UNIT 01 RESEARCH AND ACADEMIC WRITING

 Learning outcomes

• What is information and data representation?

• What are the sources of information?

• What are the benefits of using information in academic writing?

• What are the impacts of formulating the aim(s) and objectives?

What is information?

Information is the something like a context with definite meaning and when this is stored into a computer it is known as data.

Information is a form of data which is used to convey a message any relevant data to the receiver.

The raw materials are collected and made into data which is useful by the users.

Data itself is not useful unless it is converted into a form of facts or entities.

Data representation

Staples, S., Egbert, J., Biber, D. and Gray, B (2016) Academic writing development at the university level: Phrasal and clausal complexity across level of study, discipline, and g enre. Written Communication, 33(2), pp.149-183.

Sources of information for academic writing

The types of source of information is of Primar y Secondary

These two methods provides the relevant information's regarding any subject.

Primary data is collected from the first hand sources using the methods like interviews, surveys and experiments.

Whereas secondary data is gathered from interviews, studies, surveys and experiments by other people.

Primar y data sources

Primary sources provide the first quality and the first handed material which is collected for evaluating the topics.

Primary sources are the original sources collected by direct interaction with the concerned persons.

It is acquired through certain steps like interview, survey and experiments from the authorities according to their convenient time.

It is the original artwork with experimental data

Secondary sources of information is collected from the persons which is not directly entangled with them.

Secondary data sources

The already created work resources is being used by the needful people according to their necessity.

Secondary sources interpret the analyses from the primary sources .

Secondary sources may contain more information as pictures, quotes and graphics.

It is mainly in the form of journals and articles.

Figure 1.2 : Sources of information Source: Shanahan (2015)

Shanahan, T (2015) Common Core State Standards: A new role for writing. The Elementary School Journal, 115(4), pp.464479.

Scope and limitations of sources

Sources of information have both merits and demerits according to the method of sourcing we selected.

Scope of sourcing is that better results and refined summary of the theory can be provided by making use of technological advancements.

Limitation of theory is based on the source which we dependent, if the details provided at that particular source is not reliable then it can effect the research paper adversely.

Benefits of using different sources

A theory or an article is written on the basis of data's collected from different sources and is coupled together with immense information's.

By using different sources, the article created will be more effective and up to the concept.

It enables us to get the whole idea of the concept and also improves the vision towards the concept.

Along with perfection the quality of the data is also improved.

The main aim of the topic can also be condensed by using all the available sources till now.

 Research formulation

In a research paper, the researcher needs to state clearly the formulation of the problem.

Researcher has to purify and state all the problem based on the research problem.

Identifying the broad area of the research topic and applying it in the research.

Such an area should have a far significance which is mutually related to the topic discussed.

Aims and objectives makes the thesis look more professional when it is done in that aspect.

Aims and objectives used in academic writing

Aim gives us the idea on what is the project is about and is very much relevant .

Academic writing promotes the understand ability of the person using it while writing.

Aim of research provides the answer to the research question and to be clear on the concept.

Data collection and analysis

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS IS ANOTHER MAJOR PROCESS WHICH INVOLVES ACTIONS AND METHODS ON DATA WHICH HELPS IN UNDERSTANDING THE RESEARCH TOPIC WELL.

DATA ASSURANCE, STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS, DATA MODELLING AND DEVELOPING EXPLANATIONS FOR THE DATA PATTERNS ARE SOME OF THE MAIN DUTIES OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS.

ANALYSIS PROCESS SHOULD BE DONE PRECISELY , SINCE IT IS REGARDED WITH THE INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA RESULTS FOUND.

Literature review is also important since it gives an idea on what the whole topic is about.

Literature review

The previous findings are included in literature review and the purpose using it in an academic writing is to make everyone understand what are the major factors which is included in the research paper.

It consists of the jest of many papers which is done previously to make the paper more reliable and effective.

References are used in a research paper to understand the validity and the certainty of the papers.

Usage of references

It is to acknowledge the contribution of other writers and researchers in the work. It is not only used o avoid plagiarism but also to make sure that the content is not something invalid. The intellectual property rights is being respected while the referencing method is used. It is also mentioning about a situation and providing the sources which is being used in that paper.

 Research strategy

Figure 1.3 : Research strategy

Source : Groll et al.(2016)

Gr oll, J., Boland, T., Blunk, T., Burdick, J.A., Cho, D.W., Dalton, P.D., Derby, B., Forgacs, G., Li, Q., Mironov, V.A. and Moroni, L (2016) Biofabrication: reappraising the definition of an ev olving field. Biofabrication, 8(1), p.013001.

Mistakes in formulating aims and objectives

Broad usage of topic

When the topic selected covers a very wide topic then the there will be many questions which is unable to answer and thus the research analysis will be incomplete.

An attempt to complete all the topics will make the paper more complex and chances of being accurate analysis will be decreased barely.

The questions pointed when covering the large area which is beyond the data information and sources, the outcome will be worse and un understandable.

Unrealistic aim

A paper should contain certain aims which is able to be fulfilled and the findings from that should ne included in that paper. Suppose when an unrealistic aim is opted the correct scrutiny is not possible up to our wish.

Moreover the aim that is set should not be over- ambitious .

The specifications, formulations and interpretations has to be valid while including it in the paper.

Whenever a project work has started, a time frame will be allot to complete within that span of time.

 Research methods incompatible within the time frame

So selection of writing methods should be done accurately.

Sometimes there are chances of exceeding that time span.

A writing has to be completed within the allotted time at any cost.

And this extension can lead to various issues within the writing structure.

The research paper that one is working should be important to him, all due respect should be given to the work he/she is doing.

Ethical issues in academic writing

There are certain code of conducts in writing a paper, the writer should thoroughly follow the code of ethics provided.

No partiality and prioritising according to the person should be done while committing the work.

It should not be segregated according to the current environment and for the well-being of the others connected with them.

Whenever a research paper is up, the research should receive the consent from the concerned person and that person should be informed.

Attaining the consent

The data's and information's collected regarding the paper has to be explained to the participants within the expected duration. Always the contribution towards the paper should be voluntary.

People should need to know about their part of willingness to involve in the research.

Respecting the privacy

While working inside a research paper the privacy and confidentiality should be preserved by the concerned authorities.

To successfully complete the research, information's should be shared and the participants should be comfortable while working.

The identity of the participants should be protected if requested by them.

The work space should make the workers feel free while working.

Action plan in academic writing

The first and foremost plan that is done in the academic writing is the understanding of the question.

The question should be properly evaluated and analysed thoroughly to frame the rest of the writing.

What is the question about, is it opened or closed structure what all can be the scope and limitations of the question.

These are some of queries which has to considered while reading a question.

