Sea History 085 - Summer 1998

No. 85

NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY

SUMMER 1998

SEA HISTORY THE ART, LITERATURE, ADVENTURE, LORE & LEARNING OF THE SEA

ROBIN BROOKS Paints the Age of Sail THE NELSON ERA: The Battle of the Nile The Sailor's Wife Ashore The Loss of the Maria Ass ump ta The Cape Hom Road, Part XV

75

FINE LIMITED EDITION PRINTS by ROBIN BROOKS

Captain James Cool( "Son of the Land, Master of the Sea" For over a decade English marine painter Robin Brooks has specialized in scenes from Captain Cook's three famous voyages of discovery. His carefully researched paintings show Cook's vessels in scenes from the Antarctic to the romantic beauty of the Pacific.

These two images are the first of a series and are limited to 850 each.

"The Triumph of the Navigators" In this stunning depiction of Endeavour's return to England on the

13th July 1771 the artist dramatically captures the final few hours of Endeavour's triumphant circumnavigation of the world as she runs briskly through the Dover Strait under a southwest gale.

"I was searching for an account from Cook's first voyage which would somehow capture the triumph of his achievement. I read and reread the journals: there were so many incidents crying out to be put on canvas.

In the end it was the title that suggested the painting."

-

ROBIN BROOKS

"Farewell Old England" July 13th 1772 It was these poignant words written in large letters in the journal of Lieutenant Richard Pickersgill as he left Plymouth aboard Resolution that inspired Robin Brooks to paint this picture.

Just a year after Endeavour's triumphant return, Cook set sail again on another great expedition. The picture shows Resolution and Adventure hove to off Rame Head after leaving Plymouth, England.

"Robin Brooks' paintings bring to life familiar incidents known only in the written word. I think his paintings are superb."

-

ADMIRAL OF THE FLEET LORD LEWIN, KG, GCB, LVO, DSC

AVAILABLE NOW THROUGH SEA HISTORY PRESS These two superb limited edition prints are individually embossed by the Fine Art Trade Guild of London, their independent guarantee of the highest standards and limitation of the editions to 850 each. Images are are 669mm x 446mm (26 3 /s x 17 7 /s inches) printed on 300gsm Huntsman Silk paper using lightfast inks.

Each print is signed and numbered by the artist.

Price each print: $155. Remarques available on request: $350. Shipping/handling: $12 USA, $15 foreign.

Order from: NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY PO Box 68, 5 John Walsh Blvd., Peekskill NY 10566, USA To order by phone with credit card: 1-800-221-NMHS (6647)

No. 85

SEA HISTORY

SUMMER 1998

CONTENTS SEA HISTORY (ISSN 0 146-93 12) is publi shed quarterly by the ational Maritime Historica l Society, 5 John Wal sh Bl vd., PO Box 68, Peekskill NY I0566. Period icals postage paid at Peekskill NY 10566 and add itional mailing offices.

CO PYRIGHT © 1998 by the at iona l Mari time Hi storica l Society. Tel: 9 14-737-7878.

POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Sea Hi story, PO Box 68, Peeks kill Y I 0566.

MEMBERSHIP is invited. Afterguard $ I0,000: Benefactor $5,000; Pl ankowner $2 ,500: Sponsor $ 1,000; Donor $500; Patron $250; Friend $ IOO; Contributor $75; Famil y $50; Regul ar $35 . All members outside the USA please add $ I0 for postage. SEA HISTORY is sent to all members. Ind ividu al copies cost $3 .75 .

OFFICERS & TRUSTEES : Chairman, Cra ig AC. Reynolds; Vice Chairmen, Ri chardo Lopes, Edward G. Ze li nsky; Presidenr, Peter Stanford: Vice President, Norma Stanford; Treasurer, Willi am H. White; Secretwy, Marshall Streiben; Trustees: Walter R. Brown, W. Grove Conrad, Fred C. Hawk in s, Jakob Isbrandtsen, Steven W. Jones, Guy E.C. Maitland, Karen E. Markoe, Warren Marr, 11, Brian A. M cA lli ster, James J. Moore, Dav id A . O ' Neil, RADM Thomas J. Patterson, ancy Po uch, Ogden Reid , Charl es A. Robenson , Howard Slotnick, Bradfo rd Smith , Louis A. Trapp, Jr., David B. VielOr, Harry E. Vinall , III , Jean Wort; Chairman Emeritus, Alan G . Choate FOUNDER: Karl Kortum ( 19 17- 1996) OVERSEERS: Chairman , Townsend Horn or; Charles F. Adams, RADM Dav id C. Brown , Walter Cronkite, John Lehman, J. Willi am Middendorf, II, Graham H . Phillips, Jo hn Stobart, Willi am G. Winterer.

ADV ISORS: Co-Chairmen , Frank 0 . Braynard, MelboumeSmith; D.K. Abba s, Raymond Aker, George F. Bass, Francis E. Bowker, Oswald L. Brett, orman J. Brouwer, RADM Joseph F. Callo , William M. Doerflin ger, Francis J. Duffy, John Ewald, Joseph L. Farr, Timoth yG. Foote, Willi am G ilkerson, Thom as Gi llmer, Walter J. H and e lm an, Char les E. Herdendorf, Steven A . Hyman , Hajo Knuttel, Gunnar Lundeberg, Conrad Mil ste r, Willi am G. Muller, David E. Perkin s, ancy Hughes Richardson, Timothy J. Runyan, Ralph L. Snow, Shannon J. Wall, Thomas Well s AMER ICA SHIP TRUST: Chairman , Jakob Isbrandtsen; Trustees, F. Briggs Dalzell , William G. Muller, Howard Slotnick, Melbourne Smith , Peter Stanford, Edward G. Zelin sky SEA HISTORY STAFF: Editor, Peter Stanford; Executive Editor, Nonna Stanford; Managing Editor, Justine Ahl strom ; EdiLOria/ Assistant, Shelley Reid; Contributing Editor, Kev in Haydon; Accounting, Joseph Cacciol a; Membership Development & Public Affairs, Burchenal Green; Membership Secretary/Merchandising, Erika Kurtenbach ; Membership Assistant, Irene Eisenfeld; Developme111 Coordinator , Blaire Smith; Advertising Assistant , Carmen McCallum; Secretary to the Presidenr, Karen Ritell ; Director of Education, Dav id Allen

2 DECK LOG & LETTERS 6 NMHS NEWS 8 THE CAPE HORN ROAD, PART XV. Britain Keeps the Sea and Contains European Militarism for the 100 Years of the Pax Britannica

by Peter Stanford 15 EDITOR'S BOOKLOCKER 16 THE OPS AIL 2000 OFFI CIAL PORTS, PART III. Miami: In the Wake of the Santiago

by Capt. Joseph Magg io 19 OpSail Miami 2000

by Kim Droze 21 MUSEUM OF THE ISSUE. Independence Seaport Museum: Interpreting the Port of Philadelphia

by Donald A. Wambold, Jr .

24 The Value of Sail Training for Adults: A Week Aboard the Frigate Rose

by Bruce Carruthers 28 NMHS Sails with Endeavour

by Peter Stanford & Justine Ahlstrom 30 THE NELSON ERA. The Battle of the Nile: Europe at Crossroads

by RADM Joseph F. Callo , USNR (Ret.) 36 MARINE ART. The Search for the Spirit

by Robin Brooks 40 MARI 'E ART NEWS 42 The Sailor's Wife Ashore

by Joan Druett 46 The Dream of a People: Building a Basque Fishing Trainera

by Muriel Curtis 49 The Tragic Loss of the Maria Assumpta: What Went Wrong

by CDR Morin Scott, RN (Ret.) 51 SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & MUSEUM NEWS 54 AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE MUSEUM NEWS 56 R EVIEWS 62 D ESSERT. John Nicol, Mariner, at the Battle of the Nile 64 PATRONS

COVER: HMS S ha nn o n outshoots USS C hesapeake on 1 Jun e 1813 in a dramatic reversal in the Warof l 8 12 , as painted in " Do n' I Give Up the Ship ," by marine artist Robin Brooks. The battle came to life for th e artist when he visited a mill built with wood sa lvaged fi'om USS C hesa peake. (See story 0 11 pages 36-39.)

Join Us for a Voyage into History Our seafaring heritage comes ali ve in the pages of Sea History, from the ancient mariners of Greece to Portuguese navigators opening up the ocean world to the hero ic efforts of seamen in thi s century 's conflicts. Each issue brings new insights and new

di scoveries. If yo u love the sea, the rivers, lakes and bays -if you love the legacy of those who sa il in deep water and their workaday craft, then you belong with us. Join today! Mail in the form below or phone 1-800-221-NMHS (6647)

Yes, I want to jo in the Society and receiv e Sea History quarterly . My contribution is enc losed. ($ 17.50 is fo r Sea History; any amo unt above th at is tax deductible.) Sign me o n as: $35 Regul ar M e mbe r $50 Fami ly Me mbe r $100 Friend $250 Patron Mr./M s . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ZIP_ _ _ _ __

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NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY

DECK LOG The mountainous seas of the Cape Horn road, with its furious gales that loosed men's hold on icy lines aloft, made some captains turn back to run to the enchanted Society Islands in the South Pacific the other way round by the Cape of Good Hope. The tale of one intrepid though unfortunate captain who made this choice is narrated in this issue's installment of "TheCape HomRoad. "Mankind learned invaluable lessons in how to keep the sea under these conditions. We learned to do what is possible in impossible conditions.

That hard-won learning has stood us in good stead in the years since that incident of two hundred years ago.

The Society Islands, where everything came easy to the hardened British tars, had far more devastating effects than the Cape Horn gales, as the tale will tel I-effects of terrible consequence for just about everyone concerned. There, in relaxed living, the most basic lesson of seafaring°, " the ship comes first," was as vital to the voyage as it was off Cape Hom. But it was forgotten.

It's difficult to grasp these basics of the human condition in a world of supermarkets, computers and "v irtual rea lity."That's why Alan Villiers took young people round Cape Horn in the Joseph Conrad, "in defense of my poor ideal s," as he put it. And it's why people fee l more hopeful about the future when they meet young people fresh from a sail training experience-they know they are getting in touch with something fun damental and profoundly encourag ing in humanity 's God-given but too often neglected ability to dream great dreams and make great voyages.

In our "Do Something for the Ship" campaign, launched for us 20 years ago

by Irving Johnson , and renewed this summer, we turn to you, our Society members, forsuppo11forourwork, which is addressed to these fundamentals so vital in our time, and for America's future.

PETER STANFORD The Joseph Conrad runs under shor/ened canvas/owardCape Horn in 1935. Skelchby Alan Villiers

LETTERS Was Hawaii Just Too Pleasant?

I keep reading "The Cape Horn Road" avidly. I hope you are go ing to make it into a book.

I especially enjoyed the one about Polynesian navi gation. I sometimes wonder if those adventurous navigators never got to our West Coast. Perhaps Hawaii was just too pleasant. I'd love to find some trace of them on the West Coast.

And of course I enjoyed the one on Captain Cook. I am pleased that he is remembered in ourfamily with my yearold great-grandson, Seam us Cook Joyce Johnson .

EXY JOH NSON Hadley, Massachusetts The plan is to do a book, when we can.

Irving and Exy Johnson, pioneers of the American sail train ing movement, came to know Polynesia well, sailing through the islands in their seven circumnavigations with young people in crew. -ED. NMHS Boosts The American Neptune It gives me great pleasure to inform you that during the past few months we have received 3 17 new subscriptions for The American Neptune from your Sea History readers, and the requests to subscri be keep rolling in.

I trust yo ur pleasure at the expansive results of our exchange of advertisements for the benefit of our journals will soon equal my own state of satisfaction-and that your work in preservationi st and participatory maritime activities will always continue.

An unusual financial aspect of our newly enrolled members: we offered a favorable new-s ubscriber rate to your members. To my continuing surpri se, more than half have chosen to send us the full amount of $39.00 per annum, instead of our proffered $33.00-an unanticipated bonus, now over $ 1,100!

DONALDS. MARSHALL, Publisher The American Neptune The results cited by Dr. Marshall represent a gain of over 1/J in The American Neptune's circulation. The door is still open for members wanting to sign on.

Send your check to the Neptune at: Peabody Essex Museum , East India Square, Salem MA 01970-3783 .

Farewell to A Man with Vision I send a belated farewell to a unique man-Karl Kortum.

My first view of San Francisco harbor was in 1945 , transfeiTing from the

US Maritime Training Service on Catalina Island to Geary Street Station for further training. I was later assigned to the SS Monterey, a luxury liner converted to a troop carrier.

During my shore leave, l wandered the waterfront seeing a world that was soon to disappear. The pilots arrived alongside our ship in dories manned by seamen with oars-no fast motor launches. There were sti ll some other sailing vessels in the bay, fishermen and cargo ca1Tiers, as wel1as steam-powered tugs. I thought that the loss of this heritage would be a tragedy, but was not motivated to do anything about it.

For our future generations, thank God there was a man with vision, dedicated to preserving this heritage. Our debt to him has no price.

ALFREDJ. CUNNINGHAM Ciudad Colon , Costa Rica SC Veterans Report In I was delighted to read in Sea History 84 about the wooden subchaser that carried supplies, agents and refugees between the Shetlands and Norway in World War II. In 1943-44 I served as executive officer and skipper of SC-687. She was built in the Fisher Yard in Detroit, where the subject of your story, SC-718 , was constructed. I was the only Navy man to cruise aboard her from Detroit to New York with a builder's crew. We fitted out at Brooklyn Navy Yard where we were commissioned. My first captain was an e lectronics buff who had never been to sea. While he took care of the radar, I did the navigating.

We went to Miami and Key West for further training and were assigned to Norfolk. SC-687 and six or eight others shuttled back and forth between the Canal Zone and Aruba. After we started escorting tankers, there were a few a larms but no confi rmed U-boats in the Caribbean.

I was ordered to a second trip to the antisubmarine schoo l in Miami, then to PC609 as exec. We took her to the Philippines where we were preparing for the invas ion of Japan when it surrendered.

STUART DEBARD Hingham, Massachusetts I was a fairly early attendant in CDR Eugene "Capt. Mac" McDaniel's SubchaserTraining Center in Miami , trained in hi s machine-gunned lifeboat in the front yard and sent off in August '42 as exec and CO of SC-668. We convoyed a bit aro und the coast and the Key West/ SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

Guantanamo run . We were in the first group of five SCs sent to the South Pacific on Christmas Eve 1942 and eventuall y wo und up in the Solomons earl y in February 1943. We were based in Tu lagi and saw a fair amount of a ircraft action.

HENRY STRA USS Darien, Connecticut I' ve just read "KNM Hitra: The ' Shetlands Bus,"' by Theodore Treadwell. I was assigned to SC-1354 in August 1943 at the bui lder's yard in Milford , De lawa re, as 3rd officer and became executive offi cer in Febru ary 1945. She was a control vessel at Omaha Beach , Dog Red section, on 6 June 1944. We have a crew reunion every two yea rs.

THOMAS M ACELWEE Colorado Springs, Colorado A Member Gets In volved wa nt to write thi s letter before the March wi nds compl etely blow away my "Caribbean high! " My wife and I wish to thank yo u and your staff fo r a most deli ghtful and interesting crui se on the Norway . The weather was ideal, the scenery beau tiful , but the nicest part was meeting the NMHS and John A. Noble Co llection groups. We plan to join one of your future trips and hopefully renew some acq uaintances with fo lks we met during the crui se.

During March I have pl anned to be a vo lunteer wo rker on board the John W. Brown at Baltimore for 2-3 days. Then , on 3 May , I wi ll go aboard to watch the sa ilboats in the Whitbread Round the World Race as they depart for France.

I also intend to get to A lbany, New York, this spring to participate in the restoration work on the WWII destroyer escort USS Slater (DE-766).

DO C. NORRIS Hol 1idaysburg, Pennsy lva ni a It is great to find out what maritime matters keep our members busy in their spare time. NMHS is currently planning our next cruise aboard the Veendamfor a JO-day fa ll fo liage voyage from New York City along the New England coast and south to Bermuda in October. We will be joined by a host of members from organ izations such as the John A. Nob le Collection, the Steamsh ip Hi storical Society of America, the Ocean Liner Museum , the Maritime Indu stry Museum , the World Sh ip Society, and the American Merchant Marine Museum (seepage 35 ). And next March you can join NMHS SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

To MEMBERS & SUPPORTERS OF NMHS The National Maritime Hi storical Society is to be sa luted for putting young people into the sa il training programs carri ed out aboard the fl eet of traditional sa iling ships, led by the US Coast Guard Barque Eagle, coming to New York on National Maritime Day on 22 May. The ships, invited by the Society to honor the bicentenary of ew York 's Rockland County, make up one of the largest sailing fl eets to come up the Hudson in this century.

The splendid gesture of including yo ung New Yorkers from our schools in this important sailing exercise brings great cred it to the Society and its hardworking members and dedicated supporters. "Taking the Young Idea to Sea," as Society President Peter Stanford has ca lled thi s effort , is important for the future as well as for the heritage of American seafaring.

What can be more important than g iving our children the challenge of voyaging in a tall ship driven by the wind in her sails, and driven , too, by the hearts, minds and willing hands of the ship 's young crew?

Agai n, I sa lute the members of the National Maritime Hi storical Society for getting into thi s good work in thi s who lehearted way . May it be forever rewarding to you, as it is to the yo ung peopl e who wi ll reap the rewards of the co1madeship, hard wo rk and achievement of thi s nob le ex peri ence, which will open new horizons of opportunities for them and fo r the future of America.

WALTER CRO KITE, C hairman MHS Maritime Ed ucation Initiative and Mystic Seaport members aboard the four-masted bark Sea Cloud in the Caribbean (see page 48).

Polish Model Maker Joins NM HS I fo und a copy of Sea History aboard my ship and I dec ided to become a member of yo ur crew . I am a Poli sh seafarer-a boatswain aboard the Norwegian se ismi c survey vessel M/Y Polar Princess, and we operate on the Gu lf of Mexico.

Since 1981 I have been a modeler of ships in bottles. My ships are acc urate models and include anchors, wi ndl asses, davits, life boats, steering wheels and ri gging. I have 87 ships in my private collection and I have had a coup le of exhibitions in Po land , Germany and Sweden. Each ship takes about 50-60 hours, so I can do 4-5 ships each month.

ZB IG !EW KAZNOWS KI Houston , Texas Philadelphia 's Ships Hav ing recently been in Phil adelphia, I fo und your article, " Philadelphia, City of Pioneering Ships and People" (SH84), both fascinating and enlightening. In Philadelphia, I particularl y noted two things. The first was the MoshuJu looking quite magnificent, almost as though fresh from the builder 's yard and awai ting a cargo. Her gingerbread at the bow was newly gilded. With her topsides glistening in a fresh coat of black paint, she didn ' t have her painted ports as she had when newly built on the Clyde.

In sad contrast to the Moshulu was

the bedraggled spectacle of the SS Un ited States tied up on the rain-swept shore of the Delawa re, her boats gone and her faded paint work in a sorry state. The las t time I saw "T he Big U," she he ld the Bl ue Ribbon of the Atl antic and no other passenger ship, or perhaps any ship afl oat, could touch her when it came to speed.

While I'd seen pictures of her in Phi ladelphia, these did not prepare me for the shock of seeing her neglected state.

A footnote to yo ur article is the Philadelphia bri g Philadelphia, whi ch took the first cargo from the US to Australia in 1792. During the American B icentennial , the Bank of New South Wales, Austra li a, he ld an ex hibit of my hi storical maritime paintings of US and Australi an subj ects. The Bank thought that a painting was needed that spec ifically tied the who le thing together, and that was how I came to paint the Philadelphia departing from Sydney Heads. I doubted that there wo uld be an ything extant that wou ld give any detail s abo ut the brig, but the National Archi ves came up with the " Proof of Ownership of an American built Ship." I learned that she had a quarter badge, ratherthan a quarter gallery, "a Man head" and was "a square sterned vesse l," built in Philade lphia in 1787. Otherw ise I relied on a contemporary painting of an American brig by Anto ine Roux, Sr. , of Marseille. The detail s of the voyage were set forth in David Collin 's " Account" publi shed in 1798-Co ll ins being in Sydney at the time of the Philadelphia 's arri val and no

3

LETTERS do ubt hav ing met Captain Patrickson. It wo ul d be interesting to know more about thi s Yankee shipmaster; his name appears in later years as visiting the colony, and was a pparently well- known in Eastern seas. T he Nati onal Arc hi ves also had a cargo manifest fo r thi s voyage, a most unexpected fi nd.

Os BRETT Lev ittown, New York

Eagle and "The Big U" Cross Paths in Mid-Ocean A recent letter writer spoke of a des ire to preserve the great liner SS Un ited States (SH84 ). T his rekind led a memo ry of the late 1950s when I was a Coast G uard Academy cadet trave rsing the North Atlantic in the sa il tra ining bark Eagle. I was on watch at the surface search radar, charged with locat ing other shi ps ("targets") and plotti ng their course, speed and closest point of approac h (CPA).

A target appea red on rada r and was dul y reported. After several minu tes, enough data was obtained to com pute its course and speed . I reported to my commi ss ioned officer superi or a speed of 30+ knots. Naturall y, he ass umed that I had "screwed up again" and angril y ordered me to con tinue to plot and redo the ca lcul ation.

A few min utes later, I stuck to my story and also announced that the CPA was going to be ve ry close to our shi p.

A lthough I was still suspected of being incompetent, vind ication came in a short time when the SS United States appeared on the horizon. S he had a ltered course sli ghtly to g ive her passengers a good look at our sq uare rigger and finall y passed within a couple of miles.

W hat a sight! That huge vesse l passing us li ke we were going astern fi ll ed us w ith total awe. May her memo ry indeed be preserved!

CARL H. BURKHART, CDR, USCG (RET) G reenvi lle, South Caroli na

scended the art of wri ting, painting and seamanshi p, and is onto something fa r more compelling and important.

So, when can I see a pi cture of the crocodile? I have a spec ial interest in this species as I am now doing research o n on e Co unt Agos to n Haraszth y.

Among hi s other achievements, he is credited with hav ing made a significant contribution to Califo rnia's wine industry and, more pertinent to thi s d iscussion, was reported to have been eaten by a crocodile du ring a visit to N icaragua. I reali ze th is has little to do with the history of the sea, aside fro m the fac t that the Count 's ultimate voyage to hi s fate was most likely by ship.

T RENT AN DERSON

Novato, Cali fo rni a Bill Gilkerson' s book, Ultim ate Voyage: A Book of Five Mariners, is reviewed on page 60.

E RR ATA

NMHS member A. L. Van Name, Jr. , of Boones M ill , Vi rg ini a, recogni zed his

own wo rk in the Chesapeake Bay Mari time M useum photograph of the schooner Betty I. Conway on page 3 of SH84.

He and L. D . Perry took many such images of the last sa iling schooners in the 1920s, many of which are now held in museum collecti ons.

Thank you so much for including yo ur memo irofSchu y lerM. Meyer, Jr. in Sea History 84. I must tell you , however, that Schu yler never rowed on the varsity crew; he wo rked hard on the j .v. crew!

Also, the first Nawat was a tiny net tenderthat, fo rtunately, never met a mine !

It was a sister minesweeper of Schu yler's YMS-20 that fo und that first New York C ity-area mine.

B ARBA RA

S.

M EYER

Dover Plains, New York

In "E ditor's Booklocker," on page 63 of Sea Hi story 84, we incorrectl y referred to Amsterdam, rather than Antwerp , as the port opened by wiping o ut G erman install ati ons in W alcheren in WWII. 1, Seamen on deck are pursued by a boarding sea in this sketch by Gordon Grant,fi¡om th e collection of" Jakob lsbrandtsen. Two more Grant sketches can be found on pages 62-3, illustrating John Nicol' saccount oflif"e be/owdeck during the Ballle of the Nile.

Eaten by A Crocodile I was most de lighted to fi nd the interview with W illi am Gi lke rson in the Spring I 998 issue ("Have You Ever Tried to Draw a Crocodile?"). Stuart Frank is to be congratul ated for a job well done, and kudos to Sea History fo r continu ing to present qua li ty articles coveri ng maritime hi story and art.

Further, I was impressed by the stri king reprod uctions of Mr. G il kerso n 's work. It is evident that he has tran4

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.NMHSNEWS 35th Annual Meeting of NMHS in Mystic Seaport NMHS members and trustees came to Mystic Seaport in Connecticut from as far away as Florida, Maryland and California to join regional members for the Society ' s 35th Annual Meeting on 25 April. We heard good news on all fronts from trustees, officers and project leaders and learned of new challenges before us, particularly as we look forward to the year 2000 and the maritime events surrounding Operation Sail.

