9.Biological Warfare & Bioterrorism: Global Threats of Infectious Disease Outbreaks

Biological warfare & Bioterrorism: Global Threats of Infectious Disease Outbreaks

Bioterrorism is a term used for intentional use of pathogenic strains of microbes to cause disease or death in living things and/or to give harm to environment. The aim of bioterrorism is not only to cause mortality and morbidity, but also to lead to social and political breakdown. Since it is a threat of the 21st century, it is important to be aware of the biological features of the instruments of the war [1]. The act of bioterrorism can range from a simple hoax to the actual use of these biological weapons, also referred to as agents. A number of nations have or are seeking to acquire biological warfare agents, and there are concerns that terrorist groups or individuals may acquire the technologies and expertise to use these destructive agents. Biological agents may be used for an isolated assassination, as well as to cause incapacitation or death to thousands. If the environment is contaminated, a long-term threat to the population could be created [2] Biological warfare may have originated in prehistory, although that is not certain. Archaeologists believe that poisons were used widely for fishing, hunting, and warfare by nomadic and primitive tribal societies, although direct evidence is scanty for the prehistoric period. The poisons were toxins obtained from readily available plants or animals. In some cases, however, primitive peoples contaminated arrows in ways that seemed likely to introduce pathogens. [3] The potential impact of infectious diseases on people and armies has been recognized since 600 BC regarding Biological Warfare.[4] During the siege of Kaffa (now Ethiopia), Feodosiya, Ukraine, the Tartars (Mongols), who attacked Kaffa in the 14th century, tossed dead Ancient Biological Warfare: and dying plague victims into the city in an attempt to spread the disease. Armies polluted the water by throwing dead animals into water supplies. The incident was reported by an Italian, Gabriele de’ Mussi, who probably based his narrative on eyewitness accounts of survivors of the attack who fled Kaffa [5]. the plague pandemic also known as the “Black Death” which rapidly extended through Europe and North Africa initiated following migration of refugees from the defeated city [6]. During the French and Indian War in the 18th century AD, British forces under the direction of Sir Jeffrey Amherst gave blankets that had been used by smallpox victims to the Native Americans in a plan to spread the disease. [7] By the time of The Great War, the germ theory of disease was well established; scientists grasped how microbes such as bacteria and viruses transmit illness. During the war, German scientists and military officials applied this knowledge in a widespread campaign of biological destruction. Their target was livestock—the horses, mules, sheep, and cattle being shipped from neutral countries to the Allies. The diseases they cultivated as weapons were ganders and anthrax, both known to ravage populations of grazing animals in natural epidemics. By infecting just a few animals, through needle injection and pouring bacteria cultures on animal feed, German operators hoped World War I Ashok Saru History of Biological Warfare:

Pre-History to the Present 26

VetPubHealth Journal ISSUE 17 IVSA Standing Committe on One Health April 2020 While Germany struggled with biological weapons in World War I, the Japanese military practiced bio warfare on a mass scale in the years leading up to and throughout World War II. In occupied Manchuria, starting around 1936, Japanese scientists used scores of human subjects to test the lethality of various disease agents, including anthrax, cholera, typhoid, and plague. As many as 10,000 people were killed. In active military campaigns, several hundred thousand people mostly Chinese civilians were victim. In October 1940, the Japanese dropped paper bags filled with plague-infested fleas over the cities of Ningbo and Qu Zhou in Zhejiang province. Other attacks involved contaminating wells and distributing poisoned foods. The Japanese army never succeeded, though, in producing advanced biological munitions, such as pathogen-laced bombs. By the end of WWII, the Americans and Soviets were far along on their own paths in developing biological weapons. [8] World War II The United Kingdom: The British initiated an offensive Bio Weap on program in 1940. Prior to the war, press reports suggesting that the Germans had an offensive BW program attracted high-level official attention. The British program explored several biological weapons options but developed only a few. The focus was the Mark I, a modification of the Type-F cluster munition originally intended for use with high explosives and chemical agents. Field tests demonstrated that it could disseminate B. anthracis from liquid slurry, although it was highly inefficient in generating aerosols. The British were unable to produce the bulk agent required to fill these munitions and intended to rely on the United States to do so. The planned U.S. facility was not completed before the war ended, and the munitions were never fielded. The British did produce large quantities of cattle cakes impregnated with anthrax for bomber delivery. The intended targets were German cattle herds. [9] The United States: The United States initiated a Bio Weapon program in 1942. By that time, it was known that the Japanese were using biological agents in China, although it is unclear whether defence planners in Washington fully understood this. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, fearing that the Germans or Japanese might employ biological weapons against the United States, considered the BW program as a requirement. The U.S. Army organized a substantial effort, ultimately spending roughly $60 million and research efforts were highly successful, demonstrating that it was possible to transmit certain pathogens through the air in aerosol clouds. At least 18 different biological agents were studied, including some intended for use against crops and animals. The primary focus was on B. anthracis and botulinum toxin as antipersonnel agents. The program made much less progress in the development of biological weapons and in the mass production of biological agents. [10] Hungary: The Hungarians organized a small Bio Weapon program. Although authorized in 1936, it was not until August 1938 that it became active. The program reportedly employed only six technicians but supposedly made considerable progress before the facility was destroyed during a bombing raid in April 1944. The Hungarians researched Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella paratyphoid, and Shigella dysenteriae. They also explored various dissemination techniques, including glass bombs capable of carrying 1 to 50 kilograms of a biological to spark devastating epidemics. [8] Bio-Warfare Programs developed in the various Countries 27