The next stage of planning includes the process of brain storming in search of new ideas.

Brain storming

Thinking and understanding more about the topic from readings, magazines and lectures.

Responses are acquired from the possible outsources.

Mind gaping and organising the thoughts regarding the research paper should be practised by the researcher.

Making a plan

After all these activities the next step is to create a plan regarding the essay.

A proper structure is initiated logically and the arguments can be put to an end.

It helps us to stick on to the points which is being expressed through ideas.

The complex thinking can be avoided while creating a structure for the writing.

There are certain strategies for the planning.

Should make sure that whether the structure created suits the topic and is it appropriate.

Data planning

Figure 1.4 : Data planning Source : Olmanson et al.(2016)

Olmanson, J., Kennett, K., Magnifico, A., McCarthey, S., Searsmith, D., Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M (2016) Visualizing revision: Leveraging student-generated between-draft diagramming data in support of academic writing development. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 21(1), pp.99-123.

Rationale is the reason for which the study is conducted, the main purpose of conducting such a kind of study.

Rationale of research

To justify the significance of the study that is been created on background of the research is also known as rationale of research.

Ideally speaking, the hypothesis, results, conclusions and objectives of the research has to be structured.

Research design

RESEARCH DESIGN IS THE MAIN FRAMEWORK WHICH HELPS IN CREATING THE ULTIMATE MOTIVE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER.

THERE ARE THREE TYPES RESEARCH DESIGN THEY ARE AS FOLLOWS:

It is the design of the research project which uses partial methods for research study.

Quantitative research design

It includes large number of samples and increased responsibility along with the standard format of quantitative studies.

It mainly favours the closed-ended questions and depends on the quality of the responses.

It also ensures that the whole data sample is fairly analysed before sending the entire data sample.

This process is more efficient than any other processes.

This research design depends upon the methods implemented , participants, observations and in-depth interviews.

Qualitative research design

It is concerned with establishing answers for the questions why and how.

It is a process of attaining rich knowledge about the content and helps to gain lot more data's.

Systemati c research design

Systematic reviews are designed to provide a complete summary of current evidence related to a question.

It is the study about narrow and broad topic which synthesises the actual study material.

It involves the findings of the characteristics of the related topic.

It is a statistical method which provides a structured outcome for the study.

Referencing refers to the understanding of the topic.

Referencing

Easily identifiable by others what are the sources used.

Whenever a citation is done, the original author is to be mentioned by the users of that research paper.

Referencing is actually the process of thanking the authors which has created the conclusions and assumption related to the paper.

Statistical analyses of resources

Resources are to be analysed statistically and they are evaluated through lots of studies.

Statistical research makes the paper little more easier to understand.

The complex stage of resources are to be mentioned along with the research study.

Technology and time are the two main constraints of the research topic.

To maintain the resources statistically and to include it in research topic is quite complex

Control of variables

A variable is defined as any kind of item, condition, quantity which is capable of changing

The cause and effect relationship is discussed in addition to this.

There are three types of control variables namely

Independent variable

Independent variable is the kind of variable which can be manipulated and altered according to the researcher.

It is used to modify the control over the research paper to know what is the effect of it.

Independent variable as per the name, it is purely independent and the changes are visibly made in the structure.

The effect of the variable reflected is recorded and measured.

Dependent variables

In a scientific research, dependent variable is to find the effects of the experiments done in the paper.

The amount of study based on a certain topics depends on the tine spent in the studies.

Dependent variable depends on the independent variable which helps in identifying the research paper.

Researchers are really eager to know what will be the impact of applying the dependent variables in the experiment.

A VARIABLE WHICH IS HELD CONSTANT IN THE EXPERIMENT IS KNOWN AS CONTROL VARIABLE.

Controlled variables

IF A CONTROL VARIABLE IS CHANGED DURING EXPERIMENT THEN THE CORELATION BETWEEN THE VARIABLES CAN BE DETERMINED.

IF POSSIBLE, THE VARIABLES SHOULD BE IDENTIFIED, MEASURED, AND RECORDED FOR THE BETTER RESULTS.

Lessons learned

THE PURPOSE OF INFORMATION AND DATA REPRESENTATION IS STUDIED.

THE PURPOSE OF SOURCE OF INFORMATION IS STUDIED.

THE BENEFITS OF USING INFORMATION IN ACADEMIC WRITING WAS STUDIED.

THE IMPACT OF FORMULATING AIM(S) AND OBJECTIVES WAS STUDIED.

Hypothe sis

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find.

It is a tentative answer to your research question, which is not tested.

For some research projects, one may have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of one’s research question.

•A hypothesis is not based on a guess. It should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It should be testable, which means one can support or refute it through scientific methods. (Which includes experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

VARIABLES IN THE HYPOTHESIS

• IN EXPERIMENTAL AND CORRELATION RESEARCH, THE HYPOTHESIS PROPOSES A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO OR MORE VARIABLES.

• AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE IS SOMETHING THE RESEARCHER CHANGES OR CONTROLS. A DEPENDENT VARIABLE IS OBSERVED AND MEASURED BY THE RESEARCHER.

Developing a hypothesis

Ask a question

• Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that needs to be answered.

•The question should be specific, focused, and researchable within the limitations of one’s project.

DO SOME PRELIMINARY RESEARCH

• ONE’S INITIAL ANSWER TO THE QUESTION SHOULD BE BASED ON WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THE TOPIC.

• RESEARCH FOR THEORIES AND PREVIOUS STUDIES

TO HELP TO FORM EDUCATED ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT WHAT YOUR RESEARCH WILL FIND.

Naoum, S.(2012) Dissertation research and writing for construction students.

Abingdon: Routledge.

At this stage, one may construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables one will study and what one thinks the relationships are between them.

Naoum (2012)

Formulate your hypothesis

• Now one must have some idea of what one expects to find. Write one’s initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

Refine your hypothesis

One must make sure that one’s hypothesis is specific and testable.

•There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms used should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain: Relevant variables, the specific group being studied, the predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis.

Literature Review

• A literature review is defined as a type of review article.

•A literature review involves search and evaluation of the available literature in your given subject or chosen topic area.

A literature review is a scholarly paper, including the current knowledge like substantive findings, theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.

• It documents the art, concerning the subject or topic you are writing.

A literature review has four main objectives:

IT SURVEYS THE LITERATURE IN THE AREA CHOSEN FOR STUDY

• IT ANALYSES THE INFORMATION GATHERED BY IDENTIFYING GAPS IN CURRENT KNOWLEDGE. THIS IS DONE BY SHOWING LIMITATIONS OF THEORIES AND POINTS OF VIEW AND BY FORMULATING AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH AND REVIEWING AREAS OF CONTROVERSY

• It synthesises the information in the literature into a summary

• It introduces the literature in an organised way.