More Programs Reaching More People Treasurer Bradford Smith reported a 30 percent gain in income levels as the Society achieved $747 ,958 in 1997 , breaking through the $5-600,000 level of the past few years. Income from grants and contributions, advertis ing, and special events was up significantly. A full Annual Report is available upon request.

As Smith observed , thi s advance

strengthened the balance sheet and enabled us to launch "more effective programs, reaching more people. " This included our larger 64-page Sea History, up from 48 pages, and a larger press run , increasing to40,000copies from 25,000.

The additional copies are sent to specially selected mailing lists or distributed by maritime organizations-Sea History 84, for example, was sent to Mystic Seaport' s membership of24,000 individuals , accompan ied by a letter from Mystic's President, J. Revell Carr.

In 1997, we also took the Mari ti me Education Initiative, launched by Walter Cronkite in 1992, into a third stage. In its first years, we sought out effective programs in the field and presented the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Maritime Education.

In 1996 , through a grant from the

At the Annual Meeting , artist Bill Muller (at lefi , with trustees Howard Slotnick, Craig A. C. Reynolds, and Marshall Streibert) gave us a pre view of his painting of USCG Bark Eagle in New York Harbor (belo w). Th e coffee break gave members and trustees time to mingle.

NMHS trustees (bottom , fro m left) Richardo Lopes, Capt. Jean Wort and Harry Vinall , chatted with Intrepid Museum Senior Curator Jerry Roberts (second from left).

David M. Milton Trust, we started our own program taking young New Yorkers to interesting corners of New York Harbor to learn how seafaring and the generation of capital built the modern city. This year we are continuing to develop educational programs. We took over 200 New York youngsters on a National Maritime Day sail up the Hudson River, led by USCG BarkEagle, and have arranged to take 60 young New Yorkers and Bostonians on passages between the two cities aboard the frigate Rose, as part of a rigorous program tied into the challenge of sail training under the redoubtable Capt. Richard Bailey.

The Power of Our Membership Our service to the field took two outstanding form s, both stemming from our members' commitment. NMHS President Peter Sta nford reported that, through a mailing to our members, Project Liberty Ship- the restorers and sailors of the Liberty sh iplohn W. Brown- gained more than 400 members. And through a similar appeal , the scholarly journal American N eptune, published by the Peabody Essex Museum, increased their subscriptions by 33 percent.

We now face the challenge of building our NMHS membership. We have maintainedabaseofabout 15,000members for the last three years. Today it numbers 16,136. An increased membership will make us more effective in the fie ld and will demonstrate our strengths to funding sources. We hope to reach 20,000 by year ' s end and achieve 50,000 in 2000, through investment in growth .

At the meeting, NMHS welcomed aboard new trustee Steven Warren Jones, a financial analyst, student of history and devotee of sai l training for innercity youth. He first was introduced to the Society when he found a copy of Sea

NMHS Trustee Warren Marr was spontaneously honored by the assembly at the Annual Meeting. In 1996 he received the Karl Kortum American Ship Trust Award for his work to bring the Amistad to reality (left).

6

SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

History aboard the hi storic ship Wavertree at South Street Seaport Museum in New York City, where a volunteer crew was working under NMHS Trustee Jakob Isbrandtsen.

Rear Admiral Thomas J. Patterson, USMS (Ret.), retired as an active trustee and has joined the Honorary Trustees.

And Bradford Smith, treasurerofNMHS since 1993, res igned from that position to become chair of our new publications comm ittee, which will take up the challenge of new growth for Sea History.

William H. White, who joined the board in Autumn 1997, was named treasurer.

Honoring Maritime Leaders The NM HS Di stin g uished Service Award was presented to Basil Harrison, a vol unteer who has assem bled a distingui shed committee, chaired by RADM David Brown, USMS (Ret.), president of the State Un iversity of New York Maritime College, and Brig. Gen. Pat Garvey, USMC (Ret.), city managerof Peekskill , New York , to oversee Project Experiment. The committee works to build a replica of the Hudson Ri ver sloop Experiment, whi ch sa iled to China in 1785.

A hallmark of this project is Harrison 's determination to build the ship to a purpose, creating an ed ucation program arou nd the vessel even before the keel is laid. To that end, an education committee has been fo rmed, chaired by NMHS Trustee Karen Markoe, PhD, of the Humanities Department of SUNY Maritime College.

Warren Man, II, previous recipient of the Karl Kortum American Ship Trust Award , was recognized in a spontaneous tribute from the assembled members at a reception in the Mainshop of the Henry B. duPont Shipyard, where the keel of the freedom schooner Amistad was laid on 8 March. Quentin Snediker, project manager of the rebuilding of the AmistadatMystic, paid tribute toMarr's great gift for fri endship and hi s dream of bui lding the Amistad and sailing her to teach cooperation and friends hip between peoples of all races and nati ons.

During the meeting, we also had our first look at a new painting by artist William G. Muller. It depicts USCG Bark Eagle entering New York Harbor, flanked by harbor craft of all descriptions. The image will be made into a limited print that will be sold through NMHS and thro ugh Preston ' s mail order catalogue, with proceeds benefiting NMHS .

JUSTINE AHLSTROM SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

"Do Something for the Ship" An Every-Member Appeal-to Sign up More Members Like Yourself!

Twenty years ago, our membership was one-tenth the size it is today. And the National Maritime Historical Society, which for years had flourished as a volunteer organization hou sed in a hospitable mu seum , was now on its own.

Knowing thi s and wanting to help our work for the seafaring heritage, Irving Johnson , dean of the sai l training movement in America, called on our membership to "do something fo r the ship ."

The ship he had in mind was our own ship, NMHS. Our Society had achieved a cons iderable record in saving hi storic ships. But, newly separated from the museum , our prospects as a stand-alone organization were pretty grim .

Irving and Exy, his wife and partner, had made their own way in sailing around the world seven times with yo ung people in crew. They believed the Society could save itself, by every member bearing a hand to do something for the ship. The Johnsons themselves had given NMHS the copyright to Irving's book The Peking Battles Cape Horn. Sales of this cl ass ic of the age of sail could have been added to the Johnsons ' retirement income. But they decided instead to do something for our ship . And they fo und other ways to help, including a substantial gift of money-doll ars hard-earned through Irving ' s writings and lectures.

Every dollar of that contributi on did double duty, I am here to tell yo u. This support stiffened us to the challenge of launching an independent institution beholden to no one, without endowment or wealthy patrons. Failure simply became unthinkable.

The Course Ahead Today the Society is ali ve and forging ahead in its work, thanks to the help of the Johnsons and others who saw the need fo r a national soc iety devoted to awakening Americans to their heritage in seafaring and to seeking out the truths of that tremendous ex perience.

The Society has establi shed itself by virtue of its members, who bring us our purposes and make possible our achievements. We have been able to help keep the Liberty ship John W. Brown steaming to high purpose on the East Coast.

And we've helped our West Coast members, led by Admiral Tom Patterson and Ed Zelinsky, work out a public-private partnership to save the grand old steam schooner Wapama. You 've read of that effort in these pages. In another vital

area, a letter in this Sea History acknowledges the helping hand our members have brought to the scholarly journal American Neptune.

What lies ahead? More ed ucational and supportive work : a conference cosponsored with The American Neptune in the fall of 1999; more help to save the priceless sh ips of our seafaring past; more work with people at sea, where the direct experience of seafaring is to be had. And strong local counci ls to bring the heritage to life where people live.

A 35th Ann ual Report is in preparation whi ch sets forth those plans and what we need to achieve them, firm ly based on what our members have enabled us to achieve so far.

The Great Need To fulfill our plans we need more members, people like yourself who cherish the seafaring heritage and find reward in playing a part in it. Each new member effectively becomes part of a living endowment, for each person signed up by a friend is very li kely to renew in future years-as we ' ve fo und to our joy!

So let's expand our suppo1ting base from the body of 16,100 who have achieved so much already. One new member, enrolled at a gift-membership cost of $ 17.50 is a wonderful contribution.

Ten members, of course, would be even better. We can sign on your ten for just $150. And some NMHS supporters give memberships in the hundreds, to schoo ls or business associates , at $1 ,250 per hundred.

Or you can send a check in any of these amo unts and ask NMHS to designate the people to receive the gift membership.

This membership effort is the best "something" you can do for NMHS , and doing it wi ll make your membership in NMHS even more rewarding!

PETER STANFORD, President Irving Johnson speaks at NMHS meeting, 1977, with Exy, at India House, New York City. (Photo: Jim Dion)

7

THE CAPE HORN ROAD, PART XV

Britain Keeps the Sea and Contains European Militarism for the 100 Years of the Pax Britannica

by Peter Stanford he littl e ship, just 90 fee t long on deck, was tackling in the tumult of the raging sea. But, when she coul d, she Cape Horn at the wrong time of year. Starting in late res umed her adv ance. Progress was slow . More than three March 1788-early autumn in the southern hemi - weeks after coming past Tierra de l Fuego and into Cape Horn sphere- she was assaulted by a series of Cape Horn snorters. waters, she had fou ght her way onl y a little to the west of the U nder short canvas she battl ed her way to windward aga in st Horn and far to the south , the course the Admi ralty recomhorrendous dri vi ng snowstorm s and towering seas. The cap- mended, based on what they knew-but it was not a good one, tain was a seaman of long experience, who had sailed as as the Captain reali zed, since hi s meticulou s navi gation made nav igator with Captain Cook through the Roaring Forti es and him full y aware of the ship 's stalemated positi on.

One James Morri son, boatswa in 's mate, and thereby a the gales of the Southern Ocean a decade earlier, earning good marks from hi s fa mous mentor, but he noted in hi s journal that leader and spokesman for the crew, maintained a j ournal he had never encountered a "Sea so very hi gh, and the Weather th rough these chaoti c scenes and all that followed. He was a side of it like a wall. " yeoman, as it were, standing on hi s own feet between the It was biting cold , but the Captain kept the men on the foredeck hands and the gentry aft. He noted that far to the south, three-watch system he had learned from Cook, ass uring them where they were supposed to go to master the Horn , and where of e ight hours off for every four on deck-except for neces- they had fin all y arri ved, they continued to lose ground . And sary call s for all hands on deck. With fires in the ship 's stoves " tho the ship was an excellent Sea Boat," he observed, it was much as she could do to li ve in "thi s the men could dry their clothes in the ir off watches. T he crew were in tremendous sea where the E lements robu st health go ing into the ordea l, seem to wage Continual War. " thanks to the healthy diet Cook had He furth er observed that despite the loss of some hands to sickness dev ised to prevent scurv y, which the Captain insisted the men fo lor injury, "the behavi our of the Sealow , and a regimen that included men in thi s trying Situati on, was mu sic, dancing and singing. He al so such as Merited the entire Approbainsisted on a fiddler to pipe a stave tion of the Officers, and Mr. Blighs in the evenings and had final! y fo und thanks in a Publi ck speech." a good one just before sailing. He Before serious damage was inwas signed on, des pite the fact that flicted on the ship, and further inthe man , Abl e Seaman Mi chae l jury on the crew, Lieutenant WillByrne, was more than half blind. iam Bligh of Hi s Majesty's Ship But there was no dancing or singBounty turned back and ran before ing as the small wooden ship fou ght the icy gales to reach hi s South her way to windward against the Pac ific destination. "B 1igh had been icy, avalanching seas that continudefeated by the Horn ," notes Sam ously buried the ship in rushing McKinney in hi s outstand ing study water. Men came down from aloft Captain William Bligh (1754-1817) was a superb Bligh. He has thi s further to say: staggering and sometimes, the Cap- navigator and shipmaster, but flawed in his dealing He and his skills had been pushed to tain te ll s us in hi s account, unable to wirh the vital element in any ship , the ship's people. the outer limits o{human ability. By speak, their faces numbed by lanc- (Watercolor by J. Smart, 1803) leadership and command he had ing sleet and snow. And the ship? held a ship and its company together The ship kept cras hing her way into the oncoming walls of where others before him had failed, losing neither a man nor hurtling water, which wracked her frame so that the seams a spar in the month-long battle with the winds of Cape Horn. 1 opened up here and there, and water sprayed into the men 's Bligh? B li gh of the Bounty, and that mutiny peopl e have quarters fo rward . The Captain , remarkably, gave up his own talked about so much? The ship 's name, and her captain 's, cabin aft to " those poor fellow s" who had been washed out of automaticall y evoke for most people the image of crew ri sing their berths in the forecastle. in arms against a cruelly unjust captain . Let 's take a look at One may pi cture these men staggering aft in the dusk of the what actuall y happened. Let's see what the Bounty mutiny has slanted tween decks of the little ship, bent over, dragg ing their to te ll us about the ships and people of Bri tain 's Royal Navy clothing and hammocks with them, and bedding down again in the era of its shaping influence in world history. in unfamiliar territory aft- " officers' country ," as it has been From Hell to Paradise-and Back call ed from time immemorial. They were, as the nations had "I have been in hell ," snarled Fletcher Chri sti an as he fo rced begun to learn , the best seamen in the world , and they were Bligh into the Bounty' s longboat at sword 's po int, soon after sailing with a skipper who knew their worth , though at a the ship had left Tahiti . The mi ss ion of the voyage had been to criti cal moment he was to lose his ability to lead them, and be gather breadfruit trees fo r transpl anting to the Caribbean forever remembered fo r that. islands to grow homegro wn food for the slave labor fo rces of The unremitting struggle continued as the ship and her the great sugar plantations which generated incredible wealth people continued to battle screaming winds and overwhelming seas, sometimes unable to set any sa il at all as the wind 'Sam McKinney,Bligh: ATrueAccountofMutinyAboard His Maj esty's blew sail s out of the ir bolt-ropes, leaving the ship powerless Ship Bounty (Internati onal Marine, Camden ME, 1992), p. 43.

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Bligh' s voyage in the Bounty launch covered a stormy 3,600 miles. Map adapted ji-om Sam McKinney, Bligh.

for British, French and Dutch co loni als. Such were the worldwide patterns of trade and production-and colonial exploitation-which had grown up in the opening of the ocean world by 1787. Brita in , leader in such oceanic ventures , was not surprising ly the first to try this experiment.

The well -bred, popular Chri stian had been promoted to second in command by Bligh during the voyage. Bligh had sailed with him before, deepening the apparent mystery of the break between the two men. The stout ship Bounty was a few weeks out of Tahiti on her way home by way of the Caribbean, where she was to unl oad her breadfruit trees. Her people had learned to hate the yo ung trees. There was mess and ex tra bother caring fo r the saplings now crowded into the great cabin aft, where the deck had been lined with lead to handle the runoff from the daily watering the thousand-odd trees demanded.

But the trees were not the real problem aboard HMS Bounty. The problem was that Bli gh did not know ho w to enforce the kind of d isc ipline required to sail the King ' s ships.

Superficiall y hard , brutal in words, the record shows that he was inconsistent in di sc iplinary action , allowing the people careless liberties, then clamping down on them harshly , even viciously, to restore the ri g id hi erarch y of command. And worse, he had a way of making amends for hi s harsh scoldings with friendly overtures , as though nothing untoward had taken place. Anyone wo uld find this unpredictability, this mi xture of scornful contempt and gratuitous bonhomie, hard to live with. For the ship ' s mate, the vain, well-read intellectual Chri sti an, it had become intolerable. Homeward bound, with the end of the voyage not far in the future, he committed the unfo rgivable crime of mutiny in a King ' s ship at sea.

The story is well known through popular no vels and mov ies, and the mutiny became an iconic symbol of revolt against ruthless authority. But in fact Bli gh was a caring person. Hi s wife and fi ve daughters back in London adored him . We have seen his care of his crew, one of the healthi est to sail in a King ' s ship since Captain Cook. He very rarely used flogging , the traditional puni shment for any noticeable breach of ship ' s di sc ipline, and noted hi s regret at the first use of the flogging whip , the cat-o ' -nine-tails, three months into the voyage.

"If you attempt to make the least resistance yo u will instantly be put to death ," said Christian as he forced Bli gh into the 23-foot ship ' s launch. And from that moment, the Bounty story divides, the ship going one way, back to Tahiti , which they ' d left three weeks before, the Bounty launch bearing westward on the 3,600-mile journey Bligh planned to make to Timor, off the no 1th coast of Australia, where the men SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

cou ld take passage home to Eng land. With nineteen soul s aboard , plus water and limited provisions, the open boat was deeply laden , her rail just seven inches above the water. At their first landing to repl eni sh supplies at the nearby island of Tofua, one man was killed by natives who had found the party carried no firearm s. Thereafter they didn't land until they reached Australia, exhausted and starving after nearly four weeks at sea under atrocious conditions, the boat continually hounded by boarding seas. Bligh records the " horror and anxiety" of bailing day and night to keep the boat afloat.

Between gales they drifted under the blazing tropical sun .

Bli gh kept the crew together, sing ing songs in the evening dog watch and keeping up Navy routines in every way possible. He kept a meticulous log of each day's events, punctuated with observations on the lands they passed. Miraculously, after losing the one man to stoning by natives, they reached Timor in another three weeks , without losing another person.

Back in England, Bligh made a second, thi s time successful , voyage with breadfruit trees for the West Indies plantations. He went on to serve with di stincti on as captain in the Napoleoni c War, in which his distinguished service was recognized by Nelson himself. A turn of fate then put him in charge of a pri son camp in Austra lia, where disorderly soldiers mutinied and seized him . Acquitted of all charges in this sad affair, he retired as vice admiral.

The Bounty mutineers, for their part, returned to Tahiti .

Sixteen of them, includ ing Morri son, decided to stay in Tahiti, and Morri son built a schooner to sail home, but the men were pi cked up by the Royal Navy and taken back to England. Nine mutineers, accompanied by eighteen Tahitians , sailed the Bounty to the remote Pitcairn Islands. There al l except one died violent deaths in one form or another. Six men, including Chri stian, were executed by the Tahitians because of the ir domineering and abusive behavior. The one survivor, the active mutineer Alexander Smith, who changed hi s name to John Adams, li ved out hi s life on Pitcairn , rai sing the muti neers ' children among the Tahitian mothers and stepfathers.

The Royal Navy caught up with him on Pitcairn in 18 14, the patriarch of the English-speaking colony. It was decided to let him be.

Among the ten active mutineers who eventuall y stood trial in Eng land, three were hanged from the foreyard to affi rm that mutiny could not and would not be tolerated in the fleet.

Morri son and the others were pardoned. Please note that the authoritarian Bli gh, the tyrant Hollywood loves to hate, saved all but one of the eighteen men he took with him in his hazardous seven-weeks ' deep-sea voyage to Timor. Christian, the strong, wise, humane hero of fiction, was responsible for

9

"We gave them three such cheers as are only to be heard on a British man-of-war. This intimidates the enemy more than a broadside." the deaths of all but one of the nine men who went to Pitcairn.

Two distinguished students of the mutiny, the American Sam McKinney , whose Bligh has been mentioned, and the Australian Greg Dening, in a fascinating book devoted to unraveling the double helix of the past and present, Mr. Bligh' s Bad Language (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK & New York NY, 1992), conclude that Bligh, act ing out hi s resentments verbally, did worse damage to ship ' s morale and discipline than he would have done had he used the physical violence of flo gg ing . The failure of the crew to ac t one way or the other when the mutiny took place argues a crew that has been cowed and is uncertain of itself.

And much as we may admire Bligh ' s leadership and seamanship on the voyage of the Bounty launch , his disciplinary systems aboard ship have ri ghtly been judged to be against the best traditions of the Navy which Bligh served .

"The Tight Ship and Her Merry Hearts" Those traditions and practices, in a world far removed from ours, were different, perhaps, than most of us imagine today.

Loyalty down the necessarily hierarchical ladder of shipboard organization was expected and much prized , for it was vital to the spirit and performance of a loyal , cheerful and energetic ship 's company. Captains who used flogging excessively were reprimanded; a record with few punishments logged was held to be a clean record and singled out for compliments.

A sull en, put-upon or ab used crew is not much good. An old Navy say ing has it: "A silent forecastle is a dangerous forecastle. " A recent popular account of how the Royal Navy adopted chronometers to determine longitude has Sir Clowdisley Shovell, an admiral of notable leadership qualities, taking an impossible action when a crewman points out that his ship was headed for the rocks. Dava Sobel, author of the book Longitude , says the admiral had the seaman hanged on the spot. This could not have happened, for a capital sentence could be administered only by court martial formally convened, with officers from other ships present at the trial. These vital constitutional ri ghts, evo lved through centuries in the English-speaking world , were absolutely adhered to. It is disheartening , indeed rather alarming, to see these hard-won rights turned to dust and blown away in conformity with the ideological preconceptions of a late r age.

These unquestionable rights, of course, paid off handsomely for the Royal Navy and, later, the US Navy . The yeoman tradition which insi sted that "a man is a man for all that" had taken root deeply in the British psyche and gave us a marvelously tough , cheerful, resourceful breed in the British tar. This was the stock that enabled Royal Navy ships to win victory after victory against formidable odds.

Let the British tar John Nicol speak for himself of the spirit of the crews he served in- a modest but very proud old sailor who had been drafted, or " pressed," into the Navy in the Napoleonic War. Nicol dictated hi s memories to a sympathetic printer in 1822, seven years after the war was over, at the outset of the Pax Britannica, which prevailed for another ninety-odd yea rs before it had run its course. " A serious cast was to be perceived on every face ; but not a shade of doubt or fea r," says John Nicol , mariner, describing how hi s sh ip the Goliath went into action at the Battle of St. Vincent on 14 February 1797. "We rejoiced in a general action; not that we loved fighting; but we all wished to be free to return to our homes , and fo llow ou r own pursuits ." He goes on to

10

describe the British custom of cheering as they closed the enemy: Wh en everything was cleared, the ports open, the matches lighted, and guns run out, then we gave them three such cheers as are only to be heard on a British man-of-war. This intimidates the enemy more than a broadside , as they have often declared to me. It shows them that all is right; and the men in the true spirit baying to be at them.

In this Sea History you'll find Nicol's account of the Battle of the Nile, as he experienced it aboard the Goliath. Goliath was the lead ship in the British line and as she passed down the line of anchored French battleships she fired a broadside at each, cheering each enemy in succession . The wonder is, they meant it. Without romanticizing the hard conditions of naval service-and indeed of life ashore for the lower orders of society- the British consistently regarded themselves as a free people. And this applied to those who had been pressed into service, including Nicol him self. When John Nicol spoke of being free to "follow our own pursuits," he meant itdespite the fact that he was then a broken old man , in 1822, after the end of the wars with France, living on the edge of poverty and reduced to picking up bits of coal in the streets. In his lifetime he seethed with indi gnation at the treatment of black slaves in the British Caribbean pl antations. Slavery had long been abolished in Britain, so Nicol was unu sed to this debasing condition, more debasing to mas ter than servant, as he makes clear in this recoll ection , hearing the " mirth and dancing" of the slaves on shore : "There the negroes bounded in all the spirit of health and happiness; while their oppressors could hardly drag their effeminate bodies along." Nicol also cites examples of British tars intervening in situations where slaves are abused-and getting away with it, with the support of all hands .

We may end our brief visit with thi s good man of unquenchable pride and spirit with hi s e pi gra ph to hi s memoirs: Old as I am, my heart is still unchanged; and were I young and stout as I have been, again would I sail upon discovery: but, weak and stiff, I can only send my prayers with the tight ship and her merry hearts.

To Keep the Sea The British strategy carried forward so successfully by Britain's captains and crews in the late l 700s and l 800s was one of "keeping the sea." Thi s was a strategy of having the fleet at sea, shutting the enemy up in port so that the continuing ocean traffics that were the source of Britain's wealth-and getting to be vital to the nation' s survival-could be carried on while the opponents were blocked. "Keeper of the Sea" was the old English title for commanders of fleets (the word "admiral " is of Arab origin). "Keeper," in its archaic sense, means guardian, as well as one who possesses or maintains , in the current sense of storekeeper or bookkeeper. The sense of the age-old phrase "to keep the sea" patently springs from these origins , but to a seaman mean s something a little more. To "keep the sea" is to stay at sea, and abide its ri sks and surprises and occasional violence. In boatyards today you can hear people talk of a boat's "seakeeping" qualiti es-in other words the boat 's ability to endure what the sea throws at her, and cope with it, and stay afloat-or "keep the sea."

Before the 1500s, English ventures by sea, as with other nations, had been pretty much to sail from headland to headland , the sea serving as auxiliary to the land, rather than as the truly global element, the medium of universal access SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

around the world , the medium whi ch in fact covers by fa r the under the redoubtabl e De Grasse blockaded Yorktown, on larger part of the Earth 's surface.

