skin faรงade which exposed the structural skeleton and intense vertical form. The building was set back 100-feet from the street to encompass an open public plaza, utilizing incentive zoning. Although the Seagram Building was crafted with attention to planning requirements, the influence of zoning did not stop here. This project created a reference for future tower design, eventually leading to the 1961 Zoning Resolution. This paper demonstrates the connection between zoning and design; a relationship of two elements dependent on one another to ensure successful architecture.

CIAM 1928-1659

SEAGRAM BUILDING Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 1954-1958 NYC, USA Sara R. Duffin

237

Introduction

The Seagram Building stands in New York City as remarkably today as it did after completion in 1958. Although it seamlessly fits into its built environment, amongst a city composed of steel and glass high-rise buildings, it once stood as a truly unique example of a built form. Between 19281959, the International Congress of Modern Architecture ambitiously exerted itself into the field of architecture and urbanism, in hopes of applying modern methods of architecture and planning to the city as a whole.1 CIAM aimed to rethink architecture in a way that embraced economic, social, and cultural conditions; to establish cities that benefited the health and well-being of man, to achieve maximum efficiency through industrialization and pure form, and to incorporate natural conditions into the framework of an overall urban plan.2 During this time, New York City was evolving, and with this came constant challenging of the 1916 zoning ordinance.3 This constant frustration gave birth to the concept of incentive zoning; additional floor area would be granted in exchange for public amenity space4, a space that was highly valued by CIAM, and lacking in dense cities. In 1958, Mies van der Rohe responded through the Seagram Building, originally built to house to Seagram Liquor Company. This project catapulted the modernist ideas of CIAM into a physical form that was manifested by the zoning related frustrations of the time.

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Site After World War II, New York City quickly became a prominent global leader and example of a modern city, as well as the financial center of the country.5 New York also became a new center of the art world with Abstract Expressionism gaining popularity, and the establishment of an international art market. Industrialization and postwar prosperity fueled New York’s economy, causing a rapid increase in population, which then lead to a building boom that North American cities had never experienced before. According to CIAM ideals, it is this lack of pre-planning and leaving things to “chance” that cause many problems, such as lack of proper housing and green spaces, pollution, overcrowding, rush hour traffic, zoning frustrations, and a decline in the well-being and health of residents.6 When an initial framework is not established, the city is constantly trying to find last-minute solutions. This was the case for 375 Park Avenue, where the Seagram Building is located. The site had a highly dense condition, with a high flow of traffic. Pedestrian traffic and vehicle traffic were side-by-side, often causing safety concerns. The streetscape was lined with buildings, often imposing on sidewalks. The overall tone of the location was inhumane, favouring buildings over people, with little to no public green spaces and no thought towards leisure activities. The site was also located in the downtown core of the city, where

surrounding buildings functioned for work purposes only. This informed the program of the Seagram Building; this was not a place for a residential project, but rather another office tower which would fit the surrounding streetscape, built environment, and commercial zoning. Context “The city is only one element within an economic, social, and political complex which constitutes the region” – The Athens Charter

New York City’s popularity and financial status caused political, social, and economic boom, but it also left architects and urban planners struggling for timely solutions to properly provide residents with a fully functioning city. Zoning was the tool that would provide the necessary framework of the overall plan7 and properly distribute every need within the city; particularly the four main functions of urbanism, as dictated by CIAM8: living, working, recreation, and circulation. New York City put forward the nation’s first zoning ordinance in 1916.9 This ordinance was the product of New Yorkers protesting the loss of light, air, and green spaces as taller residential and commercial office buildings gained momentum. The Zoning Resolution of 1916 was a groundbreaking document that established height and setback restrictions, as well as residential and commercial land uses. Height districts were established which allowed the height restrictions to be based

CIAM

CIAM argued that urbanism is a threedimensional science; “…introducing the element of height will solve the problems of modern traffic and leisure by utilizing the open spaces thus created”14. By making use of height, urbanism will recover the open land necessary for communications, leisure, and circulation. These high buildings set far apart from one another will free the ground for broad verdant areas. Mies considered these ideas by setting back the building 30 meters from the street. This open space was formed into a granite plaza, which has become a popular gathering place, allowing for social situations, ventilation, and sunlight to occur. The Seagram Building also pushed forward the International Style and use of industrial materials in an architectural setting, which was not common for its time. The building’s bronze skin façade exposes its structural skeleton, and highlights its vertical form15;

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There is a deep connection between zoning and design, each informing the other, establishing a relationship of two elements dependent on one another to ensure successful architecture and urbanism. CIAM supports this relationship, and believes it is the pinnacle of successful urban design. One of the strongest criticisms from CIAM in regards to modern cities is the lack of open spaces and green areas. The Congress believes these open spaces can provide fertile leisure time that heighten the spirit of the individual, and also natural conditions that bring residents closer nature, improving their health and well-being. Building entrances that are directly connected to the sidewalk create an inhumane and sterile environment, and push open spaces, such as parks, to less accessible outskirt areas of the city. CIAM believes interaction with nature should be a daily occurrence, not a weekly occurrence on a Sunday drive. These open spaces also allow for adequate space, sun, and ventilation, which are three major

necessities.13 The struggle for open space, as proposed by CIAM, has informed Mies van der Rohe’s design for the incorporation of an open plaza for the Seagram Building.

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classified as the International Style.12

on the districts the buildings were located in, such as commercial or residential, and ranged from the width of the street to two and a half times the width of the street, with narrower streets having lower height limits. The Seagram Building site was located in a business district with the maximum allowable building height.10 The height was altered due to the use of incentive zoning, which allows for additional floor area and/ or height in exchange for the provision of a public amenity space/open space. Although the 1916 Zoning Ordinance was groundbreaking for its time, it did not meet the demands of a highly populated New York City in the 1950’s, nor did it regulate traffic control or transportation requirements.11 As mentioned earlier, these zoning frustrations lead Mies van der Rohe to envision a new way of building, which is why he took advantage of one of the only allowable solutions at the time; incentive zoning. The finished product is a high-rise office with 38 floors, 42,000 m2 of floor area, 157 meters in height, composed of glass, steel, and bronze. The building width is 43 meters, depth is 26 meters, and it was the first building to have floor to ceiling glazing. The architectural style has been

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FIGURE + GROUND / PRE-DEVELOPMENT 01 FIGURE + GROUND / POST DEVELOPMENT 02 ELEVATION, PLAN + PERSPECTIVE OF SEAGRAM MASSING VS. TRADITIONAL MASSING AND OPEN SPACE IMPLICATIONS OF EACH DESIGN 03 STREETSCAPE RHYTHM OF SURROUNDING BUILDINGS VS. SEAGRAM: CONFRONTATIONAL VS. EMBRACING 04

a further emphasis on verticality in the built environment, as instilled by CIAM. This building set precedent the true functions of a high-rise office tower, instilling these ideas through its pure form which exposed the architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s truth. Although the Seagram building was crafted with attention to planning requirements and designed out of frustration for out dated zoning laws, the influence of zoning did not stop here. The Seagram building, with its open plaza, created a reference for future tower design. The public amenities space was well received, and began to take hold of other tower designs. This project eventually lead to the 1961 Zoning Resolution, which coordinated use, massing, parking regulations, and emphasized the creation of the open space. In New Yorkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s business districts, this document accommodated a new type of high-rise office buildings with large, open floors of a consistent size. The 1961 Zoning Resolution allowed for verdant public areas, and a reduction in residential density.16

would no longer be held down by traditional aesthetic but rather honest of its function and representative of the industrial era of its time. It was not only informed by zoning, but responsive of the zoning at the time and informed future zoning regulations. There is a vital bond between design and planning, and there is no stronger or more elegant example than the Seagram Building.

Conclusion

The Seagram Building was a revolutionary project that shaped what has come to be the high-rise office tower. It was the pioneer building of its kind, improving its site by addressing concerns of open space set forward by CIAM. It is a true response to the balance of live-work-culture that feeds every modern city. It marked a turning point in modern architecture; an architecture that

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1 Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 2 Mumford, Eric. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2002. 3 Flowers, Benjamin Sitton. Skyscraper: The Politics and Power of Building New York City in the Twentieth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009. 4 NYC Planning: Department of City Planning, City of New York. Accessed September 13, 2014. www.nyc. gov/html/dcp/home.html. 5 Flowers, Benjamin Sitton. Skyscraper: The Politics and Power of Building New York City in the Twentieth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009. 6 Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 7 Flowers, Benjamin Sitton. Skyscraper: The Politics and Power of Building New York City in the Twentieth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009. 8 Mumford, Eric. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2002. 9 NYC Planning: Department of City Planning, City of New York. Accessed September 13, 2014. www.nyc. gov/html/dcp/home.html. 10 NYC Planning: Department of City Planning, City of New York. Accessed September 13, 2014. www. nyc.gov/html/dcp/home.html. 11 Flowers, Benjamin Sitton. Skyscraper: The Politics and Power of Building New York City in the Twentieth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009. 12 Lambert, Phyllis. Building Seagram. Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2013. 13 Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 14 Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 15 Lambert, Phyllis. Building Seagram. Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2013. 16 NYC Planning: Department of City Planning, City of New York. Accessed September 13, 2014. www. nyc.gov/html/dcp/home.html.

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Frey, Brandl. 375 Park Avenue Seagram Building RFR. October 20, 2014. http://www.375parkavenue.com/Building

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The New Frankfurt initiative designed by architect Ernst May, which solved poor living conditions by relieving the housing shortage experienced by citizens after World War I, is an appropriate precedent for successful urban design and planning. This comprehensive concept shaped urban and private lifestyles through a streamlined construction process of garden settlements. The Nidda River Valley Settlements is a prominent project of early modernism in Germany, being compromised of about eight different communities constructed from 1926-1932 and nested in a major green belt to form a residential fabric of garden settlements. May saw opportunity I placing the new city and its satellites within this green setting, being comprised of forest, small farms and gardens to enhance living standards, which he then defined by walls, landscapes and embankments. This study explores the design of four of May's earlier settlements, including coincided with the Athen's Charter of the CIAM, to reconsider and revolutionize the idea of functionality, modernity and humanistic scale in city planning. The composition of these settlements display a smooth cubic form free of any decorative features with the introduction of the flat roof, the roof gardens and, with a great functionality in the interior arrangements and equipping, such as the built in kitchen that is still being used to the present day. Altogether, the interior and exterior design exemplified the vital features of the new way of building.

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NIDDA VALLEY SETTLEMENTS Ernst May 1925-1933 Frankfurt, Germany Marina Elmova

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Early Modernism in Germany

The New Frankfurt initiative was realized by architect and the department head of settlements of Frankfurt, Ernst May, during the years of the Weimar Republic in Germany. May obtained a federal subsidy for the purpose of developing housing settlements as testing grounds for standardization and rationalization1.With this subsidy, he designed the Nidda Valley Settlements, consisting of 24 settlements that were placed away from the old city core as a response to the increasingly severe housing shortage. An analysis of one of these settlements, Römerstadt, displays a successful example of urban design and planning with a clear connection to the ideas behind the Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne’s Athen’s Charter. The analysis of these settlements will provide insight on how planning influences architecture and how architecture reciprocates those ideas back to planning. May’s scheme was largely inspired by Raymond Unwin’s concept of the satellite garden suburbs and a new socialist dwelling culture emerged from this plan. In correspondence to the Frankfurt experiment, the second emergence of the CIAM Congress focused on the design solutions to the problems associated with high rent for low income earners. May advocated his comprehensive concept for minimal dwelling and it was agreed upon by the Congress that this concept is the correct solution to the housing problems of industrial societies 2.

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Nidda Valley’s Green Belt

May’s master city plan situated the city and his new settlement within the outlying site of the Nidda River Valley. This site was ideal for it acted as a continuous green belt and was able to accommodate May’s envisioned garden city settlements, offering an abundance of forest, small farms and gardens and providing potential for each enclave to be defined by landscapes and embankments. Due to its location, the land that was designated to the development was inexpensive and had no prime agricultural importance. To solve Nidda Valley’s frequent flooding problems and marshy conditions, new water mains were introduced for the use in settlements so as to not deplete the navigable river. An important feature of the site is the three great basins, around which the garden satellites were planned and constructed. The first basin was the closest to the city and the western industrial districts, the central basin was expansive and experienced most of the flooding problems and the last basin was the most distant from the city. The most important of all three became the central basin, displaying May’s picturesque ideals for a garden city location3. The slope of the basins would influence the housing arrangements of Römerstad as displayed in image 4. The housing among these settlements consisted mostly of single family houses with adjoin gardens; these communities would be predominantly suburban, displaying low rise, hygienic buildings. May’s concept revolved around the idea of placing daughter towns acting as

satellites and link them to the central city by roads, infrastructure and transit lines. Socialist Vision Influencing Planning

After World War I, housing became very scarce that military barracks were made available for public use. Few civil projects were able to be accomplished due to increasing inflation and devalued currency. It was realized that only by applying large scale comprehensive planning, could this situation be alleviated. To fund the construction of the new low cost housing, municipalities took the available funds from the Great German Inflation of 1923 and the “Hauszunssteuer”, ( 15% tax on rent in existing buildings)4. Largely ignoring traffic and zoning issues, May’s proposal concentrated on encircling the city with his new communities5. To provide a link between the settlements and the city, May enlarged the streetcar system which contrasted Europe’s earlier approach to city planning by building along existing streets with perimeter block courtyard housing blocks. This strategy enabled large green areas between the settlements and old center. Industries had been already situated in these locations, allowing for housing to be placed nearby. However, May’s ambitions went beyond the development of a physical city; he intended to create a catalyst that would create a new social milieu. Interpreting the needs of the German citizens rather than a more democratic approach of their attitudes, May wished to use planning as an instrument to implement his socialist ideology in leading people to a new era of

Römerstadt Satellite

landscaping. Landscaping played a major role in the planning scheme, where the north facing houses sat close to the lane with low concreted walls that protected the landing and the south facing fronts were pulled back to allow for trellises, lawns and flowering trees. Electricity, indoor plumbing and central heating would be made available throughout the buildings, reinforcing the idea of hygienic buildings. May’s Settlements Display Functionalist Ideals of CIAM Athen’s Charter

May’s design corresponded with the themes of CIAM of Frankfurt in 1929, and he was afforded the chance to speak at the congress on the subject of “Flats for Subsistent Living”. The idea was to design small, standardized homes, the furnishings inside the home and the fabrication of the building components for a new way of organizing the building site10. May’s settlements display a progressive development of cities for its inhabitants. The Römerstadt satellite delivered adequate facilities to provide for a modern life. In addition, by placing his settlements on inexpensive land along a

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The settlement of Römerstadt, located at the central basin, was a response to the slope and terrain of the site, using a battered wall to the south to protect settlement from prominent flooding of the area. Mainly displaying a density of single family row houses that compromised half of the total 1220 units, it perfectly accommodated the Nuclear Family life8. Römerstadt was divided into two parts; a circular quadrant and a triangular split,

which were meant to have evolved with and out of the countryside .These quadrants were linked to two main streets, ‘Hadrianstrasses’, ‘S’ in shape and bordered with two great buildings and ‘In der Römerstadt’, which interconnected this settlement with other communities. The north end of the curved street displayed block shape buildings with round ends clearly orientated in relationship to the street, occupying a typology of retail on the streetscape and residential units above. At the street midsection, a school was designed for the neighbourhood children. The south portion of the street had four storey apartment slabs, with a stepping roof top that followed the street for 190 meters9. Brick was used for the structure of these buildings, and adding a more modern technique, May used bright colours for the concrete panel frames of the balconies. The orientation of the buildings was emphasized by matching the access façade to that of the rear while placing the balconies on the rear façade. His design would reflect the modern form while producing a dialogue with the romantic landscape of the Nidda Valley. A generous allowance was designated for streets, pedestrian pathways, gardens and

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a just society by creating a new concept of living – “Wohncultur”6. The initiative was projected to be completed over a 10 year period, beinging in 1925. The reason behind such an extensive influence on the design and construction of the satellites is wholly due to the fact that May had approximately 90% control of the project. The density of the project would be 20.4 units for every 1000 people and by 1933 the amount of units built would reach a significant number of 15,000. This achievement reflected 90% of all housing units built in the city during 1926-1933, becoming the greatest building activity in the nation7.

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Romerstadt Streets 01 Romerstadt Context 02 Romerstadt Section 03 Ground Figure Diagram 04 Romerstadt Street View 05

green belt, he responded to the high rent rates of the city and arranged housing in hygienic environments away from the congested and insanitary condition of the city. Furthermore, May’s vision anticipated and coincided with the regulations of Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne’s Athen’s Charter, addressing every demand made. His choosing of the Nidda Valley’s green belt showed intricate decision making in selecting the best site for his districts. The placement of the housing was in relation to solar exposure and by using buffer zones; he was able to situate his building away from transportation routes for a healthier community. He arranged sequences of buildings and allocated parks, was in accordance to providing space for pedestrian pathways and large green parks. By using innovative strategies, the project was able to use standardized construction methods, which reduced production time and increased output. To adhere to the notion of configuring interior spaces to suit the idea of small spaces that provided adequate living arrangement, May and his associate Margarete Schute-Lihotzky, assembled the “Frankfurt Kitchen”, which displayed a great functionality on the interior of each unit11. This kitchen is still presently used because of its rational qualities. In conclusion, the analysis of the New Frankfurt initiative and more specifically the Römerstadt satellite, also known as one of May’s most successful settlements, indicates the intentions and ambitions of Ernest May, which emanate on a macro scale of a city and a micro scale of each settlement.

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Through this investigation it is evident that planning had influenced the architecture of the settlements and the architecture responded back to the planning. The social economic conditions of the Weimar Republic and the CIAM Congress ideals for planning provided a framework for which May successfully designed for, producing a new modern movement that to this day influences how architects and city planners organise cities. Overall the conceived project was an appropriate precedent for successful urban design and planning, revolutionizing the idea of functionality, modernity and human scale in city planning.

FIGURES 2 STUDIO DI MODELLI INSEDIATIVI. Accessed November 3, 2014. http://www-5.unipv.it/carlista/progetti/ modelli/scheda4_file/ 3 Mullin, John R,. “City Planning in FranKfurt, Germnay, 1925-1932 – A Study in Practical Utopianism” In Journal of Urban History. 4.1 (1997): 3-28. 5 "A&A | House, Romerstadt Housing Estate." A&A | House, Romerstadt Housing Estate. Accessed November 3, 2014. http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/images/ full/40e3eadd47fb25ee352b8a28503da0048b350288.html

MARINA ELMOVA NIDDA VALLEY SETTLEMENTS CIAM

1 Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 2 Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 3 Henderson, Susan R.. Building Culture: Ernst May and the New Frankfurt Initiative, 1926-1931. 4 Mullin, John R,. City Planning in Franfurt, Germnay, 1925-1932 A Study in Practical Utopianism In Journal of Urban History. 4.1 (1997): 3-28. 5 Henderson, Susan R.. Building Culture: Ernst May and the New Frankfurt Initiative, 1926-1931. 6 Henderson, Susan R.. Building Culture: Ernst May and the New Frankfurt Initiative, 1926-1931. 7 Christensen, Karen, and David Levinson. "Ernst May in Frankfurt." In Encyclopedia of community: from the village to the virtual world. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003. 1242-1243. 8 Christensen, Karen, and David Levinson. "Ernst May in Frankfurt." In Encyclopedia of community: from the village to the virtual world. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003. 1242-1243. 9 Panerai, Philippe, Jean Castex, Jean Depaule, and Ivor Samuels. "Chapter 4: The New Frankfurt and Ernst May: 1925 30." In Urban forms death and life of the urban block. Oxford England: Architectural Press, 2004. 90-114. 10 Panerai, Philippe, Jean Castex, Jean Depaule, and Ivor Samuels. "Chapter 4: The New Frankfurt and Ernst May: 1925 – 30." In Urban forms death and life of the urban block. Oxford England: Architectural Press, 2004. 90-114. 11 Wolfe, Ross. "Ernst May's." Modernist Architecture. November 3, 2010. Accessed November 7, 2014. https://modernistarchitecture.wordpress.com/2011/09/10/ernst-may's-flats-for-subsistenceliving-1929-2/.

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM: "Geopfad." Geopfad-Frankfurt. http://www.geopfad-frankfurt.de/ images/hadrianstr.jpg (accessed October 24, 2014).

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Based on the fundamentals and planning orders of the Commissioners Plan of 1811 and New York's 1916 Zoning Bylaw, the Chrysler Building was built to a maximum size and height for a grand influence on the borough of Manhattan. Constructed in 1928-1930 and designed by the architect, William Van Alen, it was a model of architectural grandeur in New York's cityscape. Alen was not only experienced in the embellishment of art deco forms that this building was constructed to possess, but was an all-around experienced architect who appears to have designed with both form and function in mind. This led the Chrysler Building to not only hold a monumental stance within the city as its tallest building and mark owner Walter P. Chrysler's stance in the city, but also to feed the needs of the city dwellers and the building's users. This would entail combining the key elements discussed and regimented by the Athens Charter to implement the ideal forms of "the functional city". It would combine form and function in terms of the required relational aspects between the desired city elements. These forms and the others relative to city planning the late 1920's were conceptualized and idealized in some ways, by the Chrysler Building in response to social, political, economical, and cultural needs of the human population during this time.

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CHRYSLER BUILDING William Van Allen 1928-1930 New York City, New York Karen Grubb

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Introduction

1920. Manhattan, New York. Here we see economy at a time like no other, when the economic standards of the country were increasing and there was a growing demand for office space and construction, specifically in the skyscraper form due to an encouragement in the construction industry to go higher than ever before1. An individual by the name of Walter P. Chrysler, one of the wealthiest men in the automotive industry2, took this scene as a chance to carve his spot in the city skyline and to represent his success. In 1926, Chrysler placed a bid for what would be the tallest skyscraper in New York City to house the offices of his own automotive company3. William Van Alen was the architect assigned to the design the Chrysler Building. With a Brooklyn heritage and an exceptional knowledge in ornate designs and dynamic architecture4, Van Alen was soon-to-be the particular individual that would realize the dreams of Chrysler with the construction of the first-ever building over one thousand feet. The commissioners Plan of 1811

At the time in which Van Alen was set to design this monumental skyscraper for Chrysler, the city of Manhattan was ordained by the grid pattern developed in the Commissioners Plan of 1811. As the city stands today, it is influenced by this plan that was commenced to combine beauty, order, and convenience, but the plan was, at the time, considered to be far-fetched and

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not applicable to the city’s present shape5. It was criticized for its originality in the gridpattern of the city’s streets, but no-one was able to see the reason for its introduction: to buy, sell, and improve real estate. The way in which it would do this, was to implement wide streets in order to achieve attraction to retail and commercial use along these roadways in both the pedestrian and automotive realm of city circulation. For Manhattan, the years surrounding the 1920’s was also a time when the American economy was expanding and there wasn’t adequate office space to fill the demand of its people. The implemented wide city streets in an ordered fashion, was a perfect fit for the demanded office space, mixed with retail. The Chrysler Building was one that would fulfill this order while commencing to the ideals of the city’s ordered grid pattern. New York’s 1916 Zoning Bylaw

In 1916, the first ever American zoning law was passed in New York6 and further influenced architectural form and design alike that of the Chrysler Building. This law was set, not to cap the height of skyscrapers, but to ordain their shape and influence on the surrounding streets and neighbourhoods increasing the amount of sunlight and air flowing into the narrow city streets. This dictated shape is one of a bulky base leading up into a slender tower graded by setbacks above an allowable height decreasing the main height of the building to twenty five percent of the lot area7. Because of these restrictions, architects at this time began

to create buildings from a sculptural artistic perspective rather than designing rectangular boxes, which in turn transformed the skyline within the city of Manhattan8. In terms of the Chrysler Building, this lawful and artistic approach is settled in the heavy base topped with seven overlapping arches contained in the upper levels of its form making the building to appear even taller yet, than its actual one thousand and forty six feet9. Within these arches and along their paths, a series of triangular windows is emulated to represent a sunburst pattern, but could also be noted to represent the spoke pattern of a hub-cap. Van Alen used his growing expertise in the field of architecture to vary the form of the building according to the zoning law and to encompass motifs particular to the machine-age. CIAM IV and the Athen’s Charter

Together, the Commissioners Plan of 1811 and the 1916 Zoning Bylaw of New York informed and persuaded Van Alen’s Chrysler Building towards a design of form and function exclusive to the requirements of town planning as structured by the International Congress for Modern Architecture (CIAM) at its fourth Congress in 1933 and the publication of the corresponding Athens Charter in 1935. This particular congress took action on the theme of “the functional city” and placed its focus on city planning and the subject of the importance of urbanism and urban development in four key terms of living, working, recreation, and circulation10. The published document

New York - a “Functional City”

provides itself as a monumental arrangement to the city, as well as a separated workplace away from the correspondent dwelling neighbourhoods.