A literature review reveals that you have an in-depth grasp of your subject and that one understand where one’s research fits into and adds to the existing body of knowledge.

• A review of literature presents much more than a summary of relevant sources.

•The act of reviewing involves evaluating individual sources and synthesising these sources to gain a broad view of the field. At this level, a literature review discusses common and emerging approaches, remarkable

patterns and trends, areas of conflict and controversies, and gaps within the relevant literature.

Galvan et al. (2017)

Galvan, J.L. and Galvan, M.C. (2017) Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences. Abingdon: Routledge.

•Observing these things enable one to situate one's research and contribute to on-going debates within the field.

Analysis and synthesis

• Analysis and synthesis appear as two opposing methods.

• • The analysis involves breaking down the relevant literature into its constituent parts systematically; synthesis is the making of connections between those parts identified in the analysis.

•After the analysis of a range of sources, one should synthesise the relevant sources, linking, connecting and positioning them against each other to identify the recurring themes, trends, areas of agreement or disagreement within your research field.

Writing a Literature Review

LITERATURE REVIEW SHOULD INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING ELEMENTS:

• A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT MATTER OF YOUR STUDY AND THE OBJECTIVES THAT ONE HOPE TO ACCOMPLISH IN CONDUCTING THE STUDY

• SOME CATEGORIES OF LITERATURE WHICH ARE RELEVANT TO YOUR STUDY

•A conclusion in which you synthesise the findings of studies that are most convincing and that make the greatest contribution to your study.

• A clear explanation of how the literature that you have chosen relates to yours and other studies

While writing the literature review, one should keep in mind several considerations regarding the authors and viewpoints of the literature:

• Are the authors reliable?

• What other studies have the authors conducted?

• Do all sides of the topics are represented in the studies?

perspectives

Ferrari (2015)

Ferrari, R.(2015) Writing narrative style literature reviews. Medical Writing, 24(4), pp.230-235.

• Are the

of the studies subjective or objective? • Do the studies contribute to the broader field of study?

To make your review successfully provide readers with a relevant understanding of your topic, one needs to try to achieve some of the following goals:

• Identify new ways to interpret data or to understand research

• Resolve conflicts among contradictory studies

Emphasise the

need for

further research

about your topic • Place your study in the context of discussed works

When one writes a thesis or dissertation, one will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge.

It should be included in the introduction or theoretical framework, or it may be a separate chapter that comes from the methodology and results sections.

One may also assign a literature review as a standalone paper.

Conducting a literature review involves:

Collect, evaluate and select literature

To write the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, one will have to search for literature related to one’s research problem and questions. This is the first step to understand the knowledge level on your topic before one begins the research

•

In order to write a literature review as a standalone assignment, one need to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct one’s search.

Jesson et al.(2011)

Jesson, J., Matheson, L. and Lacey, F.M.(2011). Doing your literature review: Traditional and systematic techniques. California: Sage.

Evaluate and select sources

One needs to start by reading the abstract to determine whether the article is useful. One needs to evaluate which sources are most valuable and relevant to the questions.

Take notes and cite your sources.

One need to take notes that can be later incorporated into the text of the literature review. Keep track of the sources with citations to avoid plagiarism.

2. Find connections and themes

To organise the literature review’s argument and structure, one need to identify relationships between the sources he/she have read. Based on the reading and notes, one can look for:

•Trends and patterns (in method, theory or result) – whether certain approaches become more or less popular over time.

•

Themes: to check what questions or concepts recur across the literature.

• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: to check where do the sources disagree.

• Pivotal publications: To check whether there are any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field.

Gaps: Is there something missing from the literature? Are there any weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help to work out the structure of your literature review and show how one’s research will contribute to existing knowledge.

3. Plan your literature review’s structure

There are many approaches to organise the body of a literature review. One should have a rough idea of the strategy before he/she starts writing.

Depending on the length of the literature review, one can combine several of these strategies.

CHRONOLOGICAL:

THE SIMPLEST APPROACH INVOLVES TRACING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOPIC OVER TIME. IF ONE CHOOSES THIS STRATEGY, BE CAREFUL TO AVOID LISTING AND SUMMARISING SOURCES IN ORDER.

TRY TO ANALYSE PATTERNS, TURNING POINTS, AND KEY DEBATES THAT HAVE SHAPED THE DIRECTION OF THE FIELD.

Thematic

If one found some recurring central themes, one can organise the literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

Methodological

• If one draws sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods, you may need to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches.

Theoretical

• A literature review is a foundation for a theoretical framework. One can use it to discuss various theories, models, definitions of key concepts.

• You may argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Write a literature review

A literature review must have an introduction, the main body, and a conclusion. What one include in each depends on the objective of the literature review.

Introduction

The introduction should show the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Body

Depending on the length of the literature review, one may need to divide the body into

subsections.

One can use a subheading for each theme, period, or methodological approach.

Conclusion

Booth et al.(2016)

In the conclusion, one should summarise the key findings one have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

Booth, A., Sutton, A. and Papaioannou, D.(2016) Systematic approaches to a successful literature review California: Sage.

Reflective writing

Most writings are creative writings, where one describes something that happened or makes up a story.

Reflective writing gives the writer insights, which can lead to further learning.

•

like rewinding one’s life to a past event and then thinking about how it affected one’s life, what could have he/she done differently to change the outcome, or what came out of the event.

It is

Reflection is a mental process. It is a long consideration or contemplation.

Opinions or thoughts that come to one while reflecting are called reflections.

It is an interpretation of what is going on between learning and thinking.

When writing about a reflection, there are factors that can affect how one expresses it. They are:

• Why one is writing

• Whether others will read it or not

• How one feels about his/her writing

• One’s emotions at the time of writing

• How capable one is at writing reflectively

Process of Reflection

three areas of reflection are given below:

Technical – This involves what worked or did not work and why, theories that were used or tested and problems solving techniques

•Group – This involves the team dynamics; how everyone worked together and why, what worked or did not work and why, and how could they have done better

•Individual – What did I learn and how, how did I feel and why, and what could I have done better?

What are the specific and general conclusions that one have made?

What could have been one done differently, and what will be affected by what you have learned?

Ryan (2011)

Ryan, M.(2011) Improving reflective writing in higher education: A social semiotic perspective. Teaching in Higher Education, 16(1), pp.99-111.

LO3: Be able to evaluate research and data collection methods.

pur decisions.”

-Andy Dunn-

“Without data , you’re just another person with an opinion.”

-W. Edwards Deming-

“In much of society, research means to investigate something you do not know or understand.”