Chesapeake Bay, fo rcing surrender of a British arm y of7,000 Francis Drake, sailing in the wake of great navigators like to an American arm y commanded by Was hington, re inforced Portugal' s Dias and Spain 's Columbu s, did much to introduce by French reg ulars. From thi s point on, the war, in which the new view of the sea as an element to be kept rather than just Washington had sa id early on that nav ies wo uld have the traversed. Running ahead of the resources and the techno logy casting vote, was effectively over. of his time, he conceived of longIn Febru ary 1782 , the ve ry term bl ockade and virtu al occupamonth that the House of Commons tion of enemy sea-l anes, a sea presreso lved again st further effort in ence supported by seizure of straAm eri ca, Rodney set sail from teg ic bases around the wo rld. Thi s England with seventeen ships of was the response of a small state the line to re info rce the weak Britconfronting the mighty of the earth . ish fl eet in the Caribbean. Meeting The sea would be a moat, to di sDe Grasse he secured dec isive viccourage attack , and it wo uld be a tory, hi s able subordinate Hood hi ghway for the nati o n stron g actu ally capturing the French flageno ugh to keep the sea. ship Ville de Paris and with her the Against the onslaught of Spangreat De Grasse himself. Command ish imperiali sm under Philip of of the seas was wrested back fro m Spain in the 1500s, and of the the large French and Spani sh fleets, France of Lo ui s XIV in the 1600s and the four- year siege of Gibraltar and 1700s, the British did well. In wa s lifted after a tre me nd o us the mid 1700s , fi ghting the Seven French-Spani sh effort had come Years War against France, which dangerously close to taking thi s gave them Canada and made the strongpoint at the entrance to the English-speak ing American coloMedite1i-anean. nies secure, they did even better, As the war wound down, the A gee!. 67. sec uring a stro ng positi on in Indi a French and Spanish need fo r peace as well as almost complete domiwas urgent, and Britain was read y nance of the North Ameri can conto settle the world war generated by John Nicol took up the seaman's life in distant trades, tinent. The Treaty of Pari s of 1763 , until he was drafted by a press gang for service in the the spark of the American Revo lu while it made liberal accommoda- Royal Na vy. Despite hard times, he kept a twin kle in his tion . France and Spain wanted a tions to Brita in 's defea ted enemies, eye, as seen in this portrait made of him at age 67, when peace that wo uld keep the new put the British in an unacc ustomed he dictated his book. Drawing by W. H. Lizars.

American Republi c well to the east top-dog pos iti on vis-a-v is Euroof the Miss iss ippi , and south of the pean powers. When the grow ing revolt of the American Ohio Ri ver, both vital arteries of Spani sh and French trade in colonies became a true revoluti on, with the signing of the the undeveloped interior of the American continent. But the American Declaration of Independence in the summer of American negoti ators in Pari s learned from friends in England 1776, the great military powers of France and Spain , and the that Brita in was now leaning toward a strong America, emsmall but wealthy Holland began shipping arms and providing bracing the Ohi o Ri ver Va ll ey and reaching to the Mi ssissippi fin ancing to the Ameri cans. and the Great Lakes. At least one Englishman, Jonas Hanway , At first, the Americans barely hung in with a ragtag arm y fo under of the Marine Society in London (whi ch fl ouri shes led by General George Washington, easil y the most important today) , had foreseen American independence and the ri se of American leader, who kept the arm y in be ing through tactics a new nati on which could weigh in the bal ance against the of delay, retreat and sharp counterattacks. Thus he kept the mass ive armaments and populations of Europe, which hugely British continuously off balance. In the end these Fabian outweighed Britain ' s limited popul ati on base. And others tactics led the British to cluster in the great cities of New York began to see a much stronger market for British exports in an and Philadelphia, virtuall y abandoning the countryside to pro- independent Ameri can nati on. With consummate statesmanAmerican fo rces. Harsh measures were used by the Patriots to ship Benjamin Franklin, leader of the American delegati on, di scourage those who persisted in loyalty to aking 3,000mil es put thi s settlement over on America ' s reluctant allies, whose away. But the British came in raids that rallied the countryside need fo r peace was paramo unt since they now were los ing the aga inst them, while the Ameri can forces stayed on in what war on all fronts. was , after all, their own country.

The French Revolution George III, like America ' s President Lyndon John son two The changing values and radical new ideas of the late 1700s hundred years later, tried to fig ht the American war without centered in France, with Pari s the center of intellectual ferextraordinary taxation and a real nati onal effort. This pro- ment. Rousseau had proclaimed the superiori ty of the pureduced near-catastrophe fo r Britain when the French declared hearted savage to the degeneracy of civilized man, corrupted war to support the American cause in 1778 and began sending by greed, envy and the obsessive rituals of a society oppressed sold iers as well as arms to the Americans. Spain joined with by servitude. Voltaire from a different perspecti ve foun d the France, and for two summers the naval balance was totall y values that held society together to be false, hypocriti cal and upset, as French fl eets crui sed the Eng li sh Channel while des igned to serve the interests of the ruling cl ass. God him self Britain desperately rearmed . In September 178 1 a French fleet (if he ex isted) rigged the system agai nst the human race, and SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

11

well-intentioned people just made things worse by enforcing the rules of a fixed game.

These notions entranced murderous tyrants of the age like Catherine the Great of Ru ss ia and Frederick the Great of Prussia, who entertained Voltaire in state while they continued grinding the faces of their peoples in oppress ion and wars for more territory . In Britain, the young poet Wordsworth and the visionary William Blake envisaged a purer wo rld, freed of the "dark Satan ic mills" of the industrial revolution.

And in France itself, the queen and her ladies- inwa iting played at being milkm aid s, while the monarchy and its servants used their unrestra ined power to ind ul ge in extravagant follies. And the country grew Th e proud 64- gun ship Agamemnon, laterfamous as Nelson's fa vorite commore and more impoverished under the burdens of mand, slides into the Beaulieu River at Buckler' s Hard, 10 April 1781. She' s debt and crushing taxes. ji-amed ofoakji-om the nearby New Fores/, and local people rejoice at th e work F inall y, there was a shortage of bread in France, she brings as Britain builds up her navy to.fight the world war launched by the the richest agric ultu ral country in E urope. On 14 Jul y American Revolution. (Painting by John Wyllie) 1789, the poor of the great city of Paris stormed the Bastille, a prison where many bankrupts and dissidents were In the ensuing years Napo leon assumed abso lute power as held. This ac t alone would not have led to the bloody revolu- Emperor. He placed hi s brother on the throne of Spain- but tion that followed. The critical ignition that blew the ancient thi s did not take, and Britain landed an army under Wellington regime to sm ithereens was the disaffection of the middle class , to support the Spanish in su rgents. Napoleon, like German y ' s burdened by heavy taxation , with many small businessmen Hitler in this century, then set out to conquer Ru ss ia as a means going broke in the general economi c decline. of breaking the British bl ockade which had him penned in Within two years of the fall of the Bastille, Louis XVI as Europe.

King of France had accepted a constituti on giving power to In 1812, the year of the French invasion of Russia-which the National Assembly. But the game was played out. Increas- turned out disastrously for Napoleon- the United States reingly radical (and increasi ngly violent) leaders took control of solved to liberate Canada from British rule despite the objecaffa irs, and in January 1793 , six months after accepting the tions of the maritime states of New England, who opposed the constitution, Louis XVI was executed . The Assembly de- war. The invasion of Canada was repul sed , and the British clared war again st Great Britain, Holl and and Spain, which counter invasion was only stopped by decisive American had been acting to support the Prussians and Austrians who naval v ictories on Lakes Champlain and Ontario, which cut sought to put down the Revolution. A re ign of terror fo llowed the suppl y lines of the advancing Canadian and British armies , with in France, as revolutionary committees were formed to forcing them to withdraw. At sea, impress ive single-ship defend the nation and eliminate internal opposition to a new victories were wo n by the big US frigates Constitution and executive body , the Committee of Public Safety.

United States, and a brilli an tly successful privateering camAnd Then-Napoleon! paign again st British shipping resulted in painful disruption of No one had ever tried to harness the revolutionary power of a the oceanic commerce which sustained Britain through the people in arms before- but drawing on public fear and anger, long war, encouraging sw ift settlement of thi s sideshow war this worked. Mass lev ies of troops were raised and began to in 18 14. beat the professional armies sent in to crush them. Napoleon The long fro ntier between Canada and the US became the Bonaparte, an artill ery officer, gained the confidence of the longest unarmed frontier in the world, and remained so despite Committee of Public Safety by sho wing how guns could be confrontati ons as it was extended westward to the Pacific in used to control the mobs that threatened the state, and then coming decades. Napoleon, ex iled to the Mediterranean isused his guns with mass armies to win stunning victories. He land of E lba after the total defeat of his armies fo llowing stab ili zed the French military position, and then set out with appalling losses in Russia, landed again in France in 18 15. a fleet of ships to invade Egypt and threaten the British Veterans everywhere flocked to hi s banners , led by the very position in India. This breathtaking move was crippled by French armi es sent to stop him . Again he was poised to Nelson leadi ng the British fl eet to an overwhelming victory at threaten world peace with a massive new army . He was the Battle of the Ni le in Aug ust 1798 (see Admiral Call o ' s defeated by a British force led by Wellington, with just-inarticle, pages 30- 34). time help from a Prussian rei nforcement, at the Battle of A brief peace was signed in 1802. War resumed in the Waterloo in June 1815 . Wellington later called the battle "a spring of 1803 as Napoleon mustered hi s triumphant armies close-run thing. " At the time, he wept when he was shown the for the invasion of Eng land. This time Spain rejo ined her o ld massive British cas ualty lists. But Waterloo ended the long ally France aga inst Britain , but the Royal Navy fought off war, at last. Napo leon surrendered to the British line-ofevery challenge and in the culminating campaign of Trafalgar, battleship Bellerophon, and ultimately sa iled away to reon 2 1 October 1805 , the com bined French and Spanish fl eet newed ex il e in the distant island of St. Helena in the South of33 sh ips of the line was substantially destroyed by a British Atlantic . fleet of 27 ships. Nelson , commanding the British fleet, was And the British, undi sputed masters of the seas that had killed by a bullet on the quarterdeck of hi s flagship Victory. protected their island kingdom , resumed their wo rk of ocean ic The ship survives as a memorial in Portsmouth today. commerce and emp ire.

12

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

"I do not say the French cannot come. I only say they cannot come by sea."

The Accidental Empire It has long been a common say ing that the British Empire happened by accident. Some have di sagreed with thi s, say ing that the drive of the British scattered around the world , making things happen, and bringing parli aments and steam railroads into being everywhere from Indi a to Canada and back aga in , was too purposeful a development to be called accidenta l.

Maybe so, but there was no master plan , only a drive to get out in the world and be doing. The wo rld was open to the Briti sh, as the world 's first uni versa l sea power, and as earl y starters in the industri al revolution that was changing the way people lived everywhere, with unpara ll eled resources for in vestment, they had not only the will but the means to be out and doing.

And the empire really worked, both for the British and a lso for the numbers of peopl e-fu ll y one quarter of the wo rl d ' s population-who made up its body. Those hundreds of milli ons could hardl y have been held in check by the minor British gani sons scattered aro und the g lobe, had the subject peoples rea lly wished to break away. Unfairness certainl y ex isted within the Empire, notably in race and class prejudice.

But these ev ils had existed in even greater degree among the colonies, notably in the Indi an caste system . Slavery had long been illegal in Britain, as being against basic British law, and was outl awed in the rest of the Empire in 1832-thirty years before it was abo li shed in the Un ited States, fifty years before it was abolished in Brazil. Queen Victoria, who rul ed from 1837 to 190 I , de li ghted in the variety ofraces in her empire.

And for many Britons, as James MoITi s (later Jan Morris) wrote in hi s splendid Pax Britannica, " the whole vast panoply of Empi1¡e really was a community, multicolored, inconceivabl y di spersed, yet still a brotherhood of sorts, in which it was a man' s job to encourage the backward, comfort the neg lected and honor the Queen."

The Queen , indeed, while not a person of driving ambition s or overweening pride, became a mysti c fi gure for all sorts of different peoples aro und the world . She had a sense of mission, but it was limited and practi cal, and her admini strators, as the Empire graduall y developed them, dealt mainly in practical things. Whil e it was an accepted element of policy to encourage the spread of the Christian relig ion, other reli gions were never persecuted. If there was vis ion beyond these things, perhaps it was best expressed by the colon ial adm ini strator Stamford Raffles .

Raffles, writi ng in 1827, a scant dozen years after the victorious conclusion of the Napoleonic wars at the beginning of the Pax Britannica whi ch prevailed from 18 15 to 19 14-the same Raffles who went on to fo und the seapo1t ci ty of S ingapore at the foot of the Malay Peninsula-set fo rth this goal forthe immense imperium established under the shield of Britain 's Royal Navy: Let it still be the boast of Britain to write her name in characters of light; let her not be remembered as the tempest whose course was to desolate , but as the gale of spring reviving the slumbering seeds of mind and calling them to life from the winter o_f" ignorance and oppression. If the time shall come when her empire shall have passed away, these monuments will endure when her triumphs shall have become an empty name.

All thi s rested on the relieving victories of the era of Ne lson, which restrained European militari sm, as it was to be restrained aga in in the World Wars of our own century. One remembers the qui et confidence of Nelson's protector Earl St. SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

Vincent at the Admiralty, responding to popular anxieties over the threatened in vas ion of England by Napoleon's allconquering arm ies: " I do not say the French cannot come. I only say they cannot come by sea."

Evenin g Aboard the Frigate Rose Outside the stern windows the day slowly turned and darkened over the East R iver, while the lights came on across the way in Brookl yn. We were at dinner aboard " HMS" Rose, a feast concocted by Anne Chotzinoff Grossman and Lisa Grossman Thomas , the authors of a remarkable cookbook compiled from Patrick O ' Brian 's A ubrey-Maturin novels of life at sea in the Napoleonic Wars. On my left sat William F. Buckley, Jr. , absorbed in li stening to Captain Bailey ' s account of how the big square ri gger behaved in a gale on her sa il across the Atlantic two years before. Mr. Buckley had crossed the Atlantic twenty years before in hi s own boat, a voyage naITated in the wo nderful book Airborne. At the other end of the table our NMHS Overseer Wa lter Cronkite was say ing kind things about the work of the Society, which engaged my full attention as well as the attention of the BBC TV cameraman filmin g the event.

Someone observed that we owed thanks to the orig inal frigate Rose, active in American waters during the Revolution, for not com ing upriver to where her successor was lying now , on the ni ght George Washington brought the remains of the American army across from Brooklyn Heights in August 1776. The Rose's guns would have made kindling of Colone l Glover's boats bringing the beaten army across the river, and General Wash ington , too-which would have been a bad thing for Britain and America, as things worked out.

The talk turned to the War of 1812, when a British sq uadron under Admira l Cockburn sent its boats up the Potomac to burn the Cap itol in Was hington . This was in retaliation for our forces hav ing burnt the Canadian capital, in our foray into their cou ntry to liberate them from the British. Having just read the biography of Cockburn discussed in the "Editor's Booklocker" (see page 15), I was able to add that one positive resul t of the raid was the considerable number of black slaves who signed up under the British flag as the Brits passed through the countryside, thereby gaining their freedom.

Eyebrows were raised atthi s. On getting home that even ing I looked in the encycloped ia and fo und that slavery had never been abo li shed in Britain , it just wasn 't allowed. A West Indi an planter coming back to England with a retinue of black slaves in 1772 found that they had all become free the minute they stepped as hore, a finding subsequently upheld in a court of law.

As dessert came on (Aubrey's beloved Spotted Dog) , I realized that I had had such a dessert once before. This was on my first Atlantic crossing under sail , in the English cutter lolaire, nearl y fifty years ago. We observed the Fourth ofJu ly at sea, plunging along with wet decks before a favoring gale.

O ur yo ung American crew , myself and two others, was to uched to find the Engli sh sk ipper, Bobby Somerset, going to a ll the trouble to produce Plum Duff, a doughy mass boiled in the skipper's undershirt (as the onl y proper mesh-li ke cloth aboard), and served wi th las hings of treacly Golden Syrup.

I to ld our d inner companions how, as mate, I fe lt I should fo rmally thank the skipper fo r honoring American Independence Day in thi s way. "Oh ," sa id Bobby with what I can onl y describe as a knowing sm ile, "we celebrate that too. " We agreed that thi s was a sati sfactory answer all around. -1 13

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SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

EDITOR 'S BOOKLOCKER Some years ago at a meeting of maritime museum directors, I asked how many people had read Nicholas Rodger's The Wooden World. Not one hand was raised-nobody had read thi s extraordinarily informative, brilliantly evocative work on the realities of life aboard the floating fortresses that kept the sea against European militarism two hundred years ago. These were the big sq uare riggers that inspired the American Captain A. T. Mahan's famous observation: "Those far-distant, storm-beaten ships, upon which the Grand Army never looked , stood between it and the dominion of the world."

Mr. Rodger has now given us the first volume of The Safeguard of the Sea, a fresh and authoritative narrativeofBritish naval history from 660 to 1649. This study integrates the growth of Britain's Royal Navy from its stop-and-start beginnings to its role in bringing Britain to the front rank of the nations as the Modem Age took shape. Future volumes will bring this masterwork up to the present day.

Rodger' s books are bigand fact-filled, but to the reader in a hurry, they make excellent browsing . Just tum to the subject or era that catches yo ur eye-you ' 11 have a grand read before you. And these are books you wil l come back to, fo r the heft of authentic naval detail , but also for revealing perspectives on the sweep of genera l history, which Rodger is always awa re of, like a skipper with hi s eye sweep ing the horizon.

And let me add something here in favor of that search of distant horizons, which under sai l becomes an habitual turning of the head coming on deck , or before go ing below. In hi story, what happens on the horizon of time tell s you a lot about what happens next, for events distant in time have a profound effect on assumptions we hold today. And the longer span of time shows the bi gger, more graduall y developing experiences or ideas one doesn 't catch on TV or in think-tank studies.

Patrick 0 'Brian 's novels, woven from the first-hand exploration of source materia ls in the world of the Royal Navy in elson's time, get the reader into that world not so very distant from ourowna world of advanced thinking, crass stupidities, failures , triumphs, or, as Wordsworth expressed it at the time, "ex ultations, agonies, and man's unconq uerable mind. " O'Brian's eighteen novels of the sea captain Jack Aubrey and hi s unlikely companion , the physici an-natu SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

ralist-secret agent Stephen Maturin are all in print, thanks be.

Remarkably, the latest novel, The Yellow Admiral, may well be the strongest of the series, show ing Jack taking up cudgels to defend the anc ient right of com mon land in E ng land , with all the forces of sleaze and oppression out against him-a situation recognizable to any aware reader today. And let me recommend a book not strictly in the canon, a cookbook by two ladies who have compi led a work marvelously evocative of the era, the plots of the novels and how people lived in the wooden world, Lobscouse and Spotted Dog. Few things can draw yo u more into that va ni shed world than sampling (or, even better, cook ing) its viands. The cookery-generous ly larded with situational c itati ons from the Aubrey-Maturin series-shows that people across the generation s la ug h (largely at themselves), entertain each other, and hugely enjoy the pleasures of the tab le.

NELSON'S FAVO

E

HMS Agamemnon at War 178i-l809

Nelson's Favourite, a fine recent biography of HMS Agamemnon, Nelson's first battleship command , offers a live ly and engaging path into the wooden world of the ships of Nelson 's day, and of the ir people. A small battl es hip rated at 64 guns, she was built at Buckler's Hard on the shallow Beau! ie u Ri ver on Eng land's south coast in 1781 -where much of the original shipyard has been restored today with a fine small museum. S he was wrecked in South America in 1809, serving in the complex Eng lish involvement with Spanish colonists toward the end of the Napoleonic War. She saw action at

Rodney 's v ictory of the Saints, and Nelson 's great actions at the Nile, Copenhagen and Trafalgar. Deane 's work, however, offers its great value not on ly in battle but in the work ing li ves of the ships and their people-the ships moved about li ke paw ns in the great game of world po li tics, the men making lives fo r themselves under hard and challenging conditions.

On another level, a new biography, Cockburn and the British Navy in Transition, by Roger Morri ss, embraces the ach ievements of Adm iral Cockburn (1772- I 853), who sailed in the Napoleoni c wars. Ne lson once wrote him that " we so exactl y think ali ke on points of serv ice"-praise indeed from the supreme naval leader of the age! But his greatest strength was to run the British Navy of the postwa r Pax Britannica with ve rve and a keen sense of responsibility fo r the advance of freedom and the maintenance of peace in a fast-chang ing world .

These wo rks benefit greatly from the emerg ing hi stori cal school wh ich insists on close-in detail from orig ina l sources, fitted into the broader sweep of genera l hi story. But the real beneficiary can be yo u, the reader, sharing in li ves that show w hat people in slow-moving wooden ships can do and be.

PS The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgia n Navy, by N. A. M . Rodger (W. W .

Norton & Co., New York NY & London UK, orig 1986, 1996, illus, appen, notes, biblio, gloss, index, ISBN 0-393-3 1469-3; $ 14.95pb) The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, 660-1649, by N. A. M. Rodger (W. W. Nolton & Co., New York NY & London UK, 1998, 5 12pp, illus, appen, notes, bibli o, gloss, index; ISB 0-393-04579-X; $39.95hc) The Yellow Ad mira l, by Patrick O' Bri an (W. W. Nolton & Co., New York NY & London UK, 1996, 262pp, ISB 0-393-04044-5;$24hc) Lobsco use and Spotted Dog, by Anne Chotzinoff Grossman and Lisa Grossman Thomas (W. W. Norton, New York NY & London UK, 1997, 416pp, index, ISBN 0-39304559-5; $29.95 hc) Nelson's Favourite: HMS Agamemnon at War, 1781-1809, by Anthony Deane (Nava l lnstitute Press, Annapo li s MD, 1996, 320pp, illus, appen, gloss, biblio, index, ISBN 1-55750620-5; $44.95 hc) C ockburn and t he British Navy in Transition , by Roger Morriss (U ni versity of South Carolina Press, Colu mbia SC & Un ivers ity of Exeter Press, Exeter UK, 1998, 352pp, illus, notes, biblio, index, ISB l-57003-253X; $39 .95hc)

15

OPERATION SAIL 2000 OFFICIAL PORT CITIES, PART III

Miami: In the Wake of the Santiago

by Captain Joe Maggio

1513: A sturd y southeast wind blows froth from the tops of waves that meet the port bow of the caravel Santiago, flagship of a small , weather-worn fleet of three vessels working their way down the coast of Florida. The vesse ls sai l under the command of Juan Ponce de Le6n. He first set out exploring with Columbus, 20 years earlier, and now he was looking out for an end to the land stretching out to starboard with swaying palm trees and white sandy beaches.

Anton de Alaminos , now serving as first officer under Ponce de Le6n , also had sai led with the Admiral of the Ocean Sea on voyages to the New World. A shout from hi gh in the rigging has de Alaminos giving orders to those on deck.

There is an end, finally , to the land.

Sheets are slacked, yards squared as the Santiago's bow falls off and the deep blue of the Gulf Stream gives way to clear, azure waters.

The proud little fleet rides an incom-

ing tide aro und the tip of today 's Cape F lorida on Key Biscayne and cautiously works under reduced sail into what is now Miami 's Biscayne Bay. They were on a voyage searching for the fabled fo untain of yo uth , but on thi s day, after so long at sea, a safe and comfortable anc horage wou ld suffice.

The ship's company had never seen such shallow waters under their barnacle-encrusted keel , as the Santiago, heeling over somewhat, shouldered her way into history .

2000: When the tall ships of all classes from the maritime nations of the world sail into Miami in early June, they wi ll be following in the wake of the Santiago and her sisters and will be part of a greater whole , woven into the everchanging tapestry of Miami's maritime history. Throughout that hi story, Miami has provided and continues to provide a harbor for every type of watercraft for

every reason-not all savory, but all part of this tapestry .

Miami today is an international port for ships of all descriptions; some seek commerce and trade, others political refuge. Be it a final destin ation or just a port of call , Miami is a traditional seagoi ng port in an age of space exp loration and satellite communication.

The movi e "Casablanca" could have been filmed here, and Miami may just be America's Casablanca. However fast today 's railroads, highways and airlines are across the rest of the country, Miami, perched on the tan thumb of Florida, conti nues to shape its hi story and destiny in its own way. The world is go ing by at Mach two plus, while Miami goes a long at a steady eight knots.