To connect living with working and cater to the key elements ‘recreation’ and ‘circulation’ in the Athens Charter, the program of the Chrysler Building consists of mixed-use forms implementing retail at the street level. These program features result in a recreational aspect added to the building and incorporates circulation with this feature located at street level and accessible to all users and passers-by. As well, the Chrysler Building, as a dense module containing a heavy base and a slender tower (restricted by the Zoning Bylaw) and on a dense lot within the city’s grid pattern (organized by the Commissioners Plan of 1811) coincidentally decreases its amount of land use per program unit. This movement could be seen as a reduction of built land to provide more spaces open for parks and other ‘green areas’ and demonstrate the regulation of land use. Seen as so, there is an attempt here to reconnect man with nature and clean the city of its pollution for the health of its users. These

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Although the Chrysler Building was constructed prior to the announcements

made in the Athens Charter, the building and its proponents can be understood in the proposed terms. Setting aside the ArtDeco forms and the new over achievement of building height at the time of its construction, a look to the interior function of the Chrysler Building is taken into account and its relatable features to the working class individual and town planning influences. For many, the Chrysler Building was a place of work. From 1930 through to the mid-1950’s the building housed the Chrysler Automotive headquarters13. Its construction took place after city movements such as Daniel Burnham’s City Beautiful, in 1901 and just before Le Corbusier’s Radiant City in 1933. These two movements, although not centred around New York, represented a major shift in city planning focusing on architectural monumental status and later the removal of residents from the centre of their workplaces to outlying suburbs. In this form and relative to the Athens Charter, it is demonstrated that the location of the work place and the dwelling unit do not exist within the same entity and that their relativity should be completed with the use of infrastructure. The Chrysler Building the Athens Charter

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in this field emphasized the social, political, cultural, and economic values of architecture and the built world and how the spaces must relate to and function with one another. It states that planning will determine the structure of each of the four key elements and will fix their respective locations to one another11. The Charter recommends the reduction of neighbourhood slums and the introduction of ‘green’ recreational spaces for city dwellers. Buried in these terms, are statements regarding the regulation of land use within the city, while meeting the required needs of the community as well as those of the individual12. These terms produced contradictory realities where urbanism and city planning becomes much more than introducing a grid pattern to city streets; it now entails how that grid pattern will function when the proposed buildings are erected and inhabited with the pedestrians that live, travel to, and work in these centres.

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Most commonly known, the Chrysler Building was built as a construct of monumentality for the city and for Walter P. Chrysler and his family14. It contains many features alluded to the details and components most likely to represent the introduction of the machineage at the time of its construction. It was also a competition piece, for the highest building in New York City, which it did achieve, for a short period15. Taking a step back and looking into the logistics of the building and its parts in relation to the whole, it is relevant that Willam Van Alen had a technical eye for not only ornamentation, but also functionality. Architecture before the 1920’s was very rectangular and ‘normalized’ in shape due to distinct forms dictated by early-implemented grid patterns. It began to take a sculptural route when zoning bylaws were set in place as they helped to influence form features and elements in architecture. With the Chrysler Centre, Van Alen took one step further, the next step that was achieved globally, and not only made architecture a work of art, but made it a ‘functional’ work directed towards city movements that were yet to come. His actions were appropriate for planning the

ING

Conclusion

Chrysler Building as a city module, ‘a city in the city’ where people would congregate for multiple purposes and then would leave again to return to their residences. He worked in correspondence with social, political, cultural, and economic values of the current time to enhance the city and enable the entireties of equitable land to be used proportionally and appropriately from the city to the suburbs. One must understand, as Van Alen did, the fundamentals of the human nature in order to achieve success in a city’s future. Without direct dictation from laws and modules, a successful architecture will enhance the “functional city” in its presence and relative to inhabitants of both the building and the city as a whole.

LEX

functions in relation to the functions of living and working, and relative to the Chrysler Building and its organization, provide for the city, interrelationships between the four key elements as proposed in the Charter snd is therefore a successful representation of some of the key ideas presented.

AV E

illustration of the implcations ofthe 1916 zoning bylaw comparison to the chrysler building 01 hugh ferris's illustration of the 1916 zoning bylaw and its building form implications 02 manhattan, new york ground-figure prior to 1800 and the influence of the commissioners plan 03 manhattan, new york ground-figure prior to 1900 and the influence of the 1916 new york zoning bylaw 04 manhattan, new york ground figure after 1900 and the construction of the chrysler building 05

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KAREN GRUBB CHRYSLER BUILDING

FIGURES 1. Gray, Christopher, and Suzanne Braley. New York Streetscapes: Tales of Manhattan's Significant Buildings and Landmarks. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2003. Print. 2. Wiseman, Carter. Shaping a Nation: Twentieth-century American Architecture and Its Makers. New York: Norton, 1998. Print. 3. Wiseman, Carter. Shaping a Nation: Twentieth-century American Architecture and Its Makers. New York: Norton, 1998. Print. 4. Gray, Christopher, and Suzanne Braley. New York Streetscapes: Tales of Manhattan's Significant Buildings and Landmarks. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2003. Print. 5. William Bridges, Map Of The City Of New York And Island Of Manhattan With Explanatory Remarks And References. New York: William Bridges, 1811. Web. 6. Dolkart, Andrew S. "The Birth of the Skyscraper"The Architecture and Development of New York City with Andrew S. Dolkart. Columbia University, n.d. Web. 7. Dolkart, Andrew S. "The Birth of the Skyscraper"The Architecture and Development of New York City with Andrew S. Dolkart. Columbia University, n.d. Web. 8. Dolkart, Andrew S. "The Birth of the Skyscraper"The Architecture and Development of New York City with Andrew S. Dolkart. Columbia University, n.d. Web. 9. 'The Chrysler Building' SkyscraperPage.com. Web. 10. Congress Internationaux d'Architecture moderne (CIAM), La Charte d'Athenes or The Athens Charter, 1933: Trans J.Tyrwhitt. Paris, France: The Library of the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University, 1946. Web. 11. Congress Internationaux d'Architecture moderne (CIAM), La Charte d'Athenes or The Athens Charter, 1933: Trans J.Tyrwhitt. Paris, France: The Library of the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University, 1946. Web. 12. 'Congress Internationaux d'Architecture moderne (CIAM), La Charte d'Athenes or The Athens Charter, 1933: Trans J.Tyrwhitt. Paris, France: The Library of the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University, 1946. Web. 13. 'The Chrysler Building' SkyscraperPage.com. Web. 14. Nash, Eric Peter; McGrath, Norman (1999). Manhattan Skyscrapers. Princeton Architectural Press. Web. 15. Gray, Christopher, and Suzanne Braley. New York Streetscapes: Tales of Manhattan's Significant Buildings and Landmarks. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2003. Print.

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Principles on successful city planning and urban design developed by the International Congress of Modern Architecture were applied to Le Corbusier's design of high density urban housing in France following the Second World War. The UnitĂŠ d'Habitation in Marseille designates corridors for access to the apartment units and decreases the space utilized for circulation, similar to the streets and boulevards planned for an urban city. Corbusier orchestrates the materials, spaces, and lighting conditions to give the inhabitant a full sensory experience of the spaces inside the building both psychologically and physically. Urban cities were also encouraged to include parks and greenery for psychological renewal, thus, trees and outdoor seating surrounds the building creating an open landscape. To increase functionality and purpose of a city, services and communal spaces are important aspects which are incorporated around the perimeters of the UnitĂŠ allowing people to experience a sense of community and interact without compromising the privacy of their individual units. In integrating the principles of urban planning to the smaller scale of urban housing, the community is able to thrive and successfully function within a high density building which was a new postwar concept, but came to be known as the vertical city.

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UNITĂ&#x2030; D'HABITATION Le Corbusier 1947-1952 Marseille, France Shahida Hoque

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Mid-twentieth century Europe was a disastrous place for living, but it harboured many opportunities for change, development and a new order that formed today’s modern society. Le Corbusier’s design of the Unité d’Habitation was one of the most influential concepts of high density housing that shifted society’s view on the definition of a dwelling, and the local community. It represented a shift in architecture from something purely conceptual, to a rational system of order and relationships2. This project was initiated in Marseille, France as a prototype for government housing following World War II. It focused on accommodating comfortable living conditions and creating a selfcontained neighbourhood for the millions who had lost their homes and were living in poverty1. A key feature introduced in the design of this building is the way in which it integrates natural systems into the built structure and portrays relationships from the unit to the whole. Corbusier defines this scale of proportioning and relationships by treating the units of the building as cells within an organism, and the building as an organism of many different functions, all within the larger ecosystem of a city9. Corbusier strived towards achieving better quality of life in a high-density community because he believed that was the path towards modernism and solution to the exponentially growing population in on Earth. Physical Context The Unité is situated on Boulevard Michelet which is a broad avenue that

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formed one of the key axes of France’s urban plan. The Garden of the Magalone, a classically designed garden of cultural significance, is located across the boulevard from the building which creates an extension of the natural quality of living offered in Corbusier’s Unité. The building grounds consists of an open space park with numerous scattered trees and planting, and no defined route to the entrance. This allows the full integration of the natural landscape into the built structure as one crosses the threshold from exterior to interior. Trees are paralleled by the large pilotis which hold up the building on a platform creating circulation space beneath the structure5. The building is oriented on a linear, north-south axis which is slightly off the alignment of the boulevard, creating a separation between the urban fabric and itself. The site is accessible from the west side by an avenue, and from the north and South by smaller private streets making it a central location of various transportation routes. The building also houses an interior commercial street with a variety of retail stores, services, and offices forming a separate commercial community within the building2. The material concept utilized on the façade of the building was new to the era; Corbusier introduced the use of unfinished concrete. Marking the concepts of brutalist style architecture, the rough and worn look of the concrete also represented the social and political concept of a post-war country1.

Social & Political Influence By 1945, France had already been through two political revolutions and two World Wars decaying the environment, society, and political conditions of the country. Being defeated in oversea wars and losing many of their colonies resulted in a poor economy and the shifting of attention towards development within the country. Due to all the military funding, value of food production and commercial markets decreased causing hunger, poverty, disease, and violence. There was a failure to establish a strongly supported French government and the inconsistency, and swaying of politics in France induced its lack of development and ignorance of social conditions. After WWII ended, many citizens had lost their homes and new immigrants had come in looking for better prospects in the city instigating overpopulation. The new government was interested in developing a ‘modernized’ city that integrated all systems and accommodated the needs of the residents. It was around this time that Le Corbusier was commissioned to design social housing, and the advent of high-density housing became an ingenious solution to the city crisis. The new city plan had remnants of previous classical city planning with broader avenues forming the main arteries of the city and smaller intersecting streets that commonly followed the contours of the natural landscape. The Unité d’Habitation mirrors the improvement concepts utilized in city planning to organize functional living at a smaller scale. It minimizes circulation and height by only requiring one corridor per

The International Congress of Modern Architecture was launched to improve the future of infrastructure, architecture, and city planning while defining the new aspects of modern design. One of the major concepts of CIAM IV was the functional city which highlights improvements of the city fabric including new housing, infrastructure to increase economic efficiency, and organization of land use. These strived towards better provisions and way of living for the city dwellers. The concepts promoted by the congress in the Athens Charter encompassed providing public, open spaces, integrating natural systems, space between buildings for light and ventilation, wider streets for more traffic and sunlight, and consideration of all the sensory qualities. It initiated the architectural design of the human environment as a whole, finding agreement amongst all the different factors, while concentrating on the technical and social

aspects of spatial relationships8. Concepts incorporated into the design of Unité includes Corbusier’s modular man proportioning system founded on human proportions which creates order and uniformity in the structure of the building7. This relates to the ideas of CIAM which tries to achieve a technical and rational order within the built form in order to standardize construction and design in modern architecture. In the Unité, Corbusier forms the structure of the building with the partition walls between units allowing structure-free spaces in between, and soundproofing between the residences5. The structure also defines geometric regulating lines for the façade composition referencing the use of a calculated ordering system in aesthetics of architecture rather than an artistic concept2. Furthermore, Corbusier integrates passive systems into the built structure, one of the principles defined by the CIAM, by solar orientation of the building, cross ventilation, daylighting in each unit, and green space on site7. Cross-ventilation is achieved in every unit through the double-height living rooms that connects the upper and lower floor of a

flat. The building addresses sensory qualities by creating a visual contrast between the residential units and the hallways through dim lighting in the corridors, and bright daylighting from a single opening in each flat3. The long and narrow units are treated as an organ for seeing similar to a telescope since the window to the balcony is the only opening providing sunlight and a view to the exterior10. Social interaction is encouraged by designating communal spaces and amenities for the residents, and creating relationships between the individual, private spaces and the collective, public spaces10. These various functions are also separated into different spaces similar to the zoning principles developed by CIAM; the recreational amenities are on the roof, one floor midway through the building is dedicated to office services and retail, and greenery is provided at grade2. Corbusier also proposes that including commonly used functions within the building would increase efficiency in transportation and business. Most importantly, the design of the Unité considers both physical and psychological needs of humans which was vital to healthy living standards advised by the Congress.

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three levels with the innovative use of long, interlocking, flow-through units bringing it to a total of 18 storeys and 337 units2. Incluence of CIAM Principles

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program diagram 01 interlocking units 02 1943 map of marseille, france 03 2012 map of marseille, france 04 immediate site showing landscaping 05

The wholistic design strategies promoted by the CIAM are utilized within the design of the Unité d’Habitation in attempt to create a self-sustaining community within a building and promote neighbourhood interaction alongside privacy, and independent ownership2. This is vital to the success of high-density housing because treating architectural design as individual projects without standardization or uniformity creates disorder and is ignorant of the citizen’s experience at human scale2. The Congress attempted to form guidelines on a set architectural language that would produce calculation and control of the built environment and speak to society. Standardization in functional design was also involved with the growing popularity of mass production in the manufacturing world. Standardized manufacturing represented quick pace, efficiency, availability, and affordability. Those terms equally highlight the goals of development for a new, modern world and were looked upon as solutions to disorder and chaos in society, politics, and the economy. Ultimately, the Unité d’Habitation became a famous model for architectural evolution, rationalization, and standardization at a beautiful scale. It functionalized all aspects of a built structure without compromising the aesthetical value of the building. Following the concepts of the CIAM, the building influenced a new trend of sociallyengaged architecture that incorporates all values of human life. Le Corbusier uses the principles he defined for improving

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efficiency, and the mimimum necessities of living through the built world to increase the quality of life within housing in the city. He proved that high-density housing could be successful in providing the needs of living and suburban quality of a dwelling within the city. The shift of social perspectives on city life increased economic growth and productivity as more of the population was able to be sustained within the city centre. Unité d’Habitation only played one part in the movement towards modern architecture, but influenced many ideas and concepts towards rationalizing housing and creating a ‘machine’ for living in. Slowly, the city environment started becoming desirable again, as it integrated all living standards to accommodate its inhabitants.

COVER Image sourced from arquiteturasmodernas.wordpress.com

1. "AD Classics: Unite d' Habitation / Le Corbusier." ArchDaily. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Sept. 2014. <http://www. archdaily.com/85971/ad-classics-unite-d-habitation-le-corbusier/>. 2. Doordan, Dennis P. Twentieth-century architecture. New York: H.N. Abrams, 2002. 3. Gans, Deborah. "Unité d'habitation Marseille." In The Le Corbusier guide. 2006. Reprint, Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 1987. 112-119. 4. Eardley, Anthony. "CIAM's 'The Athens Charter' (1933)." modernist architecture. http:// modernistarchitecture.wordpress.com/2010/11/03/ciam%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Cthe-athenscharter%E2%80%9D-1933/ (accessed September 12, 2014). 5. French, Hilary. "Unité d'Habitation ." InKey urban housing of the twentieth century: plans, sections, and elevations. New York: W.W. Norton, 2008. 82-85. 6. Janson, Alban, and Carsten Krohn. Le Corbusier: unite d'habitation, Marseille. Stuttgart: Edition Axel Menges, 2007. 7. Jenkins, David. Unité d'habitation, Marseilles: Le Corbusier. London: Phaidon Press, 1993. 8. Mumford, Eric Paul. "CIAM and the Postwar World, 1939-1950." In The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 19281960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 131-159. 9. Mumford, Eric Paul. Defining urban design: CIAM architects and the formation of a discipline, 1937-69. New Haven: [Yale University Press], 2009. 10. Palma, Vittoria, Diana Periton, and Marina Lathouri. Intimate metropolis: urban subjects in the modern city. London: Routledge, 2009. 11. Silva, Carlos. 2003. "Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century." Journal of Urban History 29 (3): 327-332. http://resolver.scholarsportal.info/resolve/00961442/v29i0003/327_uuittc. FIGURES 05

http://modomoderno.wordpress.com/tag/le-corbusier/

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The Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project in St. Louis, Missouri is internationally recognized as a large architectural and urban development failure. Commissioned by the city of St. Louis in 1950 and completed in 1956, Pruitt-Igoe was designed by George Hellmuth and Minoru Yamasaki as a redevelopment of the DeSoto-Carr neighbourhood, a desolate slum. The housing scheme was designed in accordance with CongrĂ¨s internationaux d'architecture modern (CIAM) ideals for the Functional City, displaying progressive solutions such as "streets in the air", the 'three essential joys of urbanism" (sun, space and greenery), pedestrian and vehicular traffic separation, provision of play space, and local amenities. And although the high-rise, high-density project was a reflection of the prevailing interests in the Modernist movement, it does not demonstrate that the architects had particular intentions for social reform. The deterioration of Pruitt-Igoe is often connected to the Modernist design and its substitutes to traditional patterns, but could it have been the design constraints set by the St. Louis Housing Authority; or the social, economic, and political conditions at the time? This essay will explore the rise of Pruitt-Igoe and its difficulties with influences in context, and the fall of Pruitt-Igoe and what dynamics lead to its demise. The response will clarify how the Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project became internationally recognized as a symbol for architectural and urban development failure.

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PRUITT-IGOE COMPLEX George Hellmuth and Minoru Yamasaki 1950 - 1954 St. Louis, Missouri Celine Huynh

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The Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project of St. Louis, Missouri was initiated under the United States Housing Act of 1949 and commissioned by the St. Louis Housing Authority in 1950. Under the architectural firm of Leinweber, Yamasaki & Hellmuth, a high-rise, high-density urban redevelopment initiated in response to the social, economic, and political conditions of the time, and within the constraints predetermined by the St. Louis Housing Authority1.

St. Louis, Missouri, similar to many other cities in the postwar era, was experiencing a massive shift in population towards the suburbs and a deterioration of living conditions within the city2. The decline in property values posed a threat to the economic health of downtown real estate and, under the pressure of the newly elected mayor, Joseph Darst, the city was subjected to a comprehensive urban redevelopment plan, with great focus in slum clearance and the provision of public housing3. The project was directly funded by the United States Housing Act of 1949 and the city received a federal commitment to 5800 public housing units, about half of which were allocated by the St. Louis Housing Authority to the Captain Wendell O. Pruitt Homes and the William L. Igoe Apartments4. The plan designated a 57-acre plot, within the DeSoto-Carr neighbourhood, to be the eventual site of the 2700-unit project5 (see Figure 1). Federal and local officials hoped that the redevelopment would spur population growth, the expansion of middle-income housing, and commercial development in the troubled city core6.

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The Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project endured numerous developments and modifications before it could be realized. Before the election of Joseph Darst, the City Plan Commission proposed to clear the site and construct “two- or three-story row type apartment buildings” and a large public park. Under the lead of Darst, however, these plans changed, as he considered the lowrise building typologies to be unattractive. Instead, Darst linked successful public housing projects to large-scale, high-rise public housing projects and envisioned a Manhattan on the Mississippi River. In addition, architects George Hellmuth and Minoru Yamasaki, influenced by the rising ideas of Modernism, persuaded the authority to adopt the modernist-style, high-rise designs for public housing7.

St. Louis Housing Authority constricted the design by the size, location, number of units, and project density. The initial design proposals of Hellmuth and Yamasaki rendered a mixture of high-rise, mid-rise, and walk-up structures8. In one variation, an approach similar to the ideas present in the Garden City was taken, where the cultures and economic opportunity of the city were integrated with the natural landscape and healthy life of the country. The large, open green spaces reigned and the land was stripped of traffic decongestion9. The intense pressure for economical design, however, led to the rejection of the arrangement and further intervention by the Public Housing Administration (P.H.A)10. Within the context of a strict economy

and efficiency drive within the P.H.A., a scheme of using 33 identical eleven-story elevator buildings was insisted (see Figure 3). Howbeit, the architects devoted a great deal of attention to improving the livability of the high-rise units. The Pruitt-Igoe Housing Complex was completed in 1954. Design features such as skip-stop elevators and glazed internal galleries received the most attention and were praised by The Architectural Record as being innovative compensations for the shortcomings of the designated high-rise building typology11. The skip-stop elevators, which stopped at every third floor and connected the remaining through stairs, reduced the costs by a third. The large gallery spaces at every third floor, were designed as a representations of front yards, but within closer proximity to the eyes and ears of parents. It was a space for community12. A diagrammatic section of the elevator and gallery network is displayed in Figure 2.

Overall, the Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project was designed in accordance with the Congrès internationaux d’architecture modern (CIAM) ideals for the Functional City, and particularly with the urban design principles of Le Corbusier. Pruitt-Igoe was one of the first major commissions received by Leinweber, Yamasaki, & Hellmuth and, in that respect, they wanted to ensure the use of modernist conventions to appeal to their architectural peers13. The housing scheme displayed progressive solutions such as “streets in the air”, the “three essential joys of urbanism” (sun, space and greenery),

With no control over the project’s isolated location, its excessive densities, the elimination of amenities, or the use of highrise elevator buildings, the architects were mandated to make economical comprises. In a 1975 study of the St. Louis Housing Authority’s expenditures on Pruitt-Igoe, political scientist Eugene Meehan reveals the extent to which the budgetary constraints affected the final design. Budgetary cuts were made on amenities, such as children’s play areas, landscaping, and ground-floor bathrooms, and points of contact between the tenants and the living units, such as the quality of the hardware15. The task was

limited to providing the form of the individual buildings and incorporating as much amenity as possible, given the restricted budget. Although the housing complex reflected the prevailing interests in Modernism at the time, the application does not demonstrate that the architects had particular interests for social reform. Yamasaki was skeptical of the value of the high-rise as a form for mass housing but defended the typology, not on its architectural merits, but as the best possible response to what he perceived as the social imperative of slum clearance and the economic necessity for urban redevelopment. He defended high-rise design as the only way to respond to external economic and policy conditions16. It is important to note that the original intent of the Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project was to home two segregated communities: whites to live in the William L. Igoe Apartments, and blacks to live in the Captain Wendell O. Pruitt Homes17. In 1954, however, a Supreme Court decision forced desegregation, and when the whites were unwilling to move in18, Pruitt-Igoe became an all-black, all-poor enclave19. By 1958, many residents opted

towards inexpensive private dwellings, rather than public housing, and the complex was ridden with violence, vandalism, and fiscal instability. The critically acclaimed architectural features quickly became the most dangerous features in the complex. Rather than promoting community association, the skip-stop elevators and galleries developed into opportune environments for violent crime. The amenity spaces became unsafe and unused and the poor quality of hardware led to injuries and deaths. And in this respect, it is easy to put blame on the principles presented by CIAM, without accounting for the external limitations of the project. The compliance of the design with the latest trends in Modernism in combination with the profitmotivated redevelopment and housing policy were, together, insensitive to its potential effects within its social context. Several federal grants to save the housing project were unsuccessful and the occupancy rates continued to decline, while the crime rates increased. On March 26, 1972, demolition began on the first three buildings, located in the centre of the plot. The remainder of the slab blocks were demolished in 1972, in

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pedestrian and vehicular traffic separation, provision of play space, and local amenities. At eleven-storeys high, the “streets in the air” concept, as represented in the gallery spaces, separated the pedestrian from vehicular traffic and opened up the grounds for green space and communal interaction. The provision of play space and local amenities such as laundries, crèches, and gossip centres, as described by Charles Jencks, were all rational substitutes for traditional patterns14.

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figure-ground diagram (1934) 01 diagrammatic section 02 figure-ground diagram (1954) 03

the demolition, theorists and critics began to build up myths around Pruitt-Igoe, summed up by Charles Jencks’ 1977 announcement that the demolition represented the death of modern architecture20: “Modern Architecture died in St. Louis, Missouri on July 15, 1972 at 3:32 pm (or thereabouts) when the infamous Pruitt Igoe scheme, or rather several of its slab blocks, were given the final coup de grâce by dynamite.”21

The notion posed by Charles Jencks gained widespread acceptance and Pruitt-Igoe became the classic cautionary tale, the go-to symbol for either the failure of modern urban planning and design or for the shortcomings of the welfare state22. And although the highrise, high-density project was a reflection of the prevailing interests in the Modernist movement, it does not demonstrate that the architects had particular intentions for social reform. Clearly, there were a number of powerful social and economic factors at play in the rise and fall of the housing complex. The demolition of Pruitt-Igoe brought unprecedented attention in the architectural and national press, many of which identified the failure of the architectural approach and the overall design philosophy. A general theme that emerged was that “the architects were insensitive to the needs of the lower class population and were trying to use the design to force a middle-class, white, lifestyle on Pruitt-Igoe residents.”23 With all the attention surrounding the project’s design in the early 1970s, the deterioration

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of Pruitt-Igoe became primarily associated with Modernist design flaws, ignoring the much more deeply embedded economic and social conditions. The myth concerning Pruitt-Igoe is inconsiderate to the fiscal crisis of the St. Louis Housing Authority, or what Eugene Meehan has called “the programmed failure” of American public housing. The myth is also inconsiderate to the occurring social indifference to the poverty of inner city blacks24.

The Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project was the product of unfortunate circumstances, in which its rise and fall cannot be attributed to one single factor. In hindsight, PruittIgoe was an appropriate response to its given restrainsts. However, the political ambitions of the United States, the economic discrepancies of the municipal authority, and the social indifferences of the population disabled a successful redemption of St. Louis, Missouri and the DeSoto-Carr neighbourhood. In such a scenario where an alternative architectural and urban design was to have been implemented in place of Pruitt-Igoe, in the same era, it is likely it would also be demolished today. Architecture cannot solely sustain on its urban and design feats alone. Architecture is a product of its contextual physical, social, economic, and political conditions. Good architecture does not always have the power to alter its contextual conditions, and contextual conditions do not always have the power to home good architecture.

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1. The Pruitt-Igoe Myth. DVD. Directed by Chad Freidrichs. New York: First Run Features, 2012. 2. Bristol, Katharine G.. "The Pruitt-Igoe Myth." Journal of Architectural Education (1984-) 44, no. 3 (1991): 163. 3. Hoffman, Alexander . "Why They Built Pruitt Igoe." In From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: in Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. 185. 4. "The Unmentioned Modern Landscape." Pruitt Igoe Now. http://www.pruittigoenow.org/theunmentioned-modern-landscape/ (accessed September 14, 2014). ``Panopticism." In The Foucault Reader, 206-13. Edited by Paul Rabinow. New York: Pantheon, 1984. 5. Bristol,164. 6. Heathcott, Joseph. "Planning Note: Pruitt-Igoe and the Critique of Public Housing." Journal of the American Planning Association 78, no. 4 (2012): 450-451. 7. Hoffman, 185. 8. Bristol, 164.. 9. Hoffman, 186. 10. Bristol, 164. 11. Hoffman, 196. 12. Bristol, 165. 13. Ibid, 14. Jencks, Charles. "The Language of Post-Modern Architecture." New York: Rizzoli, 1977. 9-10. 15. Bristol, 169. 16. Ibid. 17. Pruitt Igoe Now. 18. Bristol, 165. 19. Hoffman, 187. 20. Bristol, 168. 21. Jencks, 10. 22. Hoffman, 197. 23. Bristol, 167. 24. Ibid.

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The Chrysler Building designed by William Van Alen and Walter P. Chrysler is the third tallest building in the world. It was constructed in the Machine Age, when architectural concepts conformed to industry standards. The Chrysler Building was modified for what could be achieved through steel construction at the time and what was allowed by the Standard City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA) commissioned in 1928. The Athens Charter states the need for the three-dimensional science of planning where built volumes not only cater to sufficient space, sun and ventilation but also height, so that twodimensional planning could be reserved for transportation and functions that require horizontal distribution. Due to increasing density in New York City three-dimensional planning became necessary. Technological innovations, such as the steel industry and the elevator, during the Machine Age allowed for three dimensional planning, however as the concept of height was introduced so was the need to protect the streetscape of New York City from shade. The "Standard City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA), 1928" influenced the form of the Chrysler Building through required setbacks at the sixteenth, twenty-third, thirtieth and sixty-seventh floors. Utilizing the relationship between the Athens Charter and New York City's Master Plan, this essay discusses their dialogue with the form of the Chrysler Building and its role in constructing New York City as a Functional City.

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CHRYSLER BUILDING William Van Alen 1928-1930 New York City, New York Shivathmikha Suresh Kumar

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Introduction

The Chrysler Building, designed by William van Alen and Walter P. Chrysler, is the third tallest building in the world. It was built during the Art Deco Period to serve as the Chrysler Corporation’s Headquarters. Located in the heart of New York City, the building’s design is driven by the city’s Gridiron Master Plan and the “Standard City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA), 1928” The need for a zoning by law is expressed in the Athens Charter in relevance to planning stating that mechanical speed has congested our cities as much of the two-dimensional space is dedicated to transport. Threedimensional space then became allocated for functional programs. Laws need to be placed to assure built forms allow for threedimensional planning to provide livable spaces. In order to fulfill this requirement the architect had to master the concept of height. Tall constructions began to be established with the help of technological innovations in the steel industry and through the invention of the elevator during the Art Deco Period. The Athens Charter expresses the steps taken to build the Chrysler Building and the factors that influence the construction. The Chrysler Building is representative of New York City’s potential of being a Functional City according to the Athens Charter. New York City: Physical Context

The Chrysler building is surrounded by tall buildings all conformed to the gridiron scheme of New York City. The Gridiron

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scheme itself was based on creating the maximum intercourse between the two waterfronts as water transportation was of primary importance in New York when the scheme was implemented in 18071. Eventually, this scheme was expanded to what is now the Master Plan of the City. All future infrastructure and construction such as water supply, sewage, civic buildings and gymnasiums conformed to the gridiron plan. As New York City expanded the municipal government began to implement new sources of revenue. Condemned laws, zoning and regulating the height and character of a building were a few of those sources2. The Chrysler building itself is located in the intersection of Lexington Avenue and FortySecond Street, adjacent to Grand Central Station. The site was chosen because it was a central location within New York City that was predominantly surrounded by corporate buildings. This way the Chrysler Corporation could display the company’s work in a grand manner. Close amenities such as the Grand Central Station allowed for the corporate community to have easy access to the building. The Gridiron planning of New York City and the zoning by laws influenced the building’s design as buildings in New York City were subject to producing rectilinear plans with setbacks. However, New York City is driven by this gridiron scheme as this scheme allows for the most efficient infrastructure. The streets themselves are occupied by pedestrian and vehicular traffic and the functional spaces are housed in tall buildings.

SCPEA: New York City 1928

The form, the height and the program of the building was influenced by what the city allowed to be built on that site. The Chrysler Building was influenced by the “Standard City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA), 1928”. The SCPEA is a planning commission that created a provision for adoption of a master street plan by the governing body and a provision for approval of all public improvements by the planning commission. Private interests who intended to build in New York City were obliged to get their designs and documents approved by the municipal government. With the SCPEA the municipal government controlled private subdivision of land3. William Van Alen and Walter P. Chrysler created numerous iterations of the building’s design to obtain the most economical form that abided by the SCPEA, as the building represents the maximum mass allowed by the site4. The design of the Chrysler Building is a reflection of what Hugh Ferris expected in his “Metropolis of Tomorrow”. He explains, “New York City will be a summit of tall and lofty tower buildings... not lacking vegetation.”5 The Chrysler Building reflects Hugh Ferris’s models of the zoning by law through its setbacks. Its footprint size begins to decrease as the height of the building increases through setbacks at the sixteenth, twenty-third and thirtieth floors. As well as leafed setbacks past the sixty-seventh floor for the Spire. Walter P. Chrysler obtained a separate permit from the city for the long Spire to be placed on top of the building

New York City : “Functional City

Dimensional Planning

The Athens Charter states, “the new mechanical speeds have disrupted the urban environment, creating permanent danger, causing traffic jams and paralysing communications and interfering with hygiene.”7 Automobiles have become an obstacle in the city as transport has occupied much of the available two-dimensional space within the city. The streets, the two-dimensional space, of New York City are occupied with automobile traffic and pedestrian traffic, requiring taller buildings to accommodate for the functional spaces necessary due to increasing density within the city. However, the Machine Age allowed for the Chrysler Building to be built in two years, starting construction in in 1928 and finishing in 19308. In order to create

comfortable functional space the concept of height needs to be introduced. The Athens Charter states, “the key functions inside built volumes are subject to three imperious necessities: sufficient space, sun, ventilation.”9 Three dimensional planning, height, allows for sedentary functions such as transport to remain on the two-dimensional plane and leaves the height above for functional spaces. This is reflective of how the Chrysler Building responds to New York City’s streetscape as the monumental height of the building allows for programmed spaces within to move away from noise pollution and street traffic. Program and Promulgate Laws

The Athens Charter states, “The city must establish programme and promulgate laws that will enable this to be put into effect. These set of laws must consider resources of the site, the topography, the economic facts and the sociological needs and spiritual values of the city.”10 The Standard City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA), written in 1928 is reflective of this notion to create laws that consider the interest of the site. The

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The Athens Charter states, “the keys to town planning are to be found in the four functions: housing, work, recreation ( during leisure), and traffic…the initial nucleus of town planning is a housing cell ( a dwelling)”6. New York City is not built off the basis of a Functional City as it does not accommodate for the four functions of town planning. It is strongly influenced by industrialized methods and the mechanical speed of the early 1920’s. New York City is ignorant of recreation, the traffic and the housing cell. The city is planned with work spaces as the initial nucleus rather than the housing cell. It accommodates for traffic with its sidewalks providing separate paths for pedestrian and vehicle. The City’s many parks are considered the lungs of the city and are among the very few of its leisure spaces. However, the city’s plan does not accommodate for buildings dedicated to recreation. The Chrysler Building itself is an example of the constructions that are

built with a focus on corporate spaces. It reflects the culture of the Machine Age that focused on creating taller buildings- all of the buildings that were a part of the race housed corporate programs. Architecture in this case was used to symbolize power within the corporate realm rather than creating a Functional City.

SHIVATHMIKHA SURESH KUMAR

mid-constrution. The Spire only housed mechanical spaces but it was built to assure the title of ‘Tallest Building in the World.’

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figure ground of new york city prior to construction of the chrysler building in 1920 01 figure ground of new york city post construction of the chrysler building in 1930 02 (Top) Floor Plans of the Chrysler Building depicting structure, open spaces and program organization (bottom) axonometric view of the chrysler building showing levels of setbacks 03

gridiron plan considers the resources of the site through how the gridiron axis is oriented in accordance to the city’s two harbor fronts. The gridded system is economic, allowing for a simple outline to implement infrastructure and order, however it does not consider the topography of the site. The SCPEA does not reflect the sociological needs and spiritual values of the city and its inhabitants, as the by-laws are mainly focused on which schemes will be most efficient and will provide revenue for the city. The form of the Chrysler Building is an example of this scheme through its conformance to the required setbacks and optimized mass. Technological Innovations

The Athens Charter states, “To fulfill this great task it is essential to utilize the resources of modern technology.”11 The heights reached by many skyscrapers built in New York during the Art Deco Period would not be possible without the invention of the elevator and innovations in the steel industry. The elevator allowed for taller buildings by providing a method of rapid vertical circulation. The time and energy required to climb the stairs to get to a certain height did not become a factor in designing buildings. It also allowed for flexibility in program placement, with the elevator the concept of view became a significant driver for program. Innovations in the steel industry allowed for steel structure to be placed within concrete columns and floors. Hence, sufficient support was provided in order to obtain the heights achieved by the Chrysler

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Building.12 Technological Innovations not only inspired two-dimensional planning but also aided in developing three-dimensional planning. The innovations allowed New York City to respond to increasing densities by constructing high-rise buildings. Conclusion

New York City’s planning Commission and the Gridiron Plan of the City shows that the city does not entirely reflect CIAM’s intentions of a Function City expressed in the Athens Charter. The Chrysler Building conforms to New York’s standards of construction which was strongly influenced by the municipal and federal government. The form of a building was restricted by the SCPEA resulting in a tired mass for form. Moreover, Walter P. Chrysler funded the construction and strongly influenced the program and the form of the building as it served as the Head Quarters of the Chrysler Corporation subsequent to completion. Walter P. Chrysler influenced William Van Alen to create the most efficient plans possible. The Chrysler Building only reflects the economist’s ideal and does not consider the possibility of interrelations between housing, work and recreational development within the city as its function and spatial organization only caters to corporate spaces. The project conceived and built was a great solution structurally and in terms of material innovation however was not the appropriate solution for New York City to be a Functional City.

Level 1

Level 4

SPIRE

30th STOREY 23rd STOREY

16th STOREY

CHRYSLER BUILDING

SHIVATHMIKHA SURESH KUMAR

FIGURES Image 03: Plan under overlay- Great buildings. Chrysler building.2006 Image 04: (Top) William Van Allen. Great Buildings. Chrysler Building. 1929. (Bottom) Hugh, ferris. Metropolis of tomorrow. 1929

CIAM

1. The Chrysler Building: Lexington Avenue at Forty-Second Street, New York. New York, N.Y.: Chrysler Tower Corporation, 1930 2. Bassett,Edward. New York City Commission. Standard City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA), 1928. New York.1928 3. Bassett,Edward. New York City Commission. Standard City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA), 1928. New York.1928 4. The Chrysler Building: Lexington Avenue at Forty-Second Street, New York. New York, N.Y.: Chrysler Tower Corporation, 1930. 5. Ferris, Hugh. The Metropolis of Tomorrow. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1986. Reprint of 1929 edition 6. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers. 1973 7. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers. 1973 8. The Chrysler Building: Lexington Avenue at Forty-Second Street, New York. New York, N.Y.: Chrysler Tower Corporation, 1930. 9. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers. 1973 10. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers. 1973 11. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers. 1973 12.The Chrysler Building: Lexington Avenue at Forty-Second Street, New York. New York, N.Y.: Chrysler Tower Corporation, 1930.

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In the aftermath of World War II, the Baker House designed by Alvar Aalto was able to respond to the sudden change within the human population by going in accordance with CIAM principles. Due to the massive increase of college enrollments after the war, campuses had no choice but to expand their facilities. This included housing for students living on Campus. Aalto's building was designed in such a way that it was able to meet the required density and area for programmatic elements while adhering to the maximum heights set up by zoning laws at the time. This is accomplished through the building's unique, serpentine form where more programmatic area was able to be fit in as well as a lower height. The Baker House also strongly advocated CIAM principles by focusing on the needs of the individual. Elements such as solar exposure and views in relation to the surrounding environment were all considered in Aalto's design. This is also seen through the use of brick which bought the Baker House down to the human scale by appealing to the senses. Through the accordance of Athens Charter principles, the Baker House is a building that is designed by its social context, site and zoning.

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BAKER HOUSE DORMITORY Alvar Aalto 1949 Cambridge, U.S.A Benjamin Luong

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The 1940s was an era of great change within the development and planning of the American college campus. A massive influx of student enrollments flooded these institutions due to the arrival of returning war veterans of WWII and the increase in people searching higher forms of education. By 1947, over two million students were currently attending college and numbers were steadily rising.1 Like many schools at that time, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology located in Cambridge, Massachusetts was caught off guard by the sudden growth of the student body. The response was an expansion of the campus and its various facilities. To accommodate the sudden arrival of students looking for housing accommodations, M.I.T commissioned Finnish architect Alvar Aalto to design the Baker House Dormitory. The end product as finished in 1949 was a unique building, curvilinear in form that followed CIAM principles due to the design constraints placed by campus planning, zoning and the site. The Baker House Dormitory rests on a site separated from M.I.T’s main campus accessible by an angled pathway. Situated on a narrow east-west lot, the building stands between the city of Boston in the north and the Charles River with the busy Memorial Drive in the south.2 As will be discussed, the site itself has a major impact on the design of Baker House for the proximity to the waterfront was a driver that assisted in the development of Aalto’s building form. The program for the Baker Dormitory as finalized in 1946 was a residential building

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to hold around three hundred and fifty students. To cover a wide variety of student accommodations, program requirements insisted that sixty percent of the estimated residences would live in single rooms while twenty five would reside in double, and fifteen in triple.3 Other program included lounges, offices and the main dining room.

In twentieth century America, traditional campus planners strongly advocated the notion of a unified design within college facilities for the grand vision of a master plan. This meant that new building development had to adhere to existing spatial organizations and architectural styles found on campus. When the modern movement took hold in the 1930s, the focus of traditionalists became the prevention of the invasion of the International Style in an attempt to preserve the traditional urban fabric. It was also during this time after WWII when planners started to reject the idea of a unified design. In its place, a plan that emphasized future development was preferred due to the everchanging and complex nature of institutional growth.4 This can be constituted as a freeplan rather than a master plan that heavily restricted how and what buildings could be built on campus. As mentioned beforehand, the 1940s was also a time when American colleges saw a massive increase of student enrollments. The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 which is also known as the G.I bill granted war veterans the opportunity to return to an everyday life. Benefits that the amendment gave was the chance to attend or head back to pursue an education without

a five-hundred dollar tuition fee per year as well as a small, monthly allowance during the schooling period.5 After WWII, many returning troops decided to make use of G.I bill to attend college. With the rising growth of the student body, universities frantically looked to urban planners and architects for a solution in their campuses. As a result, Aalto’s building was called to hold a larger than normal density of students. Such a high number established major design issues that clashed with the maximum building height set by zoning ordinances at the time. The Baker House Dormitory partially owes its end design to the zoning and urban planning of the M.I.T campus at the time. A density of three hundred and fifty residences required a large building area. Previous design schematics reveal Aalto utilizing the maximum buildable space and covering the whole lot to meet the required programmatic space. The issue with these initial ideas were that they lacked in providing sunlight, views and privacy for the students. Solar exposure is a key principle mentioned in the Athens Charter where every living unit must have an established amount of light penetration to accommodate human needs. The answer would then seem to be a more narrow building with a higher height. Unfortunately by doing so, the Baker House Dormitory would not be in compliance with the maximum height restrictions that the Cambridge zoning laws set up at the time. The final curvilinear form of the Baker House Dormitory not only provides more floor space for program but appeases Cambridge’s height limitations

The shift in American campus planning after the Second World War sought to have buildings on campus that no longer adhered to a unified style. The destruction of the master plan became the ultimate expression of growth and development. Unlike its surrounding built context, the Baker House Dormitory neglects the use of a neo-classical style to blend in and paves the way for modern architecture in M.I.T. The building’s organic and curvilinear form strongly defies the rigid, looming neo-classical facilities located in the main campus.9 In regards to CIAM, Athens Charter principles are strongly portrayed in the Baker House for the tenant states that architects should not be relying on styles of the past. This is because the resort to historic architectural aesthetics is seen as being false architecture as well as a step back for mankind rather than progress. One of the main concerns that CIAM focused on was how the modern city no longer

fulfilled the psychological and physical needs of the human being and how the rise in private control assists this phenomenon. In the Athens charter, attention was bought on to how the dimensions in the city such as walking distances should be regulated by the proportions of the body. Therefore, architects have the duty of creating the built environment according to the human scale to ensure the happiness and freedom found within these spaces. The use of brick in the design of the Baker House Dormitory can be seen as an attempt by Alvar Aalto to scale the building down to a more human level by appealing to the sense of touch. The “clinker” brick cladding gives a sense of texture to the building which invites a response from man as opposed to a plain, smooth and overall unresponsive surface. To maintain a rough aesthetic, the architect specifically asked workers to chisel the brick units that were sticking out of the building too much during the construction.10 The Baker House Dormitory proves itself to be a unique building that was influenced by the modernist ideas pertaining to American campus planning, local zoning and site

CIAM

6+ storeys

BENJAMIN LUONG

The design of the Baker House Dormitory is not only attributed to Cambridge’s planning and zoning ordinances, but also to CIAM principles regarding residential districts. The Athens Charter states that housing should be situated in the more favourable sites in regards to climate, sunlight, and views. 7 The spatial organization of rooms inside utilizes a single loaded corridor with all residential suites placed on the southern end of the building. By doing so, all bedrooms are able to obtain a generous amount of daylight. The slim, curved form portrays how the views of the surrounding environment were also a powerful driver within the design of Baker House. The serpentine shape makes it so that no room is directly facing Memorial Drive and the Charles River but rather reads them both at an angle. A less ideal view of the busy street is avoided in this manner and exposure to the sun is not as direct.8 This is

also beneficial as noise from the street does not directly enter into the living quarters but is dampened due to the orientation of the rooms.

BAKER HOUSE DORMITORY

as well. Set to be a six storey building, the dormitory fully stretched out is thirty five percent greater than the actual length of the site and contains the capacity to house all three hundred and fifty student along with the required amenities.6

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FIGURE-GROUND BEFORE CONSTRUCTION image MASSING ANALYSIS image TYPICAL INTERIOR PROGRAM image FIGURE-GROUND AFTER CONSTRUCTION image INTEROR image

conditions. With these factors in play, Alvar Aalto’s building was one that followed CIAM principles to set an environment that strongly focused on the needs of the human. In regards to its context, one can clearly state that the Baker House Dormitory was appropriate for its time. Not only did Aalto’s building accommodate the sudden growth of the student body after WWII, but it’s unique form provided was also a solution which allowed the building to met the requirements of the zoning laws. This in turn, demonstrates how urban planning has a strong, distinct relationship with architecture. By designing with its context, Aalto’s Baker House Dormitory is successful in both obtaining functionality in a human scale and delight.

Living quarters Charles River Amenities and vertical circulation

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FIGURES

BAKER HOUSE DORMITORY

BENJAMIN LUONG

04 .Geoff ,Emily, "AD Classics: MIT Baker House Dormitory/Alvar Aalto." Photograph. http://ad009cdnb. archdaily.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/1275084777-emilygeoff5cc.jpg (accessed Oct 25,2014)

1. Paul Venable Turner, Campus : an American planning tradition, (Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 1984.), 260. 2. Michael Trencher. Baker House: The individual and Mass Housing, a Delicate Balance, in Aalto and America, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2012) 185-188. 3. Donald Livingstone Hanlon, Compositions In Architecture. (Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons, c2009). 305 4. Paul Venable Turner, Campus : an American planning tradition, (Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 1984.), 260 5. 'Education and training' Accessed October 27,2014, http://www.benefits.va.gov/gibill/history.asp 6. Donald Livingstone Hanlon, Compositions In Architecture. (Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons, c2009). 305 7. Lawrence W. Speck, Baker House and the Modern Notion of Functionalism, in Aalto and America, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2012). 194-197. 202-204. 8.. Le Corbusier, The Athens Charter, accessed September 14th, 2014, http://modernistarchitecture. wordpress.com/2010/11/03/ciam%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Cthe-athens-charter%E2%80%9D-1933/ 9.. Karl Fleig, Architekt and Zurich, Alvar Aalto, (Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser 1995), 134-135. 10. Akos Moravanszky, Baker House and Brick: Aalto's Construction of a Building Material, in Aalto and 9. America, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2012). 208-210.

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Alvar Aalto Baker House." Photograph. http://galleryhip.com/alvar-aaltobaker-house.html (accessed Oct 25,2014)

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Situated within blocks of Downtown Detroit, Mies van der Rohe's Lafayette Park is recognized as one of the first successful urban renewal projects during the post-war era. The success of the project is due to the collaborative efforts of architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, urban planner Ludwig Hilberseimer and landscape architect Alfred Caldwell. Planning began in 1940 with the intent of combining the advantages of a small town and a large city. There was a mutual agreement that in order to avoid the harmful effects that the metropolis had on society, they would need to focus their ideas on creating a simpler lifestyle. CIAM principles state that for a city to be considered functional, the urban form must take into consideration four fundamental functions: live, work, recreation and circulation. The 78-acre housing complex contains three highrise apartment buildings, 162 townhouses and 24 courthouses. The land around the townhouses is left as green space which efficiently doubles as recreational space for children. Mies designed a circulation path for the development considering the adjacent elementary school, providing the children with a safe travel from school to their home. Collaboration and innovative planning has turned Lafayette Park into a successful model for urban renewal.