-Neil Armstrong-

Data Collection

• Data collection is the process of collecting and measuring information from the relevant sources in an established systematic manner to find answers to the research problem, test hypothesis, and evaluate outcomes.

Johnson and Turner (2003)

It is an important aspect of the research study, and inaccurate data collection can adversely affect the research study by leading to invalid results.

Johnson, B. and Turner, L.A. (2003) Data collection strategies in mixed methods research. Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research, pp.297-319.

• The researcher must decide the following before initiate the data collection process: Which data to collect? How to collect the data? Who will collect the data? When to collect the data?

Types of Data

• The data is of two types:  Primary Data  Secondary Data

Primary Data

The primary data are the information which is collected for the first time and are original.

The primary data is more reliable, authentic and not been published anywhere.

The validity of primary data is greater than the secondary data because it has not been changed or altered by a human being.

Advanta ges of Primary Data

• The targeted issues are addressed by collecting the primary data.

• The data interpretation is better while using primary data.

• The accuracy of primary data is high as compared to secondary data.

Through collecting the primary data, the specific research issues are addressed.

The researcher has a greater level of control over how the information is gathered.

The primary data are up-to-date as it is collected directly from the field in real-time.

Walliman (2017)

Walliman, N. (2017) Research methods: The basics Abingdon: Routledge.

The collection of primary data is costlier.

Disadvanta ges of Primary Data

The collection of primary data is not always possible.

More time is required for collecting the primary data.

The primary data is limited to the specific time, the number of participants or place, etc.

Second ary Data

The secondary data may be available in the published or unpublished form.

Secondary data are the information which have already been collected by someone else and which have through some statistical analysis.

Journals, official records, research publications, periodicals etc. are included in the secondary data sources.

Advantages of Secondary Data

The secondary data can be easily accumulated from various secondary data sources.

The cost for the collection of primary data is very less.

Less time is required for collecting secondary data.

New insights and understandings can be generated by reanalysing the old data.

The secondary data provides a larger sample size for the study.

It allows the researcher to perform a longitudinal analysis to determine different trends.

Anyone can collect secondary data because it does not need knowledge of the different research methods.

Matthews and Ross (2014)

Matthews, B. and Ross, L. (2014) Research methods. London: Pearson Higher Ed.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

The secondary data doesn't fulfil the specific research needs.

The accuracy of the secondary data is poor.

It is not up-to-date data.

The secondary data may be biased in favour of the person who gathered it.

In some cases, the accessibility of secondary data is poor.

Primary

Survey Method Case Study Method

Panel method

Wilcox et al. (2012)

Wilcox, A.B., Gallagher, K.D., Boden-Albala, B. and Bakken, S.R. (2012) Research data collection methods: from paper to tablet computers. Medical care, pp.S68-S73.

Observation Method

IT IS THE METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION UNDER WHICH DATA FROM THE FIELD IS GATHERED WITH THE SUPPORT OF OBSERVATION BY THE OBSERVER OR BY PERSONALLY GOING TO THE FIELD.

IN OBSERVATION METHOD, THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE OBSERVED PERSON WILL BE NATURAL BECAUSE THE PERSON DOESN'T KNOW HE IS BEING OBSERVED.

Structured Observation

•Structured observation is that observation is done by characterising the style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of observation, the definition of the units to be observed and selection of pertinent data of observation.

Unstructured Observation

•The unstructured observation is the observation is done without any thought before observation.

Participant Observation

• It is the observation method in which the observer is the member of the group which he or she is observing.

Non-participant observation

• In non-participant observation, the observer is observing people without giving any information to them.

Controlled Observation

• Controlled observation is the observation takes place according to prearranged plans and experimental procedure.

• It is commonly done in a laboratory under controlled condition.

Uncontrolled Observation

It is the observation method in which the observation takes place in natural condition.

The uncontrolled observation is done to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons.

Suen and Ary (2014)

Suen, H.K. and Ary, D. (2014) Analyzing quantitative behavioral observation data London: psychology press.

Advantages of Observation

It produces large quantities of data.

The observation can be stopped or begin at any time.

All data obtained from observations are usable.

Disadvantages of Observation

It is an expensive way of data collection.

It provides only limited information.

Unforeseen factors may interfere with observational task.

Intervi ew Method

• The interview is one of the most common types of the primary data collection method.

• It involves presentation or oral-verbal stimuli and replies in terms of oral-verbal responses.

• In which, the interviewer asks questions related to the research study to the respondent.

Structur ed Intervie ws

• In a structured interview, a set of predetermined questions are used by the interviewer to interview a person.

• There are standardised techniques of recording adopted in structured interviews, and the interviewer follows rigid procedures laid down.

• The time required for a structured interview is less than unstructured interviews.

Unstructured Interviews

In unstructured interviews, the interviewer not follows a system of pre determined questions.

Such interviews provide the interviewer flexibility in asking questions

No standardised techniques are used in this kind of interviews.

Focused Interviews

In focused interviews, attention is focused on the given experience of the respondent and its possible effects.

Group Interviews

Alshenqeeti (2014)

Alshenqeeti, H. (2014) Interviewing as a data collection method: A critical review. English Linguistics Research 3(1), pp.39-45.

In which a group of persons are interviewed by the interviewer.

Personal Interview

In a personal interview, the interviewer asks questions to other person or persons usually in face to face contact.

Clinical Interviews

In which, the interviewer is concerned with deep underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the experience of an individual.

Advantages of Interview Method

The interviewer can obtain more information at greater depth.

A skilled interviewer can overcome the resistance.

The interviewer also can obtain personal information.

Non-response is generally low in the interview method.

Disadvantages of Interview Method

IT IS AN EXPENSIVE METHOD FOR COLLECTING INFORMATION.

THE RESPONDENT MAY GIVE BIAS INFORMATION.

Alshenqeeti (2014)

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS MAY OCCUR.

IT IS A TIMECONSUMING METHOD.

Alshenqeeti, H. (2014) Interviewing as a data collection method: A critical review. English Linguistics Research, 3(1), pp.3945.

Questionnaire Method

It is a quite popular data collection method particularly in case of big enquiries.

In which, a questionnaire is sent to the concerned persons by post or mail with an appeal to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order on a form.

Open-ended questions

• The open-ended questions give the respondents the ability to respond in their own words.

Close-ended questions

• The close-ended questions allow the respondents to choose one of the given alternatives.

Advantages of Questionnaire Method

It is a low-cost method for collecting a large amount of data.

This method is free form interviewer bias.

Disadvantages of Questionnaire Method

et

Schedule Method

• It is similar to the questionnaire method, but the schedule is filled by the enumerator who is specially appointed for the purpose.

In this method, the enumerator goes to respondents and asks questions listed in the questionnaire and records the responses in the space provided.