Miami 's port is multifaceted. Here is the largest crui se port in the world . Its commerc ial activity is the busiest in the entire Caribbean area, offering modern facilities for quick turnarounds for the

Big schooners, the last of their breed, cluster on the Miami waterji¡ont, bringing in lumber to feed the building boom in 1924. (Historical Association of Southern Florida, Jean Taylor Collection)

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The soaring towers of the new Miami , three quarters of a century on, still look out on ships and the sea . Here, the stately Norway (a t leji) , built as the super-liner France in 1960, lies with a later generation of cruise liners. (Photo: The Port of Miami)

largest of container ships, as well as a slower pace for inter-island fre ighters.

Earl y on Mi ami became a haven for small yachts. In 1877 Ralph Munroe came to the tropical frontier that was M iami in a sloop to set up a boatbuilding yard he named the Barnacle. Shallowdraft vessels fo r Biscayne Bay, the Bahamas and the Florida Keys came fro m thi s small yard in Coconut Grove and became internationally fa mous. He worked closely with the dean of yacht design, "Captain" Nat Herreshoff.

The past half century brought the Cold War, a failed invasion of Cuba backed by America, the brink of nuclear war in 1962, and countless numbers of refugees. Miami has endured and pushed onward. This gracious city has repl aced Havana as the mainstay of Caribbean bas in maritime commerce and, in the process, has transformed itself into a more Latin city in various respects.

All of Miami 's history seems to have been built on the strong hull s of sailing ships, going back to that day in 1513.

1919: Enter the National Prohibition Act, outlawing the manufac ture and sale of alcohol. Thi s made poss ible a schooner captain ' s opening gambit in a short run to profit and glory-if it didn 't land him in jail. A j ury-rigged fl eet of old schooners, tramp steamers , souped-up SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

Chris-Craft runabouts and fa ncy-dancy yachts under false fl ags of a variety of nations ran rum as long as they could from the Bahamas to Miami 's threemile limit, where even fas ter, smaller boats ran into the creeks and mangroves of Biscayne Bay. Thi s armada of various shapes and rigs roared into legend as Rum Row. "Hooch" was what the country wanted, and the government could not cover five thousand miles of coast.

Captain Bill McCoy knew this as well as anyone. As a Tampa boatbuilder he was impressed with the fas t and able Glouceste r schooners. He obtained the 90-foot Henry L. Marshal, loaded up "product" in Nassau and caught a beam wind for the French Islands of St. Pierre et Miquelon off Newfoundland in 1921.

It was his year to "make it. " During that passage he sold 1500 cases of hooch. He sold his fi nal cases in Savannah, Georgia, and bought the long, lean and fas t 114-foot Arethusa, which he renamed Tomolka, and sailed into hi s own niche of history. Under the British red duster, he gained everlasting fame for honest quality , earning hi s product the reputation of being "the Real McCoy. " Maritime events were calmer after the 18th Amendment was repealed by the 21st. Rum Row was over. But tourism was grow ing.

Once agai n M iami 's step to a new

plateau was reached on the backs of honest seamen and a hardworking sailing ship fleet. Progress was here and progress needed the last aging East Coast, wooden sailing vessels available to fu el its building boom. Long before the advent of the railroad and Pan Ameri can's fl ying boats, Miami in 1924 turned to the sea fo r its next leap .

During that year Miami was besieged by greed and hysteria. It arrived as a tsunami from Wall Street in a blind groping fo r profit to be gained from building anything that would stay on its fo undation-at least until the sale was completed. Fortunes were earned daily.

The vill age on the verge of becoming a city needed building supplies fo r the huge demand. Word went out along the East Coast, and the seafaring community heeded the call. In the peak building time, M iami 's newly dug channel was chockablock with bowsprits hanging over the waterfront; in 1924 , 52 sailing vessels of alJ rigs were counted at one time along the Bayfront Park (now Miamarina Bayside). This same area, years later during World War II, served as a PT-boat training base.

During the 1940s, war was a reality for Mi ami- the city became a training fac ility for the Army, Anny Air Corps, Navy and naval aviators (George Bush trained in an Avenger bomber at Opa17

OPERATION SAIL 2000 OFFICIAL PORT CITIES, PART III

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f

Today , the schooner William H. Albury (above), built in the Bahamas in 1964 , sails out of Miami , carrying students on voyages of learning and self discovery. At right, a student stands bow watch during a Bay clean-up cruise. (Photo: Mike and Anne Adair)

locka Naval Air Station), and actual combat came very close to her beaches. German U-boats torpedoed and sank tankers and freighters within sight of land.

1998: The historic schooner William H. Albury enters Miami under full sail.

Twenty-five years ago this schooner had only a cargo of dreams. The master knew there was no more lumber to carry; the Cape Horn road was a memory; tales of grain races came from great books; the big Grand Bankers were long gone.

Another thing he knew, however, was that beyond all things was the sea. He almost went into the merchant marine, but a series of events led him to take the road less traveled, introducing him to men like Irving Johnson, Art Kimberly, Lou Kenedy, Lincoln Colcord, Sterling Hayden, Art Crimmins, Warwick Tompkins and Alan Villiers-some in person, some through their writings, and all dedicated to taking young people to sea under sail.

He sailed under Art Crimmins, who knew where they built seaworthy boats in the Caribbean. On a small Bahamian island in the Abacos, with the lyrical name of Mano ' War, he set out to buy and restore the last large schooner built 18

there by honest, hardworking shipwrights whose art and genius could be seen in every vessel they built.

Today, as the world goes by at Mach two plus, the schooner sails at seven knots tops. Down the channel she comes - lean , rakish, carrying everything through the topsails . They had been at sea a week. These Boy Scouts of America from the High Adventure Sea Base in the Florida Keys-boys between the ages of 13 and 18- had come aboard with high hopes and little knowledge.

The week had worked its magic. The very young watch leader looked intently at the captain as the turning basin and land loomed closer. His eyes asked q uestions. The captain shook his head. No. They didn ' t need the diesel. On they came, past the great cru ise ships and container vessels and fre ighters, their crews lining the rails, past Chalks seaplanes which had been using this channel as a runway since 1919. Pilots and passengers on their way to the Bahamas stood transfixed. Cars stopped on MacArthur causeway. People got out. Longshoremen stopped load ing. No words were spoken aboard .

Together the yo ung crew had crossed the Gulf Stream twice, sailed the Great

Bahama Bank and had been reefed down in the Northeast Providence Channel.

On thi s day thi s crew knew each other and loved their ship .

At last the captain gave a small signal. The 14-year-old at the wheel reacted, and the dainty schooner started her ballet into the wind, elegant bowsprit jabbed smack dead center, held steady with coming-home pennant snapping smartly from the main topmast truck, as the jibs came down on the run.

Still not a word was spoken. But, as the anchor let go and she settled back, as sheets were slacked, smiles appeared on the smooth , suntanned faces. Pride welled in the hearts of these young people flush with a sense of accomplishment, each working for the good of the ship and his fellow crew .

The schooner sails in the wake of the Santiago . In all of Miami's glorious maritime tradition , no cargo enteri ng her port was ever so precious. ,t

Capt. Maggio is theownerandmasterof the schooners William H. Albury and Heritage of Miami II, which sail out of' Miami on sail-training voyages and charters. (3145 Virginia Street, Coconut Grove FL 33133) SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

OpSail 2000 Miami

by Kim Droze staged in New York Harbor. n the morning of 6 Slotnick has assisted ports June 2000, scores of majestic tall ships around the globe with major maritime events. The presiof all classes will enter the Port of Miami channel dent is Captain Julian Fernandez, former chairman of framed by the beauty of the the Biscayne Bay Pilots Asmorning sun. Guided by a sociation and former presifleet of tugboats with water cannon spouting, the ships dent of the State Board of Pilot Commissioners. Capwill be welcomed by thoutain Jirn McDonald, USCG sands of cheering spectators on shore and pleasure (Ret.) is the vice president boats in the water. South and di rector of operations of Florida begins its romance OpSaiJ Miami 2000 and was with OpSail 2000 on this the US Coast Guard Chief of Operations for OpSail morning. " Miami Dade County 1986.

The logistics of the event has the honor of being the are significant because the first continental US port for A flotilla of local working and pleasure boats greeted the arrival of the OpSail 2000, and we intend Spanish replicas of Columbus' s fleet , the Nina, the Pinta and the Santa Port of Miami is not only the to make the most of it," says Maria, in Miami , 15February1992. (Photo courtesy Hispanic Heritage busiest cruise ship port in the world, but also one of Howard Slotnick, OpSail Council, Inc.) the top cargo ports as well.

Miami 2000 chairman and CEO. " We also expect significant tourist participation, par- Port visitors will park offsite and be shuttled to key tour and ticularly from Latin America. This is a golden opportunity for exhibit areas by motorcoach. The site will feature both indoor and outdoor venues for entertainment and activities. the area. " A variety of travel packages will be assembled and offered With Miami Dade County Mayor Alex Penelas serving as honorary chair, plans are underway to create an unforgettable once the host airline has been selected. Artists, craft and merchandise vendors, as well as interested sponsors, should week of tall ship events.

More than one million South Floridians and international write to Robert Holtzman , OpSail Miami 2000, c/o Citigatevis itors will have the opportunity to tour the vessels and Gordon/Diaz Balart, 444 Brickell Avenue, Suite 1050, Miami celebrate the year 2000 with the ships ' five thousand cadets, FL 33131. ,t crews and officers from around the world. In addition, there will be public and private receptions and concert events.

OpSail Miami 2000 Tlu¡oughout their stay in the Port of Miami, the cadets of these Preliminary Schedule of Events tall ships will be hosted by local consulates and volunteers.

The tall ships arrive Tuesday, 6 June, and will be docked in OpSail Miami 2000 will actively participate in the NaMiami until Saturday, 10 June, when they will participate in the tional Maritime Historical Society ' s educational program, crown ing event of OpSail 2000-the Parade of Sail. entitled "Beyond the Spectacle." Miami Dade County schools will receive curriculum guides, and many classes will particiThe following events will be featured on 7, 8 & 9 June: pate in the "adopt-a-ship program." Students will correspond 9AM-NOON: Free school tours of all ships; more than 30,000 by e-mail with ships at sea, and then participate in ships ' tours school chi ldren will tour daily to meet the officers, crew and cadets of their adopted vessel.

9AM-9PM: Cadet & Crew Hospitality Center open lOAM-lOPM: SeaFair with juried Nautical Art Show, Seafood From 6 June through 10 June, Miami will salute the tall Festival, rides and entertainment ships and the lure and lore of the seas. In addition to touring NOON-5PM: Free public tours of the ships the ships and meeting their crew , visitors can participate in the 6-8PM: Private tours and receptions aboard largestSeaFair Miami has ever seen. Nearly $2 million will be raised to create this huge waterfront event. Spectators will In addition, OpSail Miami 2000 will host these special events: visit a sea-themed art show, scores of sea-related exhibits, a Tuesday, 6 June seafood festival featuring South Florida's renowned chefs and 7PM: Private Welcome Reception for ships' officers, OpSail restaurants, and enjoy seafaring musical entertainment from Board and VIP Sponsors South Florida and the Caribbean. The Port and adjacent areas, Wednesday, 7 June including Miami's Bayfront Park and Amphitheater, the l-3PM , Parade to Government Center 9PM- lAM: Captain's Ball Bayside Marketplace, Watson Island and the planned AmeriThursday, 8 June can Airlines Arena, will host related events.

8:30PM: Classical music concert OpSail Miami 2000 ' s board is headed by individuals with Friday, 9 June an abundance of history and experience in the sailing commu9-1 lAM: Cadet Soccer Tournament nity , especially in the tall ships event category. Chairman 9PM: Pop music concert Howard Slotnick, an NMHS Trustee, was the vice president 11 :30PM: OpSail Miami 2000 Fireworks Musical Spectacular and director of operations for OpSail 1976, which celebrated Saturday, 10 June the US Bicentennial, and OpSail 1986, marking the Statue of lOAM: Parade of Sail Liberty 's centennial. Both of these previous events were

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SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

19

MUSEUM OF THE ISSUE

Independence Seaport Museum: "Home Port Philadelphia"

by Donald A. Wambold, Jr.

T

â&#x20AC;˘

he new Independence Seaport Museum commemorates not only the birthplace of our nation and navy, but also one of the leading cities of naval architecture, construction and commerce for nearly two centuries. It is appropriately located at historic Penn 's Landing in Philadelphia, where William Penn landed in 1683 and the first Continental Navy ship, the Alfred, was commissioned on 3 December 1775.

Independ e nce Seaport Museum opened on 2 July 1995. It originated from the Philadelphia Maritime Museum. Seeking to expand its role promoting the hi story and culture of this historic city, the Museum leased the existing Port of Hi story building on the waterfront and expanded the standing structure with an addition for their library and education center for a total area of over 100,000 square feet. The building is of a unique contemporary architecture, with a multi-level terraced roof from which visitors have a panoramic view of the scenic waterfront.

The Museum includes a 530-seat acoustical auditorium available for lectures and concerts, as well as "Workshop on the Water" programs featuring classes in traditional boat construction.

In addition, educational programs designed to complement school curricula are offered. The library is an extensive research facility , with a comprehensive collection of over 12,000 photographs.

The Museum's holdings include Admiral Dewey 's 1898 flagship, the protected cruiser Olympia, and the World War II submarine memorial Becuna.

The elegant 96-foot motor la un ch Principia is also an acquisition of the Museum and is available for charter for

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

dinners and longer cruises.

Yard also built the Coast Guard Cutter Independence Seaport Museum's per- Taney (WPG-32) , the last warship surmanent exhibits, "Home Port Philadel- vivor of the Pearl Harbor attack, presphia" and "Divers of the Deep," include ently preserved at Baltimore. Many other numerous interactive educational and ships were constructed here: battleships, entertaining displays. There are also gal- aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers , amleries for temporary exhibits on the first phibious ships, and small auxiliaries. and second floors.

The actual bridge from the destroyer From the ticket booth the adventure USS Lawrence (DDG-4) is displayed, begins in "Bound for Philadelphia" as depicting the dangers on the open sea as visitors walk up the Delaware River on well as a general quarters drill, through an inlaid floor map, amidst the sounds of an audio and video presentation.

1ivertraffic. Upon reachingPenn's Land"Of Wood, Iron and Steel" explores ing the patron walks under a three-story the development of the Delaware Valreplica of the Benjamin Franklin Bridge, ley 's shipbuilding industry, until its dethe first bridge built across the Delaware cline after World War II, through numerin 1926-four of the 14 longest suspen- ous displays and interactive demonstrasion bridges in North America cross the tions. The 846-acre Hog Island shipyard, Delaware River, as does the third long- built during World War I under the Emerest cantilever bridge. gency Shipping Act of 1916, employed Upon arriving at the p01t, visitors enter 34,000 workers, including the first female "Come to Ame1ica" and share the experi- shipbuilders. The famous Philadelphia ence, through audio and video media, of sandwich, the "Hoagie," was invented by immigrants from the late 1800s as they these shipyard workers and was initially traveled in cramped conditions on board termed the Hoggie. Visitors can observe a ships and arrived at Philadelphia's immi- ship launching in a two-story ship way gration center, to face the challenges of a and try their skill at welding and riveting new life, but one full of opportunities. in a simulated interactive exhibit.

Then, in "Ship via Philadelphia," they "The Great Outdoors" depicts exexplore the exciting life of commerce and trade from the Visitors enter the Museum through a three-story model of 1700s through the present. the Benjamin Franklin Bridge (below). The Workshop on In "Protecting the Nation" the Water provides opportunities to watch or participate in visitors enter the gate of the boat-building projects (left).

Federal Street Navy Yard.

The Phil adelphia Navy Yard has along history as the mainstay of the fleet. The first United States Navy ship, the 44-gun frigate United States , was launched in 1797 at Humphreys 's leased Navy Yard. The Philadelphia Navy

21

amples of river recreation common in the area, such as fishing, rowing on the Schuylkill River, sailing, motor boating, and discovering the natural wonders of the riverbank. Informative displays present issues of development and its impact on the environment.

The second permanent exhibit, "Divers of the Deep," is one of the largest on the subject in the region. Visitors follow the history and techniques of underwater exploration through such displays as "The Call of the Sea," on man's pursuit to discover the secrets of the oceans, and "Hard Hat Diving," on the methods and perils of earl y diving. "A New Era in Underwater Exploration" demonstrates the introduction of SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatu s) and newer diving gear and the resultant beginning of recreational diving.

Also displayed are two small submersibles: the Star l (used in SEA-Lab I experiments in 1964) and the Guppy (last used to obtain core samples in the Gulf of Alaska).

The fi nal exhibit is the enchanting world of "Underwater Marine Archaeology," where visitors discover what

sunken ships and relics can tell us of our history. Displayed are artifacts from Spanish galleons wrecked in 1724 and the tale of the British warship HMS De Braak, which sank off the coast of Lewes, Delaware, in the late 1700s.

Penn's Landing is notonJy an historical center, but a cultural center as well.

In addition to the Independence Seaport Museum , the site hosts open air concerts and holiday celebrations during the summer months as well as sailing races , boat shows and military exhibits. The Navy occasionally brings in such ships as frigates of the Oliver Hazzard Perry class and the Spruance class destroyers O' Bannon (in October 1994) and Peterson (June 1995), for tours, Navy League cruises and R&R .

Although not owned by the Museum , the square-rigged sailing ship Gazela of Philadelphia and the tug Jupiter are docked nearby, when they are in port.

The New Jersey State Aquarium is located just across the river, a ferry boat

ride from the Museum.

Penn's Landing is just a few blocks away from Independence Historical Park, which includes the Liberty Bell, and Independence Hall, as well as numerous historic and educational sites of our national heritage. The Philadelphia Viet Nam Memorial and Tun Tavern, the founding site of the Marine Corps, are also nearby. This area is sometimes referred to as America's most historic square mile.

A visit to Philadelphia and Independence Seaport Museum is both a celebration and an experience of our national maritime heritage. .t Indep endence Seaport Museum, 211 South Columbus Boulevard, Philadelphia PA 19105; 215 925-5439.

Mr. Wambold is a writer and photographer from Pennsylvania who has previously been published in Naval History and Pennsylvania Heritage.

Evocative displays of the underwater world bring to life the realm ofmarine archaeologists (below). Philadelphia's role as a commercial and shipbuilding center are interpreted in permanent displays (right). ~:<rn""'cnTICTTnTTnTTT.<""'"'=

22

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

r------------------------------------------Please mail by August 31, 1998.

The National Maritime Historical Society C/o The Franklin Mint Franklin Center, PA 19091-0001 Please enter my order for The Cutty Sark Anniversary Maritime Clock.

I need SEND NO MONEY NOW. I will be billed for my chronometer in 5 equal monthly insta llmen ts of $39.* each, with the first payment due prior to shipment. *Pl 11 s my state sales tax a11d a one-time charge of $4.95 for shipping and handling.

SIGNATURE -----A-LL~o=Ao=E=As=A=A= E =su=BJ=Ec=r=r =o -Ac=c•=•=rA-Nc=E-.- - - PLEASE PAINT CLEA ALY.

ADDRESS _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ APT. #_ _ __ CITY/ STATE _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ZIP _ _ _ __ TELEPHONE# ~--~--------------

16559-19-001

The Value of Sail Training for Adults A Week Aboard the Frigate Rose

by Bruce Carruthers oday, with the Age of Sail long past, few people get to sea under sail or even know the possibility exists. Through the early years of this century, out of financia l necess ity, community expectations or wanderlust, yo ung men, and occasionall y women, found their way to navies , merchant fleets orfishingvessels. Living and working conditions were harsh and sometimes brutal. While some made a lifetime career of the sea, for most it was a young man' s game, an adventure prior to "swallowing the anchor" and settling down ashore.

Even so, the maritime community believed strongly that "going to sea" had a beneficial and indelible effect on the formation of character. The very harshness of the life, they believed, brought out a man 's true qualities and tempered him for the challenges of responsibility, achievement, leadership and advancement that were necessary for an officer and eq uall y valuable ashore . Even after the ascendancy of steam most maritime nations continued to train their naval and merchant officer cadets in sail. Today, many nations still maintain this

T

tradition, including our own with USCG bark Eagle.

During the last 25 years this be lief in sail training as preparation for life has been extended to a much wider comm unity. Numerous sail training programs for youth have emerged with programs running from one-day sails focused on team-building, to semester- long academic cruises, to voyages for at-risk youth, with the focus on rehabilitation.

Little attention, however, seems to have been paid to benefits that adults might derive from similaropportunities.

But the effect of sail training experience for people in their 30s, 40s, 50s and even 60s, has been generall y significant and occasionally profound. Although we are not young, many of us have found that sail training provides new in sights into social interaction and self-discovery. It seems clearly legitimate to encourage adults to experience sail training and to seek program sponsors on this basis.

My own passage on a tall ship was ideal for experiencing the full effects of sai l training. I spent a week in July 1997 aboard the three-masted, square rigger "HMS " Rose, a replica of a British frig-

The author (on the sheer pole) and his watch mates descend the ratlines afterfurling sail.

(Photos courtesy of the author).

24

ateofl 757. Unlike many otheron-board programs, the Rose focu ses squarely on sail training; trainees are as much a part of the crew as the paid crew members.

At least some members of the crew must go aloft to set and furl sail, and all crew must raise and lower yards and haul on the seeming! y innumerable lines on deck.

The theoretical and practical knowledge required, and the amount of raw drudgery necessary to apply this knowledge, are prodigious. Total and immed iate immersion in the experience is almost unavoidable.

My cru ise was from Portland, Maine, to Lunenburg, Nova Scotia. We spent two and a half days at sea, an afternoon and night in an isolated location (Sherbourne Harbor) in southwestern Nova Scoti a, and two days cruising off the coast on our way to Lunenburg. The weather was excellent: wind from light airs to 18-20 knots, mostly on our quarter; bright sun and moon , with on ly one day of rain; thick fog most nights (for exci tement), and only one really cold night. We had to proceed under power for only a few hours during the entire week. The experience was not diluted by evenings in lively ports; the qualities of being "at sea" became more intense all the time we were out.

The program aboard the Rose addressed al l aspects of sail training: sail handling; watch-keeping; seamanship; navigation; heavy, and occas ionally dirty work; endurance. From the time we cast off in Portland on Monday morning , we trainees were crew. We had already been assigned to one of the three watches (I was in the third mate 's) and to a specific paid crew member. We started our duties as we went down the harbor towards the sea, and I was on bow lookout less than one hour after our departure. Never mind that "my" crew member was right beside me, the sun was bright, and our radar was turning. I was told the correct procedure in no uncertain terms . It was stressed that not all objects register on radar, that later in the trip I would be standing this same watch at night, in the fog , probably by myself; and that then the drill could be critical. The opaque, luminous darkness of nighttime fog did come several times, and my conscientiou s bow watch did contribute to the safety of the ship .

This approach continued throughout the trip. Since only money and reasonable health are necessary for acceptance SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

Trainees and paid crew furl the main topgallant outside Lunenburg.

as a trainee, we were a truly varied lot.

Of nine men and two women, the youngest was 16, the o ldest (me) 59. Some of us had never been aboard a sailboat and knew nothing about sailing, much less square-rigger sailing. Even those of us who had sailed for years and had studied square-riggers extensively had only theoretical knowledge. Our backgrounds, also, were widely varied. There were a teacher, a truck driver, several students, a writer, an engineer, a social science researcher and a computer programmer among us , as well as others whose occupations I never discovered. None of us had particularly "physical" occupations.

Nevertheless, we were required to do everything we were ordered to do, from taking the helm to scrubbing the heads , and we were expected to apply maximum effort, each to his own limit. We were expected, but not required-the one exception-to go aloft to set or furl sail, again each to his own limit. There was a pattern for each activity: first, "your" crew member did it while you watched; then, you did it whi le he watched; finally , you did it alone. By my second trip aloft to furl sail I was tying off the fore course buntline and informing the deck by myself.

We were expected to learn and improve. The paid crew usually didn 'tcomment if you made a mess of something; they simply took over. But the mates were different. Jason Scoran ("Scoranimal"), the third mate, inspired us by raw derring-do, swarming up the shrouds or hauling on a line with such concentrated effort that I was ashamed not to make the same effort. I worked myself to exhaustion, over and over, seemingly ignored, until the end of each watch. Then , all of SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

us with elbows propped on the capstan in the waist (we met coming off watch to make sure no one was missing) , Jason wou ld sometimes say "Good watch," grinning and looking at us each in tum .