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LAFAYETTE PARK Mies van der Rohe 1959 Detroit, Michigan, USA Justin Mitchell

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Lafayette Park, situated near the downtown core of Detroit, Michigan, is recognized as one of the most successful urban renewal projects during the post-war era. The success of the project is owed to the collaborative efforts of architecture, urban planning and landscape architecture, all sharing a similar vision of the future of Detroit – rejecting the chaos of the modern metropolis and achieving a simpler lifestyle which avoided the negative social and health effects that the industrial city has on its inhabitants. Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe led the design, with urban planner Ludwig Hilberseimer and landscape architect Alfred Caldwell by his side. During the time of development, the Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne were responsible for enforcing the principles of the Modern Movement in all forms of architecture. The highly respected principles of CIAM - particularly CIAM 4, which was held in 1933 - helped to ensure the success of the urban renewal project. It focused on the ideals of The Functional City, which focused on a hierarchy of four functions; dwelling, work, leisure and circulation1. Lafayette Park is a precedent of innovative collaboration, rethinking the vision of a mixed-race, mixedclass future for the American city. Detroit was home to one of the nation’s first postwar urban renewal programs between 1950 and 1953. It was not until after the war, with the boost of the economy, that the city finally had the funding it needed to turn future visions of Detroit into a reality. The city’s urban planning schemes consisted of future highways, clearance for hospitals,

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and slum clearances. Highway construction took priority over the hospital and housing construction.2 Highways were designed mainly as transportation routes for troops, allowing them to quickly get from point A to point B. The rise of the automobile during the industrial revolution brought forth a boost in the population. Detroit, like many cities during the industrial revolution, became too dense. The size of the population grew as less land become available. The Housing Act of 1949 provided funding for renewal projects, which led to the demolition of Detroit’s slums. The slum area which was previously known as Black Bottom would be the future working grounds of Lafayette Park. A slum is characterized by the following symptoms: an inadequacy of habitable space per person; a lack of openings to the outdoors; and minimal daylighting due to northern orientation and the cast of shadows across streets and into courtyards. These definitive characteristics helped Mies with the planning of the urban renewal project. Lafayette Park has the characteristics of a suburban environment, located within blocks of Downtown Detroit. The urban renewal project is a reflection of the principles laid out in Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City ideal, set out to improve the quality of urban life in cities. The concept was to provide the amenities of urban life as well as the natural topography of the rural environments. Lafayette Park combines urban and suburban lifestyles, while ignoring the chaos of the industrial city. Hilberseimer and Caldwell, although having

slightly different form perspectives, shared a common response toward the industrial city. They both rejected the chaos of the modern metropolis, seeking to achieve a simpler lifestyle. Hilberseimer’s layout of Lafayette Park focused on optimizing solar impact and natural ventilation, which led to the development of settlement units that made the open spaces prominent. The settlement incorporates proximity of home and work, separation of automobile and pedestrian traffic, and ease of access to elementary school, public transport, cultural amenities, and parkland, doubling as farmed and recreational space.3 Caldwell chose to enforce Hilberseimer’s ideas by highlighting the flat terrain of the American Midwest in his landscape design. The soft landscape successfully creates a calm suburban environment in an urban setting.

The Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne was founded in 1928 and quickly became a leading institution for modern architecture of the twentieth century. CIAM was comprised of a group of members such as Alvar Alto, Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe - to name a few. Until the end of CIAM in 1959, the institute successfully organized eleven working congresses. The fourth congress was held in 1933.4 The theme of CIAM 4 was “The Functional City,” which focused on the hierarchy of four functions; dwelling, work, leisure and circulation. The collaborative efforts of Mies van der Rohe, Hilberseimer and Caldwell effectively enforced the four functions. The industrial city can be overwhelming, with

There are consistencies with Hilberseimer’s superblock strategy and the Detroit Plan of 1949. The plan called for a development of low- and high-rise housing combined with public green space, commercial space

and a school adjoining the park. The site is surrounded by major traffic arteries6 – being located relatively close to Downtown Detroiit – so rather than locate the high-rise buildings along the congested and noisepolluted highway, he situated them amid the low-rise buildings, directly linking the two masses through the use of park space. This suggestion of a mix of single-family houses with high-rise apartments with one or two bedrooms suggests interaction between different social and economic demographic, further emphasizing the concept of a mixedrace, mixed-class future of the American city. The 78-acre housing complex contains three high-rise apartment buildings, 162 townhouses and 24 courthouses. Hilberseimer oriented the buildings northsouth and used scientific logic to proportion the spaces around them to ensure each building received a healthy amount of solar access.7 Figure 3 illustrates the orientation of the buildings as well as the public open space between each. While Lafayette Park is best known for its buildings, designed by Mies van der Rohe, the projects most prominent feature

is the landscape. 120 acres were cleared in Detroit’s Lower East Side between 1950 and 1952. When Hilberseimer was asked to create a layout for Lafayette Park, the existing buildings had been demolished, leaving behind the rigid street grids – which he later had removed. The new plan for the complex made no reference to the prior grid of avenues, roads and service alleys. The existing trees were preserved and remain on the site. Ludwig Hilberseimer and Alfred Caldwell collaborated on the layout of the landscape design of the complex. The Prairie Landscape is a direct relation to the American Midwest style, flat terrain with extensive views to the surrounding context. Caldwell decided to keep with the qualities of the Midwestern landscape by using indigenous plant materials. His anti-urban attitude is also clear through the contrast of the “prison-like” conditions in the city with the open spirit of the plains.8 Landscape urbanism has emerged as a critique of the disciplinary and professional commitments of traditional urban design and an alternative to “new urbanism.” The critique launched by landscape urbanism has

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much emphasis placed on the work function and little toward leisure and dwelling. Mies strives to find a balance between all four functions, creating a welcoming and comfortable environment for the inhabitants of the city. With the congestion of the highway traffic linking the residential area with the urban environment, Mies created a relief within the plan of Lafayette Park. Hilberseimer’s urban thinking is inspired through the concept of the settlement unit, a semi-autonomous mass at pedestrian scale in which a variety of building types are separated from one another and linked through landscaped public open space – also referred to as a superblock.5 The open spaces allow for optimal daylight to enter into each dwelling on the site, something that was lacking in the previous Black Bottom Slum. Figure 2 shows the new street grid introduced during the renewal with the underlay of the Black Bottom slum grid.

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Lafayette park Old and new grid Figure ground Exterior view Lafayette towers

much to do with urban designer’s perceived inability to come to terms with the rapid pace of urban changes and the essential horizontal character of contemporary automobilebased urbanization across North America and much of Western Europe.9 Hilberseimer and Caldwell, both sharing views of antiindustrialization, aimed to make the plan of Lafayette park pedestrian safe. The industrial city is overpowered by the automobile. Commuters travelling to and from work in the middle of the city make it fairly unsafe for its inhabitants – especially the younger generation. Hilberseimer’s introduced the separation of pedestrians from automobile. The site is bordered by three main roadways which access the development from the west. Pedestrian routes are prominent in the design of Lafayette Park. Figure 4 shows the relationship between infrastructure, landscape and dwelling. Mies carefully designed the circulation of Lafayette Park to allow children to get from home to school without having to cross the street.10 While the design of Lafayette Park suggests avoiding the rise of the automobile, Mies embraces it. However, parking areas are located below the level of circulation – giving the landscape prominence over the automobile.

Mies van der Rohe’s Lafayette Park is accepted as a successful urban renewal project during the postwar era. It owes its success to the mutual ideal of eliminating the chaos of the industrial city. The Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne helped define the project by focusing on a hierarchy of functions; dwelling, work,

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leisure and circulation. Many of the public health issues within the industrial city have been managed: pedestrian safety has been taken into account with the prominence of pedestrian circulation; outdoor shared green spaces eliminate the demand for leisure spaces; and commuter time is reduced as the proximity of home and work is taken into account.11 Mies van der Rohe introduced a new plan which resolved previous slum characteristics by introducing high-rise buildings to house the population. The highdensity is then broken up with vast public open space, optimizing daylighting to each dwelling and introducing a relief from the chaos of Downtown Detroit. Lafayette Park serves as an excellent precedent for the cities of the future.

01 02 03 04 05

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM "AD Classics: Lafayette Park" / Mies van der Rohe, ArchDaily, accessed September 15, 2014, http://www.archdaily.com/455524/ad-classics-lafayette-park-mies-van-der-rohe/. 1. "Architecture + Urbanism: A blog from the MA Architecture + Urbanism Course at the Manchester School of Architecture," Blogspot, accessed October 20, 2014, http://architectureandurbanism.blogspot.ca/2011/03/eric-mumford-ciam-discourse-on-urbanism.html 2. Robert C. Goodspeed, Urban Renewal in Postwar Detroit - The Gratiot Area Redevelopment Project: A Case Study. The University of Michigan, c.2004. 3. Charles Waldheim, CASE---Hilberseimer/Mies van der Rohe, Lafayette Park Detroit. (Munich; New York; Prestel; [Cambridge, Mass.]: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, c2004). 4. 'CIAM 4, Les CongrĂ¨s International d'Architecture Moderne, accessed October 20, 2014, http://www.ciam4.com/ 5. Charles Waldheim, CASE---Hilberseimer/Mies van der Rohe, Lafayette Park Detroit. (Munich; New York; Prestel; [Cambridge, Mass.]: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, c2004). 6. Charles Waldheim, CASE---Hilberseimer/Mies van der Rohe, Lafayette Park Detroit. (Munich; New York; Prestel; [Cambridge, Mass.]: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, c2004). 7. Charles Waldheim, CASE---Hilberseimer/Mies van der Rohe, Lafayette Park Detroit. (Munich; New York; Prestel; [Cambridge, Mass.]: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, c2004). 8. Charles Waldheim, CASE---Hilberseimer/Mies van der Rohe, Lafayette Park Detroit. (Munich; New York; Prestel; [Cambridge, Mass.]: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, c2004). 9. Alex Krieger and William S. Saunders, Urban Design. ([Minneapolis, MN.]: University of Minnesota Press, c2009). 10. "Lafayette Park: 1961 " 1965: Mies van der Rohe Society, accessed October 20, 2014, http://www.miessociety.org/legacy/projects/lafayette-park/ 11. Charles Waldheim, CASE---Hilberseimer/Mies van der Rohe, Lafayette Park Detroit. (Munich; New York; Prestel; [Cambridge, Mass.]: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, c2004). .

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CIAM (CongrĂ¨s Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne) was founded at the chateau of La Sarraz, Switzerland, in June 1928 by a group of European architects organizd by Le Corbusier. It was conceived as an instrument of propaganda to advance the creation of an international avant-garde of modern architecture. The Architects, Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith, of the Park Hill Estate, situated in Sheffield, England, are strongly influenced by the modernist architect Le Corbusier. Their design expresses his innovative take on modernist architecture. The complex is comprised of a series of interconnected housing blocks constructed out of concrete. Open spaces are created between the blocks and become progressively larger as the height of the buildings increases towards the north. Introducing this element of height created open spaces that solved the problems of modern traffic and leisure. It formed a largely pedestrian district, with the ground between buildings laid out as a park space with pathways and areas for activities, playgrounds, and private gardens. This ensured the maximum amount of light and ventilation. The architects took advantage of the topography of the site as it allowed for planning a high-density, multi-storey building with ample light, air, and extended views. Contrary to the back-to-back dwellings that existed on the site prior to the construction of Park Hill Estate, the landscape plan addresses issues of active and functional ground floors, external spaces, openness, as well as sensory delight and ecology. There is a significant improvement in the site's connection to the city as well as a clearer circulation network through the estate, which establishes a characterful and welcoming landscape with a powerful transformational quality. The Park Hill Estate Residence covers the key elements of urbanism through four functions outlined in CIAM's Athens Charter: inhabiting, working, recreation, and circulation, becoming Sheffield's symbol of future housing developments.

CIAM 1928-1959

PARK HILL ESTATE Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith 1954-1960 Sheffield, England Rawan Muaddi

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Introduction

Park Hill Estate, a Brutalist structure completed in 1960, ranks as the largest listed building development in Europe. It was Sheffield City Council’s first redevelopment scheme after the Second World War.1 Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith, modernist architects who were graduates of the Architectural Association, designed Park Hill Estate in 1954. However, it was John Lewis Womersley, Sheffield Council’s City Architect, who actively and successfully turned Lynn and Smith’s design into reality.2 The complex is composed of a series of interconnected blocks constructed using concrete frames which were left exposed and infilled with colourful yellow, orange, red and purple bricks vertically arranged in a gradient.3 This enhances the high-spirited character of the housing development and further encourages inhabitants to engage in recreational activities. The design was based on the deck-access principle, “streets in the sky”, which are large exterior hallways utilized as extensions of the units in order to encourage informal social encounters. It was a new and modern venture, which became an ambitious symbol for future housing developments.4 Their design expresses the innovative approach to modernist architecture that closely adheres to Le Corbusier’s Unite d’Habitation project. The Park Hill Estate Residence covers the keys aspects of urbanism through four functions outlined in CIAM’s Athens Charter: inhabiting, working, recreation, and circulation, becoming Sheffield’s symbol of future

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housing developments. The conditions of the site prior to its existence were uninhabitable and depleted the health and well being of the dwellers. The establishment of CIAM was driven by the need for a response to such conditions with modern architectural solutions which primarily focuses on the health and well being of city dwellers. 5 Social & Economical Development

Park Hill was Britain’s first completed postwar slum clearance scheme of an entire community.6 Prior to its construction the site was occupied by rows of congested backto-back dwellings built to accommodate the influx of workers brought forth by the industrialization of Sheffield in the late nineteenth century.7 Unfortunately, by reasons of bad arrangement, poor planning of narrow streets, structural deterioration of the houses, in combination with the inadequate sanitary provisions, amplified the public health problems associated with the location of dwellings within close proximity of one another and to other industrial establishments.8 There was a shortage of housing accommodation for the growing population of Sheffield which resulted in overcrowding and congestion. According to The Medical Officer of Health, John Rennie, this made living in the buildings dangerous to the health of the inhabitants. During a meeting in January 1930, it was requested that the estate’s committee take immediate steps to present a scheme to the Council for the provision of cheaper houses for workers and alternative accommodation for slum

dwellers.9 They responded by promising to increase housing in the city, introduce clearance and improvement schemes to eliminate houses inadequate for human habitation. They show a gradual centering around the likelihood of multi storey housing with lifts, drawing on the experience of other projects.10 The planning officer’s report states that in order to achieve the housing density recommended in the Ministry of Housing Manual of 1949, “a departure from the standard type of development provided in Sheffield” must take effect.11 The housing committee approved reports on proposals, consisting of development plans and drawings, for the redevelopment of the Park Hill area submitted by the City Architect, city treasurer and chartered quantity surveyors. Park Hill Estate’s architects, Lynn and Smith, were hired by Womersley, despite that they had unsuccessfully proposed the streets in the sky in several competitions. As a result, they were granted the opportunity to test their model on an unexpected scale.12 Sheffield is traditionally thought of as a city built on seven hills and watered by five rivers as it is located in the Pennine foothills in the extreme southwest corner of Yorkshire.13 The Park Hill Estate was constructed across one of these hills. The buildings were designed with a horizontal roof line to place emphasis on the natural topography of the site, ranging from four storeys at the highest point of the hill to thirteen storeys from the lowest point.14 The height of the buildings increases progressively towards the north as the open spaces between the blocks also become progressively larger.15 This ensures

Response to City Planning

the complex features an open space with a walking/cycling route to the west followed by business and housing districts.27 A neighbourhood centre is situated to the east of Park Hill Estate followed by more housing and open spaces. The industrial spaces are situated much further north separated from housing by green spaces and green links. 28 Park Hill Estate, as a residential complex, utilizes these surrounding areas defined by zoning regulations to enhance the sense of community they wanted to preserve. Park Hill Estate was constructed during the CIAM discourse (1928-1959) and was driven by an age of new idealism and modernist architecture. The architects, Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith, were strongly influenced by the modernist architect Le Corbusier, and most architects who were active members of CIAM.29 The design of Park hill Estate expresses the advancement of international avant-garde of modern architecture. After the demolition of the slum housing that existed on the site of park hill prior to its construction, this housing development follows the principles outlined in the Athens Charter to ensure maximum quality of life for inhabitants. Tenet 23 states that residential districts must occupy the best locations within an urban space, using the topography to its advantage and having the best exposure to sunlight.30 The natural topography of the site of Park Hill allowed for a high density, multi-storey building with ample light, air and views. As demonstrated in image

RAWAN MUADDI

In Light of CIAM

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CIAM

The 1950s was a decade set out to transform Britain. After the destruction caused by the Second World War, it was time for a fresh start, an age of new idealism and hope for the future.20 People were driven by an appetite for all things modern, and a determination

to redesign the country in a new way. This resulted in other modern projects at the time to resort to building tower blocks. The Park Hill Estate’s design team believed that tower blocks did not provide social diversity, rather it provided a standardized plan in result to the ordaining grid patterns.21 Lynn and Smith’s design attempted to preserve a sense of community that modern design perceived to deny. They began to think of new ways that social diversity can be brought taking advantage of the open landscape. They resorted to the architectural aesthetic that shaped the Park Hill Estate, which was the rejection of clean geometries of mainstream modernism. Their design was in favour of irregularity and a rough brutalist structure. 22 In addition, the building’s unique feature, the external streets, allowed for various flat sizes, that allowed social diversity to take place while maintaining household privacy.23 The recreational grounds between buildings and the external streets formed ideal places for daily social gatherings and leisure activities for children and adults. Incorporated on the external streets are playgrounds, private gardens and communal rooms. This enhanced community engagement and an active lifestyle.24 Some inhabitants described it as “a community within a community” because all necessities are found on the district’s shopping street at the foot of the building.25 This includes 14 shops, 3 pubs, a branch library, welfare clinic and doctor’s offices, Long Brothers’ clothing factory, park Gardener’s Club, and a primary school.26 According to the Sheffield City Council zoning overlay map

PARK HILL ESTATE

the maximum amount of light, air and sunshine through the inhabited spaces both internally and externally. In addition, the buildings in the complex are narrow, multi storey housing strips oriented with cross ventilation and extensive views over the city.16 This new design addresses the issue of claustrophobic hallways and walk-ups of the prior buildings through the design of twelve foot wide, sheltered “streets in the sky” away from vehicular traffic.17 With the creation of open spaces shaped by the arrangement of the building, the area became a largely pedestrian district as the grounds between buildings are designated for park spaces threaded with a system of footpaths including several play areas.18 These considerations highlight the value in all planning schemes of considering health and convenience, the future appearance of the town, the ideal shape and size of the building blocks, the relationship between streets, the buildings and open spaces in respect of the height and scale of the building blocks.19 The Park hill estate design addressed the issues that the pre-existing residential building did not account for in the design, such as: housing density, services, width of streets, open spaces, sufficient light and ventilation.

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image 01: Figure Ground pre Construction image 02: Figure Ground Post-Construction image 03 :Light into residences and open spaces

03, open spaces were created between the blocks and they become progressively larger as the height of the buildings increased towards the north ensuring ample amounts of sunlight into the open green spaces as well as the residences as further outlined in tenet 26.31 This ensures that the fundamental needs of city dwellers, in tenet 12, are met. The health of every person depends on his submission to the conditions of nature. The sun, which governs all growths, should penetrate the interior of every dwelling. Air should be pure and spaces should be generously dispensed. The sensation of space is a psycho-physiological order. Narrow streets and constricting courtyards create an atmosphere that is unhealthy for the body and mind.32 This is concept clearly evident in image 01 as the figure ground of the slum houses demonstrates narrow, congested streets with a lack of open spaces which resulted in poor, unhealthy living conditions. In contrast, as shown in image 02, Park Hill Estate is dominantly open space that ensures ample sunlight, vegetation, and fresh air, which are the three raw materials of urbanism outlined in the fourth congress of the CIAM.33 These open spaces solved problems of modern traffic and leisure. This created a largely pedestrian district, with the ground between buildings laid out as a park space with pathways and areas for activities, playgrounds, and private gardens as outlined in tenet 35.34 Tenet 28 states that resources offered by modern techniques for the erection of high structures must be taken into account.35 This project makes use of twentieth century

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modern resources. It is constructed of steel frame and reinforced concrete blocks. In addition, the marks of imperfections on the concrete were left on the surface showing the imprint of manual labour. The Athens Charter requires that the distances between places of work and places of residence be reduced to a minimum, and that industrial areas must be independent of any residential areas and separated by a zone of vegetation.36 This is clearly evident in the Sheffield City Council’s overlay map as the housing and businesses are kept within close proximity of one another minimizing travel time for workers. The industrial zones are situated at a further distance and separated by vegetation to protect the housing from noise and pollution. In addition, industrial zones are located closer to passageways, waterways, highways and railroads for access to raw materials.

4 storeys

Conclusion

The Park Hill Estate strongly conforms to CIAM principles. However, other external forces had a strong impact on the building’s high-spirited character. The building became run down and dilapidated in the 1980s due to a decline in the local industry where many people became unemployed and poverty increased resulting in many social problems and poor maintenance of the building.37 With increasing neglect, the complex soon became a place of violence. Lynn and Smith’s original, innovative design of the building gained a Grade II listing in 1997, which saved it from complete demolition and provided for an opportunity to refurbish and restore the building for restoration.38 In contrast to the previous slum houses, the design accounts for ideal shape, height, and scale of the building blocks that amplifies the amount of sunlight and ventilation in the building and recreational spaces. These aspects, together with the modernist approaches outlined by CIAM in the Athens Charter, influenced a more successful housing development than the slums that previously existed. For these reasons Park Hill Estate became a symbol of Britain’s most famous housing developments

13 Storeys

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Notes I. 1 Hatherley, Owen. "Penthouse and Pavement." The Gaurdian, May 2, 2009. http://www.theguardian.com/ artanddesign/2009/may/02/architecture-brutalism-park-hill 2. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 3. ibid 4.ibid 5.. ibid 6. Sillitoe, David. "The Utopian Estate That's Been Left to Die." The Gaurdian. March 5, 2014. http://www. theguardian.com/artanddesign/the-camera-eye/2014/mar/05/park-hill-sheffield-utopian-estate-left-to-die. 7. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 8. ibid 9. ibid 10. ibid 11. ibid 12. ibid 13."A Short History of Sheffield." SHEFFIELD LIBRARIES ARCHIVES AND INFORMATION:Archives and local studies 14. Hatherley, Owen. "Penthouse and Pavement." The Gaurdian, May 2, 2009. http://www.theguardian.com/ artanddesign/2009/may/02/architecture-brutalism-park-hill 15. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 16. ibid 17. Hatherley, Owen. "Penthouse and Pavement." The Gaurdian, May 2, 2009. http://www.theguardian.com/ artanddesign/2009/may/02/architecture-brutalism-park-hill 18. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 19. ibid 20. BallistaMedia, "Park Hill Estate - English Heritage", Sheffield England, http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=XLPCuvcnGlg 21. ibid 22. ibid 23. BallistaMedia, "Park Hill Estate - English Heritage", Sheffield England, http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=XLPCuvcnGlg 24. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 25. BallistaMedia, "Park Hill Estate - English Heritage", Sheffield England, http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=XLPCuvcnGlg 26. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 27."Development Plan." Sheffield City Council. http://sheffield.devplan.org.uk/map.aspx?map=26&layers=all. 28. ibid 29. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 30. Eardley, Anthony. Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973 31. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 32. Eardley, Anthony. Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973 33ibid 34. Sources for the Study of Park Hill and Hyde Park Flats. Sheffield Libraries Archives and Information, 2010. 35. Eardley, Anthony. Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973 36. ibid 37. "Urban Decline & Regeneration - Park Hill Sheffield." Quizlet. http://quizlet.com/12605289/urban-declineregeneration-park-hill-sheffield-flash-cards/. 38. Hatherley, Owen. "Penthouse and Pavement." The Gaurdian, May 2, 2009. http://www.theguardian.com/ artanddesign/2009/may/02/architecture-brutalism-park-hill

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The CIAM (International Congress of Modern Architecture) was founded in 1928 by Le Corbusier1. It promoted the ideals of Modern Architects, especially those regarding urbanism and planning1. Finnish architect Alvar Aalto was a member of the CIAM and his design of Baker House Dormitory in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1949) was both in accordance with and against CIAM Charter of Athens principles2. The design of the Baker House Dormitory exemplified principles pertaining to the governance of human proportion to elements in the urban system. It also showed that program/form should relate to the natural, topographic, economic and social demands of the site. But Aalto did not agree with all the CIAM tenets. The Baker House Dormitory did not follow the notion of the collective over the individual.The urban planning of large cities like Boston changed drastically after the Second World War and Alvar Aalto's idea of how architecture should react to this change was represented in the Baker House Dormitory3.

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CIAM 1928-1959

BAKER HOUSE DORMITORY Alvar Aalto 1947-1948 Cambridge,Massachusetts Lorraine Okungbowa

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Alvar Aalto was born in the Ostro-Bothnian village of Kourtane in 1898. As a son of a government surveyor he went on many surveying trips with his father and gained insight to the profession. From 1916-1921 he studied architecture under Armas Lindgren a Finnish architect/professor at Helsink Technical Institute4. He opened his own firm two years later and began to realize his own designs. Due to his many accomplishments within and outside of the architectural field he was hired to be a professor at the prestigious Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts4. His primary aim through design was to place architecture and planning at the opposition between man and nature (rational order vs. natural order)5. He was given the opportunity to further pursue his aim with the design of the Baker dormitory for MIT student housing .The Baker Dormitory was designed with the assistance of fellow architects Aino Aalto (his wife at the time), Veli Paatela, Kaija Paatela, and Olav Hammerstrom. The dormitory was designed in 1946 but construction took place between 1947 and 19485. The site selected for the dormitory was located 362 Memorial Drive near the shoreline of Charles River. It was also located between two student residences. Aalto used this building as a means to display his own perception of how modern housing should be in this time. It’s important to acknowledge that this build was commissioned almost directly after WW2. Ideas surrounding societal standards, construction methods, and planning in this time had changed dramatically as a result of industrialization and technological

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advancement. Amongst his key principles was the issue of the site. Aalto was preoccupied with site and saw it as part of the architectural experience. So for the design of the dormitory he used several sketches to analyse the site and try to take advantage of the site significant qualities5. The site was narrow strip parallel to the Charles River. The dorms were to be located on the west end of the MIT campus. The program was intended to house approximately 350 students and would have required a taller building than the zoning permitted if he had chosen to build the typical modernist slab housing6. He decided to organize the building on layers according to levels of privacy and bent the ends of the building to fit on the site7. The layout of the dormitory was such that the north face of the building contained the “secondary spaces” such as the common rooms, and circulation. The south façade facing the river contained the dorm rooms5 (single loaded corridor). Even though the Memorial drive lies between the dormitory and the Charles River the orientation of the building is so that it is not directly facing the traffic.