The enumerator also explains the aim and objectives of the study to the respondents.

The enumerator must be trained in administering the schedule.

Survey Method

• The survey is one of the common methods of primary data collection.

• It is used to know or get the opinions of a large group of people about a particular topic or issue.

The survey is mainly undertaking for diagnosing and solving social problems.

In the survey method, information is collected from a sample of the population rather than from every member of the population.

It gives both quantitative and qualitative data for a research study.

Case Study Method

The case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration.

It is used to examine contemporary real-life situations and apply the findings of the case to the problem under study.

It is a qualitative research method that involves a detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.

Panel Method

Panel method is the method of collecting data from the same sample respondents at some interval of time.

The data is collected either by mail or by personal interview.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

• The secondary data are collected from various secondary sources.

• The two types of secondary sources are:  Internal sources  External sources

Implementation of the Data Collection Method

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE METHOD FOR COLLECTING THE DATA FOR A RESEARCH STUDY MAINLY DEPENDS ON RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD.

EACH DESIGN DIFFERS IN THE TYPE OF DATA AS WELL AS THE AMOUNT OF DATA REQUIRED FOR THE STUDY.

ACCORDING TO THE RESEARCH DESIGN, THE RESEARCHER CAN IDENTIFY A SUITABLE DATA COLLECTION METHOD FOR THE STUDY.

Explanatory Research Design

Explanatory research design mainly discusses the relationship between the research variables.

In this research design, the researcher needs to collect only the specific information related to the research variables.

If the researcher chose the explanatory research design for the study, he/she should collect a limited amount of specific data about the research variables.

Yin (2011)

Yin, R.K. (2011) Applications of case study research. California: sage.

So the researcher should employ the data collection method for collecting relevant information from such sources or people.

Exploratory Research Design

The exploratory design explores the research issue in to a wide area.

When choosing the exploratory design, the researcher has to collect the data from the sources or people who give the relevant data for the study.

So the researcher should employ the data collection method for collecting relevant information from such sources or people.

Descript ive Researc

• The descriptive research design enables the researcher an in-depth study of the research issue.

• In which, the researcher needs different types of information related to the topic.

• So the researcher can employ the data collection methods that give him enough information related to the research issue.

hDesign

The primary as well as secondary data collection methods may be employed by the researcher in descriptive design.

Maxwell (2012)

Maxwell, J.A. (2012) Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (Vol. 41). California: Sage publications.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods

BOTH QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA ARE NECESSARY FOR A RESEARCH STUDY.

A RESEARCHER CAN REACH A PROPER CONCLUSION BY ANALYSING THE QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTED.

Quantitative Data

The quantitative data deals with things that are measurable and can be expressed in numbers or figures. The quantitative data are collected through different methods, such as: Surveys

Structured interviews

Questionnaire

Qualitative Data

The qualitative data is descriptive.

It can be acquired through different methods like: Observation

Open-ended survey

Interview questions

Methodological Issues

Bias Bias is the systematic error that causes an incorrect estimate of an association in the result or inference.

Major types of bias in research: Selection bias Information bias

Non-response bias Noble and Smith (2015)

• Exclusion bias

Selection Bias

Sources of selection bias:

• Volunteer bias

Selection bias is the bias results from procedures used to select individuals for inclusion in the study and analyses.

Noble, H. and Smith, J. (2015) Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research. Evidence-based nursing, 18(2), pp.34-35.

Information Bias

It is the bias results from procedures used to measure exposure, outcomes and other variables.

Sources of information bias:

Interviewer bias Recall bias Reporting bias Surveillance bias

Variables and control variables

VARIABLES

A RESEARCH VARIABLE IS A MEASURABLE CHARACTERISTIC THAT VARIES.

THE VARIABLE CAN CHANGE FROM PERSON TO PERSON, GROUP TO GROUP, OR EVEN WITHIN ONE PERSON OVER TIME.

Control Variables

Control variables are the variables which must be held constant, neutralised or eliminated in a research study because they are not possible to measure.

The control variables do not have a biasing effect on the other variables.

Validi ty

Validity characterises the extent to which a measurement procedure is capable of measuring what is supposed to measure.

Validity is one of the important concerns with research.

The primary responsibility of a researcher is to control all possible factors that threaten the validity of the research.

Validity is two types:

Internal validity and external validity.

Internal validity

It is affected by flaws within the study itself, such as not controlling some of the main variables or problems with the research instrument.

External validity

It is the extent to which the researcher can generalise his findings to a larger group or other contexts.

If the research lacks external validity, the findings can’t be applied to contexts other than one in which the researcher carried out his research.

Reliabili ty

•Reliability means whether or not the researcher gets the same answer by using an instrument to measure something more than once or it is the degree to which research method produces stable and consistent results.

Descriptive analysis

The descriptive analysis is used to analyse the quantitative data. It refers to the description of the data from a particular sample. It summarises the data and describes sample characteristics.

Thematic Analysis

THE THEMATIC ANALYSIS IS USED TO ANALYSE THE QUALITATIVE DATA.

THIS ANALYSIS EMPHASISES PINPOINTING, EXAMINING, AND RECORDING PATTERNS WITHIN DATA.

THEMES ARE THE PATTERNS ACROSS DATA SETS THAT ARE SIGNIFICANT TO THE DESCRIPTION OF A PHENOMENON AND ARE ASSOCIATED WITH A SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION.

Statistical Software Packages

• Statistical software is specialised computer programs for statistical analysis.

SPSS

SPSS is an important software package used for statistical analysis.

Statistical Analysis Methods

ANOV A IT IS THE SHORT FORM OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE.

IT IS A COLLECTION OF STATISTICAL MODELS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED ESTIMATION PROCEDURES.

ANOVA IS USED TO ANALYSE THE DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUP MEANS IN A SAMPLE.

Correlation

Correlation analysis examines the relationship between two or more variables.

Regression

Regression analysis examines the changes in other variables when change is made to one variable.

Bain (2017)

Bain, L. (2017) Statistical analysis of reliability and life-testing models: theory and methods. Abingdon: Routledge.

Lessons Learned

LEARNED IN DETAIL ABOUT DIFFERENT METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION.

UNDERSTOOD IN DETAIL ABOUT DATA ANALYSIS AND DATA ANALYSIS METHODS.

EXPANDED THE AREA OF KNOWLEDGE AND STUDIED BRIEFLY ABOUT THE VARIOUS METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN A RESEARCH STUDY.

LO4: Be able to produce academic work applying the Harvard Referencing system.

•“I have always focused on basic research, motivated by a desire to understand the world”.

• - Jennifer Doudna

• What is the information included in reference?

• What is plagiarism, and how it can avoid?

• What is the importance of avoiding plagiarism?

• What are bibliographical citations?