Most important was getting the job done. If our best efforts were insufficient we were expected to acknowledge this fact and step aside. One afternoon, four days out, Puhl, my crew member, was overhauling the buntlines, that is, using a boat hook from the deck to pull some slack into the course buntlines so that the foot would not be hiked up. I volunteered to do it. It was soon plain that, although the job was straightforward enough, I simply d!d not have the strength to hold the 10-foot boat hook at arm ' s length, above my head, and hook a small, moving loop of line. I was working ineffectually on the main course when I felt someone's eyes upon me. I turned and met the weary stare and expressionless face of Captain Richard Bailey, standing at the break of the quarterdeck. I went back to my task, but I was uncomfortably aware of him watching me. Shortly after that Jason told me to belay my efforts , and soon Puhl continued the job. The lesson was plain.

The captain and other officers were all superior seamen, inspiring us with confidence, making us want to learn , but all in different ways. Alix Thome, the second mate, simply expected your best effort: you can do this , her benevolent but direct attitude said , you just aren't paying attention. The first mate, Robert, drove us by his omniscient gaze and his cold, penetrating whip-voice, insisting on skill, seeing everything, forgiving nothing.

Behind it all was Captain Bailey, a

compact man , amiable, hardly noticeable on first impression and when alongside. But with dock lines cast off, he radiated such competence and authority that all instinctively showed him deference. It was a privilege to watch him handle the ship. And no one wanted to make a mistake in his presence.

The paid crew was widely divergent in personality, age and skill level. Several were non-sailors, young men and women in various stages of life-development, in college, between colleges, or simply seeking a way. The rest, mostly in their 30s and 40s, were semipermanent members of the "sailing-school" scene. Brian, a professional ri gger, was aboard to increase his square-sail expertise. Hunter, the cook, stayed at sea on one ship or another becau se he liked the relative simplicity of sea life. They all, however, understood that they had two duties: to sail the ship and to support and encourage the trainees .

Responses to the Rose experience among the trainees were varied. We had comments on everything, from the food (surprisingly good) to the leak in the fore peak (surprisingly steady) . We shared opinions on our duties and the peculiarities of the mates , and commiserated on each other 's aches, pains, mistakes and occasional minor injuries. We talkedbut very little, significantly enoughabout our "other lives ."

As the week passed , however, certain events that we mentioned to each other began to show a loose pattern and were a reflection of what we were experiencing . The most obvious, not requiring conscious acknowledgment, was the necessity of adapting ourselves to an entirely new environment. We came, as it were, naked : we had only ourselves.

The frameworks we adults spend so much time constructing to foster a sense of personal worth or simple security were gone. All the signs-personal relationships , social or professional position, clothes , even bodily omamentswere stripped. I own a fancy watch, but knew it would probably get broken, so brought a $15 plastic one instead.

Our worth was based not on prior assumptions, but on our immediate behavior. We had to adj ust, and quickly.

The relationship between words and actions had to be immediate and direct; no temporizing would do. We relearned vividly the comradeship and pride that such teamwork engenders.

Most of us noticed a renewed aware25

The author and a watch mate haul on the topsail buntlines.

ness of our bodies, in several ways ; we wondered if we would be up to the physical challenge. My experience was curious. Even though I had exercised diligently for four months before the trip, by my second night at sea I hurt so badly, all over, that I could barely make it into my upper bunk after I came off duty at midnight. I hurt every time I moved for the rest of the trip. I soon learned, though, that the hurt was the healthy kind, that of a sound body being pushed right to its limits, time after time.

I had also aITived woITied about several long-standing limitations and nagging aches. After about three days I was astonished to realize that these problems had simply disappeared; I used these areas far beyond their norm, and they never materialized as problems. I concluded that it was more than "new pain drives out old pain"; those nagging pains were a function of my head, not my body. Life stress? WoITy? A desk job?

Three months later those aches are back, but I know now , with increased confidence, that my body is sounder and more capable than I thought.

I came to terms with the true limitations of my six-decade-old, 150-lb. body.

I relearned its various messages and heeded them. When the weight to be lifted was too much , Igotoutofthe way.

When I was too light to haul or sweat a halyard, I tailed. Whenlfoundlcouldn 't lift my share of the fore topsail bunt while furling, I moved out to the yardarm where I could pull my weight. The rest of the trainees learned to do the same. This seems natural to me now , but I was not doing this before the voyage.

The new framework dramatically increased our sense of proportion. The

26

most striking example was our relation to the outside world: the News! At home I follow the news avidly, but as ide from navigational radars and radios (and a cunningly hidden VCR used only once to show us "Captains Courageous" and "The Peking Battles Cape Horn ," and then hidden again), radios and TVs are not allowed on the Rose. We were completely cut off from the outside world. I was profoundly surpri sed when I realized after three days that I had not mi ssed the news, and even more surpri sed that I had not even noted its absence until Thursday , when I saw the VCR! In addition , not one of the other trainees mentioned the "outside world" in my hearing the entire trip.

My sense of wonder returned. The world grew immense again and the horizons boundless, the way they had been when I was young. The ship in its setting was breathtakingly beautiful. We saw stunning sunsets and sunrises. We set magnificent spreads of square sails and made foggy landfall in the early morning. Some images are indelible: the halos around running lights in the hush of night fog ; a square course tack cutting across the moon 's path on the smooth heave of the sea; the graceful phosphorescent outline of a porpoise at the bow, just below the surface, keeping pace in the dark; being out at the end of a yard, furling a square sail, alone on the boundless ocean.

There was a final expansion: a rediscovered sense of something beyond the physical. What can only be called a spiritual element grew insensibly. It had the feel of a different frame, a different pace, a different reality . Most of us felt it, even manyofthepaidcrew. We rarely

spoke of it, but it was there. Later, fo r several days after I returned home I couldn't reconnect. Ifl was asked "what happened" I could respond, but I could not speak when asked "How was it?" or "What did it feel like?" or even "Did you have fun?" It was fun , but it was more than fun, it was different from fun . Something had been created among us, a compound of the ship , the sea, and the people, interacting completely.

Afterthoughts In this article I have attempted to support my assertions that sail training programs that make room for adults have the same valuable potential for clearing the vision , for self-discovery and for growth as do those focused on young people; and that adult participation can be encouraged, and sponsors sought, on this basis. I have written of the experiences of myself and a few other trainees on a one-week passage. Although this is hardly a sc ientific study, I believe the lessons learned can be validly applied to the general sail training experience in a variety of contexts.

Certain factors should be kept in mind: • The experiences I have described are available in good sail training programs for those who are open for them.

• Some trainees will find the drudgery not worth the rewards.

• The longer the trainees are aboard, the more effect the experience is likely to have. A week seems to be a realistic minimum for the full effect to occur.

• The trainee must be committed to the experience. Effort and responsibility must be demanded and given. In this regard, the program must be clear on what is offered and what is not.

• The attitude of the trainers-officers and paid crew-is important. Encouragement, coupled with a rigorous, demanding program, produce accomJ, plishment.

Bruce Carruthers is a writer and teacher.

He has taught Old Norse and Old English literature and has written documentationfor US Navy anti-ship missile self-defense systems. His great-grandfather was a square-rigger captain and his fascination with square-riggers began when, as a teenager, he saw USCG Eagle beating up Long Island Sound.

"HMS" Rose Foundation , One Bostwick Avenue,BridgeportCT06605; 203 3351433; FAX: 203 335-6793; web site: www.tallshiprose.org.

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

* The * licensed * * civilian * * men * *and *women * of*the*U.S.* mer* * chant marine-skilled, reliable, driven by history and tradition, ready to serve in routine trade in peacetime and in defense sealift in wartime. No one does it better.

American Maritime Officers

2 West Dixie Highway Dania, Florida 33004 (305) 921-2221

Michael R. McKay

Jerome E. Joseph

President

Executive Vice President

** * * *

*****

NMHS Sails with Endeavour he building and sa iling of the Australian rep I ica of Captain Cook 's Endeavour has struck a chord in many an NMHS mem ber. This year and next, as she sail s America 's coasts, NMHS members will have a chance to walk her decks. As we go to press, Endeavour and her Australian crew, along with American sail trainees, have made their way up the East Coast as far as New York. They ' ll continue north to Nova Scotia before returning south fo r the winter. Next year the ship will head for the West Coast.

The Australian Alan Villiers, a pioneer of today's sai l training movement, dreamed of such a replica as he took young people to sea in the]oseph Conrad (ex-Georg Stage), which is restored at Mystic Seaport. He referred to Cook as "the greatest explorer-seaman the world has known ," and once said: "The names of his brave ships may stand as hi s best epitaph-Endeavour, Resolution, Discovery , Adventure."

Villiers's American contemporary Irving Johnson, and his wife and partner Exy, helped build a Cook following among sa il training people, as they took young crew into deepwater aboard their Yankees.

In 1996, the Johnsons' son Arthur, who departed this life last winter, sailed aboard Endeavour, which he learned about through our article on the vessel in

T

Sea History 74 (S ummer 1995). From her decks he wrote to hi s mother: Endeavour is a wonde1ful ship with a fin e captain, Chris Blake, who sometimes gets away from the dock under sail-Father would have appreciated that. He sets sail readily, even the two spritsails. Alas, there was little wind on this first leg of the voyage and we used the engine (in addition to the sails), but there was sun and blue skies. There are almost 57 of us aboard; it is hard to imagine Cook with 94 persons, Banks' s 2 dogs, the ship' s cat and the goat that had already been around the world in the Dolphin , plus provisions for nearly three years.

The maze of lines is daunting; some braces lead forward from a yard while others lead aft. In some cases the port brace leads to the starboard side and vice versa. Steering is really cumbersome with the ship very slow to respond and the steering so heavy it takes two to turn the wheel. Top speed under sail is all of six knots. I have the Captain's Clerk's cabin on the lower deck (below the great cabin with Cook' s, Banks' s andSolander' s, etc. more spacious quarters). The clearance on this deck is 3' 1O" so one is hunched over all the time.

I sleep on a suspended cot that is about two f eet wide.

The most wonderful moment of the cruise was coming to the 4 to BAM watch

HMS Endeavour arrives at Southport, North Carolina on a blustery day as the crew furiously furls sail. (Photo: Norm Carathanasis)

28

with most of the sails set beneath a moonless sky and the blaze of the heavens such as I have not seen for years; the Southern Cross was almost overhead.

Father's name gets instant recognition .f;¡om many aboard. Severa l have thePekingvideo, "AroundCape Horn," and some have viewed it dozens of times.

One man gave me running quotes from it. On arrival I was repeatedly pointed out as Irving Johnson' s son .

Arthur concluded: I am so glad you saw that article on Endeavour in Sea History and, once again, thanks for encouraging the trip.

An Englishman, a Coast Watcher and an Editor One of our Engli sh members, V. J. G. lbbett, took a two-week passage aboard Endeavour from Plymouth, Eng land, to Santa Cruz, Tenerife, in the Canaries, and writes: I was talking to Captain Chris Blake, who has been in command since Endeavour left Australia. As a member of NMHS, I was swprised to find that he had not heard of Sea History. I had a copy, which was passed around and found ready approval.

Mr. Ibbett and other members may be happy to learn that we will be putting several boxes of Sea History 83, which contains the story of Cook's voyages in Peter Stanford's "Cape Hom Road" series, aboard the vessel for di stribution in New York.

And our coast watcher in North Carolina, Norman Carathanasis, and hi s wife Audrey, took this photo (at left) of the vessel as it arrived in Wi lmington , North Carolina, on a blustery day in April. He writes that it was "an awesome sight to see her sail past Cape Fear into the harbor at Southport NC. She fired a salute and proceeded to anchorage off Battery Island, but due to weather conditions went back out to sea. The next day she proceeded up the Cape Fear River to Wilmington , North Carolina."

Furiously furlin g sail as the ship came to anchoroffSouthpo1t wasSeaHistory's contributing editor, and expatriate New Zea lander Kevi n Haydon , w ho had boarded earlier in the week in Charleston, South Carolina. He reported : This is an impressive ship, with a .firstclass crew of Aussies, Kiwis and Brits who love to sail. We were under canvas all the way, providing ample opportunity to learn the ropes and rigors of square-rig SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

Hands hoist the old-fashioned anchor aboard as Endeavour's bluff bow pushes ahead to sea. (Photo courtesy HM Bark Endeavour Foundation)

,,

sailing. It's a memorable event when all hands are on deck--and on the yards--at l AM to wear ship on a moonlit night! I encourage anybody with the urge to indulge their Patrick O' Brian fantasies to sign up for a week's voyaging.

Volunteer Guides & a Scholar When Endeavour arrives in each port a cadre of local maritime buffs serve as volunteer guides for the thousands of vi sitors who walk the sh ip's decks. In New York , the Port of New York Historical Soc iety is hosting the ship at Manhattan 's North Cove on the Hudson, and NMHS volun teers, a lo ng with Endeavour crew and staff from the Australian and New Zealand embassies, wi ll be there to greet New Yorkers and outof-town visitors.

On a more scholarly note, model ship bui lder Karl Heinz Marq uardt of Montrose, Australia, authorofCaptain Cook's Endeavour (Annapolis MD: Naval Institute Press , 1995), wrote in response to Peter Stanford 's install ment of "The Cape Horn Road" in Sea History 83: Ha ving spent some time researching Endeavour, I was interested in Peter Stanford' s article "Captain Cook Offers the World a New Picture of Itself."

A very interesting article indeed, which, however, provided one item ofdisagreement. I do not believe Jam es Cook selected th e Earl of Pembroke to be Endeavour.

"A Memorial of the Royal Society" about the importance of observing the passage of the planet Venus over the disk of the sun to astronomy and therefore to navigation was submitted on 15 February 1768 to George Ill for royal consideration (R . S. Misc. MSS , V. 39).

When he agreed to defray the costs and requested that "a proper vessel be prepared to sail early this spring," the Admiralty Secretary asked the Navy Board on 5 March 1768 to propose a vessel to befittedfor that service (ADM/ A/2605; Adm 21541 ). The Navy's first choice was Tryal, a JO-gun sloop of272 tons, but "it will be the end of May before she can be got ready and there is no vessel at home to be depended upon for so long a voyage, that can be sooner fitted" (ADMIB/180; Adm 10612199). It took three days to make that proposal and another two to reject it, because May would be too late.

The 20-gun, sixth-rate Rose of 430 tons was suggested next. They then reSEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

ported on 21 March: "Objects to the Rose that she may be unable to store the quantity of provisions required. " And, as it became obvious that no suitable naval vessel was available, "the Board suggests a cat-built vessel, which would be roomy enough for the pwpose. One of about 350 tons can be purchased in the River Thames" (ADMIB/180; Adm 10612199).

After 16 days of dragging their f eet, the Admiralty Secretary reacted within hours to the Navy Board's suggestion: "The recommendation ofa cat-built vessel is approved, and the purchase is to be effected at once." On 23 March three vessels were ordered to be inspected: the Valentine, the Earl of Pembroke and the Ann and Elizabeth . On 27 March the report on the survey was issued and on 29 March the Earl of Pembroke was purchased.

From. these documents, it cannot be concluded that the Navy Board, with the help ofJam.es Cook, pwposefully chose a collier for all the good reasons mentioned by Stanford. They acted in haste out ofdesperation, not deliberation . Any other type ofvessel ofsimilar size, available at that particular time , and in sound condition, would have come equally under consideration.

* * * * *

It was only after Endeavo ur proved to be successful that Cook made his famous statement in 1771-72 that "from. the knowledge and experience that I have had of these sort of vessels I shall always be of the opinion that only such are proper to be sent on discoveries to distant parts."

To this po int of view, we submit that the in teresting corresponde nce Mr. Marquardt cites could well reflect Cook 's personal intervention in favor of the "cat-buil t vessel" ultimately dec ided upon-for the reasons he later recorded.

Building the replica Endeavour led to many new findin gs about the ship, from the color of the canvas carpet in the great cab in (red) to the lack of the fi fth window in the center of the stern, whi ch had been presumed to exist.

It is good to have Mr. Marquardt's tracking of the trai l that led to the ship that became Cook's Endeavour. J A/PS

To Sai{ a6oarrf 'E-nrfeavour Berths are ava iIable fo r passages between ports fo r $750 per person. For info rm ation, contact The Crew Manager, Bark Endeavour, 20 1 North Fairfax Street, Alexandri a VA 22314; 703 519-4556; web site: www .ozemail.corn.au/-vortex.

'Wli.ere to see Jf!JvfS 'E,nrieavour Endeavour's itinerary for the East Coast leg of her circumnav igati on: New York NY 26 June-6 July Norwalk CT 10-20 Jul y Newport RI 24 July- IO August Boston MA 14 -24 August New Bedfo rd MA 28 August-7 September Portsmouth NH 11-2 1 September Bath ME 25 September-5 October 9-18 October Halifax S For informat ion about Endeavour's itinerary after October, contact the add ress above. And Sea History will publish the info rmati on as it becomes available.

29

The Battle of the Nile:

Europe at Crossroads

by RADM Joseph F. Callo, USNR (Ret.)

F

or many , Trafal gar is Vice Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson's best known victory. But there ' s a compelling case that the Battle of the N il e in August 1798 actually was more important. Perhaps the Battle of the N ile lacked the heroic drama of Trafalgar-intensifi ed as those events were by Nelson' s death- but its impact on Europe's hi story was profound.

The Prelude The run-up to the Battle of the Nile had several aspects. One related to Ne lson, arg uably the most famou s naval combat leader of modern times. The other was quite sweeping hi storicall y. Both were inextricably intertwined. In te1ms of the personal , the prelude to the battle can be thought to begin with elson's resounding defeat by the Spanish at the Battle of Santa Cruz, Tenerife, in the Canary Islands, in 1797. There, as the result of a di sastrous British amphibious assault against the Spanish, then allies of the French, an overconfident and underprepared Nelson lost his arm to grape shot-and very nearly lost hi s career to the deep depression that followed the action. It was a severely shaken officer who, after the debacle, wrote to his commander-in -chief, Adm iral Sir John Jervis, Earl of St. Vincent, requesting that he be allowed to return home to be " no more seen. " Jervis ' reaction was a significant example of the kind of insightful leadership by a senior officer that can salvage a brilliant career on the brink of abandonment. Although he had a well -deserved reputation for being a hard-nosed commander, Jervis didn ' t heap blame on his subordinate fo r the Santa Cruz fai lure. Instead, he introduced a philosophical note to the battle ' s aftermath by writing to Nelson that " mortals cannot command success."Importantly, Jervis' s approach helped retain Nelson as a combat leader fo r later events.

After a nearl y year-long recuperation in England, Nelson returned to duty at a critical juncture in the struggle between Britain and Napoleon. The French had assembled an invasion force at Toulon that was dete1Ted from an assault on Britain only by a lack of French sea control. Napoleon had defeated the European armies aiTayed agai nst him , and

30

the British were the principal military power that obstructed the expanding French empire. And it was with a focu s on empire that Napoleon decided to strike at the British thro ugh conquest of Egypt and, eventuall y, with mi li tary threats against the Briti sh in Indi a.

Against that broad geopolitical background, the British government decided that the Mediterranean-an arena from which it had withdrawn the Royal Navy early in 1797, and in which it had no naval bases east of Gibraltar- was a strategical! y crucial arena. The First Lord of the Admiralty, Earl Spencer, summed

"The fatal engagement ruined all our hopes; ... it left the field free for the English." it up in a letter to Admiral Jervis in April 1798, writing: "The appearance of a British Squadron in the Mediterranean is a condition on which the fate of Europe may at this moment be stated to depend. " After the decision to re insert a squadron into the Mediterranean , Spencer pushed the boundaries of his office somewhat with a "suggestion" to Jervis, the commander of British naval forces in the area: "I think it almost unnecessary to suggest to yo u the propriety of putting [the squadron] under the command of Sir H. Nelson."

A Big-Stakes Sea Hunt In March of 1798, Nelson hoisted his rear admiral 's flag aboard HMS VanguardandjoinedJervis ' s fleet off Cadiz.

In April , Jervi s placed Nelson in command of a detached squadron , the primary mi ss ion of which was to fi nd and destroy a French inv as ion fleet, with Bonaparte embarked. Ne lson's orders were blunt: "Take, sink, burn , or destroy" the enemy. The prob lem was that the fina l destin ation of the invasion fleet was unknown to the British. As a result, Nelson went through an ex tended period of physical and mental strain . Noted naval author Robert Gardiner, in the recent anthology Ne lson against Napoleon, described the ex perience as " prob-

ably the most anxious and stressful of the great sai lor's career, aware as he was that the fa te of Europe might depend on hi s deci sion. " Several important face ts of Nelson 's leadership were shown during the seven weeks he cri sscrossed the Mediterranean searching fo r the French. One was the strate g ic co mpre he n s ion th a t matched hi s ability to grasp a tactical situation. Nelson believed that the ultimate destination of the French fleet was Egypt, and in the end , that strateg ic analys is proved to be correct.

Another importantaspectofNelson 's leadership that came to bear during hi s hunt fo r the French fl eet was his abil ity-notwithstanding circumstances that would have overwhelmed others-to maintain foc us on his mission. Despite the confu sing reports and many fru strations-including a desperate lack of frigates fo r scouting, plu s the lack of British bases for log istical support-Nelson risked hi s career by hi s willingness to rely on hi s own judgment in a murky situation. He was rewarded when the enemy battle fleet was finally located on 1 August in Aboukir Bay, 15 miles east of Alexandri a. By then , Nelson had missed his chance to strike at Napoleon and his army while embarked, but as it turned out, another opportunity to frustrate Napoleon's plans was at hand .

The Battle Begins The French battle force at Aboukir consisted of 13 ships-of-the-l ine, 4 frigates , 2 brigs and 3 bomb vessels. Their main fo rce was compri sed of 9 74-gun ships, 3 80-g un vessels, and th e 120-gun l ' Orient. These 13 vessels were anchored in a line, with the head about one mile from shoals, and the landward side somewhat closer to shallow water. The French admiral , Brueys, had placed himself in a defensive position, one that presumed hi s attackers would enter the bay in a traditional line ahead, and then sail from rear to van , bringing the French ships under fire in sequence. Appai¡ently Brueys also ass umed that the British would not attack immediately, since sunset was approaching and night fleet actions were uncommon .

The British squadron was made up of 13 ships-of-the-line of 74 guns, a 50gun fou rth-rate ship and a bri g. They SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

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The text accompanying the plan reads: Plan of the Battle of the Nile. August 1" 1798.

The British Ships approaching the Enemy's line Corresponding to the View are represented thus ()with the Capitals A. B. C. &c referring to their Names, and the Point of View is from the South East part of the Bay. British Ships at their respective Stations in the Attack are represented thus ( ) with open or faint Capital prefixed to them and the dotted or waved lines show their respective tracks . A Goliath. B Zealous. C Orion . D Audacious. E Theseus. F Vanguard.

G Minotaur. H Bellerophon. I Defence. K Majestic. L Alexander. M Swiftsure of74 Guns each. NLeander 50 Guns. 0 Culloden 74 Guns. P Mutine 14 Guns.

French Line of Battle in black Shade. 1 Le Guerrier 74 Guns taken & afterwards burnt as unserviceable. 2 Le Conquerant 74 Guns taken. 3 Le Spartiate 74 Guns taken . 4 L' Aquilon 74 Guns taken. 5 Le Peuple Souverain 74 Guns taken. 6 Le Franklin 80 Guns taken. 7 L 'Orient 120 Guns burnt. 8 Le Tonnant 80 Guns taken . 9 Le Hereux 74 Guns taken & afterwards burnt. 10 Le Timolcon 74 Guns burnt. 11 Le Guillaume Tell 80 Guns escaped. 12 Le Mercure 74 Guns taken & afterwards burnt. 13 Le Genereux 74 Guns escaped.

Frigates 14 Le Serieuse 36 Guns sunk. 15 L ' Artemise 40 Guns burnt. 16 La Diane 44 Guns escaped. 17 La Justice 44 Guns escaped. The Alert lnfanta & Castor Mortar Vessels of 18 Guns each ran in shore under the Castle of Aboukir.

Additional text reports that the British forces consisted of 938 guns and 7478 men while the French forces consisted of 1190 guns and 10710 men. (Courtesy, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London)

SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

31

were outgunned by the French , and they had to navigate through unfamiliar waters , with unmarked shoals, and without local pilots. Initially, the British squadron was not tightly formed up, and two of its ships were just returning from reconnoitering Alexandria harbor; another quickly ran aground.

On the positive side, the British squadron needed no special preparation. The ships were ready for a variety of situations. For example, they were rigged to deploy sheet anchors through the ships' sterns, so they could anchor in fixed positions if needed to fight the freeswinging French ships. Perhaps most important, Nelson ' s captains had been thoroughly rehearsed on a variety of possible tactical situations, including being confronted by a force anchored in a strong defensive position. Nelson , resorting to his "the boldest measures are the safest" principle, did the unexpected and attacked immediately. As the battle was joined, he made only seven signals to his squadron, the last being "engage the enemy more closely." This latter signal was to be seen flying again at the beginning of the Battle of Trafalgar.