The wave-like shape of the building was used as mean to ensure that every room would have a view of the river as well as a good amount of natural light. The overall building is seven stories tall, and also contains a restaurant that is lit by round barrel skylights5. The common room was the calm and still spaces, functioning as a contrast to the dorm rooms. The overall shape of the

building is also reminiscent of the waves coming from the nearby body of water. In terms of materiality, the use of fire brick in unique and “natural” shapes follows his central idea of respecting and working with nature. Timber cladding was used for the interior columns so as to mimic the exterior trees5. He decided to use grey marble on the lower portion of the building, and refrained from use of modernist materials such as steel5. Alvar Aalto believed in celebrating the individual within the modern social context and a relationship between “collectivity” and “individualism”. This idea of humanizing architecture is evident in the division of the rooms. The room layout was the same on each floor, containing 43 rooms in total ( standardization) but because of the curve façade there were 22 different configurations ( flexibility). Each inhabitant was also provided with a ‘unique’ view of the Charles River because each angle of curve wall was different. Aalto was trying to show that there was still a place for the “individual” in modern society8. The urban planning of large cities such as Massachusetts dramatically changed post WWII (and post industrialization). Due to the vast amount of immigrants coming into the state during the 20th century regulations were created to protect against fire hazards, reduce overcrowding, provide adequate light and air and separate commercial uses from residences9. In 1905, Massachusetts legislature enacted the first general statues regulating the use of building9. The MIT campus moved to the Cambridge location

LORRAINE OKUNGBOWA

Of the CIAM tenets stated in the 1943 Athens Charter, there were some that Aalto did not follow because they did not follow his own values and principles. For example, “the practice of using styles of the past on aesthetic pretexts for new structures erected in historic area has harmful consequences. Neither the continuation of such practices nor the introduction of such initiatives will be tolerated”13. Alvar Aalto has always been drawn towards the use of “natural” materials like wood, stone, and brick to achieve his aim of bridging the gap between nature and man. Due to his love of his traditional Finnish roots he has preferred more traditional modes of construction, rather than the modernist ideas of exploiting new technologies. Another tenet that Aalto didn’t follow in his design of the Baker dormitory was that, “private interest will be subordinated to the collective interest”14. Aalto was against the communist ( modernist) model of communal living or architectural standardization15. The idea of forfeiting individual needs for the collective good was heavy handed and could result into uniformity of design. This is why he created the idea of “flexible standardization”; nature ways of growing mass, permitting variation

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CIAM

Alvar Aalto became a member of the CIAM ( “Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne) in 192811. The CIAM was a group of architects who all shared similar thoughts and theories “on planning, standardization, and urban reconfiguration based on

the “four function” of dwelling, work, transportation, and recreation”12.Moreover with Le Corbusier as the head of the group, CIAM was an extension of the approach Le Corbusier took towards architecture and urbanism12. Aalto agreed to some aspects of the CIAM but did not agree with all its principles. According to the Athens Charter ( 1943) “the dimensions of all elements within the urban system can only be governed by human proportions”13. Aalto was in support of this way of thinking and it is evident in the design of the Baker Dormitory. He wanted to experiential qualities of moving through the site. He felt that of all things this is what the inhabitant would identify with. The charter also stated that “the program must be based on rigorous analyses carried out by specialists. It must bring together in fruitful harmony the natural resources of the site, the overall topography, the economic facts, the sociological demands and the spiritual values”13. As earlier stated the site of the Baker Dormitory underwent an extensive analysis in order to take advantage of the resources of the site. This is primarily shown through the shape of the building ( maximizing views and natural lighting).

BAKER HOUSE DORMITORY

in 1911, and this was a transition from a residential site to an industrial district10. The MIT campus was affected by WW2 in that it directly influenced changes in their student housing development. During the war most of the housing was convert to war barracks10. When the war had ended MIT decided to expand their undergraduate housing and had to thus change their policy regarding the location of undergraduate housing10. The Baker dormitory was developed according to their “house plan”. Their house plan aimed to join both educational and living resources under one roof10. Amongst the goal for the expansion of the MIT campus were that a campus community would be developed with academic, research, residential and recreational areas. The housing plan “designated the riverfront land from the Burton house to Westgate for undergraduate /married student housing9.

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N-S section looking east 01 Plan of mit campus in 1930s 02 Plan of the MIT campus in 1950s 03

in spite of mass production16. This allowed for design accommodating the collective and the individual.

Overall, the Baker Dormitory is an example of the redefinition of the modernist mass housing ideal. Alvar Aalto believed in “flexible standardization” of architecture and wanted to go against the CIAM idea of standardization. Standardization was the idea that the reduction of certain individual needs will foster the maximum satisfaction of the needs of the greater number17. Flexible standardization was the idea that there could still be variation within the modern society and that individual need didn’t have to be compromised. The dormitory has aspects which harken to this ideal including the unique configuration of rooms, multiplicity of views to the river and the use of un-identical brick for the façade. Other factors such as the WW2 and the need for more student housing made the realization of this building possible. The dormitory is an appropriate merger of the reasonable CIAM priniciples and Aalto own beliefs of humanism. Though the CIAM adovacated higher standards of sanitation and living condition, some of their principles were heavy handed when concern the wants of the majority over the minority18. Alvar Aalto offers a solution to this by bridging the gap between the indivdual and the collective and presents that both are possible.

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03 250m

FIGURES 01 Holm,Lorens. "Aalto and America: Baker House". Photograph, 2012. Accessed Nov 7th,2014. 02 Ward,Emily . "Alvar Aalto Baker House Dormitory".Photograph, 2013. Pinterest. Accessed Nov 7th,2014. O3 Hiram. "Alvar Aalto Baker House 2D". Photograph. Amateur Casting. Accessed Nov 7th,2014. O4 Brodzinsky, Ed. "Alvar Aalto @MIT".Photograph,2008. Flickr. Accessed Nov 7th,2014

LORRAINE OKUNGBOWA BAKER HOUSE DORMITORY CIAM PLX 599

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM erez,Adelyn."MIT Baker House Dormitory: Alvar Aaalto". Photograph, 2010. Archdaily. accessed Nov 7th,2014 . Notes 1. Eardley, Anthony. Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publisher, 1973. 2. Architect. Architecture. "Alvar Aalto: Architect biography" accessed Oct. 20th, 2014. http://architect. architecture.sk/alvar-aalto-architect/alvar-aalto-architect.php 3. Kennedy, Lawrence. Planning a City upon a Hill: Boston since 1630. Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994. 4. Architect. Architecture. "Alvar Aalto: Architect biography" accessed Oct. 20th, 2014. http://architect. architecture.sk/alvar-aalto-architect/alvar-aalto-architect.php 5. Ray, Nicholas. Alvar Aalto. Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2005. 6. Hanlon, Dan. Compositions in Architecture. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2009. 7. Schildt, Garan .Alvar Aalto: Masterworks. Italy: Otava publishing company, 1995. 8. Wilson, Colin. "Alvar Aalto: Between Humanism and Materialism (Review) Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Dec., 1998), pp. 463-465 9. Groak,Steven. "The Idea of building: thought and action in the design and products of buildings". Taylor &Francis, 2002. 10. Bobrowski, Mark. "Handbook of Massachusetts Land use and Planning Law". New York: Aspen Publishers, 2002. 11. Simha, Robert. "MIT Campus Planning: 1960-2000". Massachusetts: MIT press, 2001. 12. Roberts, Jeffrey. "Is MIT a Good Place to Live? The University Campus as a Residential Environment". Accessed November7th,2014 .http://web.mit.edu/thejoker/thesis/preface_final.html 13. Eardley, Anthony. Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publisher, 1973. 14. Mumford, Eric. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism: 1928-1960. Boston: MIT Press, 2002. 15. Eardley, Anthony. Le Corbusier: The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publisher, 1973. 16. Wilson, Colin." Alvar Aalto: Between Humanism and Materialism (Review) Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Dec., 1998), pp. 463-465. 17. Menin, Sarah, and Floral Samuel. "Nature and Space: Aalto and Le Corbusier" .London: Routledge, 2003. 18.Bullock, Micheal. "CIAM"s La Sarraz Declaration (1928)". Accessed November 7th, 2014. http:// modernistarchitecture.wordpress.com/2011/09/08/ciams-la-sarraz-declaration-1928/

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In the early 1930's, Brazil was critically damaged by the Great Depression that led to political, economic and social conflicts of the country which ultimately created unrest on the streets. It was these times when Brazil's first minister of health, Gustavo Capanema came to believe that through technology and architecture, they can influence their economy, culture and society. After a thorough design competition, a team of eight architects were chosen and commissioned to lead the project. The team was led by Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer who later invite Le Corbusier as a consultant to assist them in their decision makings on the design according to CIAM and the Athens Charter. It was when Le Corbusier had completed the fourth meeting of CIAM in 1933 and came to discover the Athens Charter. Costa and Niemeyer were aware of these events and required the most modern intelligence to accompany their design which Le Corbusier was chosen to be the ideal candidate. The Project was designed in 1936 and construction began in 1939. By late 1942 the project was completed and in early 1943 it was presented to the world. With the presence of Le Corbusier and in light of CIAM, the project was greatly influenced and succeeded in achieving unique features ranking it as a world sensation, setting all eyes around the world on Rio. Despite the project being just a single modern building, the Brazilian people were greatly influenced by its unique features and brought an opportunity for Brazil's political, cultural and social conditions to recover.

CIAM 1928-1959

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND HEALTH

Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer 1939-1943 Rio de Janeiro Iman Rahmati

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Introduction

In the early 1930’s, the government of Brazil, which was under many changes due to political and economic issues, commissioned a group of architects to design the new Ministry of Education and Health in the financial district of downtown Rio (Centro). Despite the economic crisis Brazil was undergoing, a worldwide art movement which was happening at that time inspired and motivated Brazil to take a step in this movement for the hope of a change in their situation. The team of architects were Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer, leading six more architects: Affonso Eduardo Reidy, Ernani Vasconcellos, Carlos Leao, Jorgo Machado Moreira, and Roberto Burle Marx, and with the involvement of Le Corbusier as a consultant. Designed in 1936 and built within 1939-1943, the Ministry of Education and Health was named after the first minister of education, Gustavo Capanema and was presented to the world in 1943. The project became an architectural sensation worldwide, setting all eyes on the city. With the involvement of Le Corbusier, not only was the design able to achieve many of the CIAM principles, but was also inspired by his “Five Points of New Architecture”, which Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer utilized to add to the quality of the design.1 From the governments’ perspective, the project was intended to bring life back to the economy of the country, utilizing architecture to gain favor amongst foreign investors and immigrants.2, 3

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Physical Context

By 1920, Rio was the capitol of Brazil with 1.5 million inhabitants, ranking it as one of the most populated cities of its time. The narrow streets of Rio were packed with traffic as people strived to make a living with the recovery of Brazil’s economy. The remaining trees and plants of the old tropical city are scattered throughout Rio, surviving between spaces that were left untouched or were considered private land. Though the project was built on a plot of land in Centro expropriated by the government, the final design provided relief from the congestion of the rest of the city by opening up space on grade. The program of the building consists of an assembly hall and multipurpose spaces on lower levels and offices on the upper levels.4 Social, Political, and Economic Context

In 1930, during the Great Depression, Brazil’s economy had collapsed and the Old Republic of Brazil was overthrown by a popular revolution allowing Getúlio Dornelles Vargas to take power. Vargas was a diplomat and in favor of industrial development and liberal reforms. By 1934, despite the major political conflicts within the government system, he succeeds in re-establishing the economy of Brazil and strengthens the middle-class, creating a base for foreign investments and trades. With the approval of the Brazilian government, Gustavo Capanema proposed the building of the new ministry of education and health, believing that through technology

and architecture, Brazil’s economy and culture would grow and bring about a new era of modernity. Since Brazil was undergoing significant political and cultural changes due to the Brazilian revolution and the temporary government of Vargas, there was an uncertainty from the architects’ perspective on how the project should be designed. Costa and Niemeyer struggled to determine a realistic approach to the design and construction of the project that would reflect positively on the society and create a true national style without raising any future conflicts.5 As well, despite the city’s changes to apply a proper zoning and urban planning at the time of the project, Rio still lacked regulations in certain areas such as setbacks, height limits, density, traffic and pedestrian flows within the city. Tall buildings had small setbacks from the streets, creating dark and narrow streets where buildings were present on both sides. The height of buildings varied within short distances to one another and the density of the highly populated city of Rio was amongst the critical problems that was a major cause of slums on the outskirts of the city. However, the launch of this project became a solid step for Brazil towards a better quality of urban life. CIAM and Planning

Based on the multiple challenges that the architects faced, Costa and Niemeyer had decided to involve Le Corbusier, who had just completed the fourth CIAM congress ( The Functional City). The project became an opportunity for Le Corbusier to demonstrate

GARDEN

GARAGE

PILOTIS

GREEN SPACE

ENTRANCE HALL

ARTWORK

WALL ARTWORK ROOF GARDEN

IMAN RAHMATI MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND HEALTH

Two of the main principles of CIAM include the provision of natural light and open space to improve on the quality of life as per site conditions, economic factors, sociological needs and spiritual values which tenet 86

CIAM

The open space created by these pillars were decorated with a Cubist design in white and blue Portuguese style tiles and paintings on the walls of the ground floor, adding cultural value to the design and aiding the morale of the Brazilian people. The ground floor also consists of a garden designed with modernist sculptures, providing a peaceful space open to the public and building users, which is another key feature that was related to the multiple CIAM ideas such as tenets 71, 73 and 91from the Athens Charter. These specific tenets were focused on methods that can add to the value of the city (by giving to the people) and influence the economy (in our case, as an attraction site), and promote the spiritual, psychological and sociological needs of the city inhabitants.7

of The Athens Charter addresses.7 This translated to the addition of a roof garden and the use of horizontal windows in the building. The roof garden is positioned on the lower wing of the building, providing open space for the building’s occupants. Horizontal windows have been used on the north and south faces of the building following Le Corbusier’s “Five Points of New Architecture”, enhancing the quality of indoor space with natural lighting.1 Le Corbusier also suggested the use of BriseSoleil (sun shade louvers) to shield the North façade from direct sunlight, decreasing the amount of solar heat gain. This strategy allowed for natural lighting, cooling of the structure and provided a higher quality of human comfort. Niemeyer later improves on the design of these louvers by making them operable to allow users to adjust them according to the direction of the sun rays.5, 6 With the presence and design of these unique features, it was clear that the architects took great care in providing for the comfort of the building occupants.

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The key principles of CIAM, focused on improving the quality of urban life, were based on the biological and psychological needs of inhabitants within a society, as well as the economic, social, political and spiritual factors influencing it. This made the city of Rio a perfect case to be greatly inspired by CIAM. One of the features of the building that clearly indicated an influence by CIAM was the elevated height of the structure. It was lifted above grade by 32.5 feet with the use of Pilotis (pillars), adding the relief of an open space to the narrow and busy surrounding streets. This space is considered to be the most attractive feature of the project and also led to its current height. Despite the fact that the 87th tenet of the Athens Charter indicated that all measurements must be made according to human scale, which contradicts with the massive size and height of the columns, Niemeyer believed that it became a necessity to increase the height of the open space (10 feet as initially

recommended by Le Corbusier) to 32.5 feet based on his knowledge of the city and the need for relief in its narrow spaces.5, 6

the key tenets published in The Athens Charter in a built form. Another influential aspect of Le Corbusier on the design was the use of his “Five Points of New Architecture”.1

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Analytical plan of site 01 Ground floor plan 02 Interiors 03 Brise-soleil (sun shade louvres) 04

Conclusion

The design clearly demonstrates the influence of the Athens Charter’s tenets by providing open space, natural light and an aesthetic that added to the cultural value of the city. The political conflicts in Brazil were, and still are, unresolved, which presented the main challenge of the design: how it would help improve the cultural and economic situation of Brazil. The project achieved its unique qualities with the aid of Le Corbusier and ideas from CIAM, making the project a sensation worldwide.5, 6 Not only was its modern architectural style a unique feature that attracted global attention, but its other features such as its open and green spaces, artwork, natural lighting are all evidence of the positive influences of CIAM and Le Corbusier’s “Five Points of New Architecture”. In light the political, economic and social conditions Brazil was undergoing in the early 1930’s, the ministry of education and health appropriately addressed various issues, bringing hope to the people of Brazil for recovery and a better future.

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01 Kenneth Frampton. Modern Architecture 1851-1945. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 1983. ISBN 0-8478-0506-9. LC 83-61363. NA642.F7 1983. Ground floor plan, p435. Typical floor plan, p435. 02 Roberto Burle Marx, jardin suspendu, Ministry of Education and Public Health, Rio de Janeiro, 1938-44. Photograph by Styliane Philippou. 03 http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2012/dec/06/oscar-niemeyer-life-architecture-pictures FIGURE 04 http://michaeljamescasey.com/blog/. Tribute, Oscar Niemeyer. 05 http://www.vandoak.com/2013/06/07/interiors/architecture-interiors/the-architecture-of-oscar-niemeyer/

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND HEALTH

IMAN RAHMATI

FIGURES

CIAM

1. Le Corbusier. Toward an Architecture. Translated by; John Goodman. Publisher; Frances Lincoln 2008. 341 pages. 2.. Teresa A. Meade. "Civilizing Rio: Reform and Resistance in a Brazilian City 1889-1930". The Pennysylvania State University, US. Pages: 5-14. 3. The Brazilian Revolution of 1930, Causes and Aftermath. Authors: James M. Daniel. September 1946, Volume9 (Issue1) Pagep.37-42 4. http://www.rio2016.com/en/rio-de-janeiro/rio-and-its-history#1950 5. GOODWIN, Philip L. "Brazil Builds: Architecture New and Old, 1652 - 1942," The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1943, pp. 84-86, and 106-107. 6. G. E. Kidder Smith. Looking at Architecture. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8109-3556-2. Overview photo, p158 and 159. 7. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. Grossman Publishers, 1973. The University of Michigan. 111 pages. Pages: 90-93. 8. Stamo Papadaki. The Work of Oscar Niemeyer. Second Edition. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1951. NA859.N5P3 1954. Discussion p5, 49. 9. http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjectId=4948&sysLanguage=en-en&itemPos=125&itemSort=en-en_ sort_string1%20&itemCount=215&sysParentName=&sysParentId=65 10. http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Ministry_of_Education.html 11. http://modern-brazil-architecture.blogspot.ca/2009/12/ministry-of-education-and-health.html 12. http://modernistarchitecture.wordpress.com/2010/11/03/ciam%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Cthe-athens-charter%E2%80%9D-1933/ 13. http://revistaestudospoliticos.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/7p152-171.pdf 14. http://countrystudies.us/brazil/61.htm

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Designed by architect Raymond Hood for its construction during the period of the Depression, from 1930 to 1939, the Rockefeller Center is, in addition to its acclaimed architecture, an appropriate precedent for successful urban design and planning. Located within the core of Midtown Manhattan, New York, bordered by 48th and 51st streets, and Fifth and Sixth avenue, the complex consists of a group of nineteen commercial buildings that are reflective of the principles established by the International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM). In addressing the restrictions set by New York's first Zoning Resolution of 1916, the complex follows the design of maximized ground floor footprint, and setbacks for extended height throughout, allowing for ideal light penetration and air flow which had become insufficient following the boom of skyscrapers in order to accommodate the booming financial district. Focusing on the three elements of light, air and transportation, Raymond Hood devised the mixed-use network of residential, commercial and public spaces as a revolutionary approach to Urban Design through considerations for traffic circulation, public transit, and open spaces throughout the duration of its planning, resulting in a fitting center for the growing and developing state of New York.

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CIAM 1928-1959

ROCKEFELLER CENTER Raymond Hood 1930-1939 New York City, USA Nineveh Rashidzadeh

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In the decade preceding the Second World War, that began in 1939, Western industrial countries saw the profound economic effects of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 that marked the beginning of a 10-year Great Depression, devastating cities worldwide.1 Prior to its collapse, New York City, home to the New York City Stock Exchange, was a growing hub in the New York Metropolitan area. Established in 1898 as one of the five boroughs of the state of New York, the island of Manhattan, which is divided into Lower, Midtown, and Upper regions, in addition to its population increase, also boomed with new constructions of skyscrapers, forming what is the presently distinctive New York City skyline.2 During this period in which an increased number of developers were competing to claim the title of the world’s tallest building with their new constructions, came American financier John D. Rockefeller. Born in New York City, John Rockefeller, the son of an oil company founder, followed in his family’s entrepreneurial interests, going on to lease an area for development of the future Rockefeller Center.3 Built to reflect the principles established by the International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM), which focused on the three elements of light, air and transportation, this complex would eventually comprise of nineteen commercial buildings, occupying a large portion of Midtown Manhattan.4 With the commissioning of Raymond Hood as its chief architect, and a number of others that formed the team for the development, Rockefeller went on to create one of New

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York City’s most symbolic cityscapes, and the largest private building project constructed in modern times. Physical Context

Bordered by 48th and 51st streets, and Fifth and Sixth avenue, the site purchased for the construction of the complex was located in the core of Midtown Manhattan, New York. Neighbouring the city’s newly constructed modern skyscrapers, were the site’s existing run-down Victorian brownstone terraced houses (Figure 4), common to New York City neighbourhoods, and speakeasies, establishments that sold alcohol illegally.5 Additionally, as New York underwent extensive expansion throughout the early 20th century, the city began to experience the negative effects of traffic and pedestrian overcrowding and high density constructions. Thus, with intentions to alleviate the congestion and recreate a center of modern planning that fit within the context of the expanding city, arrangements to replace the existing dilapidated constructions went underway, which began with Hood creating an additional city block through the introduction of a new east-west street ( Figure 5).6 Lined by 5th Avenue running adjacent to its border, which led towards the famed Central Park, the site held great significance in maintaining the existing efficiency of the road as a prominent means of vehicular circulation. With the site’s binding Avenues serving as major north-south arteries within

the network of roads that run circulation through the city, 5th Avenue, being a major transportation thoroughfare, was favoured as the main entrance for the complex, whereas 6th Avenue was seen as a potential means of directing pedestrian flow through the site. Accessed through a promenade branching off of Fifth Avenue, the complex entry reveals a sunken plaza, a bank of light and air, that leads to a concourse below grade, connecting to the subway system.7 In addition to the ground context which helped shape the complex, its connection to the newly constructed underground transportation network provided the site with further opportunity for connection with the expanding city, and its increasing potentials for a developing center for industry, commerce, and communication.

Designed with the intentions of creating a facility housing offices and entertainment buildings, the Rockefeller Center grew to consist of nineteen buildings comprising of retail spaces, theatres, exhibition rooms, broadcasting studios, offices, plazas, green space, and residential establishments.8 The concourse, referred to as the “spine”, which connects the buildings within the complex and other key skyscrapers, is then used as a dynamic passageway between the ground and underground levels to create an “urban design link” for the Center.9

Prior to the conception and development of the present Rockefeller Center, John Rockefeller, together with the New York Metropolitan Opera, had envisioned the creation of a new cultural and commercial center, with the addition of a new opera house, that would be appropriately suited for the growing modern city. However, following the sudden collapse of the economy caused by the Stock Market Crash in 1929, which also saw the withdrawal of the Metropolitan Opera as his partner, Rockefeller was left to endure the process of developing the complex on his own, becoming solely responsible for its finances.10 With the economic devastation being attributed to the United States, particularly New York City, the country suffered the greatest effects with the largest increase in unemployment and poverty rates.

Application of CIAM

Designed during the 1930’s, which also

served as the early phase of the International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM), it is evident that the project was designed to be reflective of the principles highlighted by the movement, though, is not entirely restricted by it. Conceived within a period in which New York was struggling with the growing negative effects of congestion due to density, and loss of light and air with the development of taller constructions, the planning of the complex was effected by New York’s first Zoning Resolution of 1916, which called for a design of maximized ground floor footprint, and setbacks for extended height throughout (Figure 1).13 In addressing the new regulations, while also preserving the project’s intentions, Hood created a focal point within the complex with the central location of its largest office building, to which smaller buildings were connected along its perimeter, creating a layered plan which was successful in driving the public to the center. Consequently, this planning decision allowed for the distribution of ideal light penetration and air flow throughout the Center that was desired (Figure 2).