• What is numeric referencing?

Academic writing

• Academic writing is precise, compact, focussed, structured and backed up by evidence.

• Its motive is to aid the reader’s perception.

Canagarajah, S. (2011) Codemeshing in academic writing: Identifying teachable strategies of translanguaging. The Modern Language Journal, 95(3), pp.401417.

• There are some common characteristics of educational writing that are applicable across all disciplines.

•Characteristics of Academic writing

• Biber and Gray (2010)

Biber, D. and Gray, B. (2010) Challenging stereotypes about academic writing: Complexity, elaboration, explicitness. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 9(1), pp.2-20.

• Planned and focused: • Solve the question and demonstrates an appreciation of the problem.

• Structured:

• It is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings collectively associated points and material.

• Formal in tone and style:

• Uses first language and tenses, and is clear, concise and balanced.

Evidenced: • Demonstrates an understanding of the issue area, helps opinions and arguments with evidence and is referenced accurately.

Borglin, G. (2012) Promoting critical thinking and academic writing skills in nurse education. Nurse education today, 32(5), pp.611-613.

... Borglin (2012) ...

Referencing

• Referencing is the method of recognising the sources that have practised in composing essay, assignment or piece of work.

• It enables the reader to access the source documents as quickly and efficiently as possible to verify, if necessary, the validity of arguments and the evidence on which they based.

• Citing sources in the text of the assignment that identify sources called citation or in-text citations.

• Referencing all the sources at the end of the assignment called reference list or end-text citations.

• …<<>>… Zheng et al. (2014) …<<>>… Zheng, S., Chen, W., Tan, D., Zhou, J., Guo, Q., Jiang, W., Xu, C., Liu, X. and Qiu, J. (2014) Lanthanide-doped NaGdF 4 core–shell nanoparticles for non-contact self-referencing temperature sensors. Nanoscale,

Successful Reference

• For a successful reference full details of author, date, title and publication details of any material that used in the assignment should note down systematically.

• The URL address and the date that accessed should note down while using web pages, e-journals and ebooks.

• Besides being top academic practice, this ensures that they do now not have the trouble of attempting to discover sources that have used weeks or months previously.

Martin-Pichora, A.L. and Antony, M.M. (2011) Successful treatment of olfactory reference syndrome with cognitive behavioral therapy: A case study. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 18(4), pp.545-554.

• Benefit of Accurate Referencing

• By referring to the works of authorised experts and specialists in the subject area, weight can add to comments and arguments.

• It helps to explain that they have read widely and considered and examined the writings of others.

Harvard Reference Style

• Harvard is a style of referencing, mainly employed by university learners, to refer to information sources.

• Two types of citations are In-text citation and Reference lists.

• Hayakawa and Venieris (2016)

Hayakawa, H. and Venieris, Y. (2016) Consumer interdependence via reference groups. In Behavioral Interactions, Markets, and Economic Dynamics (pp. 81-99).

In-text citations

R. (2013) Improving the accuracy of co citation clustering using full text. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 64(9), pp.17591767.

Boyack, K.W., Small, H.

and Klavans,

• Example: The detailed study into a particular problem or concern using the scientific method is known as the research (Leech and Onwuegbuzie, 2019).

• Athar and Teufel (2012)

ogies (pp. 597 601).

Athar, A. and Teufel, S. (2012) June. Context-enhanced citation sentiment detection. In Proceedings of the 2012 conference of the North American chapter of the Assoc tion for Computational Linguistics: Human language techno

Reference lists

• Reference Lists are situated at the close of the work and display full citations for sources used in the assignment.

• Example: Fitzgerald, F. (2004). The great Gatsby. New York: Scribner.

• Wilhelmi et al. (2012)

Wilhelmi, M.H., Tiede, A., Teebken, O.E., Bisdas, T., Haverich, A. and Mischke, R. (2012) Ovine blood: establishment of a list of reference values relevant for blood coagulation in sheep. ASAIO journal (American Society for Artificial Internal Organs: 1992), 58(1), pp 79 82

Harvard Reference List Overview

• Reference lists are designed to enable readers to locate sources themselves.

• Every citation in a reference list involves several pieces of information.

• The general format of Harvard Reference List

Citation

• Last name, First Initial. (Year published). Title. City: Publisher, Page(s)

• Gebauer et al. (2010)

Gebauer, L., LaBrie, R. and Shaffer, H.J. (2010) Optimizing DSM-IV-TR classification accuracy: A brief biosocial screen for detecting current gambling disorders among gamblers in the general household population. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(2), pp.82-90.

• Citations are arranged in alphabetic order by the author’s last name.

• If there are various sources by the same author, then citations are arranged in sequence by the date of publication.

• Books with One Author

•Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. Edition. (Only include the version if it is not the first edition) City announced: Publisher, Page(s).

Harvard Referenc e List Citations

• Example for Books with One Author:

•Patterson, J. (2015). Maximum ride. New York: Little, Brown

•

Books with Two or More Authors

•Last name, First initial. and Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. City: Publisher, Page(s)

Example for Books with Two or more Author

• Desikan, S. and Ramesh, G. (2006). Software testing. Bangalore, India: Dorling Kindersley, p.156.

• Vermaat, M., Sebok, S., Freund, S., Campbell, J. and Frydenberg, M. (2014). Discovering computers. Boston: Cengage Learning, pp.446-448.

• Harvard Reference List Citations for Chapters in Edited Books

•Last name, First initial. (Year printed). Section title. In: First initial. End name, ed., Book Title, 1st ed.* City: Publisher, Page(s).

Example for Chapters in Edited Books

•Bressler, L. (2010). My girl, Kylie. In: L. Matheson, ed., The Dogs That We Love, 1st ed. Boston: Jacobson Ltd., pp. 78-92

What is plagiarism?

• Plagiarism is a term that defines the unacknowledged value of someone's work.

• It involves material or ideas from any published or unpublished sources, whether print, web-based (even if freely available) or audiovisual.

Paraphrasing

Citing

Citing is an effective way to avoid plagiarism.

Follow the record formatting guidelines adopted by the educational organisation or the organisation that published the research application.

• Citing quotes

• Citing a quote can be diverse than quoting paraphrased material.

• The practise includes the addition of a page number or a paragraph number in the case of web content typically.

• If some of the material that is using for the research paper which was used by them in their current class, rather anyplace else they must cite themself.

Citing own material

• One of the most significant measures to avoid plagiarism is including a reference page or page of works cited at the conclusion of the research paper.

Referencing

Importance of Avoiding Plagiarism

• Behind specific punishment or the sanction, that are immediately implemented by the professor or assistant or their supervisor, could already destroy their academic record as a student or researcher in the short span.