As a result of his decision to attack immediately, Nelson was able to exploit several weaknesses in the French situation. For one thing, the French, assuming there would not be an immediate attack, had not cleared their decks completely. This failure hampered the gun crews ' ability to serve their weapons efficiently. Also, the French ships were anchored by the bow only, and not closely enough to prevent the British from passing through their line. Of particular importance, because Brueys did not believe the Briti sh would try to get between his line and the shoals, they were not prepared to fight their ships to port.

The die was cast quickly as Captain Foley in HMS Goliath- poss ibly using a captured French chart- boldly crossed ahead of the French van , raking their lead ship as he did. Although it 's debated whether or not this specific move was part of Nelson's battle plan, there is no doubt that it was consistent with his conviction that captains should seize the opportunities provided by circumstances. Foley then turned down the port side of the French line and was followed by the second, third and fifth ships of the British line, HMS Zealous , HMS Orion and HMS Theseus. The fourth ship in the British line , HMSAudacious , passed between the first and second French

32

"Victory is not a name strong enough for such a scene."

In this dramatic oil painting of "The Battle of the Nile" by Thomas Luny, the burning French 120gun L'Orient casts a glow over the nighttime battle, as the British fl eet inexorably closes on their opponents on J August 1798. "The Battle of the Nile," by Thomas Luny, is reprinted with permission of Th e Vanguard Group , Inc.

ships and then down the landward side of the French. All four British ships then anchored in tactically advantageous positions- coincidentally cutting off support for Brueys from the land-and began their attacks. The remaining weight of the British fleet, led by Nelson in HMS Vanguard, fell on the seaward side of the French van . Somewhat after the main British force attacked, HMS Alexander arrived from her scouting mi ssion to Alexandria and passed between the seventh and eighth French ships. By then , the entire forward half of the French line was under heavy attack from both sides- "doubled"-by the British.

The Dividends of Initiative Although the fighting was intense, and British ships suffered serious damage, the battle 's outcome was not in doubt after the opening phase. Nelson had the initiative, and never lost it. And most

would agree, the British gunnerywhich emphasized up-close, rapid-fire smashing, rather than stand-off disabling-was superior in the close circumstances of Aboukir Bay. Around lOPM, L' Orient, the flagship and center of the French force, blew up. The explosion was so momentous that, for about 10 minutes, all fighting spontaneously ceased.

Finally, by morning, the carnage ended. The outcome was a stunning British victory . Although many of Nelson 's ships were badly mauled-and Nelson himself suffered a serious head woundnone sank, or struck, meaning none hauled down their flags, or surrendered.

On the other hand, of the French ships ~ly two ships-of-the-line and two frigates escaped. And all fourof those French survivors of the battle were later lost to the British in other actions. Nelson 's report to Admiral Jervis reflected his SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

The overwhelming victory under N elson at the Battle of the Nile, on 1 Au.gust 1798, was a major step toward Britain 's victory in the Napoleonic Wars. Understandably, the battle passed into legend, celebrated in song and story by succeeding generations.

The most fam ous effu sion. was the poem "Casabianca," by Felicia Hemans ( 17931835 ), saluting patriotism, courage and dedication to duty. The poem concerns not the mu.ch-admired Nelson., nor the British tar who fo ught the battle--instead it was about the J } year-old son of French Admiral Casabianca , who ref used to quit the deck of his f ather's fla gship even after "all but he had f led ."

Memorized by generations of British schoolchildren, this poem exemplified the generous outlook of a confident age , and embodied Nelson's own expectation (expressed just before his culminating victory of Trafalgar in J805 ) that humanity should be th e outstanding characteristic of the British fleet toward its defeated enemy, and it was surely not alien to the thinking of the British tar, as expressed by John Nicol, mariner (see pages 62-63 ). But judge fo r yourself:

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

Casabianca The boy stood on the burning deck Whence all but he had fl ed; The flam e that lit the battl e 's wreck Shone round him o 'er the dead.

Upon his brow he felt their breath, And in his wav ing hair, And looked from th at lone post of death In still yet brave despair.

Yet beautiful and bright he stood, As born to rul e the storm ; A creature of heroic blood, A proud, though child-like fo rm .

And shouted bu t once more aloud, " My Father! must I stay?"

While o 'er him fast, th.rough sail and shroud, The wreathing fi res made way.

The flam es rolled on- he would not go Without hi s Father's word; That father, fa int in death be low, His voice no longer heard .

They wrapt the shi p in splendour wild, They caught the fl ag on hi gh, And streamed above the gall ant child , Like banners in the sky.

He called aloud-"Say, Father, say, If yet my task is done?"

He knew not that the chieftain lay Unconscious of his son.

There came a burst of thunder soun dThe boy- oh! where was he?

Ask of the winds that far a.round With fragments strewed the sea! -

"Speak, Father!" once again he cried, "If I may yet be gone! " And but the booming shots replied, And fas t the fl ames rolled on.

W ith mast, and helm , and pennon fa ir, That well had borne the ir partBut the noblest thing whi ch peri shed there Was that yo un g fa ithful heart.

F ELI CIA H EM AN S

33

sense of the completeness of the victory.

It began: "Almighty God has blessed his Majesty's Arms in the late Battle, by a great victory over the Fleet of the Enemy." In a letter to his wife, Fanny, Nelson was less fo1m al, and more evocative: " Victory is not a name strong enough for such a scene."

War is often a matter of perceptions, and the reaction of the ComptrollerGeneral of the French army in Egypt, ex pressed in a letter written after the battle, speaks volumes. He wrote, in part: "The fatal engagement ruined all our hopes; it prevented us from receiving the remainder of the fo rces which were destined for us; it left the field free fo r the English . ... [I]t was no longer possible fo r us to dream of giving the English an uneasiness in India."

The importance of Nelson's victory at the Nile was not lost on Britain ' s allies. In the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, fo r example, there was rejoicing that reached hysteria. Sir John Acton reported to Nelson from Naples: " [T]he stupendous news of the total destruction of the French Naval Force, at the Mouth of the Nile, by the brave and most energetic exertions of the Squadro n under your command has fi lled their Sicili an Majesties, and all their faithful subjects, with the most sensible joy, gratitude,

and extensive admiration ." In a similar vein , the Queen of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies wrote to a friend , "We are ready and eager to render ourselves worthy of being the friends and Allies of the brave defenders of the Seas."

Aftermath After the Battle of the Nile, Napoleon led the French Army of Egypt as fa r as Acre on the Bay of Haifa . There, in 1799, hi s assault was repulsed and he was fo rced to return to Egypt. Not long after his failure at Acre, Napoleon realized that his Middle East ambitions were in shambles. He left his stranded army in Egypt and sailed back to France in August of 1799-if not totall y defeated, at least contained on the European Continent until his Waterloo.

The virtual annihilation of the French fo rce at the Battle of the Nile also had a fa r-reaching effect on naval warfare. It was an important step in the creation of a new concept of combat at sea, one in which the total destruction of the enemy fo rce was a realistic objective. In the past, most sea battles tended to be fo ught to a point short of total destruction of either of the combatants. And it had only been in Nelson's time that sea battles had begun to be fo ught beyond the "bloody nose" stage. In hi s recent book, Sea Battles in Close -Up: The Age of

Nelson, author David Lyon describes this new dimension of sea warfare as " a new standard in naval victories-of abso lute victory with the loser depri ved of nearly all his ships."

The B attle of the Nile also had a highl y significant personal impact on Nelson. A ny doubts about hi s warfighting capabilities that mi ght have ex isted after the B attle of Santa Cruz, were blown sky high in Aboukir Bay. "The Hero of the Nile" was set in a direction that led to the later victories at Copenhagen in 1801 and Trafalgar in 1805.

Finall y, the events in Aboukir Bay established the fighting superiority of the British Royal Navy. On that bas is, the Royal Navy after the Battle of the Nile was enhanced as a prime fo rce in British diplomacy by Whitehall-and the rest of the world . For the next 100 years, no matter what the shifts in land power might be, there was little disagreement thatB ritannia ruled the waves.

That fac t of geopolitica l life was to influence virtually every corner of the world fo r a century. J, Joseph F . Callo is a free lance writer on naval, travel and business subjects and a rear admiral, USNR (Ret.). His stories on Admiral Nelson have appeared in Sea History 71 and79.

THE NELSON ERA The legacy of Horati o Admi ral Lord Nelson is an enduring one that continues to capture popul ar, as we ll as scholarly, attention. As we draw ever cl oser to the 200th anniversary of the culminating Battle of Trafa lgar, more and more muse ums, universities and historical and military organi zati ons will hold ex hibits, conferences and events to commemorate pi votal points in Nelson 's career and personal life.

In Britain, the Offic ial Nelson Celebrations Committee launched The Nelson Decade in 1995 to commemorate the major bicentenaries of Nelson's battles and achievements, to culminate in an international pu blic celebrati on on Trafalgar Day, 21 October 2005 . For further info rmati on, write to Christop her Gray, Correspondence Secretary ONCC, at ional Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London SE J0 9NF, UK. On 12 September 1998 , the 1805 Club, the Nelson Society, the Society fo r Nauti cal Research and the Royal Navy are sponsoring a confe rence on "The Nile Campaign" at the Victory Club, HMS Ne lson, Portsmo uth, England. For informati on, contact Louis Hodgkin, Mill Farm, Woolley, Nr., Bath, Avon BA I SAP, UK. On this side of the Pond, you mi ght check out the new ex hi bit at The Mariners' Museum , entitled "Nelson: A Time for Heroes," which will be on displ ay fro m 20 June through 8 September. It features more th an 200 items including paintings, engrav ings, a multimedia display, original manuscripts, watercolors, arti facts, an interacti ve area, and an inex haustible supply of collectibles termed "Nelsonia. " The three secti ons of the ex hi bit, "The Age of Heroes," "Life in Nelson's Navy: Old England 's Wooden Wall s" and "Nelson and His Legacy" ex plore not only Nelson, bu t other nava l

34

heroes such as John Paul Jones, condilions in the navy for the thousands of men under Nelson's command, and the emergence and endu rance of the Nelson myth. (The Mari ners' Museum , 100 Museum Drive, Newport News VA 23606-3759; 757 596-2222; web site: www .mariner. org) 1-

This image of Nelson aboard ship , ca. 1799, is a11ributed to Leonardo Guzzardi. (From the collections of The Mariners' Museum)

SEA hIISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

* New England fall foliage, * historic Halifax, Nova Scotia, * enchanting Ber111uda all in one 10-night cruise!

9-19October1998 Join fellow members of the National Maritime Historical Society aboard the Holland America Line's luxury liner M/S Veendam, as we sail for scenic and historic ports in the company of maritime enthusiasts from the great maritime organizations.

Accompanying us as lecturers will be NMHS President Peter Stanford, noted naval architect Stephen Payne, renowned marine artist Stephen Card, and Holland America Line expert Vincent Messina.

Joining us are members of The Steamship Historical Society of America, the Ocean Liner Museum, the World Ship Society, the Maritime Industry Museum, the American Merchant Marine Museum, and The John A. Noble Collection.

ITINERARY

Oct. 9, Fri.: depart New York 4:45 pm " 10, Sat.: arrive Newport 8 am, dep. 5 pm " 11, Sun.: at sea " 12, Mon.: arr. Halifax, NS, 7 am, dep. 5 pm " 13, Tue.: arr. Bar Harbor, Me., 10 am, dep. Spm " 14, Wed.: arrive Boston 8 am, depart 5 pm " 15, Thurs.: at sea " 16, Fri.: arrive Hamilton, Bermuda 10:30 am " 17, Sat.: depart Hamilton 4 pm " 18, Sun.: at sea " 19, Mon.: arrive New York 8 am

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Group Discounts Complimentary Cocktail Party Three Days at Sea, Two Days in Bermuda Special Souvenirs Maritime Lectures by Peter Stanford and Other Distinguished Group Leaders.

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'Ilie Search for t he Spirit

by Robin Brooks

'W

orking alone, late into the small hours, I spend a great deal of time trying to reach back into the past, hoping to understand mundane, ordinary every day occurrences and to correctly interpret what someo ne meant as he j otted down thoughts and recollections in a diary or journal. My job then is to tran slate thi s through my art into a picture that everyone can enj oy and understand . As a marine painter, I realize that I am not alone in thi s effort.

I was born in 1943 in Warwickshire, England , about as far from the English coast as it is possible to be, into a family with no arti stic or nautical connections.

As a child I made models of ships and sketched the ships I used to read about.

Then, 35 years ago, when I was a gamekeeper fo r the Earl of Devon, the seeds of my career began. The Earl 's estate ran down to the Exe estuary, and I spent all my days and many nights in the woods and fi elds, surrounded by nature, which I studied and painted.

My early nautical subjects were predominantly World War II naval vessels,

and from there my interest spread to the age of sail. I began to show and sell some of my work in local galleries and book shops and eventuall y received several commi ss ions from a dealer to paint American whaling scenes.

In 1976 I was commi ssioned by an American patron to visit New York and the Chesapeake Bay area to record my impress ions of the tall ships and the Bicentennial celebrations. I have also painted on board various Royal avy ships including the canier HMS A rk R oyal and the destroyer HMS Exeter.

I am always intri gued by ships of any sort, but some more than others have a presence which is very hard to define .

Perhaps it is a combination of the natural with man 's own creations that I find deeply fascinating.

Painting a subject from history makes a particular demand, as I can not simply go and look at the subject. I need ample data and , where possible, I go back to original source material , often making accurate models to aid understanding.

But all the academic facts in the world will not make the picture, so what does?

"Don' t Give Up the Ship" portrays the capture by HMS Shannon of USS Chesapeake, 1June 1813. Exhibited at the Royal Society of Marine Artists, 1984.

Where records have been kept they often yield mag ic ingredients that can be translated into art. I am not just painting a seascape; I a m searching for the spirit of the moment, and although the fi gures on deck will be very small and unidentifi able, they are the spark for the picture.

I have painted several canvases depicting the acti o n between HMS Shannon and USS Chesapeake. The personalities of Captain Law rence and Captain Broke intrigued me, and I felt that knowing more about these men would help me understand the chain of thoughts and events that took them to that moment in time.

Sometimes there are more tangible connections. If poss ible, I go to a location connected with the person or the ship. For example, I have in my studio several pieces of timber which I beli eve are yellow pitch pine and are part of USS Chesapeake. Thi s is how I came to know abo ut it.

I was in a secondhand book shop in Annapoli s, Maryland, and came across some information that a Rev. Dr. Brighton had visited the Chesapeake Mill in

Oil on canvas, 36" x 24"

,.... --=I

Oil on can vas, 36" x 24"

Farnham, England. A mill had stood on this site probably from Roman times.

But in 1820 the miller decided to enlarge the mill and acquired a substantial amount of timber from the breaking up of USS Chesapeake , which, after being captured by Shannon, was taken into the Royal Navy. Dr. Brighton wrote that in 1864: Nothing ship-like or of the sea was discernible from without the mill. A comely young Englishman of some eight and twenty years of age was coming f orth to j oin his cricket club on a neighboring down , and this proved to be the owner of the Chesapeake Mill. A large cigar box, constructed of polished pine of the old ship and bearing the inscription 'Chesapeake' in small brass nails, stood upon a table. The beams were pock marked in many places with grapeshot. The mill was merrily going, but as I stood in the midst of this peaceful scene I remembered that, beyond all reasonable doubt, on one of these planks Lawrencef ell in writhing anguish of his mortal wound; on another, if not the same, Watt' s head was carried away by a shot; and on another Broke lay insanguined and his assailant dead, while nearby SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

"Farewell Old England." It was these words, written in large letters in the journal of Lieutenant Richard Pickersgill as he left Plymouth aboard Resolution rhar inspired Robin Brooks to recreate the scene of departure in this painting made in 1995.

Ludlow must have poured out his life's blood. Thus pondering I stood and still the busy hum went on, wheat passed beneath the stones, flour poured forth and the merry millers passed around their kindly smile and lithesome j est.

In 1982 I investigated, not expecting to find anything still standing. I was delighted to find a Georgian three-story building of handsome appearance. I was made most welcome by the owner and he graciously gave me some spare pieces of timber from alterations that recently had been made.

In 1984, as I worked on my last picture of this action , this piece oftimber still had a wonderfu l aroma

which somehow helped me touch the spirit of that beautiful ship.

Captain James Cook, "Son of the Land, Master of the Sea" Eleven years ago I had to do a great deal of research on Captain Cook 's ships. I found myself so captivated by the written words from the journals, diaries and logs , that I determined to put on canvas the scenes those words recreated in my imagination.

On all three voyages Cook was accompanied by a team of scientists, naturali sts and artists. Before the advent of the camera, the artist's job was threefold: to help with the making of charts and views for use }! by mariners; fl~ ( to ass ist the -

The Chesapeake Mill in Farnham, as sketched by the author.

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- I

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--.--~

37

Aboard HM Bark Endeavour on 26 August 1997, the artist presents to Capt. Chris Blake his pictures commemorating Captain Cook' s original sailing from Plymouth in 1768.

38

"We Fetched Furneaux f or Breakfast," 14 December 1772 (Oil on can vas, 40" x 20" ). This quotation is from the j ournal of Johann Reinhold Forster, 1772 -1 775, Vo l. 2 : "We brought to, hoisted a boat out and I went aboard the Adventure.fetched Capt. Furneaux & the new lieutenant Mr. Burney on our board, & we kept him fo r a couple of hours, after having breakfasted together we made sail again ."

Forster was the chief scientist and naturalist aboard Resolution/or the second voyage .

Resolution and Adventu re were stopped by a great f ield of ice, to which they could see no end. Ajier the incident portrayed they sailed along the edge of the ice that day and the day ajier. Below, detail of above.

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

Oil on canvas, 22" x 16"

scienti sts in recording flora and fa un a; and to record their own impress ions of events and places. It is these last record s that are of greatest interest now . Sadly, none of the three artists, Parkin son, Hodges and Webber, were marine arti sts, so their interest in the ships themselves was almost always secondary . Only some of Webber's pictures from the third voyage can really be relied upon regarding the ships. Fortunately midshipman Henry Roberts's watercolor of the Resolution confirms some of the detail on Webbe r's work. The master of Adventure, Peter Fannin, made a small watercolor of the ships collecting ice in the Antarctic, which was al so helpful.

These eyewitness accounts speak to us today , some 250 years later, with a clarity that reveals the day-to-day occuITences as if they happened only yesterday. From these rich sources of narrative I have been able to visualize the scenes and, wherever poss ible, I take a title from the words of theiJ¡ journal .

The picture "Farewell Old England" came about through the suggestion of Ri chard Pi ckersg ill , third lieutenant of SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

"We Stretched to the South ward. " This quotation is from Cook' sjournal of 1772. The painting, done in 1990, shows A dventure with Resolution off her port bow.

Resolution . He had scribbled these words around the border of hi s journal on 13 July 1772 upon departure from Plymouth. Pickersg i 11 ' s journal has suggested several ideas for paintings and I have no doubt that he will provide yet further inspiration. He could besombre, he was ever a romantic , and Cook was to write of him: "Pickersgill , a good officer and astronomer, but a liking for the grog. " To reconstruct the scene, I charted the course of Resolution and Adventure from Plymouth Sound with the help of a local trawler owner. We were puzzled as to w)ly the ships took so long to get into their position at approximately 8 AM off Rame Head. Eventually a contact in the Ministry of Defence obtained a computer printout of the harmonic method of tidal prediction for 13 and 14 Jul y 1772, which showed us the state of the tide. Then we waited for weather conditions to be just ri ght to re-enact the departure. We followed their course and I was able to make sketches and take photos and notes. I believe that my recreation in mood and feeling is as near

as poss ible to what it looked like on that day over 200 years ago.

Last summer the replica of HMS Endeavour visited England from her birthplace in Fremantle, Australia. To see in English waters the magnificent Endeavour, recreation of an extinct breed, ghosting over the water was to witness an image of the past hitherto only glimpsed in drawings and models, and it was an emotional experience.

The work of any contemporary marine artist, by its very nature, will never be at the forefront of the art world. But I feel that it should have conviction and be motivated by heart, head and hand and seek to recreate from fact, imagination, and personal experience at sea, the ships and those who sailed them .

Mr . Brooks and his wife Mary live in rural Devon with their daughter Kirsty and son Rupert, both of whom are following their father in the field of art.

Robin Brooks is currently working on a commission for a large painting of the Battle of Trafalgar.

39

MARINE ART NEWS Aubrey's World in Art Patrick O ' Brian 's Aubrey/Maturin series has probabl y intrnd uced more people to the challenge and fasc inati on of our maritime heritage than any other author of recent times. Hi s tales, now numbering 18 , about the British nava l officer and the ship 's surgeon/ intelli gence agent in the earl y 1800s bring vibrancy and accessibility to maritime history and have sent many aficionadoes and new readers out to buy accompanying dictionaries, atlases, recipe books and CDs. O ' Brian immerses hi s readers in the labyrinthine po litics and protocol of the British Navy as hi s characters trave l the seas of the world , cele brating life through food , music, romance and sc ientific inquiry, battling Napo leon as they go. " Aubrey 's World," a new exhibit at the Seamen 's Church Institute of New York and ew Jersey, brings together ori g inal paintings by 20 lead ing contem porary maritime arti sts, including Geoff Hunt (the cover illustrator of 0 ' Bri an 's books), Don Demers, Tim Thompson and Mark M yers. Contemporary nav igational instruments and ship mode ls of Napoleon 's barge, the Xebec fri gate Indiscreet and the French ship-of-the-l ine Le Conquerant add three-dimensional interest to the art exhibit. The exhib it ru ns from 22 May 1998 to 30 Apri I 1999. (SCI, 241 Water Street, New York NY 10038 ; 2 12 349-9090)

Geoff Hunt' s painting brings together vessels from different stages of Captain Jack Aubrey's career in the Royal Navy . At right is the 14-gun brig-sloop Sophi e of 1801, his first independent command. The large ship in the leftforegrou nd is the 28-gun frigate Surprise, aboard which Aubrey had so many adventures.

In the middle distance looms the 74-gun Bellona, while the ship at far left is the 50-gun Leopard , lagging behind as 50-gun ships were prone to do.

All these vessels had a real existence in the Royal Navy under those names, except the Sophie, which, though closely based on Lord Cochrane' s Speedy, has a raised quarter-deck the prototype lacked. The vessels carry the appropriate flag for their respective stages in Aubrey's career. The setting is the M editerranean, scene of many Aubrey triumphs.

NEW EXHIBITIO NS • Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museu m: from 5 June, "Monsters, Myths & Maidens: Watermen and their Wo rkboat Carvings" (Mill St., PO Box 636, St. Michaels MD 21663; 4 10 745-2916; FAX 410 745-6088) • Kirsten Galler y: 28 June-16 August, Voyages & Discoveries: Paintings by Mark Myers (5320 Roosevelt Way, E, Seattle WA 98105; 206 522-2011) • New Yo rk State Histor ical Association: 13 June-20 September, "The Bard Brothers: Painting America Under Steam and Sai l" (Fen imore House, Lake Road, PO Box 800, Cooperstown NY 13326; 607 547-2533) • Seamen's C hurch Institute: 22 May 1998-30 Apri l 1999, " Aubrey 's World: Contemporary Artists Portray Patrick O'Brian's Scenes" (241 Water St., New York NY 10038; 212 349-9090) • Ventura County Ma ri ti me M useum : 1-29 August, Annual Ship Model Expo & Sale (Channel Islands Harbor, 2731 S. Victoria Ave., Oxnard CA 93035; 805 984-6260; FAX: 805 984-5970) Figureheads carvedfor the practical, hardworking Chesapeake Bay skipjacks and bug eyes were, and are, surprisingly elaborate. The carvings make these local vessels distinct from other American work boats and show strong connections to the region' s maritime pastas well as the captain' s pride in his boat. "Monsters , Myths & Maidens" at the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum e,1plores the history behind adornmems, such as this masrhead from rhe bugeye Lottie Thomas. (Pharo: Maryland Hisrorical Society)

40

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Tlie Saifor's Wife Ashore

by Joan Druett ince the days of the Vikings it has been an intrinsic part of maritime understanding that seafarers ' women stayed on shore, looking after the household while their menfolk were away. It didn't matter that back on the farm a woman might roll up her sleeves and pitch hay alongside the men , or that a townswoman might keep the accounts of her husband 's business. The only relevance offem ales to the sea and its traffic, supposedly, was mending clothes and nets for absent fathers, brothers and hu sbands, and praying for their safe return .