agent (either wet or dry). [11] France: The French had a small BW program during the period between the two world wars. They benefited from the contributions of André Trillat. One of the world’s leading experts on dissemination of disease through the air, he published seminal articles on the topic in 1918 and 1920. The program was active from 1921 to 1927 and then went dormant, but efforts resumed in 1935.The French effort had both defensive and offensive elements. On the one hand, the French were trying to understand the potential threat better. They began researching dissemination technologies and techniques, even to the extent of re-leasing microorganisms in the Paris subway to determine the degree to which they would disperse. They studied botulinum toxin and determined that it could survive the destructive forces of an exploding artillery shell. Similarly, they researched dissemination of animal diseases. They also tried to implement some defensive measures, including the production of anti-anthrax sera [12]. South Africa: South Africa developed a chemical and biological weapons program in the 1980s. Much of its work was focused on the development of toxins intended for assassinations. In addition, the South Africans created small stocks of biological agents for use against regime opponents, including B. anthracis (which causes various forms of anthrax), botulinum toxin, Brucella melitensis (which causes brucellosis), Salmonella typhimurium (which causes food poisoning), and Vibrio cholerae (which causes cholera).[13] Other Countries: North Korea, Israel, Iraq, China, Canada, Egypt, Iran and many other countries were having the Bio Warfare Programs in the History. [14] Bioterrorism Some terrorist o r g a n i z a t i o n s , including Al-Qaeda, have explored the use of biological agents. In 2001, letters containing anthrax spores were mailed to a television news anchor, US senator, and others. These letters led to the death of a few people and hospitalization of a few others [15]. It is also known that the peoples are experimented with botulin toxin, anthrax, cholera, and Q fever. They have also sent healthcare providers to Africa on a mission; however, their main purpose was to bring back Ebola virus samples to use as a biological weapon [16]. Preparedness is the most potent defence against possible bioterrorist events. During the recent decade, a remarkable progress in the detection, protection, and decontamination of biological warfare agents has emerged since various and sophisticated detection and decontamination methods have been developed and implemented [17]. In case of an attack, many people can be affected in a short period of time and great chaos may occur on the healthcare system [18]. In order to avoid the logistical problems and insufficiency of medications and resources, the US Centres for Disease Control (CDC) encourages healthcare professionals to be familiar with warfare agents, and in association with governmental organizations have implemented a “Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Program” to detect and appropriately respond to a potential bioterrorist attack, immediately [19]. Defence 28

References:

1. Kasdorf B. EPUB 3: Not Your Father’s EPUB. Information Standards Quarterly. 2011;23(2):p. 4. doi: 10.3789/isqv23n2.2011.02. 2.URL:https://www.emedicinehealth.com/ biological_warfare/article_em.htm#what_is_ the_history_of_biological_w arfare, Biological Warfare, Medical Author: Edmond Hooker, MD, DrPH, Medical Editor: William C. Shiel Jr., MD, FACP, FACR 3. Émile Perrot and Émile Vogt, “Poisons de Flèches et Poisons D’épreuve” (Paris: Vigot Freres, 1913); H.D. Neuwinger, “Alkaloids in Arrow Poisons,” in Alkaloids, ed. Margaret F. Roberts and Michael Wink (New York: Springer US, 1998), 45–84; David E. Jones, Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007). 4. Stefan R. Biological warfare and bioterrorism: a historical review Proc. Bayl Univ Med Cent. 2004;17(4):400–406. 5. Christopher G. W., Cieslak T. J., Pavlin J. A., Eitzen E. M., Jr. Biological warfare: A historical perspective. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1997;278(5):412–417. doi: 10.1001/ jama.1997.03550050074036. 6. Kasdorf B. EPUB 3: Not Your Father’s EPUB. Information Standards Quarterly. 2011;23(2):p. 4. doi: 10.3789/isqv23n2.2011.02. 7.URL:https://www.emedicinehealth.com/ biological_warfare/article_em.htm#what_is_the_ history_of_biological_warfare 8. URL: https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ bioterror/hist_nf.html 11. 95 Gábor Faludi, “Challenges of BW Control and Defense During Arms Reduction,” in Conversion of Former BTW Facilities, ed. Erhard Geissler, Lajos Gazsó, and Ernst Buder, NATO Science Series 21 (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1998), 67–70; Lajos Rózsa and Kathryn Nixdorff, “Biological Weapons in NonSoviet Pact Countries,” in Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945, ed. Mark L. Wheelis, Lajos Rózsa, and Malcolm R. Dando (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), 158–160 12. Lepick, “French Activities Related to Biological Warfare, 1919–45.” 13. 160 Gould and Folb, Project Coast. 14. A Short History of Biological Warfare: From Pre-History to the 21st Century W. Seth Carus 15. 7. Stefan R. Biological warfare and bioterrorism: a historical review Proc. Bayl Univ Med Cent. 2004;17(4):400–406. 16. Olson K. B. Aum Shinrikyo: Once and future threat? Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1999;5(4):513–516 17. Vatansever F., Ferraresi C., de Sousa M. V. P., et al. Can biowarfare agents be defeated with light? Virulence. 2013;4(8) doi: 10.4161/viru.26475. 18.Keim M., Kaufmann A. F. Principles for emergency response to bioterrorism. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 1999;34(2):177–182. doi: 10.1016/S0196-0644(99)70227-1 19.Emergency Preparedness and Response. Atlanta, GA, USA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2011 29

9. G.P. Gladstone, B.C.J.G. Knight, and Graham Wilson, “Paul Gordon Fildes, 1882–1971,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 19 (1973), 317–347

10. John Ellis van Courtland Moon, “U.S. Biological Warfare Planning and Prepared-ness: The Dilemmas of Policy,” in Geissler and Moon, 215–254