• If a student or researcher considered as a plagiarist by their colleagues or peers could dramatically affect their reputation.

• And their previous or forthcoming work will fail its legitimacy across the long way.

• The others will not believe them, and everything they write is regarding as suspicious.

• A Bibliography lists all the material that must consult in preparing an essay, whether they have referred to also cited the work or not.

• It includes all the sources that have done to prepare any research.

Bibliographical Citation

•

Bibliographies often used in Chicago and Turabian citation styles.

• They usually contain a great reference that has a corresponding footnote within the body of the article.

Kendall et al. (2010)

Footnotes

• Footnotes are notes located at the foot of a page.

• They cite references or comment on an assigned portion of the document above it.

• Macdonald and Kam (2010)

Macdonald, S. and Kam, J. (2010) Counting footnotes: Citability inmanagement studies. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 26(2), pp.189-203.

What is numeric referenci

• In the Numeric system of referencing, numbers entered in the document relate to a numerical sequence of references at the end.

• The primary source numbered 1, the second 2, and so on.

• The numbers can address in superscript or brackets.

Academic writing applying the Harvard Referencing system

Customer satisfaction is a central idea for customer achievement professionals to learn and live by, and it's genuinely about further than a money-back guarantee (Yoshida and James, 2010). Customers obtain satisfaction from a commodity or a service based on whether their demand is met effortlessly, in a comfortable way that makes them faithful to the firm (Flint et al., 2011).

Referenc e of the article

• Yoshida, M. and James, J.D. (2010) Customer satisfaction with game and service experiences: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of sport management, 24(3), pp.338-361.

• Flint, D.J., Blocker, C.P. and Boutin Jr, P.J. (2011)

Customer value anticipation, customer satisfaction and loyalty: An empirical examination. Industrial marketing management, 40(2), pp.219-230

Lessons Learned

• The information included in reference were studied.

• Plagiarism, and how it can avoid were studied.

• The importance of avoiding plagiarism were studied.

• Bibliographical citations were studied.

• Numeric referencing were studied.

LO5: Be able to use techniques for independent learning, self-study and evaluation of own academic work.

Learning outcomes

• How to use study plans to achieve research and academic writing objectives?

• How to use independent learning techniques?

• How to reflect on research and academic writing?

Study plans to achieve research and academic writing objectives Research Action Plan

Basic research action plan outline

But the following is a highly recommended research action plan outline.

Generally, there is no standard outline for creating a research action plan.

Introduction

It is as important as other sections of the research plan.

This contains details on why the research is being conducted, and also provides information on how the research will affect the sector or industry it was based on.

It must be noted that the introduction is not a summary of the research.

THAT SECTION IS CALLED “ABSTRACT”.

ONCE THE STUDY HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED, THE ABSTRACT IS WRITTEN.

USUALLY, THE ABSTRACT IS INSERTED AFTER THE INTRODUCTION.

Walliman (2017)

Walliman, N. (2017) Research methods: The basics. Abingdon: Routledge.

Statement of the problem

• It identifies the issues or problems that need to be solved in the research.

• The statement of the problem is usually formulated using H and WH questions, and these questions must be specific.

• Supplying general questions will be difficult for the researcher mainly when the researcher reaches the data-gathering stage.

Methodology

The methodology identifies the researcher’s respondents, research design, locale, and data-gathering procedure.

The procedures and methods used by the researcher for the study will be listed in this section.

The

The

Patten and Newhart (2017)

Patten, M.L. and Newhart, M. (2017) Understanding research methods: An overview of the essentials Abingdon: Routledge.

researcher mostly focusses on the procedures and methods he previously chose.

methodology helps the researcher a lot to stay focused on the problems the researcher wants to solve.

Analysis of Data

• Data analysis is the core part of the entire research or study.

• Data analysis is conducted only after the compilation of all data.

• Researchers use numerous data analysis methods.

• The used method depends on the data that was gathered (number of respondents, type of study, research topic, etc.)

MOST OF THE TIME, THE RESEARCHER WILL BE ASSISTED BY A STATISTICIAN ON TABULATING THE DATA AND TO IDENTIFY THE ANALYSIS METHOD TO USE.

IT IS CRUCIAL TO ANALYSE THE DATA CAREFULLY.

IT WILL HELP THE RESEARCHER TO IDENTIFY THE RECOMMENDATIONS TO USE.

Recommendation

It is the result of data analysis.

The statement of the problem is answered in this section through the data that was analysed and gathered.

Make sure that there is a recommendation for each question in the statement of the problem.

Recommendations are solutions for the presented problems.

Conclusion

It is the last part of the research.

It serves a similar purpose to the introduction.

The conclusion is not the summary of the entire research.

It repeats the information that was mentioned previously in the recommendation and data analysis.

Gantt chart

• These are commonly used in project management.

• This is one of the most accepted and useful ways of showing events or tasks displayed against time.

• The list of the activities is shown on the left of the chart and a suitable time scale is shown along the top of the chart.

Each activity is represented by a bar.

The length and position of the bar show the start date, end date, and duration of the activity.

This allows the user to have a glance at the various activities, starting and ending time of each activity, each task is scheduled to last, where the overlapping of activities occur and by how much, and the start and end of the whole project.

Figure 5.1: A simple Gantt chart Source: Geraldi and Lechter (2012)

Geraldi, J. and Lechter, T. (2012) Gantt charts revisited: A critical analysis of its roots and implications to the management of projects today. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business 5(4), pp.578-594.

SMART Goal

It is used to help guide goal setting.

SMART is actually an acronym that stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Timely.

Therefore, a SMART goal includes all of these standards to increase the chances of achieving that goal and to focus the efforts.

SMART goals are:

Specific: Unambiguous, clear and well defined.

Measurable: With particular criteria that measure the progress towards the achievement of the goal.

Achievable: Not impossible to achieve and attainable.

Realistic: Relevant to life purpose, realistic and within reach.

Timely: With an evidently defined timeline, including target date and starting date. The motive is to create urgency.

SMART Goal

Specific

• The chance for getting accomplished is high for goals that are specific.

• The five “W” questions must be considered:  Why: Why the goal is important? 

What: What are the essential parts of the goal? 

When: When is it going to happen? 

Who: Who is involved in this goal? 

Where: Where is the goal to be achieved?

SMART Goal- Measurable

This must have the criteria for measuring progress.

If there are no criteria, it will be difficult to determine the progress and to check if the researcher is on track to reach the goal.

Lawlor (2012)

To make a goal measurable, the researcher must ask themselves: How much/many ?

How to know, if the researcher has reached the goal?

What is the indicator of progress?

SMART Goal – Achievable

• A SMART goal must be attainable and achievable.

• This will help the researcher to identify ways to understand the goal and work towards it.