There was some logic in assigning sailors' wives a role of endless waiting.

Not only did home affairs need some kind of custodian, but throughout much of maritime history competition for markets and goods was so savagely unremitting that seafaring was often a lot like war. Even small merchant ships were forced to be well-armed, and the most ordinary seamen had to know their gunnery, even if all they had to defend was a load of salt cod, defeat meaning, at the very least, being forced to serve on a rival nation 's ships. If the Turks or Arabs caught a man, he might be a slave for life. If the captors were Spanish, he could be condemned as a heretic and burned to a particularly nasty death.

The story of Mary Hi ghway, born in Dover, England, in 1632, and married to a sailor, Edward Coxere, in 1655 , seems to illustrate that life on the briny was much too risky for women , and that they were far better left at home, managing household affairs. Seven weeks after the wedding, Edward (called "Ned") sailed off as gunner in the Diligence of London, at the rate of forty-eight shillings a month. And, what 's more, he took all the spare household cash with him , to invest in trade goods as a "venture"-though, as headmitted in hi s memoirs, it " leftmy wife very bare of money." Somehow, Mary was expected to cope. It is unlikely that she expected anything different, for she was used to such circumstances, her father, Richard Highway, and her brother, Thomas Highway, being seamen just li ke her new husband.

Ned 's voyage proved an interesting one. His captain was a crackpot, ordering a boat lowered every time he felt the urge, so he could be rowed to the nearest beach , "w he re he tucked down his breeches and eased him self." Returning very drunk from being entertained by the Governor of Tangier, he declared that the wind was fair and they must be

S

42

off, although the air was dead calm.

Solemnly, the men all pretended to obey.

They "weighed" the anchor, leav ing the cable slack, and loosed the limp sails while the captain roared instructions to the helmsman. "And we fast at anchor.

A very noticeable whimsy of a commander," remarked Ned. Then , when they did get to sea, they were overtaken by a storm. By the time it was over they were floating, crippled, off the Barbary coast. Coxere managed to get the ship under jury ri g, but "all our labour and hopes was in vain ," for the Diligence was promptly seized by a Spanish man-of-war. On arrival at Malaga, however, Ned was able to "slily" make his escape in the boat which had brought some whores on board. Then, he talked the skipper of a Fleming ship into taking him into the crew, and so Ned made his way to Amsterdam and from there to Dover, arriving in May 1656. He had lost everything-hi s books, his clothes, and rus navigational instruments.

The only profit from nine months of "troublesome voyage" was a bolt of linen cloth that he had bought with hi s wages in Holland.

And throughout that nine months, Mary had spent most of the time alone.

Both her father and her brother had gone off on voyage, so that "corning into our house, I fo und only my poor wife and a young child of three weeks old in a crad le.

"She, being surprised , could hardly speak to me, for she knew not before whether I was dead or alive. I laid down my pack, and rested myself, and had my relations come about me with joy. My wife soon turned the holland [cloth] into money, which we had then occasion for.

As I remember, it sold for nine pounds, which was then our stock; for my wife, having good friends , with her own industry kept me out of debt. " And so, not only had Mary endured pregnancy and birth alone, but "with her own industry," had kept the little family solvent. It was the story of her entire life.

Within weeks Ned went off again , this time with her brother, who had been given command of a small vessel , the Friendship of London. They were headed for Venice to load with wine and currants, but unfortunatel y, they were taken by a Turkish vessel, the Vice-Admiral of

Th e bark Massach usetts dries her sails on New Bedford' s waterfront , while her discharged cargo of whale oil waits ashore in this photograph by G.D . Kingman made about 1870 . Th e girls are probably related to the gentlemen- -daughrers or granddaughters of an offi cer or owner of the bark. Photo courtesy the author.

SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

Tunis, and both men were enslaved.

Thomas, a relatively wealthy man , bought his freedom two months later, for the sum of eight hundred pieces-ofeight. Then, after blithely informing their captors that Ned had been first mate of the ship, and therefore should comma nd a much bigger ransom than the Turks had previously calculated, brother Thomas sailed off. Left behind, Ned worked in chains and ex isted on bread, horsebeans, olives, and water, haunted by the knowledge that "I had not the wherewithal to release myself, so that I knew not but that I mi ght a ended my days a slave under the hands of merciless me n; then the consideration of my poor wife at home, who had such an exercise with my troubles before, and now bi g with the second child ."

Luckily, after five months of captivity , Coxere and the other English slaves were ransomed by a fleet of English frigates- and so Ned became a gunner on a man-of-war, fighting against the Spanish. He had the good luck to plunder a bag of gold ducats from one of their prizes, bu t thi s was stolen by a so-called English "consort" (comrade). And thus the months dragged by , with Ned existin g on hi s wits and hi s sk ill as a " lingui ster" (trans lator), and Mary somehow manag ing at home. Finally, after "I had been from England a year and a half, in which time I had been a slave with the Turks, a pri soner with the Spaniards," Ned Coxere arrived back in Dover, [with} only my clothes to my back to my poor wife, but poor and penniless yet glad to see each other in health again after these troubles. My son Robert died whilst I was a slave, and Elizabeth was born. I waspitiedbymany,[and] counted unfortunate. At this time my wife did begin to keep shop, there being a necessity for something to be done for a livelihood.

Here ended this troublesome voyage .

After such a long tale of profitless woe, it would seem logical that Coxere should swallow the anchor and settle to helping his wife keep the store, partic ularl y since her customers were seame n.

Instead, however, Ned borrowed fifteen pounds "to fit myself with books, instruments, clothes, and a venture," and hied himself to sea again, shipping as chief mate on a ship commanded by Mary's brother Thomas-the same man who had let him down so badly in the Tunisian jail-on a voyage to Newfoundland fo r a cargo of "poor jack" (salt cod) .

On the surface, Mary Coxere's story SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

bears out the popular presumption that it was the regular thing for seamen's wives to stay at home and somehow cope until the master of the house returned. Surprisingly, however, Mary could have sailed with Ned. When they were first married, he was in charge of the ship 's gunroom, and in later voyages he was an officer, and so he had roomy accommodations on board. In fact, ship-owner John Tilly was surprised that he did not take Mary on voyage, or settle her in Amsterdam where he would have seen her more often. However, "it did not suit with me to carry my wife from her relations," and so Mary Coxere stayed behind in Dover, to keep the family solvent.

Other men were more lenient, so that the wives of the boatswai n, the gunner, and the carpenter of any good-sized merchant ship often accompanied their husbands to sea. On men-of-war, the purser and sailing master often carried their wives as well, as did the cooper, the sailmaker and the cook. Thus, it is not as amazing as it might seem at fast glance, that in the year 1786 Richard Ireland , who was the quartermaster of the first rate ship Powe1ful, bved with hi s wife in the ship 's longboat. That is, he and she lived there until the day a certain Lieutenant Fry discovered them in their strange abode.

Fry turned the unfortunate fe male out, much to her husband 's di sgust. "It's uncommon strange," Mr. Irel and sarcastically observed, "that my wife should be not considered good enough to go in the longboat, even though it's constantly employed to carry_" (pres umabl y whores).

Obviously, though, most seamen' s wives did not go to sea. Like Mary Coxere, they kept the home fires burning throughout their hu sbands' long, uncertain absences-not an easy task.

Elizabeth Linklater, the daughter of a sailing ship captain , once wrote, "It was a common say ing that when a sailor married he bought his wife a washing tub and a looking glass; and if she was too lazy to take in washing, she could look in the glass and see herself starve. " In New England, the myth still persists that the roof platforms built on seamen's houses were "widows' walks," where wives, daughters and mothers stood to scan the horizon for homecoming ships.

Seeing your family off was never easy.

Women sometimes watched their husbands, sons and brothers leave on the same vessel, and tragedy could devastate a family .

Painting by Ron Druett, Š 1998.

In reality, these were platforms where buckets of sand and water were kept, to put out the fires which so often happened when sparks from the chimney caught the shingles of the roof alight.

Most, in fact, were not even in sight of the sea. The women of the portside communities of New England, just like their counterparts in Europe, were far too busy to waste time in promenading the roof, because they were keeping the household out of debt.

This in itself was an invaluable contribution to the bu siness of ships and the sea, for these wives, daughters, and mothers were subsidizing seafaring with their labor. However, many played an even more positive part than this. The names of sailors' wives appear constantly in official records, applying for their husbands' release from French pri sons in wartime, pursuing debtors through the courts during both war and peace.

Women were boardinghouse-keepers and tavern-keepers; they provided lodgings for the men who worked on the wharves; they supplied meals to the shipwrights; they sewed shirts and dungarees which they so ld to ship-owners and ship-agents for the "slop-chests"-stores of clothing that were sold to men at sea.

Women featured in even the most staunchly masculine roles. In sixteenthcentury Dundee, Scotland, a woman ran a ship-owning business that was as extensive in its scope as any owned and managed by a male and faced exactl y the same problems. Her name was Agnes, 43

Keeping the accounts was a familiar task fo r captains' wives.

Here men line up to purchase itemsji-om the "slop chest," items brought aboard f or sale by the captain to the crew, another way to relieve poor Jack of his wages . Painting by Ron Druett, Š 1998.

the "spouse of George Blak ," but she Merchant Hoppinghill and the crew to operated under her maiden name of sell the rest and give them the money.

Cowtie, and that so successfu 11 y that she Then, most magnanimously, the pirates and George were known throughout the al lowed their capti ves to sail the empty burgh of Dundee as "wealth y and ship home. honourable persons." In 1582, however, It was not unusual for the merchants di saster struck. Mistress Cowtie' s ships to go on voyage, acting as their own cleared the port of Dundee in May , supercargoes, even if it did involve the headed south with full cargoes of guns, ri sk of personall y running afoul of pimasts, and deal boards, and no sooner rates. Dundee owner Alexander Duncan had they made the Channel than they endured a peculi arl y unpleasant experiwere attacked by English pirates, "Cap- ence, for not only did he lose his ship and tain Clynton , Hancocke, Purser, and a valuable cargo, but he was stripped Newman, of Poole." quite naked. Then, when he and his men After a savage battle in which two of had fin ally got to Dartmouth in thi s Agnes's sons were killed, the ships sur- humiliating state of undress, the English rendered, but that was not enough for the authorities paid their plight so little atpirates, who set to torturing the surviving tention that they were fo rced to " beg crew. "Lighted sticks [were] bound in their meitt" on the long walk back to betwi xt their fingers, tow is thraw n about Dundee. their heads," for no apparent reason exAnd so, being in full sympath y with cept to increase their suffering. The ships Mistress Cowtie's pli ght, the bailies sent and cargoes were a total loss, bringing a special message to Sir Francis WalAgnes and George to "ex treme wreck singham, Secretary of State to Queen and misery." Not only were "their bairns Eli zabeth , appealing on Agnes's behalf and servants slain [and] their especial fo r "him to help her in her just suit at the mariners put to torment," but their ships Queen of England 's hands, and that she and goods were "hail!" taken from them. may have some redress of her scaiths to The reason all this is in the records is the comfort of her poor husband and that Agnes commenced a systemati c bairns." Walsingham did not deign to campaign for getting her due redress reply, so Agnes appealed to the Privy from the English, whom she suspected Council, who sent their own message, of being in cahoots with the pirates. demanding compensati on on behalf of a First, she appealed to the "Bailies" numberofs immering ship-owners, with (town magistrates) for backing. These the Cowtie case at the head of the list. worthies agreed at once to do what they But still , there was no answer. Three could to help. As Ned Coxere could years dragged by, but Agnes' s determitestify, pirates from all countries were a nation did not waver. She decided to con stant pl ag ue on the seas, but the assemble her own case, and wrote to a Scotti sh owners had a parti cular hatred friend in London, Patri ck Blair, asking of the Engli sh variety . On St. Andrew's him to gather info rm ation about the fate Day the prev ious year, for instance, not of her ships. One would im ag ine that only had a merchant, Dav id Hoppinghill , this was quite a task, but somehow he had hi s ship-call ed the Jam.es, of complied, confirming her direst suspiPettinweyme-" [de]spoiled by Captains cions. The pirates, it seemed , had sailed Vachem, Cultish, and Gowyer near St. her ships to "the Isle of Purbeck" in Helen 's Point," off the Isle of Wight, Dorset, and the Governor himself had with a loss "amounting to 505 marks sold them on behalf of the thieves. One sterling," but Hoppinghill had been un- of the vessels, Blair had learned, was fo rtunate enough to be on board at the now in Spani sh ownershi p. So, armed time: he was "hurt in four places" during with all these damning details, Agnes the fi ght. However, he was better off wrote to Walsingham herself-an d sucthan the master of the ship, William ceeded. Not onl y did she get a reply, but Watson, who was killed. she got her compensati on as well.

The ship , loaded with wine, was on It is impossible not to wonder how the way home from Bordeaux when the many other women owned and managed epi sode happened. The English pi rates fl eets, but did not get into the offi cial had overtaken her with "a ship, a double records, either because they were less fl y boat, and a pinnace," and after the unfortunate than Agnes, or less persistent, captain was murdered they carried her to if they did suffer similar woes. From our the island , sold just over eight tons of the modem perspective, it seems unpreccargo of wine themselves, and fo rced edented, but perhaps it was not so note44

worthy back in Mistress Cowtie's time.

Ship-owning was not the onl y sphere of the business of ships and seamen that was invaded by women. Some seventeenth-century women managed to invade two exclusively male prese rvesmedicine and doing business with the Royal Navy-at one and the same time, becoming qualified as surgeon-apothecaries , their patients being sa ilors who had been sent on shore to be cured.

While health was the province of the ship 's surgeon at sea, in port the responsibility was given over to the local authorities, and, like everything else about the business of ships, the system was open to abuse. In 1740, Admiral Philip Cavendish compl ained that in Gosport (a village ac ross the harbor from Portsmouth) sick seamen were sent to " little Bawdy houses, two in a Bed for the most part, and what they call Nurses to attend them, are Rotten whores that ply about these houses, where they force fro m the poor sick men a Will , and then destroy them with Ginn."

In Portsmouth itself, however, there were fe male doctors, women who had received their medical licenses from the local church authorities upon presentation of well -endorsed credenti als.

One of these was Mary Rose, whose letters of recommendati on are on record.

The first was signed by seventeen women, alI of them affirming her " sober life and conversation," along with much ev idence that she had successfull y treated diseases as well as wounds, strains, and brui ses (highly unusual in a health system where lofty phys icians confined themselves to internal medicine, while S EA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

the more lowly barber-surgeons dealt with accidents). Two of the signers were Elizabeth Hargreave and Mary Houlte, both wives of ship-captains.

The second testimonial was signed by twenty-five men, including Captain Thomas Acton of the Merlyn, Captain Joseph Hargreave, and Captain John Houlte. The third document was signed

by Henry Bayley, surgeon of the Merlyn , Richard Hills, surgeon of the Chamber frigate , Edward Pattison, surgeon, David Rose, surgeon of London , and Philip Rose, MD. Unsurprisingly, Mary Rose (perhaps a relative of the last two men) succeeded in getting her license, more than 150 years before Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman medical doctor in the United States, succeeded in getting hers, the date of Mary 's document being 16April 1696.

Whatever the branch of the shoreside business of dealing with ships and sailors, it seems that women could be fo und taking an active part. In April 1694, a contract was signed w ith the English Navy Board for the building of the 80-gun three-decker battleship Cumberland. The contractor was Anne Wyatt, widow of the commercial sh ipbuilder William Wyatt, who had died in June the year before of smallpox. Anne was already busy overseeing the completion of two ships-the 80-gun twodecker Lancaster and the 32-gun Winchelsea-for which her husband had signed the contracts, but nonetheless the Cumberland was successfu lly launched on 12 November 1695. This was the last of her contracts with the Navy Board, however, perhaps because that august body was reluctanttodeal with a woman.

And this could be the reason, too, why there are so many instances throughout shipbuilding history of widows of shipbuilders marrying one of their late husbands' assistants. Many of these cou ld have been marriages of convenience, entered upon in order to keep control of the business despite the disadvantage of gender--creating the kind of smoke-screen that is still in operation today , but concealing the true extent of female involvement in the history of shipping and the sea. ,t Joan Druett, author ofa number ofbooks on seafaring wives (Petticoat Whalers, She Wass Sister Sailor) lives in Welling ton , New Zealand, with her husband Ron, a maritime artist. Her new book, Hen Frigates, is reviewed in this issue.

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

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45

The Dream

of a People: Building a Basque Fishing Trainera

by Muriel Curtis here are two sorts of dreamers in the world- those who only dream and those who take their dreams to pl ans and their pl ans to reality. At the Apprenticeshop in Rockland , Maine, this winter, we built a dream- not just the dream of one man , but the dream of a people. The Basque peopl e of the Americas, descendants of an ancient culture on the border of France and Spain , are reuniting a people with their culture by build ing a fishing trainera.

The crew is a rich internati onal mi xture. At any time from their corner of the 'Shop one can hear the Basque language, alternating with Spanish, French and English. Laughter punctuates the sounds of caulking mallets. The energy, the joy of building this boat, spill over late into the evenings and on weekends.

There is an indefinable, yet palpabl e pass ion to this work.

"This project has been a dream of mine for a long time," Xabier Agote, author of the project, begins. "I graduated from the Apprenti ceshop in Bath , Maine, in 1990. Then I went back home to the Basque country. In the Basque country I focused my work on researching historical fi shing boats. I got very interested in the fi shing trainera.

"Today , there are many, many modern traineras in the Basque country.

They ' re very similar in concept to racing shell s, very light and very fas t to row, and rac ing them is the main sporting event in the summer. This has been the most popul ar boat in the Basque country among the fi shennen fo r over 150 years. But, nowadays nobody seems to know the origin of these boats.

"Now, the origin of this boat is fi shing. The modern traineras have evolved from the fi shing t:rainera that disappeared at the turn of the century. They were used to encircle sardines or anchov ies with a net. They carried a sail ri g, but they never used the sails while fi shing , just to return home. Or, if they approached the anchov ies under sa il , they

T

46

would take do wn the masts and maneuver only with the oars, very, very fas t, encircling the fish very quickly.

"Modern racing traineras, like the traditi onal ones , a re around twelve meters long, but they are only one-quarter the weight of the trad itional fi shing vessels. They cannot use a sailing rig anymore because the boats have evolved so much that they' re far too fragile to support the pressure of the ri g, and the sails would capsize the boat. They have evolved so far that they ' re completely different.

"The early traineras were developed in 1750 in the town of Hondarribia, which is very close to San Sebastian , near the border of French and Spanish Basque country. We know of its development because a Frenchman named Duhamel du Monceau did some research on French boats at that time. When he went to Hendaia [Hendaye], a town in the French part of the Basque country, he saw the trainera. Somebody told him it had been created a few years before, and he wrote a small description of it, the first known description of this boat.

"We' re building this boat after some lines of a trainera that were found in a shipyard in the Basque country. Unfortunately, they only provided infonnation about the general shape of the boat.

I had to do some research on the construction plans and the rigging with the help of models, pi ctures, and a description that a fri end of mine, ethnographist Jean Loui s Boss, got 25 years ago from the oldest fis hermen in the villagesmany of them saw tra ineras or sailed in

them when they were young. " Xa bie r becomes more qui e t and thoughtful when asked why he decided to take on this project. "I wanted to build this trainera because this is the real one.

I want to create awareness, to give my people a chance to know the origin of what they are doing now. I want to give them a sense of their culture, to tel 1them where it comes fro m. Everything.

"Five hundred years ago the Basque country was a kingdom between what is now France and Spain- the Kingdom of avarre. It was taken over by Castille and France. Little by li ttle we were taken over. There were wars-the Spanish Civil War, World War II. The Basque country was pro bably the region that suffered most fro m the oppress ion of Franco.

"Towards theend of the Spanish Civil War, before World War II had actuall y started, Hitler wanted Franco to help him . But Franco couldn ' t afford it because he had his own probl ems. Spain was in really poor shape. Hitler suggested to F ranco an alliance of sorts that would al low him to test the new German bombs and give hi s am1y some real war experience. This conversation was later reported in the Nuremberg trials. They conceived the bombin g of Gern ika [Guernica]. Gernika is a little vill age right in the heart of the Basque country which held the oldest parliament in Europe unde rneath the Holy Oak Tree of the Basques.

"So," Xabier continues, "Franco decided t0> bomb Gernika, which was our dearest 'v illage. He invited Hitler to do it SEA JHISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

People of Basque heritage from Alaska to Argentina have united to build this boat as a gift to the Basque country.

The traditional Basque fishin g trainera Ameriketatik takes shape at the Apprenticeshop in Rockland, Maine, under the leadership ofXabier Agote (above). (Photos opposite & above by J uliette Brown) The vessel was launched on 9 May, attended by more than two hundred people, many of whom had the opportunity to row the new vessel. (Photo by Andre Lalive d' Epinay)

on a market day. The village was full of ordinary people, civilians who went to buy vegetables and cows. There were innocent women and chil dren. And they bombed Gernika-a tragedy Pab lo Picasso commemorated in a painting.

"Oppressed countries never have a chance to write their own hi story. C ultu rally a lot of damage has been done in the Basque country. We have tried for the last 500 years to get our identity back, but we still have lots of work to do to reestablish our own culture . I' m trying to specialize my work in maritime heri tage . Others are doing the same in other fi elds- to preserve our heri tage and to remind us that we existed in the pas t. And to tell everybody else, too.

"There is trouble in the Basque country even today. Political tro uble. I want a world where everybody is fri ends w ith each other, with his neighbors, bu t ev-

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

erybody takes care of hi s own home.

There is great hope in a Un ited Europe for the authenti c, cul tural nations to rise.

We will have the power to express ourselves. I hope fo r a United Europe where everybody will be equal. No less, no more. Basque peopl e have always been considered less than the French or the Spanish. Now we hope finally to be equal and respect each other.

"Years ago people used to go to Spain just for the sun and to get drunk. Now, we see people vis it castles , museums and places like the Apprenti ceshop.

People are pay ing more attention to the values of humankind . I thin k we ' re moving in a good directi on."

The trainera has been named Ameriketatik, a Basque word whi ch translates literall y as "From the Americas"- not just the United States. People of Basque heritage from Alaska to Argentina have

united to build this boat as a gift to the Basque country.

"Thi s summer," says Xabier, with obvious pride, " we are going to take her to every vill age in the Basque country.

We are go ing to offer people the opportunity to crew her at local and internati onal events. We are creating a cultural assoc iation that is going to take care of her. In September we' ll be at Expo '98 in L isbon, the theme of which is ' Oceans and Seamen.' We, the Basque people, will be represented there in thi s boat. " 1,

With financial and volunteer support from the Society of Basque Studies of America, the Trainera Project has raised funds and awareness in the Americas throughout the past year. For information contact: Jose Ramon Cengotitabengoa, Society of Basque Studies of America , 1744 Indian Trail Drive , Naperville IL 60965; web site: http :// www .visite-on/ine .tmjrl albao la.htm; Atlantic Challenge Foundation, PO Box B, Rockland ME 04841; 207 594-1800; e-mail acfusa@midcoast.com; web site: www.atlanticchallenge.org.

Muriel Curtis is a graduate student of Fo lklore at the University of Maine. She is working as Project Manager for Atlantic Challenge in Rockland ME.

47

SEA CLOUD Sail the Legend with friends from NMHS!

6-13 March 1999 Everyone who encounters SEA CLOUD for the first time is indelibly stunned by the very sight of her, one of the last of the glorious four-masted barks .

Her sleek snow-white hull seems poised to fly across the waves. The grandeur of mahogany, teak, and gleaming brass, the countless lines and sails furled on strong graceful yards set the mood of adventure.

Schedule

Rates

Sail with us from Antigua to Bequai, Grenada, Carri acou, St. Lucia, Iles des Saintes and back to Antigua with fellow NMHS members and members of Mystic Seaport Museum . In addition to enjoying the elegance of the SEA CLOUD, the culinary deli ghts of her enchanting dining room an d th eserviceofherintern ati onalcrew, we will visit the islands and hear lectures on Francis Drake, Columbus and ship preservatio n at Mystic Seaport given by Peter Stanford. The film "G hosts of Cape H orn " will also be viewed and discussed.

Rates begin at $4,450 p/ p double occupancy. The owners' cabins (numbers 1 and2 ) are $8,957 p/ p double occupancy.

Since each cabin is Luuque, it is important to book early.

The ship)s beautiful carved mahogany dining room is the perfect setting for the chef's gourmet dinners.

Information & Reservations Carol VanderMaas Elegant Cruises & Tours, Inc. 31 Central Drive, Pt. Washington NY 11050

Tel: 1-800-683-6767 Fax: 516-76 7-9303

Be aboard when SEA CLOUD sails' If not now, when?