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CIAM

ROCKEFELLER CENTER

Consisting of five boroughs which merged to form a single city in 1898, the city saw a period of great expansion during the early 20th century, with the development of transportation links, most notably its subway system created in 1904, and a great

population increase, due to both foreign immigration and migration from the south.11 Settling within neighbourhoods outside Manhattan, these newly arrived Europeans and African Americans, led New York City to grow into the most densely populated city in the world by the 1920’s, prompting a period in history highlighted by racial diversity, and inclusion. With the development of the film industry also taking place during this period, it was evident that the downtown core within which the complex was located, served as a great catalyst for the advancement of technologies and the development of businesses; this became a driving factor in the planning decisions for the Center.12 Together with Raymond Hood as the project’s chief architect, John Rockefeller saw the potentials in designing a Center for international trade, which would not only serve as an attraction for companies to locate within the complex, but would also help to better the economic conditions of the city and country.

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Historical Reference + Planning Context

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Site demonstrating light opportunities 01 Site demonstrating wind flow 02 Site with transportation circulation 03 Site prior to development, 1980 04 Site following development, 1939 05 Present site with remaining buildings 06

Comprising of a variety of functions through its mixed-use network of large residential, commercial and public space constructions, the project incorporates the ideals of CIAM within its plan through the introduction of plazas, and green roofs, which serve as public open spaces, balancing the density of the large masses. Additionally, through the implementation of these void spaces, positioned within a network of largely vehicular circulation, the complex creates the opportunity for pedestrian-focused spaces, connected to form paths, serving as a catalyst in which pedestrian and vehicular circulation are able to coexist within the urban fabric (Figure 3).14

Focusing on the three elements of light, air and transportation, Hood devised the complex as a revolutionary approach to Urban Design through considerations for traffic circulation, public transit, and open spaces throughout the duration of its planning, resulting in a fitting center for the growing and developing state of New York. Though principles relating to spatial and contextual planning can be clearly seen as applied to the design of the complex, it is obvious that its monumentality goes against the ideals outlined by CIAM, which alternatively focused on creating architecture that was within the human scale.15

collapse of the economy, John Rockefeller together with architect Raymond Hood, and a team of others, was able to achieve his dream of having the Rockefeller Center serve as a centerpiece in a modern cityscape. With the continual growth of New York into a grand center for industry, commerce, and communication, it is evident that complex is successful in accommodating the developing city through its mixed-used infrastructure (Figure 6). Finally, in addition to its acclaimed architecture, the Rockefeller Center, through its representation of the CIAM principles and regulations dictated by the New York City Zoning By-Law, is also seen as an appropriate precedent for successful urban design and planning.

Relevance in Present Times

With his vision set on the development of an architectural triumph, even with the great difficulties that were faced as a result of the

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1. Vyas, Alok. Rockefeller Center - An Adventure in Urban Design. Principles & Practice of Urban Design. http://alokv.tripod.com/plan_port/rc519.html. (accessed November 2, 2014). 2. The Building of Rockefeller Center. PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/rockefellers-center/. (accessed November 2, 2014). 3. Rockefeller Center - An Adventure in Urban Design. 4. The Building of Rockefeller Center. 5. The Building of Rockefeller Center. 6. Rockefeller Center - An Adventure in Urban Design. 7. Dolkart, Andrew S. Rockefeller Center. The Architecture and Development of New York City: The Skyscraper City. http://nycarchitecture.columbia.edu/0242_3/0242_3_fulltext.pdf. (accessed November 2, 2014). 14. 8. Dolkart, 15. 9. Rockefeller Center - An Adventure in Urban Design. 10. The Building of Rockefeller Center. 11. Rockefeller Center - An Adventure in Urban Design. 12. Dolkart, 15. 13. Department of City Planning. NYC Zoning - About Zoning. NYC Planning. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ html/zone/zonehis.shtml. (accessed November 2, 2014). 14. Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. http://www.planering.org/ images/artikelbilder/pdf/ffs_syd_CIAM_4_The_Athens_Charter.pdf. 84. 15. Corbusier, 101.

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ROCKEFELLER CENTER

NOTES

2. http://www.shorpy.com/30-RocK.

FIGURES

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Lafayette Park, located east of downtown Detroit, Michigan is a 78 acre residential development designed in collaboration by Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig Hilberseimer and Alfred Caldwell. The development, completed in 1959 was a post war urban renewal project designed to replace Gratiot Park, which at the time was considered a slum within the city. The interdisciplinary planning that went into the project was intended to appeal to a racially and socially diverse middle class, to keep them away from suburbs and reside in the city. The development was therefore designed in a way that would integrate city living with suburban amenities. Consisting of four main architectural components, the Towers, the Townhouses, the Pavilion and the Plaisance, the development is representative of modernist view on residential living both aesthetically and within its planning. The separation of spaces depending on use speaks to the CIAM principles that the city be separated into four separate functions of housing, work, recreation and traffic. This separation can be seen at two scales within the project, the larger scale of the city as it contains strictly residential and leisure spaces separating it from industry, and can also be seen at the scale of the complex, as pedestrian pathways are integrated to keep vehicular and pedestrian traffic separated. Presently named a historic district, Lafayette Park serves as an example of successful urban renewal and modernist planning.

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CIAM 1928-1959

LAFAYETTE PARK Mies Van der Rohe 1956-1959 Detroit, Michigan Sylvia Rodas

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Throughout the industrial revolution, cities were experiencing unplanned growth that led to overcrowding and unsanitary living conditions. These conditions led to various responses in regards to the built environment. In 1898, Ebenezer Howard introduced the concept of the Garden city, which explored the relationship between town and country and attempted to relate the two in the most beneficial way. In 1928, many prominent architects and planners solidified the idea of social change through urban planning and development. The CIAM congresses and the ideas that came from them influenced various projects of different scale and location within the 30 years of its prominence in the social realm. In 1959, just east of Downtown Detroit, Mies Van der Rohe in collaboration with Ludwig Hilberseimer and Alfred Caldwell planned America’s first successful urban renewal project for client and developer Herbert Greenwald. The aim of the project was to present it as an opportunity to the city and show that a diverse middle class occupancy within the area could be not only possible but successful. Greenwald’s main objectives were to address poverty, pollution, traffic and overcrowding 1. Van der Rohe, Hilberseimer and Caldwell each strove to unite different aspects of the development into a single design. Although Van der Rohe held the most responsibility and control of the design, he was also responsible for the arrangement and execution, while Hilberseimer focused on the concept behind the control of urban growth and Caldwell focused on turning Hilberseimer’s concepts into a functional

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landscape. The interdisciplinary approach used in the planning, was applied to a site within the city in need of renewal and utilizing both planning principles and ideas brought forth by the CIAM congresses and concepts of the complex and organic city they were able to create an environment that is still viewed as a very successful project today. Physical Context

Located on the Lower East Side of downtown Detroit, Lafayette Park at the time known as Gratiot Park was for a long time considered a slum before its major redevelopment during the 1950’s. The 129 acre site had been continuously inhabited since the 1700’s and had constantly been a topic of theoretical projects for local academics and planners. The design of the new Lafayette park development changed the relationship that the site maintained with the rest of the city, where the previous residential project existed. Before the design of the new complex, the social housing that existed in the area followed and maintained the cities overall grid structure in its organization and land distribution. With the proposal for redevelopment, Lafayette Park amalgamated public lands, streets, institutions and private houses, turning it into a superblock within the city2. Within the development itself, the buildings, landscape and infrastructure were integrated in an open structure. The complex consists of four main architectural components, the Towers, the Townhouses, the Pavilion and the Plaisance. Mies

consistently represented the modernist ideal in his aesthetics as he expressed the structure of his towers and townhouses at the scale of the city 3. The organizations of spaces within the development were done in a way that interweaves the people that use the spaces, buildings, landscape and the private and public domains 4. The layout of the development visibly eliminates through streets, in order to create an environment that caters to the pedestrian users. To accommodate vehicular traffic, cul-de-sacs that exist throughout the periphery of the complex, lead the vehicular traffic from the arterial roads to direct access to parking spaces. There is a network of secondary pedestrian foot paths that were created, throughout that also separate circulation of vehicular traffic and pedestrian traffic, further creating a safe environment for the residents. Mies was also very attentive to the placement of his buildings; he created dynamic perceptions of space by using, expansion, rotation and rhythm5. Expansion is seen through the formal openness created by the green spaces and landscaping that surrounds the residential areas, rotation is then applied to the buildings directly as they do not line up with the streets but instead are oriented to provide maximum views for its residents, finally rhythm is seen through the consistent vertical and horizontal placement of the buildings in relation to each other ( figure 3). Mies successfully collaborated with Hilberseimer and Caldwell to create a functioning and safe space with the city core.

Detroit had experienced a significant shift in population in the years leading up to the redevelopment, as the majority of the population was leaving the downtown core to move to decentralized suburbs. As the upper middle class left; only a fifth of the original 4.4 million population was left in the downtown core. Along with this shift to the suburbs, Detroit’s population switched from 85 percent white to 85 percent African American. During the late 1930’s to early 1940’s the Gratiot Park had started being called “Black Bottom”, not only because of the prominent African American population which resided in the area, but to the exhausted housing which created a high density slum 6. In 1949, the Gratiot area had been included in within the redevelopment scope of the Detroit plan, which proposed to create high rise and low rise projects to bring the population back within the downtown core. Although the demolition of this area began in 1950 it sat idle until 1954 due to lack of developer interest until Herbert Greenwald acquired the land. Due to the large decentralization around the

city, Lafayette Park was envisioned to have the qualities of the suburbs but located downtown. These qualities included, the low density found in suburban areas and more importantly the public spaces and parks which allowed for extensive landscaping and safety for children, which appealed to the middle-class families of which Lafayette Park was targeting. Hilberseimer and Caldwell ultimately wanted to achieve a vision of an organic and decentralized city7; they did this to establish relationships among the parts of a composition. In this case they developed organic patterns to establish a relationship between Lafayette Park and the rest of the city. Caldwell being the landscape architect on the project believed that the organic is grounded in the natural world and resists external impositions8. Hilberseimer however, was influenced greatly by Ebenezer Howard’s Garden city as he believed that decentralization and landscape were remedies to the ills of the city. However, within Lafayette park he aimed to create a space that was both occcupiable and palpable as it merged with its surrounding landscapes. These ideas together with the spatial organization of Mies Van der Rohe,

created a superblock within the city which contained an internal layout demonstrating how growth and decay could be controlled and remedied within the city. CIAM and Planning

Although developed and built almost ten years after the publication of the Athens charter in 1943, Lafayette Park embodies aspects that were proposed to contribute to a healthy city. Beginning with the site, having been previously a slum which housed older social housing, it was completely demolished in order to prepare for the new development. This is in accordance to the CIAM principles that a city should be placed upon a healthy site9, and by demolishing the Gratiot area the site was able to be made into a functioning residential area of the city. The second aspect of Lafayette Park that adheres to the Athens charter principles is the separation of the four main spaces in a city, these being, residential, work, leisure and vehicular traffic10. Lafayette Park separates these categories on very different scales. Work, is segregated in its entirety from the

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Social, Political, and Cultural Context

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development and is kept to remain within the rest of the city. Residential and the main open space are separated minimally by the smaller networks of landscapes and pathways. Traffic is the category most impacted as it is separated on two scales within and around Lafayette Park. Within the superblock of the development vehicular traffic is very segregated from pedestrian traffic and is also given minimal access to ensure safety within the park (Figure 4). On a whole, vehicular traffic is also separated from the rest of the city, as there are no through streets that allow cars to pass through Lafayette Park in order to reach another node within the city unless they are visiting or utilizing the park itself. The final aspect of the Athens Charter which Lafayette Park draws from is the increase in density by using height(Figure 3). This is seen through the focus on the towers within the complex. This vertical density allows for the open space which is a requirement in creating a functional city while fulfilling the desire of the designers to create suburban openness within the downtown core.

Lafayette Towers 01 Urban Fabric vs Lafayette Fabric 02 Density Axonometric 03 Circulation Pathways 04 Exterior Tower 05

in which families could reside. In the process, Mies Van der Rohe, Alfred Caldwell, and Ludwig Hilberseimer successfully created America`s first urban renewal project, that remains today a designated historic region with the city of Detroit.

Conclusion

Lafayette Park incorporated many ideals ranging from the organic city, modernism and CIAM driven planning principles, to ultimately create a complex within a city to promote urban life and deter the decentralization that was occurring at the time. The separation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic integrated with the landscape within the site, made Lafayette Park a comfortable and pleasant enviornment

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM http://www.archdaily.com/455524/ad-classics-lafayette-park-mies-van-der-rohe/ 1. Reynolds, Jamie. "Lafayette Park Detroit." Architecture 93.12 (2004): 119. ProQuest. 14 Sep. 2014 . 2. Waldheim, Charles. CASE--Hilberseimer/Mies Van Der Rohe, Lafayette Park Detroit. Munich: Prestel ;, 2004. 3. Rohe, Ludwig, and Luiz Trigueiros. Mies Van Der Rohe, 1886-1969. Lisbon: Editorial Blau, 1999. 4. Waldheim, Charles. CASE--Hilberseimer/Mies Van Der Rohe, Lafayette Park Detroit. Munich: Prestel ;, 2004. 5. Reynolds, Jamie. "Lafayette Park Detroit." Architecture 93.12 (2004): 119. ProQuest. 14 Sep. 2014 . 6.Zimmerman, Claire. Mies Van Der Rohe, 1886-1969: The Structure of Space. Hong Kong: Taschen, 2006. 7. Blaser, Werner, and Ludwig Rohe. West Meets East: Mies Van Der Rohe. Basel: Birkhäuser, 1996. 8. Blaser, Werner, and Ludwig Rohe. West Meets East: Mies Van Der Rohe. Basel: Birkhäuser, 1996. 9. Gold, John R. "Creating the Charter of Athens: CIAM and the Functional City." The Town Planning Review. no. 3 (1998): 225-247. 10. Gold, John R. "Creating the Charter of Athens: CIAM and the Functional City." The Town Planning Review. no. 3 (1998): 225-247. FIGURES 2. http://www.recruitdetroit.com/cities/lafayettepark.aspx

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The CongrĂ¨s International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) changed the way that architecture was perceived in the modern city. The group, which was founded in Europe in the late 1920s, took the approach of not only modernizing architecture, but focusing an equal amount of importance on impacts of cultural, economic, and social aspects of urban planning. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was not directly connected to CIAM, had developed his own ideologies based off of those prescribed by CIAM for the urban context.

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The Seagram Building in New York City, was one of the first skyscrapers and is considered to be one of the most influential building of its kind. His approach was to not just construct a building that maximized the allowance based on zoning, but gave back to the people of New York in the form of public space that broke the regularity of the massive street walls. This would lead to the city of New York revising the zoning regulations in 1961, using his building as a template for what architecture should look like in the modern city. This drastically changed the development and planning of New York City as well as most cities in North America. The Seagram Building, while recognized as a building representative of the International Style of architecture, shed a new light on what could be done to modernize not only the skyscraper but how impactful CIAM was in the development of the urban environment. The basic principles of CIAM shaped how we view urban development and planning today, the Seagram Building being one of them.

CIAM 1928-1959

SEAGRAM BUILDING Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 1954-1958 New York City Adam Rosenberg

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In the late 1940s, New York City started to see a change in the importance of Park Avenue. Originally designated as a residential zone, the area quickly transformed to the large office towers that are still evident today. During early 1950s, Samuel Bronfman, owner of Seagram Co. Ltd., was looking to build a building for his growing business. Across the street of 375 Park Avenue stands the Lever House, which was the first curtain wall building in Manhattan. Bronfman decided to hire Charles Luckman, who had become president of Lever Brothers before leaving to pursue his dream of becoming an architect. It was at this time that Bronfman’s daughter intervened and told him to reconsider the architect and design. The final decision came down to three architects, Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe. Mies van der Rohe was given the commission. The Site

The Seagram Building, much like his Lakeshore Apartments in Chicago, is designed in the international style of architecture. It was his first commercial high rise that he had designed, and his first building in New York. Midtown East of New York was transforming to a wealthier commercial zone and Seagrams felt the importance of conducting their business in that area. Their need for a large office building posed a design challenge to break apart the repetition of the traditional office building that enclosed the large avenue. Separated by a public plaza in the front, the building is setback 100 feet from Park Avenue, much

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due to the zoning implications that were imposed on the city of New York. By doing so, Mies was able to “lift the building up to present perfect geometry”1 and to give the plaza back to New Yorkers. This would, in due course, lead to a new model for new high rise architecture2. The Seagram Building also broke apart the uniform building line that the neighbouring buildings all adhered to. Even the neighbouring Lever House, had continued the building line of its. The plan of the building is fairly straight forward. The centre core features the bank of elevators which is surrounded by an open floor plan. This plan allows each floor to have a flexible configuration. With the facade being entirely glass, it allows for maximum natural light to infiltrate all areas of the office by the floor to ceiling windows. The 38 storey office building is laid out structurally by steel I-beams encased in concrete, five bays wide by 3 bays deep. Each column is spaced approximately 27 feet 9 inches apart. While Mies wanted to expose the structural steel but had to encase it in concrete to gain the extra support, he instead designed the exterior facade with a vertical break of bronze coated steel beams, that visually look to run throughout the entire building. This gave Mies an opportunity to express his influences from CIAM to create a unique piece of modern architecture that could be appreciated by everyone. Zoning

New York City at the time had not adjusted the planning and zoning regulations since

1916. This was the first set of regulations for construction in the United States. Within it, it imposed limits that would separate districts to ensure that the scale of the buildings would not smother the city. Some of these regulations included height and setback limitations to allow for natural light. While buildings continued to be tall, at certain heights, buildings would have to setback which created the “wedding cake” buildings, some of which are still present today. In 1961, New York had passed the new Zoning Ordinance, which presented architects with floor area ratios rather than the tradition setbacks. Architects would be given a bonus floor area ratio should they include a public plaza. This was incentive for architects and developers alike to gain the maximum space for financial gain. These plazas would benefit all people of New York and would reintroduce the public space back to a city that was lacking it. Seagrams building had the opportunity to be much larger in size, but by chosing to setback, it provided a grandeur and prestigious welcome to the site. Mies van der Rohes Seagram Building had become the model of the modern skyscraper in New York. When the building was finally completed in 1958, the Seagram Building had created a public awareness of architecture for the city of New York. The project had begun to create a level of prestige on Park Avenue, once occupied simply by a residential zone. This had both positive and negative implications. As previously noted, the Seagram Building was seen as a model for the modern

CIAM

Mies van der Rohe has always been seen as a leader in the modern architecture movement.

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The functional city was a big part of the belief system of CIAM. The intent is to create efficient spaces and systems that

would create a new order in the urban fabric. Mies’s simplistic approach to a project was to provide functional spaces for its users that would “appeal in the use of simple rectilinear and planar forms, clean lines, pure use of colour, and the extension of space”4. This is what largely creates the overlap of the beliefs of both of these parties.

In CIAM’s declaration in 1928, one of the fundamental principles states the importance of embracing the future, and the development of new technologies. The document states “It is urgently necessary for architecture, abandoning the outmoded conceptions connected with the class of craftsmen, henceforth to rely upon the present realities of industrial technology, even though such an attitude must perforce lead to products fundamentally different from those of past epochs”5. Mies typically is known to do exactly that. His buildings, and more specifically Seagram Building, used new technologies and building materials, that expressed the change of the modernist movement. The structure of the building, steel encased in concrete, was seen as a new construction method taking advantage of

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  



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  

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His design principles are very closely related to those of the CIAM. The Seagram Building stands as a perfect example of simplicity in its form. The basic form of the building is a tall rectangular building on a uniform grid that is elevated on a platform or plaza which is a direct representation of the how CIAM saw urban architecture. While Mies van der Rohe was not a direct part of the CIAM movement, he was heavily influenced by Walter Gropius and Le Coribusier, two of the important members. Mies and Gropius were responsible for the Bauhaus movement, which had major impact on the modern movement. Moving forward, one of CIAM’s first principles was the importance of not just modern architecture but all aspects of it, which includes urban, planning, landscape and many more. Mies had to convince Bronfman that his design for the Seagram Building, would need to be seen as more than a space for work. He took all facets of urban design and architecture and presented a new template of building to New York.

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PLX 599 CIAM SEAGRAM BUILDING ADAM ROSENBERG

skyscraper. The New York City Planning Commission encouraged other developers and builders to emulate the building style with the height incentives. On the other hand, the level of prestige had attracted the attention of the city tax department. After the building was completed and occupied, the Tax Commission of the City of New York had imposed a luxury tax on the building based on its assessment to determine the commercial value of the building, which had included a substantial increase in property taxes two years after completion. This basis for this tax was that Seagrams had “invested considerably more in the build fabric of the city than would a commercial developer whose business it was to make a profit from supplying office space”3. Without knowing it, Mies and the Seagram Building had reopened the public eye, who the socially became more aware of the implications of providing public space back to the urban environment.

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Figure Ground pre Seagram Building Figure Ground Post Seagram Building Seagram Building Ground Floor Plan Seagram Building Upon Completion 1959 Seagram Plaza overlooking Park Avenue

both of the structure capabilities but allowed the interior to flow in an open plan. Seagram’s Building was almost entirely stripped of its ornamentation with the exception of the bronze cladded I-beams that continued the uniform grid to the exterior. The cladding sits on a tinted curtain wall, another technology that had also been not been fully realized in tall buildings. This curtain wall also helped to visually break down the impact of the large scale building on the pedestrians below. CIAM were also very adamant on the improving the quality of life of a city’s inhabitants. The plaza allows the site to not only feel underwhelming, but to provide the light and air for the surrounding area. Conclusion

The Seagram Building will always stand in Midtown Manhattan as a symbol of change for the city of New York. Mies van der Rohe’s design proved the possibilities of his ideas of modern architecture in an urban context. His impact proved to not only change the way a city approaches its future planning but also the approach to the modern day office tower. The Seagram Building broke the mould and allowed architects to experiment with alternative materials. It was the simple decision of Samuel Bronfman to take a chance on the unique approach of Mies that changed the tall building as we know it.

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01 02 03 04 05

FIGURES 4. Lambert, Phyllis. Building Seagram. New York City: Yale University Press, 2013. 5. Lambert, Phyllis. Building Seagram. New York City: Yale University Press, 2013.

ADAM ROSENBERG SEAGRAM BUILDING CIAM

1. Nash Eric P. Manhatten Skyscrapers. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. 2. Stichweh, Dirk. New York Skyscrapers. Munich: Prestel, 2009. 3. Lambert, Phyllis. Building Seagram. New York City: Yale University Press, 2013. 4. "Ludwig Mies van der Rohe." Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Ludwig-Mies-van-der-Rohe.pdf (accessed October 2, 2014). 5. "CIAM's La Sarraz Declaration (1928)." Modernist Architecture. http://modernistarchitecture.wordpress. com/2011/09/08/ciams-la-sarraz-declaration-1928/ (accessed October 21, 2014). 6. "375 Park Avenue." 375 Park Avenue. www.375parkavenue.com (accessed September 12, 2014). 7. Bressi, Todd W. Planning and Zoning New York City. New Jersey: Center for Urban Policy Research, 1993. 8. "Columbia University Libraries: Land Book of the Borough of Manhattan City of New York." Columbia University Libraries: Land Book of the Borough of Manhattan City of New York. Accessed November 2, 2014. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_6072317_000/pages/ ldpd_6072317_000_00000002.html?toggle=image&menu=maximize&top=&left=. 9. Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. 3rd Edition. London: Thames and Hudson, 1992. 10. Lambert, Phyllis. "Building Seagram." Lecture, Conserving Modern Architecture Initiative from Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, April 8, 2014. 11. Lambert, Phyllis. "Building Seagram." Lecture, Lecture Series from AA School of Architecture, London, February 26, 2014. 12. Landmark Preservation Commission. "Landmarks Designation List - Seagram Building." The Official Site of the city of New York. http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/reports/NPC%20designation%20reports/1665.pdf (accessed October 21, 2014). 13. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 14. Young, Michelle. "How Zoning Shaped the New York Skyline." Untapped Cities. http://untappedcities. com/2011/12/07/how-zoning-shaped-the-new-york-skyline/ (accessed October 22, 2014).

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM: Rosenberg, Adam. Seagram Building. New York City, 2014. Personal Photograph

NOTES

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Aldo van Eyck was a member of both CIAM and then Team 10 which formed as a reaction within CIAM around 1953. At this time his views shifted towards criticizing the functionalism of the Athens Charter, influencing how he perceived architecture, planning and his design of the Amsterdam Orphanage in 1955. He considered that functionalism had stifled creativity and worked at a scale that ignored the individual and the 'human proportion'. He applied a new urban vision from his CIAM predecessors, with a decentralized urban node, non-hierarchical development, flexibility, and many points of interaction. This applied to his design of the orphanage because he believed in designing a home like a small city. The orphanage consists of modules arranged diagonally on an orthogonal grid, creating an outdoor space for each unit and an equal amount of positive and negative space. This serves to break down the hierarchy of spaces and connect public, private, and outdoor. Assessing that functional zoning limits social interaction; the orphanage instead focuses on developing relationships between people. As a very early example of a 'mat'building, Aldo van Eyck's design predicts future trends with potential for growth, change, and human activity.