• The researcher must feel challenged by stretching the achievability of the goal, but should be defined well enough so that the researcher can actually achieve it.

Does the researcher have the capabilities and resources to achieve the goal? If not, what is missing?

Researcher must ask themselves:

Have others successfully done it before?

SMART Goal – Realistic

• A SMART goal must be realistic.

• The goal must be realistically achievable given the time and available resources.

• A SMART goal is likely realistic if the researcher believes that it can be accomplished.

Anderson (2013)

ANDERSON, W. (2013) Independent learning: Autonomy, control, and meta-cognition. In Handbook of distance education (pp. 104-121). Abingdon: Routledge.

The researcher must ask themselves: Is the goal within reach and realistic? Is the goal reachable give time and resources? Is it possible for the researcher to commit to achieving the goal?

SMART GOALTIMELY

A SMART GOAL MUST BE TIMEBOUNDED.

IT MUST HAVE A START AND END DATE.

THERE WILL BE MOTIVATION AND SENSE OF URGENCY TO ACHIEVE THE GOAL IF THE GOAL IS NOT TIME-CONSTRAINED.

The researcher must ask themselves:

Does the goal have a deadline?

At what time the goal must be achieved?

Independent learning techniques

It is a process, a method and a philosophy of education in which the learner achieves knowledge by their efforts and grows the ability for critical evaluation and enquiry.

This method liberates the learner from being tied down to the very specific learning experiences.

•

It will allow them to direct themselves a lot more in understanding exactly what and how they will learn about.

• In this method, the teacher becomes an arranger of learning.

Independent learners can develop abilities such as acquiring and deploying information, effective communication using different media, organising themselves, solving problems and relating to others.

These abilities will stand with them during and beyond education.

Figure 5.2: Independent Learning Source: Meyer (2010)

Meyer, W.R. (2010) September. Independent learning: a literature review and a new project. In British Educational Research Association Annual Conference (Vol. 35).

Reflect on research and academic writing

Gibbs Reflective Cycle

This cycle encourages people to think systematically about the experiences they had during an event, a specific situation or activity.

The reflection on those experiences can be structured in phases with the use of a circle.

This often makes people think about an activity, experience or an event in more detail.

It helps people to be aware of their actions and better able to change and adjust their behaviour.

People can learn from it by looking at both the positive and negative impacts of the event.

Figure 5.3: Gibbs Reflective Cycle

Source: Williams et al. (2012)

Williams, K., Woolliams, M. and Spiro, J. (2012) Reflective writing New York City: Macmillan International Higher Education.

Step1: Description

During this step, the researcher describes the situation, activity or event in detail, without drawing any conclusions right away.

It is crucial to note that no important details are left out.

Step2: Feelings

This step is about the feelings that the event-triggered and the thoughts of someone during the event, activity or situation described in step 1.

The aim is not to discuss or comment on the feeling directly.

Emotions need not be evaluated or judged.

Step 3: Evaluation

The researcher can ask themselves whether the experience of the event in step 2 was bad or good.

Evaluation of bad experiences is always worthy.

The successive steps in the Gibbs

Reflective Cycle help people to learn from it.

Step 4: Analysis

• This stage is all about what the researcher has learned from the situation, activity or event.

• The experience teaches the researcher what to do in similar, future situations.

• This means that both negative and positive things or/and the problems the researcher experienced will be written down and analysed individually.

Step 5: Conclusion

In this step, the researcher takes a step back and looks at themselves from a distance and asks what else could have done in this situation.

The information collected earlier is very precious in this step and can encourage the researcher to come to a useful and good conclusion.

Step 6: Action plan

This is the final step.

Actions are developed for future situations, activities or events.

In the ‘conclusions’ step, people make concrete promises to themselves.

The intention is to keep the promises.

If everything went fine, the researcher could promise themselves to act the same way next time. Similarly, the researcher can promise to themselves not make promises again in places where problems occurred.

Potter (2015)

Potter, C. (2015) Leadership development: an applied comparison of Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle and Scharmer’s Theory U. Industrial and Commercial Training, 47(6), pp.336-342.

Kolb's Experiential Learning Model

• “Experiential” means resulting from or relating to experience.

• As the theory of Kolb is based more on reflection of experiences, he used the term “experiential”.

• This model is based on two continuums that form a quadrant.

Figure 5.4 : Kolb’s experiential learning model

Source: Bergsteiner et al. (2010)

Bergsteiner, H., Avery, G.C. and Neumann, R. (2010) Kolb's experiential learning model: critique from a modelling perspective. Studies in Continuing Education, 32(1), pp.29-46.

PROCESSING CONTINUUM: APPROACH TO AN ACTIVITY OR TASK, SUCH AS PREFERRING TO LEARN BY WATCHING OR DOING.

PERCEPTION CONTINUUM: EMOTIONAL RESPONSE SUCH AS PREFERRING TO LEARN BY FEELING OR THINKING.

Four processes should be followed for learning to occur.

The learning cycle

Since experience is the source of development and learning, Kolb called this Experiential learning.

Figure 5.5 : Kolb’s learning cycle

Source: Bergsteiner et al. (2010)

Reflective observation (Watching): It is the way of observing things in different perspectives than only making judgements.

Concrete experience

(feeling): Sensitive to the feelings of others. Learning from particular experiences and relating them to people.

Abstract conceptualisation (thinking): Analysis of ideas logically and understanding the situation intellectually.

Active

(doing):

experimentation

The ability to do things by influencing people.

This includes risk-taking also

Outcomes

The aims and objectives of the research need to be aligned with the outcomes.

The whole research process needs to be evaluated.

The evidence and findings need to be verified.

The validity and reliability of the collected data need to be checked and verified.

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

THE FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS OF THE RESEARCH NEED TO BE ANALYSED.

AFTER UNDERSTANDING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH, THE SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH MUST BE DISCUSSED.

THE ISSUES FACED AND LIMITATIONS EXPERIENCED SHOULD BE REVEALED SO THAT IT WILL BE HELPFUL FOR THOSE WHO ARE GOING TO CONTINUE THIS RESEARCH IN THE FUTURE.

Hsu et al. (2014)

There will be areas that the researcher might think as a future study is necessary.

The researcher can mention all those in his study.

Hsu, J., Hamilton, K. and Wang, J. (2014) Guided independent learning: a teaching and learning approach for adult learners. International Journal of Innovation and Learning , 17(1), pp.111-133.

Lessons learned

LEARNED TO USE STUDY PLANS TO ACHIEVE RESEARCH AND ACADEMIC WRITING OBJECTIVES.

LEARNED TO USE INDEPENDENT LEARNING TECHNIQUES.

LEARNED TO REFLECT ON RESEARCH AND ACADEMIC WRITING.