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CIAM 1928-1959

AMSTERDAM ORPHANAGE Aldo van Eyck 1955-1960 Amsterdam, Netherlands Artyom Savin

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In 1954, Aldo van Eyck was commissioned by the City of Amsterdam to design a Municipal Orphanage. Eyck was a member of both CIAM and later Team 10, the group which formed as reaction within CIAM around 1953. Commenced in 1955 and completed in 1960, the Amsterdam Orphanage is a building in the end of the CIAM era. Van Eyck was determined to addressing two project requirements; to fill the void of a home in the life of children and to create a community with relation to its site. The program required a residence for 125 orphans varying in age from 4 to 20, as well as staff housing for a third of the 40 employees1. The orphanage consists of modules arranged diagonally on an orthogonal grid, creating an outdoor space for each unit and an equal amount of positive and negative space. The site is located on the outskirts of Amsterdam in a suburban area. It consists of a corner condition with one major road and a nearby highway. The area was relatively undeveloped with little surrounding built environment, scarce pedestrians and mostly just occupied by automobile passengers. The orphanage predates the first comprehensive spatial planning act of Netherlands implemented in 1965. The cultural context was of post-war Europe dominated by functionalist planning inspired by CIAM2. The era is characterized by consumerism, capitalism, reconstruction, and technological advancements that resulted in primarily mechanistic concepts. Schools of thought rebelling against these approaches formed with the goal of improving the deteriorating

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conditions of the urban environment. Lacking indication that CIAM had the ability to deal with the issues and complexities of postwar urban design, the younger generation become restless and disillusioned. This cultivated in a decisive split that came with CIAM 9 in 1953 when members such as Aldo van Eyck undermined the functionalist categories of work, dwelling, recreation, and transport3. From this a branch of thought formed out of CIAM called Team 10. Their dissatisfaction with the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;functional cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; urban model derived from the Athens Charter by Le Corbusier caused them to rethink the rigidity of Modernist planning. The movement criticized functionalism for ignoring the need for identity, stifling creativity, and working at a scale that ignored the individual.

shared the thoughts of Team 10 and argued for a more human type of architecture with more emotional experiences4. This position on humanistic architecture was completely new at the time and indicated a shift in thought towards the significance of integrating qualities of interaction and movement within architecture. Contrary to the reductive rationalism of the established CIAM doctrine

The Amsterdam Orphanage was conceived by Van Eyck as a tool to illustrate new planning methods in the cultural context of the predominantly formalist design practices of post-war Europe. The orphanage highlights and gives physical shape to the ideas developed in the shift from CIAM to Team 10. These concepts critiqued old methods of city planning; and the orphanage by being conceived as a tiny city, acted as a small scale demonstration of a new type of town planning. The analysis of the views on planning held by Team 10 give insight to what inspired and developed the design of the orphanage.

By the late 1950â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Van Eyck become convinced that functionalism was ignoring the individual and human proportion. He

One of the architectural responses that emerged from this school of thought is mat buildings, of which the Amsterdam Orphanage is an early example of. Contrary to functional zoning, this building typology developed a new language of urbanism. Focused on terms such as neighbourhood, association, and cluster, meant to encourage social activity. Mat buildings embody the anonymous collective, with which the individual gains freedom of action through a shuffled order based on inter-connection and patterns of association 5. Another major characteristic was to accommodate for

possibilities of growth, decline, and change. This adaptability further freed the individual and could adjust to changing building practices.

Van Eyck applies these principles of Team 10 and mat building in the Amsterdam Orphanage through a master plan that develops from a single unit. A system of interlocking, multiplying, and arranging this unit on an axial grid creates the whole building. This provides for a variety of programs that are defined by the architraves, walls, and pillars along the axial grid. All of these spaces can be related to their own individual centre which is established by the large dome shaped roofs of the units. The axial ordering of the square creates two interior streets which branch out in opposite zigzag directions, giving access to exterior courtyards via interior spaces. Despite there being centralized publics spaces and courtyards, the residential units that are arranged along these streets are not bound in unison by a central perspective. Their cohesion rather comes from a centrifugal movement that each unit forms a part of6. The outdoor meeting spaces are also defined

and are characterized by a similar centrifugal order. Further uniting the pods is the rhythmic quality of their arrangement. The entrance was specifically non-centrally based to continue the aspect of diversity and a universal approach. Van Eyck achieves many contradictions with this project; it is both a city and a house, compact and sprawling, varied and singular, intricate and clear, dynamic and static. It was this revolutionary synthesis of opposites that provided both for the group and the individual with consideration of both exterior and interior spaces.

This unique arrangement of spaces provide for distinct meeting spaces that generate human interaction. The staggered nature of the circulation made it more than merely a system for moving around, but was how the building was discovered and experienced. Its organic sequence of smaller units created space for children to make their own small hideouts. The goal was for the path-based system to optimize the potential for human relations and exchange7. The multitude of voids in the public interior and exterior spaces became the center for all human

PLX 599 CIAM AMSTERDAM ORPHANAGE ARTYOM SAVIN

of splitting up the environment into four functions, Team 10 proposed an integrated city that would generate human interaction. The four function division of zoning in the Athens Charter was replaced with views of relativity. This favours a world that does not have a frame of reference, intrinsic centre, or inherent hierarchical structure. When all perspectives are equal, each place is permitted to be considered as a centre. The spaces are linked through purely communal relations that are as important as the components themselves.

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Building site 01 Figure ground at construction 02 Figure ground at present day 03 building grid diagram 04 Open space and circulation diagram 05

encounters. The staggered diamond composition had further benefits to the orphanage. Staggering the plan increased the overall surface area of the building, multiplying its ability to spread onto the open field of the building site. This in return provided more natural light into the interior spaces, as well as more access to the exterior spaces. Part of Van Eyck’s individual thinking in Team 10 was focused on the concept of ‘inbetween’ spaces, questioning the existing relation between exterior and interior spaces. This evolved out of a criticism of the fixed infrastructure and random infill created by CIAM functionalist design. His vision was that the interior and exterior realm should not connect through visual transparency or spatial continuity, but through defined transitions that are psychologically meaningful. ‘In-between’ spaces are where varying things can meet and unite, creating a common ground where conflicting polarities become two complimentary halves8. Transitional space creates an awareness of what is signified on the either side. The use of many ‘in-between’ spaces in the Amsterdam orphanage contribute to removing the hierarchy of spaces. This concept of transition was articulated through the path-based design of the orphanage. Van Eyck envisioned the ‘in-between’ space as a location where varying activities can occur. Path-based design applied to more than interactions and movement within the Amsterdam Orphanage, but was also an idea for structuring urban building space. Van

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Eyck wanted to move away from the idea of universal space, and having urban planning be guided be the idea of a socially vital street. Van Eyck’s views on architecture and planning of the time were fused in the production of the Amsterdam Orphanage. The orphanage was uniquely different from other urban institutions of its time, which were guided by functional aspects. These were developed from designation of practical demands and favoured static symmetrical plans9. It was more than highly original and convincing building, but also was a manifestation of rising principles of urban planning introduced by Team 10. The building demonstrated on a small scale a new method of planning where the individual exists in a tightly knit community of gathering spaces and units provided by architectural intervention. It was a very early example of a mat building, illustrating that Van Eyck’s design looked to the future and predicted trends. The framework for society and communal growth demonstrated through the orphanage is an improved model over the master plan, and its ideas are still relevant to urban growth today10. Through synthesizing the new ideas of its time and looking to the future of how cities should be planned, the Amsterdam Orphanage was an appropriate solution for the program.

Yellow: occupied space Green: open space Red: Circulation space

COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM Balters, Sofia. "AD Classics: Amsterdam Orphanage / Aldo van Eyck" 26 Aug 2011. ArchDaily. Accessed 25 Oct 2014. <http://www.archdaily.com/?p=151566>

1. "Orphanage Space Analysis." Mirandamcfeeters Files Wordpress. Accessed October 18, 2014. http:// mirandamcfeeters.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/orphanage-space-analysis-mcfeeters.pdf 2. "The Rebirth & Redefinition of the Master Plan Post-WWII." Rhetoric Platform. http://rhetoricplatform.wordpress.com/2013/03/11/the-rebirth-redefinition-of-the-master-plan-post-wwii/ (accessed October 18, 2014). 3. Di Palma, Vittoria . lntimate Metropolis Urban Subjects in the Modern City. London: Routledge, 2008. 4. "The Rebirth & Redefinition of the Master Plan Post-WWII." Rhetoric Platform. http://rhetoricplatform.wordpress.com/2013/03/11/the-rebirth-redefinition-of-the-master-plan-post-wwii/ (accessed October 18, 2014). 5. Calabuig, Debora. "The Strategies of Mat-building." The Architectural Review. Accessed October 18, 2014. http://www.architectural-review.com/essays/the-strategies-of-mat-building/8651102.article. 6. Strauven, Francis . "Aldo van Eyck Shaping the New Reality From the In-between to the Aesthetics of Number." Canadian Centre for Architecture. http://www.cca.qc.ca/system/items/1947/original/Mellon12-FS.pdf?1241161450 (accessed October 18, 2014). 7. "Orphanage Technique Analysis Landscape." Miranda Mcfeeters Files Wordpress. Accessed October 18, 2014. http://mirandamcfeeters.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/orphanage-technique-analysis-landscape-mcfeeters.pdf. 8. "Orphanage Space Analysis." Mirandamcfeeters Files Wordpress. Accessed October 18, 2014. http:// mirandamcfeeters.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/orphanage-space-analysis-mcfeeters.pdf 9. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 10. "The Rebirth & Redefinition of the Master Plan Post-WWII." Rhetoric Platform. http://rhetoricplatform.wordpress.com/2013/03/11/the-rebirth-redefinition-of-the-master-plan-post-wwii/ (accessed October 18, 2014). FIGURES 5. Balters, Sofia. "AD Classics: Amsterdam Orphanage / Aldo van Eyck" 26 Aug 2011. ArchDaily. Accessed 25 Oct 2014. <http://www.archdaily.com/?p=151566>

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After WWII, the architects and the city planners of Berlin were faced with the challenge of housing thousands of homeless people. The creation of these new spaces and masses would act as a new symbol of order, place and possibility of a new life in a new state. There were two alternative routes towards the development: to maintain the historical structure and restore the prewar street patterns or allow the architects and planners seize the opportunity to build entirely new cities. This lead to the 1957 Interbau, the International Building Exhibition, in the Hansaviertel area in West Berlin. Leading architects at the time were invited to design model housing schemes within the park like landscape of the site. At roughly the same time, Le Corbusier was commissioned to build another Unite d'Habitation, located in Charlottenburg hil. The unite, like the housing units designed for the Interbau, were based on the ideals of the CIAM. According to the charter, the residential areas must take the topography into advantage, have ample sunlight exposure on all sides and have access to verdant areas for all the inhabitants. The unite is sited on a vast green space with breathtaking views on all sides. It is ideal for the health of the inhabitants with large numbers of greenery blocking the high speed roads accessible from the unite that connect the building to the city. Le Corbusier uses modern construction techniques of modular units stacked on top of each other and supported by pilotis which allowed him to create a soaring 17 storey building.

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CIAM 1928-1959

UNITE D'HABITATION Le Corbusier 1956-1957 Berlin, Germany Glearda Sokoli

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Introduction

Post-WWII Germany was an adverse place to live in as the Soviet Union and the Western Allies used it as battle ground for power during the Cold War. Due to all the destruction that occurred during the WWII, the architects and the city planners were faced with the challenge of housing thousands of homeless and displaced inhabitants. It required them to create new spaces and masses that would become a new order, place and hopefully a new life for the new state. In 1956, Le Corbusier sent a proposal to the Berlin Planning Committee to build another one of his unites. Le Corbusier sought this chance to build a second unite as the first one was not received with enthusiasm. The planning committee agreed and gave Le Corbusier a site located in Charlottenburg near the Olympic stadium that had beautiful views towards the city. This essay will discuss what shaped the building, created the zoning and influenced the urban design in this selfgoverning project by Le Corbusier. Site Location and Program

Charlottenburg’s original condition was a slightly developed site surrounded with overwhelming green space and lots of trees. Image 6 shows the development growth of the area around the site between the years 19471961. There were high speed roads that lead to Berlin’s Olympic stadium built by the Nazis in 1934-1936. The stadium was simple but large with a monumental neoclassical architecture style that reflected Hitler’s preference. There

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was no pre-existing zoning in which Le Corbusier had to conform for. He was allowed to have freedom on any aspect of the building parameters. The lack of pre-existing zoning is also apparent in the Interbau exhibition as the site assigned to it was also surrounded with wide green area. They were also allocated full control of the zoning and restrictions within the site. Due to the collaboration of a number of architects, the planning and organization of the space and its programming was done as a collaboration of all the architects’ ideas. The urban design followed ideals of open, airy and green spaces from the 1920s with a contrasting architectural identity reduced to pure function. The building activities were mostly inspired from industrialization and prefabrication which were the evolution and future of construction techniques at the time. The architects based the architecture and urban planning on ideals of CIAM’s Athens charter. Le Corbusier, having already developed his ideals in architecture and urbanism, followed a similar course of action when addressing the project. The connection to other sectors of the city was a big concern in the project because the location of this vast housing complex occupied by a large number of people was somewhat secluded. Le Corbusier programmed the building so that the inhabitants may have access to amenities that would be found in the city but would take time to attain for the people living there. Some of the amenities included school rooms, nursery or kindergarten, medical services, garden, restaurants and other convenient facilities. The building design reflected the concept of the ‘vertical garden city’ which

idealized a community that was socially self-supportive. Similarly, the Interbau architects also provided the community with amenities such as churches, library, kindergarten, cinema and a small shopping center. Alike Le Corbusier, they designed for the future; conscious of the present, cautious of the past and toward the future of design and architecture. In Germany, that was an architecture of freedom and democratic rationalism.

At the beginning of the 1950s, the housing solutions generally reflected urgency and haste more than design quality and were mostly low rise schemes of two or three storeys. The city planners and architects sought to create a more coherent design for the city. They were faced with the decision of either maintaining the historical structures and restore pre-war street patterns; or utilize this rare chance to build entirely new cities, untrammeled by the baggage of war. The oppositions were divided into different interests including architectural, political, confessional and regional. The modernist members held their ground and influenced cities such as Dusseldorf, Hamburg, Cologne, and Frankfurt. The 1957 Interbau, International Building Exhibition, invited leading German and international architects to design model housing schemes sited in Hansaviertel, West Berlin. The exhibition contrasted the Nazi architecture that consisted mostly monumental architecture and its urban design by the open and green layout of Hansaviertel. It was a new step forward to a more modern and democratic attitude in architecture.

Habitation

One of the main Athens Charter principals Le Corbusier addressed in his design for the Unite dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Habitation is the habitation. The charter states that a site for the residential district should occupy the best location within the urban scape in question. One must also take into account the climate of the area. The site Charlottenburg responds to those requirements by being surrounded by greenery which contracted with pollution and provided breathtaking views. Le Corbusier maximized sun exposure by orienting the building north with the longer sides of the rectangular form facing east to west and the shorter sides facing north-south. Each apartment has its own separate balcony which creates a grid on the exterior of the facades. The balconies allow light to enter in each dwelling unit but it also protects inside of the units from excessive sun radiation. Image 4 shows that each dwelling unit attains direct sunlight at some point of the day. The large expansions of greenery respond to the public health of the inhabitants. The building is far from fast speed roads as to not disrupt the peace and prevent pollution. Le Corbusier was eager to

use current construction techniques which allowed him to build up vertically rather than be limited on surface area when building horizontally with older building techniques. Roads

According to the Athenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s charted, roads are for vehicles and parks are for people. Providing for different types of roads within a design was critical in planning and designing communal spaces. Le Corbusier takes into account different types of roads including high speed, low speed and pedestrian only. Although there are long lines of high speed traffic on the west of the building, Le Corbusier linked the housing unit with the high speed roads through slower speed roads that curve around the site, finally reaching the entrance. It is clever way to avoid congestion and air pollution by using all the trees that were pre-existing on the site. For the inhabitants Le Corbusier provided internal streets within the building that allow access to all the living units. He also maintained much of the green space and kept it as park area for the inhabitants to utilize freely.

Afternoon

Rooftop

Interior street Living unit

Shopping street

Ground floor 03

05 02

Morning

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Human scale on ground floor Pilotis Building section/program Housing units Sun lighting Site context (building highlighted) Facade pattern

The built form

The form of the building reflects a simple and rational style. It also includes the use of Le Corbusier’s five principles of design. The building contains an open plan, free facade, glass walls, a converted terrace and holds the structure on pilotis. The use of the pilotis brings a sense of human scale to the tall 17 storey massing by integrating pedestrian paths on the ground floor. The massive scale of the pilotis on the ground floor with the building block elevated from them creates the illusion of a machine-like entity subjected to the arcane systems of order and control. Thus emphasizing the architect’s view of architecture as a machine that is utilized by its inhabitants. Both the west and the east facade have an identical and repetitive unit sections, each possessing a free facade and glass walls with concrete border creating a simple geometric pattern in it. Due to the modularity of the unit designs, there are different proportions of the grid being displayed on the facades. On the facade where the unit shows two storeys, the geometry is larger (image 7). Vice versa, the smaller geometries reflect the single storey portion of the unit. Le Corbusier saw the building facade as a white canvas and used a series of color tones to represent the inside program outside. Each different type of program has its own color. This application creates more interaction and interest in the facade between the building form and its utilities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the request to create multihousing complexes in Berlin, Germany was addressed creatively. The lack of zoning and restricting did not hinder the urban design of the site but was addressed quite thoughtfully. Although the architects working on the Interbau 1957 and Le Corbusier on the Unite d’Habitation did not converse while the two projects were on the construction or design process, they achieved similar results. Both works were products that responded through the principles extracted from the Athen’s Charter for urban and design activities. However the results were buildings with different design solutions and applications with the use of the modern construction techniques. There was an inclusive goal in which both projects and their architects strived for and that was for a healthy city where its inhabitants live in the architecture of tomorrow.

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1. Frampton, Kenneth. *Le Corbusier : Architect of the Twentieth Century*. New York: H.N. Abrams, 2002 2. Fraser, Derek. The Buildings of Europe: Berlin. Manchester University Press, 1996. 3. Giraudoux, Jean, Anthony Eardley, and Joseph Lluis Sert. Le Cobusier: The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973 4. Guiton, Jacques. *The Ideas of Le Corbusier on Architecture and Urban Planning*. New York: G. Braziller, 1981 5. Hackel, Marcus. "Identity and German architecture: views of a German Architect,“." (2007) 6. Kolinsky, Eva, and Wilfried Van Der Will. The Cambridge Companion to Modern German Culture. Cambridge, UK ; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1998. 7. Sbriglio, Jacques, ed. Le Corbusier: L'Unite D'Habitation De Marseille/The Unite D'Habitation in Marseilles. Springer, 2004. FIGURES Image 1, 3, 4, 5 by author IMAGE 06 Grosser Berliner Stadtplan." Alt-Berliner Stadtplan-Archiv. Alte Stadtpläne, Landkarten, Karten U. Pläne. Stadtkarte U. Landkarte v. Berlin. <http://www.alt-berlin.info/index.htm>

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CIAM's Athens Charter played a key role in shaping the urban planning that influenced the form of Brasilia. As one of the key buildings of the city, the Brazilian National Congress Building is in direct response to the environment created by planning tenets taken from the Athens Charter. This is evident through examination of the overall plan of the city, completed by Oscar Niemeyer and Lucio Costa, and its role in shaping the building, designed by Oscar Niemeyer. The city plan consists generally of two main axes; a transportation corridor and an axis of green space that culminates in the Brazilian National Congress Building. This clear division of land based on function, integration of green space, and large transportation networks exemplifies the ideal urban form presented in the Athens Charter. The monumental, sculptural and curved form of the Brazilian National Congress Building deviates from the functionalist International Style; it is instead responsive to the massive green axis that was a result of this approach to urban planning. The paper concludes that the planning for the city is in-line with the Athens Charter, and the formation of the building itself is due to Niemeyerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s response to the city and pursuit of developing a Brazilian form, specific to its site and cultural context.

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CIAM 1928-1960

NATIONAL CONGRESS BUILDING OF BRAZIL Oscar Niemeyer 1957-63 Brasilia, Brazil Greer Stanier

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Few cities embody the tenets of the International Congress on Modern Architecture’s (CIAM) Athens Charter as completely and deliberately as does the capital of Brazil, Brasilia. Political and economic conditions from 1930 to 1960 created the ideal atmosphere for the vision of the charter to be realized. The city came about as a result of the government committing to moving the capital out of Rio de Jeneiro to an inland location.1 Being a city that was conceived as a whole and erected on an empty site gave the urban designer Lucio Costa complete liberty with the design of the plan. He chose to integrate key tenets form the Athens Charter, such as clear zoning of land based on function, an emphasis on transportation infrastructure and expansive green spaces. The new capital would also require a new government infrastructure, resulting in Oscar Niemeyer`s Brazilian National Congress building, started in 1957.2 The building, intended to represent the absolute political power of the Brazilian government and to convey its authority, was given pride of place in the master plan. As a result of the city being designed in conjunction with the buildings that would comprise it, the congress building’s setting was informed by the design of the building, and vice versa. The architecture of the building itself was a response to the designed context as well as Niemeyer’s desire to develop an architecture unique to Brazil.3

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The Site To understand the immediate physical context of the building, one must first look at the overall plan of the city. It consists of two main axes; a north-south curve that serves as a transportation corridor connecting residential neighborhoods and the downtown, and a monumental eastwest green axis that connects important government buildings (figure 01). This axis culminates in the Plaza of the Three Powers at the east end, where the Brazilian National Congress building is located along with the Planalto Palace and the Federal Supreme Court. Costa describes the form of the plaza stating “The most outstanding buildings are those which will house the government powers and, because these are autonomous and three in number, the equilateral triangle seems the elementary form most appropriate to enclose them…”4 To give further significance to the three buildings, they are built near massive reflecting pools. The Plaza is accessed mainly via the highway that connects it to the residential districts and the airport. A rectangular terrace connects the building to places of commerce and human activity; however the capitol has been heavily criticized for its lack of pedestrian infrastructure.5 The Context The city in which the building was realized was planned by Lucio Costa, a Brazilian architect who won the competition to plan Brasilia, held by Niemeyer. Initially given the

task of designing the city, Niemeyer decided to make the city plan a competition so that he could focus on the buildings. Costa’s plan was titled “Pilot Plan”, and is characterized by its resemblance to a plane. The economy was experiencing impressive and prolonged prosperity as a result of an increase in industry. To create a symbol of Brazilian government and celebrate Brazilian architecture Juscelino Kubitschek, the president of Brazil at the time, decided to move the seat of government to a brand new city after his election in 1955. Kubitschek intended the new city to convey the modernity and power of Brazil, as well as its unique and revered architectural style that was a result of the young Brazilian architects’ interpretation of the international style.6 Increasingly since its first meeting in 1928, CIAM had become the most prolific authority on urban planning. Given the recent modernization of Brazil and acclaim of Brazilian modern architecture, a similar modern approach to urban planning was expected of its new capital. The status of the government buildings required all surrounding buildings to be architecturally subordinate to those located on the pedestal of the plaza7. Since the city, zoning and buildings were being designed concurrently, the zoning could accommodate any architectural manifestation that adequately fulfilled the government’s desire to convey authority. This essentially gave Niemeyer complete freedom to design a monumental building that did not have to conform to preexisting site limitations.

One tenet - tenet 70 - more specifically relates to the architecture of the congress building. It states: “The practice of using styles of the past on aesthetic pretexts for new structures erected in historic areas has harmful consequences. Neither the continuation of such practices nor the introduction of such initiatives will be tolerated in any form.”14 The style of Brazilian architecture that Niemeyer developed as an extension of

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A second tenet that helped shape the final form of Neimeyer’s building was tenant 29:

In most large cities, the largest and most visually prominent buildings are those that resulted from private interest. Tenet 95 dictates “Private interests will be subordinated to the collective interest.”12 This can be interpreted to mean: economic interests the private sector have to fit within the collective interest as represented by the elected government, or, more relevant to this discussion, no symbol of the private sector will outweigh the symbol of government.

This, according to Costa, meant that the planning of any building in the same zone as the government buildings would have to be physically subordinate to those on the plaza. As a result, the low, flat, and uniform buildings that contain commerce do not detract from the view of the Brazilian National Congress Building13. The practice of this tenant enables the government to maintain the perceived superiority and authority over the private sector. The building can be seen, unobstructed, for the whole distance of the monumental axis, giving it nearly incomparable prominence in the city. Its visibility in the Brasilia sky-line necessitated a distinct and clear architectural response.

GREER STANIER

One of the tenets from the Athens Charter that is most evident in its influence on the context of the Brazilian National Congress Building was tenant 78, “Plans will determine the structure of each of the sector allocated to the four key functions (inhabiting, working, recreation and circulation) and they will also determine their respective locations within the whole.”8 This excerpt explains the drastically segregated zones of the city, including the residential mega-blocks and the clear and defined monument of government authority: the Plaza of the Three Powers. Adherence to this tenant enabled Costa to allocate a large, clear expanse of land to the government buildings9. This gesture meant that the Brazilian National Congress Building had a relatively unrestricted amount of space to convey its significance. The lack of a confining site also meant that the Niemeyer was free to design the spread-out form of the two vertical blocks, the expansive horizontal block, and the pure form of the two domes.

“High buildings, set apart from one another, must free the ground for broad verdant areas.”10 The expansive green space that lay before the building was set as a stage for the sculptural and picturesque form of the congress building (figure 3). The land surrounding the building has been flattened and in some cases it was even transformed into a reflective pool.11 These landscaping decisions remove any natural context in the horizontal plane. The flat stage created by the landscape gives significance by contrast to the large vertical masses of the two parallel towers. These pure towers serve as beacons - masses signifying the authority of the government atop a perfect pedestal.

NATIONAL CONGRESS BUILDING OF BRAZIL

The Athens Charter’s Influence

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Aerial plan diagram showing the green imperial axis and blue transportation axis 01 Figure-ground of the`` complete area 02 Diagram of landscaping 03 parti interpretation of the building 04

modernism was the perfect architectural style for the seat of government, as it honoured a Brazilian context without falling prey to the historicism that the tenant forbade. Niemeyer was inspired by sensuous curves inspired by Brazilian women, and used them in his buildings to distinguish his style from traditional modernism.15 Initially, the modernist or international style was characterized by mono-purposed, functionalist buildings that were devoid of decoration or embellishment. The Brazilian modernist buildings that populated the capital are much more expressive and curved than one would generally associate with modernism. However, their organization and purity of form is in-keeping with the movement. Specifically, it is the domes of the National Congress Building that deviate from the traditions of modernism; the towers and base are typical of the movement.16

enabled its unique architecture. Gestures such as the clear expanse of green space that frames the view of the building, the absence of less significant building impeding this view, the lack of zoning restrictions and the promotion of modern architecture. The clear relationship of the National Congress Building to the city plan influenced by the Athens Charter makes it an appropriate response to the planning philosophy of CIAM; a plan without which one of Oscar Niemeyerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most significant works could not have been realized.

Conclusion

As the largest attempt to integrate the ideas from CIAM and the Athens Charter into a city, the capital city of Brasilia serves as the perfect backdrop for one of its most important buildings - the Brazilian National Congress Building. It is a work that fulfills its creatorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intentions: it embodies the modernity of Brazil, represents the authority of the state, and is a reflection of the political convictions and planning sensibilities popularized by CIAM. The shape and mass of this building were made possible by city planning that was informed by the Athens Charter. A collection of planning gestures

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NATIONAL CONGRESS BUILDING OF BRAZIL

GREER STANIER

1. Deckker, Zilah. Brazil built: the architecture of the modern movement in Brazil. London: Spon Press, 2001. Print 2. Philippou, Styliane. Oscar Niemeyer: curves of irreverence. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.. 3. Hess, Alan, and Alan Weintraub. Oscar Niemeyer buildings. New York: Rizzoli, 2009. 4. Philippou, Styliane. Oscar Niemeyer: curves of irreverence. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. 5. Philippou, Styliane. Oscar Niemeyer: curves of irreverence. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. 6. Deckker, Zilah. Brazil built: the architecture of the modern movement in Brazil. London: Spon Press, 2001. Print 7. Hess, Alan, and Alan Weintraub. Oscar Niemeyer buildings. New York: Rizzoli, 2009. 8. Le Corbusier. The Athens charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973 9. Deckker, Zilah. Brazil built: the architecture of the modern movement in Brazil. London: Spon Press, 2001. Print 10. Le Corbusier. The Athens charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973. 11. UnitedNations. "Brasilia." - UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (accessed September 15, 2014). http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/445/ 12. Le Corbusier. The Athens charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973 13. UnitedNations. "Brasilia." - UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (accessed September 15, 2014). http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/445/ 14. Le Corbusier. The Athens charter. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973 15. Hess, Alan, and Alan Weintraub. Oscar Niemeyer buildings. New York: Rizzoli, 2009. 16. Mumford, Eric Paul. The CIAM discourse on urbanism, 1928-1960. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000.

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The Rockefeller Center is an urban complex set in New York City, USA. Comprised of 19 commercial buildings on 22 acres of land in Midtown Manhattan, the Rockefeller Center sets a precedent for successful urban planning. Its initial design was commissioned in 1920's and wasn't completed until 1939 due to the heavy economic, social and political factors of the time period. Lead by the strong ideals of architect Raymond Hood and developer John D. Rockefeller Jr., the forward-thinking design and planning of Rockefeller Centre sustained its success to present day. Intentions of the design ran parallel with CIAM's ideals outlined in the Athens Charter, incorporating a mixed-use complex containing residential, commercial and public open spaces. The design of the complex also considered other aspects of the Athens Charters such as proximity to roads and transit systems, circulation, and the inclusion of green spaces such as parks. Due to the 1916 Zoning Act of New York, as well as the density of the city, not all of CIAM's ideals were fully realized, but this increased the success of the Rockefeller Centre. The Zoning Act allowed for increased density, sunlight and air. This essay will examine the influences of CIAM, the 1916 Zoning Act of New York and other local conditions that lead to the success of the Rockefeller Center, as well as its influence for future urban planning projects.

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CIAM 1928 - 1959

ROCKEFELLER CENTRE Raymond Hood 1928-1939 Manhatten, New York, USA Doan-Thy Vo

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Introduction

In 1928, the site of the former Metropolitan Opera Company was bought by John D. Rockefeller who began the development of the Rockefeller Centre.1 The building was built during the risky era of the Depression with John D. Rockefellerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s optimistic hopes of being an investment with great returns. Although starting a business or venture during this time would be deemed as unsafe, the cost of land and labour were cheap enough to be risked. Rockefeller pushed for the development on the belief that if the place was to be a cultural center grand enough, tenants and income would eventually come. The final design of the Rockefeller Centre was a collaboration of several planners, designers, developers and architects, but key leaders that eventually rose during the project were John D, Rockefeller himself, Wallance K. Harrison, Reinhard & Hofmeister, and the architect Raymond Hood. These individuals joined as one team that lead the project as the Associated Architects.2 The Rockefeller Centre was not directly influenced by the Athens Charter, but did express some of its ideals due to the parallel in time. Lead by the idea of strong circulation, mixed- use programs, inclusion of public realms, and the importance of light, air and green spaces, the Rockefeller Centre pushed through the Depression and was completed in 1939. Physical Context

The Rockefeller Centre is located in the dense urban site of central Manhattan, New York,

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USA. The building complex stretches from West 48th to West 51st Street and from Fifth to Sixth Avenue, taking up approximately 22 acres of land. Prior to the Rockefeller Centre, the site was owned by the Metropolitan Opera Company. When the site was put up for lease, the idea of an opera house as the centre of the site was still the ideal that John Rockefeller wanted develop on. The site at the time was also of cheap value for such a large area in the downtown business core of New York City, perfect for John Rockefellerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dream of a grand cultural centre in the heart of the city. 3

The expanding New York City was evident in the rising issues of traffic and congestion at the time. Some of the major concerns of the project was accessibility and circulation as the complex sprawled over whole city blocks in such a busy city. The architects on the project understood the importance of pedestrian traffic and developed a circulation plan that helped divide traffic without displacing the complex from the rest of the city. Using the current New York City grid axis, the architects incorporated mid-block streets that were spacious paths exclusive for pedestrians and free from disorienting vehicular traffic. This division of the occupied city blocks also divided the grid of New York City down to a friendlier and intimate pedestrian scale while keeping it easy to navigate.4 An additional solution to the city congestion was the integration of an underground concourse level that further divided pedestrians and vehicular traffic. The concourse level allowed the

building complex to connect to the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s infrastructure, being stitched seamlessly into the urban fabric of Manhattan. This carefully planned circulation that sutured the complex into the city also allowed for new visitors to venture the complex on their commute.5 Planning Context

Influences of CIAM

Around the same time as the implementation of New York City’s 1916 Zoning By-Laws, there was a trend in recognizing the effects that came with constant building, growing populations, and increasing densities.

In Europe, the Congrès internationaux ( d’architecture moderne CIAM) was established in 1928 and held meetings that discussed the growing issues in architecture related to developing technologies and population growth. Although their studies were published in The Athens Carter in 1943, after the completion of the Rockefeller Centre, it is obvious that both had the same intentions and similar solutions. The Rockefeller, being a 22 acre complex, had to take in the same urban planning issues as discussed by CIAM and both came with similar solutions. CIAM believed that the key functions in an urban city were inhabitation, work, recreation and circulation9. CIAM also believed that in a functional city, these functions would remain separate, but connected through circulation10. The Rockefeller Centre incorporates all four of these functions with its mixed used complex. Unlike CIAM, The Rockefeller was designed to mix the uses of work, circulation and recreation, especially at the lower levels. In such busy city, people often do not have time to travel off main circulation paths,

DOAN-THY VO

wanted to maximize the building volume for profit, Hugh Ferriss’s massing studies sent a precedent to defining an architectural style in New York City skyscrapers.7 The Rockefeller Centre is an example of the New York City skyscraper style, with its tiered levels, being setback more as it rises to the top of the building. The Rockefeller Centre had to take advantage of maximizing its volume as it was conceived during the Depression. The reason that the complex was developed during this horrible economic era was justified by John D. Rockefeller’s sheer belief that it will be a great investment with great returns.8 Land, materials, and labour during the Depression were at its lowest, making it affordable for John D. Rockefeller to conceive the complex. With his belief in the building, he provided jobs and also helped local economy during such a harsh time.

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ROCKEFELLER CENTER

Prior to the design and construction of the Rockefeller Centre, large buildings that were being built in New York raised concerns of light and air reaching the streets. By the 20th century, steel frame construction had allowed for skyscrapers to be erected in New York City. When the Equitable Building was completed in 1915, it was made obvious that with the growing city, there needed to be restrictions on building forms to prevent buildings from constricting sunlight and air flow on the street level. Soon after, New York City implemented the 1916 Zoning By-Laws, its first comprehensive zoning resolution.6 These zoning by-laws included descriptions of setbacks to allow for sunlight and air to penetrate the streets below. This was not only an equitable social move, but also an economical one. If buildings were to be built to bulk without setbacks and height restrictions, it would cast shadows on neighbouring building, decreasing their rental and property values. From the implementation of the zoning-bylaw, Hugh Ferriss in 1922 did a series of massing studies showing different forms that can maximize building volumes, popularizing the new regulations. Since most developers

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Axonometric Showing Sunlight and Airflow 01 Figure Ground of SIte Prior to Rockefeller Centre (1920) 02 Figure Ground and Circulation Today 03 Map of Rockefeller Centre Underground Concourse 04

For convenience of the working class and commuters, the concourse levels acts as a circulation space but also as a recreation space.

The Rockefeller Centre was also designed heavily considerate of pedestrian circulation. As mentioned prior, the complex divides the city block using pedestrian circulation paths, as well as takes advantage of the New York City concourse level. This is to allow for a division and separation from the vehicular traffic. CIAM also believed in the separation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic as stated in the Athens Carter11 CIAM believed that the automobile is a great invention, but unfortunately also causes issues such as “permanent danger, causing traffic jams and paralysing communications, and interfering with hygiene.”12 The Rockefeller Centre separates the pedestrian and the vehicle, allow distance from vehicle traffic. Since the Rockefeller Centre considers pedestrian circulation a priority, its design of strong circulation axis and mixed-uses promotes the use of public transit, biking, and especially, walking.

CIAM promotes building in increasing height to solve issues of “density, circulation, through utilizing the free spaces thus created.”13 CIAM also believed that building subject to three necessities: “sufficient space, sun, ventilation.”14 These are also the same issues that were the reasons for the implementation of the New York City 1916 Zoning By-Laws. The Rockefeller Centre ensures the allowance of sun and air

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by making its tallest building at the centre of the complex. All other buildings of the Rockefeller Centre are shorter, varying in height to allow for the penetration of sun and air flow. The tallest building conforms to the zoning by-laws by pushing but its exteriors walls as its height increases, creating a tiered effect. The Rockefeller also incorporates large circulation and many exterior open spaces to contrast the dense built world of New York City.

Conclusion

The Rockefeller Center struggled financially the first couple years it was opened in 1939. Business began to increase afterwards and reached the dream that John D. Rockefeller had hoped for.15 Perfectly situated in the middle of Manhattan, the complex intertwines with the rest of the dense busy city of New York without sacrificing ideas shared by CIAM. Lead by a strong team of individuals, the Rockefeller Centre stands today as one of the iconic places in New York and a successful precedent in urban planning.

Rockefeller Center Concourse Subway Entrance

DOAN-THY VO ROCKEFELLER CENTER

FIGURES 5. http://imagologiajorge.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/atlas.jpg

1. Johnson, Amanda, and Richard Berenholtz. New York Architecture: A History. New York: Universe, 2003. Page 122-123 2. Johnson, Amanda, and Richard Berenholtz. New York Architecture: A History. New York: Universe, 2003. Page 124 3. Balfour, Alan. Rockefeller Center: Architecture As Theater. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. Page 4. 4. Johnson, Amanda, and Richard Berenholtz. New York Architecture: A History. New York: Universe, 2003. Page 124 5. Johnson, Amanda, and Richard Berenholtz. New York Architecture: A History. New York: Universe, 2003. Page 124 6. "Zoning." New York City Department of City Planning. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/zone/zonetext.shtml. Accessed 07 November 2014. 7. "About Zoning: Background" New York City Department of City Planning. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/zone/ zonehis.shtml. Accessed 07 November 2014. 8. Johnson, Amanda, and Richard Berenholtz. New York Architecture: A History. New York: Universe, 2003. Page 123. 8. Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman, 1973. Tennet 77. 9. Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman, 1973. Tennet 78. 10. Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman, 1973. Tennet 80. 11. Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman, 1973. Tennet 80. 12. Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman, 1973. Tennet 82. 13. Corbusier, Le. The Athens Charter. New York: Grossman, 1973. Tennet 82. 14.Johnson, Amanda, and Richard Berenholtz. New York Architecture: A History. New York: Universe, 2003. Page 123.

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Le Corbusier's Unite D' Habitation is an urban housing project in postwar Berlin with principles heavily rooted in work of International Congress of Modern Architecture and its established Charter of Athens. Following the guidelines for major components to town planning, Corbusier addresses the housing, work, recreational and traffic in the Unite much like it is an independent city. The high density housing units introduces height to the Unite, opening up space for leisure and traffic circulation. Basing off the human scale/proportion as proposed by CIAM, small internal streets similar to boulevards that prevent congestion are laid out along with the varying living units controlled by the modular human relationship. The established program facilitates an internal community that intersects the private life with collective service, providing functional communal amenities such as groceries and daycare. Outdoor greenery located at the rooftop creates garden terraces that continue the natural fabric of the site as the Unite is situated in the midst of parks and vegetation, responding to the open landscape of urban planning.

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CIAM 1928-1959

CORBUSIERHAUS Le Corbusier 1956-1959 Berlin, Germany Yong Zhu

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Introduction

Europe entered into a phase of reconstruction in 1945 at the end of the Second World War, resulting in an effort to restoring nations both physically and socially. Berlin, the capital of Germany, was politically divided into power sectors while most of the city remained destroyed. More than 600,000 apartment units were in rubbles, forcing local residents to find shelter outside the city, plummeting Berlin’s population down to 2.8million from its original 4.3million.1 The Corbusierhaus, constructed between 1956 and 1959 in Berlin was the 4th Unite D’ Habitation of Le Corbusier’s series of urban housing projects in response to the housing crisis in Europe. Through his high density apartment block, Corbusier incorporated principles of city planning from the Athens Charter to create an independent self-sustaining ‘town’. During this time period, the Corbusierhaus became an instrument of social revolution; Corbusier attempted to improve the standards of living by re-establishing the relationship between private and collective and their roles in the dwelling unit, promoting communal facilities as an essence to the city. In many ways, the Corbusierhaus was intended to be identified as an expression of the modernization of Berlin. Site and Program

The Unite is located in Charlottenburg Berlin, initially planned and designed for the Interbau housing development of the 1957 International Building Exhibition.2

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The building situated on the Reich Sports Field is within very close proximity to Olympiastadion, the Olympic stadium of Berlin opened in 1936. In comparison to the monumental scale and clear distinctive axis of the entrance to the stadium, the narrow path that leads to the Unite on a small hill is indirect and concealed, protruding very subtly from the northeast corner of a park. The apartment block discovered at the end of the winding road is surrounded by greenery, overlooking the city on an elevated open field. Corbusier proposed a 17 level building with up to 530 apartment units housing over 2,000 residents.3 Every unit was oriented to east and west, each internally structured with a double floor height living rooms that enabled a unique circulation within the building. Corridors that spanned the whole width of the building were located at every other floor, connecting to apartments through the living rooms.4 In Corbusier’s plans he illustrated internal amenities that acted as extensions of the living unit, providing communal services such as a swimming pool, running track, rooftop nursery and kindergarten, medical facilities, recreational space, and internal commercial shopping centres. Many of these programs were not realized during the construction of the Unite however, losing vital facilities that embodied Corbusier’s vision of a communal social housing community such as the shopping centre and kindergarten.5 On the rooftop of the residential block, Corbusier incorporated his concept of the vertical garden through an overlay of terrace garden that continued the natural urban fabrics of the park.

Post-War Berlin

Berlin’s destruction marked the end of the Second World War as the centre capital of the Nazi Germany regime. With the city in ruins and most industries destroyed, the rebirth of Berlin was inevitable. Amongst the four political powers that initially governed Berlin, Soviet Union began the city’s initial reconstruction in 1952, transforming Stalinallee Boulevard in East Berlin into “Germany’s first socialist street”, demonstrating the power and glory

floor height of apartments to fit the German regulations. CIAM

The publishing of the Athens Charter in 1943 encapsulated CIAM’s main principles of the functional city in the scale of urban planning and architecture. As the publisher of Athens Charter and a chief proponent of CIAM, Corbusier’s experience from previous work was heavily influential to the foundation of CIAM and its key tenets in the charter. Particularly, the Unite shared striking similarities with his planning of the Radiant City in 1933. Designed as a living machine that embraced the working class, the city model was decentralized with a spreading out of skyscrapers. Similar to the Unite situated in the midst of an open green field, the emphasis on zoning of Radiant City allowed for greenery in open space with abundant sunlight, uniting the man with well-ordered environment. The city was segregated into districts labeled as commercial, entertainment, business and residential, each of which functioned independently of one another as introduced

by the Athens Charter.

A tenet of the Charter breaks down town planning into four fundamental functions: healthy living, organized work condition, available recreational amenities, and a network of circulation connecting the different programs. With the Unite, Corbusier attempted to integrate these main principles of town planning into a residential living machine. CIAM advocated urban designing in 3-dimensional space, emphasizing height to address traffic and density in planning. Through a combination of the villa and skyscraper, the Unite was assembled vertically with a number of collaborative programs that embodied Corbusier’s concept of the independent city. With an elevation of levels, a set of 8 internal “streets” can be located in the residential block to relief congestion and promote social interaction.8 These circulation networks were crucial to Corbusier’s planning of the Unite, believing that correspondence of the internal facilities was crucial to the functioning of the building as an entity in a controlled environment.

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of the communist government.6 When the International Building Exhibition took place in West Berlin in 1957, in addition to addressing the mass housing crisis, many of the international architect’s proposal responded to the socialist ideals on Stalinallee. In Corbusier’s rationale for creating affordable mass housing during this time period, the idea of the individual and its role hugely influenced his planning. In his attempt to recreate order by meeting the demands and satisfying the individual, he rationalized the scale of the Modular, represented by the universal standard measure of the man. By scientifically standardizing units to a relationship with the human scale, Corbusier was able to correlate the living units to society. This system of planning however, was met with great resistance in the designing of Corbusierhaus. Due to the shortage in material supply as a result of the war, Germany developed a unified measure that was dependent on the construction labour in ease of assembly rather than standardized products or techniques.7 This shift in unit standards forced Corbusier to readjust his Modular measurements to the units, largely increasing the floor-to-

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Hill top site of the unite 01 Figure-ground of site prior to development 02 Figure-ground of site after development 03 Path leading to unite conealed in vegetation 04 Internal "streets" on every other floor 05 View of unite approaching from olympiastadion 06

The dwelling and working units were developed using the Modular ratios of human proportion. Aside from the set of standardized point of reference the human can provide, his body also illustrates the dimensional measurement introduced through his movement in space.9 As indicated by the Anthers Charter, both the internal unit systems and exterior color palettes expressing the units were governed by the human proportions, despite the added height to each apartment. In response to the recreational amenities, the shared communal services instigated the collective characteristics of the dwelling units, encouraging an internal community within the residential block through shopping centres and servicing staffs. In a larger context, these amenities reflected on the city structure and its interrelation with commercial markets. Through its uses and constant adaptations of communal facilities, the functions of the Unite would be subject to continual change. Once the relationship between habitation, work and recreation has been established however, the Unite would continue to grow and develop harmoniously as a single entity.10

applying town planning strategies with the Unite, each function of a city was distributed within the residential block to produce an independent living machine. Despite the sheer scale of the volume block, the building functioned and developed as an entity with a well-established relationship between the programming. Although the dictation of German building regulations caused an imbalance in the Modular scale of the Corbusierhaus, the concepts and underlying principles introduced by Corbusier’s Athens Charter and reinforced through the Unite D’ Habitation series greatly influenced the planning of residential developments globally for the following decades. 04

Apartment Unit #1

Apartment Unit #2 Internal “Street”

Conclusion

The Corbusierhaus was a well-conceived housing project to address the working class through providing affordable living accommodations during Berlin’s post-war era. Its unique location surrounded by parks and greenery allowed Corbusier full control over the urban planning of the site. Through

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COVER IMAGE SOURCED FROM "the house of the mad man." Photograph.2010.Aging Modernism, https://agingmodernism.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/facade-unite.jpg (accessed October 25, 2014).

1. "Berlin after 1945." Berlin.de. http://www.berlin.de/berlin-im-ueberblick/geschichte/1945.en.html (accessed October 20, 2014). 2. "Interbau: The Modernization of Germany." DW.DE. http://www.dw.de/interbau-the-modernization-of-germany/a-2669713 (accessed October 25, 2014). 3. Zeballos, Carlos. "LE CORBUSIER: UNITÉ D'HABITATION IN BERLIN." MY ARCHITECTURAL MOLESKINE. http://architecturalmoleskine.blogspot.ca/2011/10/le-corbusier-unite-dhabitation-in.html (accessed October 25, 2014). 4. Besset, Maurice. Who was Le Corbusier?. Geneva: Skira; Distributed in the United States by the World Pub. Co., Cleveland, 1968. 5. Zeballos, Carlos. "LE CORBUSIER: UNITÉ D'HABITATION IN BERLIN." MY ARCHITECTURAL MOLESKINE. http://architecturalmoleskine.blogspot.ca/2011/10/le-corbusier-unite-dhabitation-in.html (accessed October 25, 2014). 6. Visser, Joep. "The flopped Stalinallee (1949-1961). What happens with a birthday gift to the Red Tsar.." Historical tales about the capital of the 20th century. http://joepwritesthehistoryofberlin wordpress.com/2014/02/14/stalinallee/ (accessed October 25, 2014). 7. Gans, Deborah. The Le Corbusier guide. Rev. ed. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2000. 8. Besset, Maurice. Who was Le Corbusier?. Geneva: Skira; Distributed in the United States by the World Pub. Co., Cleveland, 1968. 9. Cresti, Carlo. Le Corbusier. London: Hamlyn, 1970. 10. Eardley, Anthony, and Le Corbusier. "CIAM's "The Athens Charter" (1933)." modernist architecture. http://modernistarchitecture.wordpress.com/2010/11/03/ciam's-"the-athens-charter"-1933/03 (accessed September 14, 2014). FIGURES 1. 6.

Glancey, Jonathan. "Le Corbusier's Unite: Is it a modern classic?." Photograph.2013.BBC Culture, http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/wwfeatures/624_351/images/live/p0/18/2f/p0182fxg.jpg (accessed Octber 26, 2014) "Unité d'Habitation de Berlin."Photograph.2005.Wikipedia, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ en/5/50/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation_de_Berlin_Rear_Oct_2005_1442.jpg (accessed October 25, 2014)

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