The Loss of the Brig Maria Assumpta

by CDR Morin Scott he wreck of the brig Maria Assumpta on 30 May 1995, with the loss of three lives and the subsequent trial and imprisonment of her captain and owner, Mark Litchfield, will have special interest for American readers when it is pointed out that Litchfield was a partownerof Marques, which sank with a loss of 19 lives in the Tall Ships Race from Bermuda to the US in 1984. The legal wrangle that followed the Marques disaster occasioned a serious setback to the progress of sai l training in the US and resulted in a considerable degree of hassle for European sail training ship operators for some years.

Litchfield was not sai ling in command of Marques when she sank, but was criticized for using the influence of a friendly MP to obtain a load-line exemption certificate which had been finally issued on a report by Litchfield 's own surveyor rather than a Government surveyor. Her level of stab ility was , in

T

fact, quoted in court as being " insufficient to resist a severe squall ," and she was judged to be unseaworthy in " noncoastal waters."

No blame was laid at anyone's door, and Litchfield continued to sail without sanction. Litchfield does not hold the Nautical Institute Master in Square Rig Certificate, nor is he a member of the International Sail Training Ships Captains' Association. The certificate has since become a legal requirement for British captains of sail training ships but was not required at the time of the disaster.

In the sail training world doubts had often been ex pressed over the safety and seaworthiness of the Maria Ass ump ta , a Spanish cargo vessel built in 1858 , and it was only days before her sinking that she obtained the necessary certificates to enabl e her to operate as a sail training ship . She still had not complied, however, with a number of requirements for

CHART BY THE AUT HOR

Track Chart Showing Course Change of Brig Maria Assumpta 30 May 1995

Hartland Point

Higher

+--- Sharpnose .,____Lower Sharpnose

~Cambeak

Port Isaac Bay

SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

the certificates. Therefore, she was on a short delivery trip from her refit port to Padstow where she was to embark her first trainee crew. Obviously, had such a crew been on board, the loss of life would almost certainly have been much higher and the res ultant public outcry much greater.

Her crew of 14 for the voyage was composed largely of keen amateurs and, of these , three were lost. They were: John Shannon, aged 30, who was the ship ' s second engineer; Anne Taylor, a 51-year-old widow, who was the cook; and Emily Macfarlane, aged 19, who was described as the assistant bosun.

The track chart shows the easy and safe course the ship could have taken across the bay on an easy narrow reach and also the course chosen by the captain to go into the bay to admire the view of Tintagel Castl e and then sai l very close hauled and close to shore. He even told the investi gati ng police, " it is a nice coast and I thought everybody would like to look at it," and that " it would be a nice sight for people on the shore. " As is fairly common in di sasters , this one was the result of a number of errors of judgement by the man respons iblethe captain . Without doubt, the diversion to leeward to look atTi ntagel Castle and the continuation close to the shore started a chain of navi gational errors.

In court it was revealed that he seldom fixed the position of the ship by taking crossbearings after passing Hartland Point, and the ship carried no electronic positioning equipment, wh ich, if used correctly, would have demonstrated that he was "standing into danger. " After go ing in to see Tintagel Castle, he then had to sa il very close hauled with a contrary tide, making the rounding of Rumps Point a ri sky maneuver.

He started the engi ne at 3:57 and it fa il ed at4:06. He then should have tacked to get well to seaward or borne away into Port Quinn Bay. Instead he employed hi s meager crew in setting the main cou rse while he sai led on in an attempt to sq ueeze past Rumps Point and its offlying rocks-an extreme ly risky maneuver that ended fatally.

In court before Judge Butterfield, the prosecution li sted the numerous errors made by Litchfield as follows: I . He did not use the best chart avail able and never really planned the voyage with appropriate fixed positions.

2. The dogleg towards Tintagel Castle and the overshoot on this course con49

Loss of Brig Maria Assumpta 30 May 1995 15:57 Engine started

WIND 16:01 Motor sail, alteration of course

50° 36

Kellan Head

Possible escape routes into Port Quinn Bay

( Port Quinn

Port Quinn Bay

Pads tow Bay

Stepper Point

~

Pads tow Harbour entrance

w

CHA RT BY TH E AUTHOR

verted the passage from an easy , safe one to a course fraught wi th danger.

3. He failed to have the engine on standby well before the dangerous section was reached, and he had fa il ed to ensure that the fu el was clean and free of microbiological contamin ation.

This latter made the re li ability of the engine extremely suspect. It failed after running for only ten minutes and could not be restarted.

4. He sailed with an inadeq uate crew and with both an inadeq uately qualified second-in-command and an in adequately qualified engineer.

5. He sailed with two defective compasses and failed to obtain a handbearing compass as was required.

6. When danger loomed he failed to have the anchors cleared away, he fa iled to brief the crew, he fa il ed to iss ue lifebelts (they were all stowed below), and he utterl y fa iled to take a poss ible escape route or to send out a distress call on the radio sufficiently early.

The defence pl eaded fo r the captain to be spared a prison sentence saying that

50

"This was ... no momentary aberration but a deliberately chosen course of action condemned by the jury as 'grossly negligent."' he was no danger to the public and a prison sentence would be no deterrent, but the judge stated that a prison sentence was req uired to punish him for his recklessness and negligence.

The judge went on to say, "The three members of the crew who died, like the rest of the crew, showed you loyalty and devotion and served you without reward and reposed in you their absolute trust and confidence. On the verdict of this jury you betrayed that trust by showing contempt for the very dangers they trusted you to avoid .

"The jury fo und that you had a profound disregard for the 1ives of the crew and were reckless in your nav igation and management. " You chose to conduct yourself as

you did in the face of clear warn ings of the consequences in respect of the fuel used and the course sa il ed.

"This was therefore no momentary aberration but a deliberately chosen course of action condemned by the jury as 'grossly negligent. ' I have therefore no alternative but to send you to pri son for 18 months."

Many people consider thi s a light sentence for the gross neg li gence resulting in the death of three people and the mother of Emily Macfarlane reminded people outside the court that "this was the leader who managed to scramble ashore before the two women and one man who died."

Litchfield was released on bail pending his appeal, but the Appeal Judges determined there was no new ev idence on which to allow the appeal and were unwilling to go against the jury's verdict. .1

CDR Scott, who lives in Cyprus, is a founder of the International Sail Training Ships Captains' Association and is a regular contributor to Sea History. s :EA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & MUSEUM NEWS SPUN YARN Full information on these news items appears in Sea Hi story Gazette, Marchi April and May/June 1998. Write and ask, and we' IL send you these issues.fi¡ee.

To subscribe to the bi-monthly Gazette foroneyear ,send$18.75 toNMHS(add $10 for.foreign postage).

Two gifts in recent months have take n the New Bedford Whaling Museum's Capital Campaign total to more than $4 million. As part of a collaboration between Portugal and the museum, Hi s Excellency Jaime Gama, the Portuguese Minister of Foreign Affairs, came to New Bedford to sign a protocol to create the Azorean Whaleman Gallery and present the mu seum with a check for $500,000. Mrs. Stanton Davis also presented the museum with $500,000 for the Davis Observation Area on the top floorofthe proposed new entrance building. (NBWM, 18 Johnny Cake Hill, New Bedford MA 02740-6398; 508 9970046) ... The Penobscot Marine Museum has purchased three properties in Searsport, Maine , to enhance their visibility. Two of the buildings, which are on the National Register of Historic Places, will be restored to house the museum store, a curatorial support cen-

ter and offices. The third property will become a park paying tribute to the seafaring heritage of Searsport. (PMM, PO Box 498, Searsport ME 04974; 207 548-2529; e-mail: PMMuseum@acad ia. net) ... The new Erie Maritime Museum opened on 21 May and was official ly ded icated by the Governor of Pennsy lvania on 21 June. The new museum has benefited from the donation of $150,000 from a local law firm , MacDonald, Illig , Jones & Britton, which will help provide orientation videos for the museum and the replica US Brig Niagara. (EMM, 150 E. Front Street, Su ite 1, Erie PA 16507; 814 871-4596) ... The East End Seaport Museum and Marine Foundation recently received a provisional charter as an educational organization from the Board of Regents of the State of New York.

(EESM&MF, PO Box 624, Greenport NY 11944) .. . The Mariners' Museum recently received a grant of $100,000 from the Mobil Foundation toward its $12 million Capital and Endowment Campaig, designated for the "Shipping and Trade in the 21st Century" ex hibition , part of a new Commercial Shipping Gallery sched uled to open in 2001. (TMM, 100 Museum Drive, Newport News VA 23606; 757 591-

5120) ... The Lake Erie Island Historical Society's new 5,800-squarefoot facility to house its 14 classic and antique wooden boats on South Bass Island at Put-in-Bay, Ohio, opened on 6 June. (LEIHS, PO Box 25, Put-in-Bay OH 43456-0025; 419 285-28040) ...

The Marine Museum of the Upper Great Lakes recently acquired a collection of over 8,000 titles from the UK, which includes material s on naval architecture and shipbuilding from the late 1700s and early 1800s. The titles will be on the museum 's database and web site. (MMUGL, 55 Ontario Street, Kingston ON K7L 2Y2, Canada; 613 542-2261) ... The Australian National Maritime Museum's USA Gallery is engaged in a three-year sched ule of traveling displays from the US. The first, which opened in May , is " Views of the Pearl River Delta: Macau , Canton and Hong Kong," an exhibit organized by the Hong Kong Museum of Art and the Peabody Essex Museum in Salem, Massachusetts. (ANMM , GPO 5 131, Sydney NSW, Australia 1042; (2) 9552 7544; FAX: (2) 928 1 2885) ... The Michigan Maritime Museum has built a new 1,300-square-foot education center to offer programs in maritime traditions.

(MMM, PO Box 534, Dyckman Av-

Amistad Construction Begins amid Glad and Thoughtful Celebration Sunday, 8 March, dawned raw and rainy, but the mood of the thou sands gathered at Mystic Seaport to lay the keel of the topsail schooner Amistad was warm and upbeat. The day began with an interfaith service, followed by performances by two gospel choirs, dancers from Siena Leone, chantey singing and traditional drummers.

At 2PM guests, including government officials, corporate supporters and staff of non-profit organizations, gathered in the Mainshop of the Henry B. duPont Preservation Shipyard, where the ceremony opened with prayers offered in Mende (the language of the Amistad's captives), Arabic and Engli sh.

J. Revell Carr, Mystic ' s president, welcomed the assembled friends of the Amistad and described the stages of construction between the keel laying and commissioning in June 2000.

On the dai s, NMHS Trustee Warren Marr was introduced to ro using applause as "the godfather of this vessel," as Williain Pinkney, captain of the Amistad, reminded us that Marr had chaitered the SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

schooner Western Union 22 years ago to sail as the Amistad in the July Fourth Parade of Sail in OpSail '76 and has been working toward thi s keel laying for several decades.

Speakers, including Connecticut's US Senators Joseph Lieberman and Christopher Dodd, stressed the hi storic importance of the Amistad incident to America's heritage and the ongoing importance of the new ship 's mission to teach the lessons of hi story , cooperation and leadership inherent in the Amistad story.

When Mystic Vice President Chris Cox turned to Capt. Pinkney and announced: "Bill , it is time for us to lay this keel ," 60 guests, representing the 60 original captives, lifted into place the keel timber from which the topsail schooner will soon rise.

The two-ton keel is moved into place by 60 people , including Connecticut Stare Senator Cathy Cook (3 rd from left) and US Senator Joseph Lieberman (4th from right).

NORMA STANFORD

Using adzes, Capt. Bill Pin kney, George Bellinger, J. Revell Carr, shipwright Roger Hamidge and Senator Dodd begin to shape the keel. Photos: Mystic Seaport

51

SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & MUSEUM NEWS "The Chronometer Specialists" Bought Sold

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Maritime Curator Sought The International Yacht Restoration School seeks a c urator for Coronet of 1885,America 's most hi storic yacht. The 133-ft schooner, is scheduled for a complete and arc hi val restoration. The Curator will be responsibl e for: research on the orig inal construction and design of the vessel; catal ogi ng of all extant related archival and aitifactual mate ri al; acq ui sition of such materials when appropriate; scho larly and publicity-orie nted writing about the vessel and her hi story; ai1d input into restoration plans.

The position requires a credenti aled professional hi storian with maritime ex perience, know ledge of large wooden boat construction, good communication and exce ll ent wri tin g skill s. Fax letter and resume to: 401-842-0669

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(NAFTS , PO Box 1507, Sausalito CA 94966-1507; 415 331-7757) .. . The vessels in the historic fleet at Battlesh ip Cove in Massachusetts are undergoing restoration , including: the engine and boiler rooms of the WWII destroyer Joseph P. Kennedy (DD-850), with the support of the "Tin Can Sailors" veterans group; and PT-796 with the help of PT Boats, Inc. (USS Massachusetts Memorial, Battleship Cove, Fall River MA 02721; 508 678-1100) ... The recipients of the American Sail Training Association 's 1997 Sail Training Awards are: Sail Training Vessel of the Year-USS Constitution ; Sea Education Program of the Year-South Street Seaport Museum; Sail Trainer of the Year-Captain Richard Bailey of the frigate Rose; Port City of the Year- Los Angeles CA; ASTA Volunteer of the Year-Gregg Swanzey; Special Recognition Award-James Kerr. ... The Great Lakes is the site of AST A's 1998 Tall Ships Race. The vessels wi ll visit Chicago IL ( 17- 20 July); South Haven Ml(24-27 July); Milwaukee WI (30- 3 J July); and Racine WI (6-9 August). The AST A vessels wi ll participate in a race from Chicago to South Haven. From there the vessels will cruise in company to Milwaukee. The second leg of the Tall Ships Race will take the ships from

USCG Tamaroa (ex USS Zuni)

Atlantic Challenge '98

The Guild 's accl aimed quarte rl y NA UTICAL

enue, South Haven MI 49090; 616 6378078) ... The Orange County (CA) Marine Institute has received an anonymous $1 million grant to ex pand its facilities in Dana Point Harbor. The funds will be used to construct a building to showcase the Institute ' s program s in marine and maritime education and is contingent upon the successful comp letion of negotiations for continued use of the Institute 's present site. (OCMI, 24200 Dana Point Harbor Drive, Dana Point CA 92629; 714 496-2274) .. . The Oregon Maritime Center and Museum in Portland celebrated two mil estones in 1997- theiT tenth year in their present location in the 1872SmithBuilding and the 50th anniversary of their flagship, the Steamer Portland, a passage marked by the steamer 's addition to the National Regi ster of Hi storic Places. (OMCM, 113 SW Front Avenue, Portland OR 97204) .. . The 93year-old Milwaukee Clipper (exJuanita) , a former passenger liner, was purchased in December by the Great Lakes Clipper Preservation Associat ion for $ 1. The group hopes to restore the vessel into a maritime learning and entertainment center at a projected cost of $ 1-2 million. (GLCPA , Box 1370, Muskegon MI 49443; 616 722-1621) ... The US Coast Guard cutter Tamaroa , commissioned in 1943 as USS Zuni , was officially turned over from Federal Surplus Property to the Hudson River Park Conservancy in New York City. She will become part of the Conservancy ' s operations base at Pier 54 on the West Side Drive, where she will be cared for by a local chapter of the National Association of Fleet Tug Sailors

More than 300 young people will gather in Roskilde, Denmark, in August to participate in Atlantic Cha ll enge '98, an international series of "Contests of Seamanship" designed to build comm unity between young people of different nations. The US national team will train for two weeks in July at the Atlantic Chailenge Foundation in Maine before heading across the Atlantic to compete in the Verite, the US entrant in thi s year's competition. The 38 ' Bantry Bay gig was built over the last two years by inner city youth and adult volunteers in Tacoma, Washington.

These 18th-century styl e vessels are particul arl y suited fortraining young people in seamanship. They can be propelled using sails oroars and their gear is simpl e and versati le. In these gigs, crews learn a great dea l about judgment, responsibility and command, which rotates among crew members. Together, they learn cooperation and self-reliance, and to look for and prepare for the unexpected. Many of the young crew members who have participated in this Challenge in the past have returned home to create programs in their communities in the US and abroad.

Atlantic Challenge Foundation, PO Box B, Rockland ME 04841 ; 207 594-1800; FAX: 207 594-5056; e-mail: acfitsa@midcoast. com; web site: http:// www.atlanticchallenge.org.

SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

CALENDAR Festivals, Events, Lectures, Etc. • American Sail Training Association: 17 Jul y- IO August, ASTA Great Lakes Tall Ships Race with schedul ed visits to Chicago, South Haven Ml, Mil wa ukee WI and Rac ine WI (PO Box 1459, Newport RI 02840; 40 l 846- 1775, FAX: 40 I 849-5400) • Boston Antique & Classic Boat Festival: I 1- 12 Jul y, 16th Annual Festi va l ( 16 Preston Road , Somerville MA 02143 ; 6 17 666-8530) • Center for Wooden Boats: 3- 5 Jul y, 22nd Annual Lake Union Wooden Boat Festiva l ( 1010 Valley Street, Seattle WA 98109; 206 382-2628) • Charleston Maritime Commission: 2527 September, Charleston Maritime Festi val (8 1 Mary Street, PO Box 975 , Charleston SC 29402; 803 805-3052) • Hudso n River Maritime Museum: 79 August, Steam Launch Meet ( I Rondout Lndg. , Kingston NY 1240 I; 9 14 338-0071 ) • Hudson Waterfront Museum: 12 September- 10 October, "Liberty Enli ghtening the World" on weekends, including " Splash at the Antic" to celebrate " 1998 , the Year of the Ocean" (290 Conover Street, Brooklyn NY 11 231; 718 624-4719) • International Festival of the Sea: 2831 August, in Portsmouth, Eng land (HM Naval Base, PP16, Portsmouth, UK, PO! 3NH; 1705 725000, FAX: 1705 727560; email: Sea Fest@ Portsmouth.co. uk) • Lake Champlain Maritime Museum: 11 - 12 Jul y, 10th Annual Lake Champlain Sma ll Boat Show; 26-27 September, " Rabble in Arms: The Gunboat Philadelphia Comes Ali ve" (RR3 , Box 4092, Vergennes VT 05491; 802 475-2022; e-mail: lcmm@sover.net; web: www. lcmm.org) • Mystic Seaport: 22-23 August, Antique Marine Engine Expos ition (PO Box 6000, Mystic CT 06355 ; 860-572-0990) • Penobscot Marine Museum: 2 1 July, Joan Druett, "Seafaring Wives of Sea r port ME"; 18 August, Renny A. Stackpole " Maine Adventures in the 19th-century Cotton Trade" (5 Church St. , PO Box 498 , Searsport ME 0497 4-0498; 207 548-2529; PMMuseum@acadia.net) • San Diego Maritime Museum: 19 July, Sea Chantey Festiv al ( 1306 North Harbor Dr. , San Diego CA 9210 I; 6 19 234-9 153) • San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park: 4July, Fourth of Jul y Waterfront Festi va l; 12- 13 September 1998 , Festi va l of the Sea 1998 (PO Box 4703 10, San Francisco CA 94 147-03 10; 415 929-0202, e- mail : sfnmma@aol.com) • Victoria Real Estate Board: 4-6 September, 2 1st Annual Classic Boat Festival in Victoria BC (3035 Nana imo St. , Victoria BC V8T4W2, Canada; 250385-7766; FAX: 250 385-8773; e-mail: vreb@ islandnet.com) •Wooden Boat Foundation: l 1- 13 Sep-

SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

te mber, 22nd Annua l Wooden Boat Festiva l (C upola House, 380 Jeffe rson Street, Port Townsend WA 98368 ; 360 385-3628)

A Fresh C8tch of M8rine Antiques:

Conferences • Association for Great Lakes Maritime History: 17- 19 September, Annual Meeting (PO Box 7365 , Bowling Green OH 43402) • Historic Naval Ships Association : 2529 October, 33rd Annual Meeting in Newport RI (Channing Zucke r, 4640 Hoylake Drive, Virginia Beach VA 23462; 757 4996919; e-mail : hnsaOl@aol.com) • Lawley Boat Owners Association: 10 July, Lawley Symposium & Rendezvo us at MIT, Cambridge MA (A lbert Hickey, PO Box 242, Gloucester MA 01931 ; 978 28 1-4440, e-mail : voyage@cove.com)

Vintage photography, scrimshaw, moderately-priced paintings and prints, nautical artifacts, and out-of-print books.

See our catalog in color on our Web site at http:l/www.marineantiques.com.

For a b&w copy. please send $5 (refundable with purchase) to:

A. Jacobson Marine Antiques P.O. Box 2155, South Hamilton, MA 01 982. Tel. (978) 468-6151 Gallery at 161 Bay Rd. (Rt. lA) open by chance or by appointment

New Exhibits • Cold Spring Harbor Whaling Museum: 4 July 1998-June 1999, "Cold Spring Harbor Whalers around the World" (Box 25, Cold Spring Harbor Y 11 724; 5 16 367-34 l 8) • Hudson River Maritime Museum: from 25 Apr il 1998, "Rondout: Hudson River Port" (l Roundout Landing, Kin gston NY 12401 ; 914 338-0071) • Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum: 5 February- December 1998 , " Proudl y We Se rve" ; 15 February-December 1998 , " Spanish-American War" (Pier 86, W. 46th St. & 12th Ave. , New York NY 100364103 ; 212 245-2533) • Maine Maritime Museum : 9 AprilMarch 1999, "Tugboat Classics of Maine" (243 Washington Street, Bath ME 04530; 207 443-1316) •The Mariners' Museum: 24 April- I November 1998 , " Re membe rin g the Maine" ; 20 June- 8 Septe mbe r 1998, "Nelson : A Time for Heroes" ( I 00 MuseUJn Drive, Newport News VA 23606; 757 596-2222; website: www.mariner.org) • New Bedford Whaling Museum: from 11June 1998, "Traveling with Mrs. Tripp: A Merchant Wife in the China Trade"; from 22 June 1998, "Spray" ( 18 Johnny Cake Hill, New Bedford MA 02740-6398; 508 997-0046) • San Diego Maritime Museum: 30 April3 1 December 1998, "Titani c: History & Hollywood" ( 1306 North Harbor Dri ve, San Diego CA 92 10 I; 6 19 234-9 153) • San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park: 7 February 1998- 3 1 January 1999, "Found! The Wreck of the Fro licA Gold Ru sh Cargo for San Francisco" (Foot of Polk Street, PO Box 470310, San Francisco CA 94 147-03 19; 415 929-0202) • Wisconsin Maritime Museum: 4 April 1998-December 1999, " Wisconsin Shipbuilders : 150 Years" (75 Maritime Drive, Manitowoc WI 54220)

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SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & MUSEUM NEWS Mi lwaukee to Racin e. (ASTA, 47 Bowen 's Wharf, PO Box 1459, Newport RI 02840; 401 846-1775; e-mail: asta@sai ltraining.org) ... America 's Sail ' 98 will bring a fleet of sa il training vessels up North America 's East Coast in early July. The vessels will gather in Savannah, Georgia, for the Tall Ships Festi val, 4-5 July, race to Long Island, and dock in local ports before the Tall

Ships Festival, 12- 15 Jul y. (The Rev. William F. Wendler, Executive Director, 11 Oak Lane, Glen Cove NY 11542; 516 922-0979; web site: http://www. xs4a ll.n l/-oro/amsail/) ... Hoddin g Carter and a crew of nine wi ll make a second attempt to retrace the path of Leif Eriksson's voyage from Green land to ewfound land thi s summer aboard a replica of a Viking knarr. Last year's

AMERICAN MER CHANT MARINE MUSEUM NEWS June 25, 2000 marks the 50th anni versary of the Korean War. As we approach that date and begin to make preparations for the many tributes and memorials that will be taking place, our thoughts at the American Merchant Marine Mu seum turn to the important role merchant mariners played in the liberation of Korean refugees and the great Hungnam rescue in December 1950.

Inducted into the National Maritime Hall of Fame in 1986, the SS Meredith Victory exemplifies the valor of the merchant marines during thi s hi storical event.

A Moore-McC01mick Lines vessel under charter to the Military Sea Transportation Service, the Meredith Victory had been deployed to Korea to help suppl y the forces in the area. When the master of the ship was asked to help aid in the evacuation of the port, with all dock space taken the Meredith Victory made fas t to a Liberty shi p moored in the harbor. The crewmen built a makeshift ramp to the Liberty and within a 24-hour period, 14,000 Koreans were taken on board . Facing waters mined by the Comm unist Chinese, the No. 2 lower hold filled with 300 tons of hi ghly flammable jet fuel , and no escort vessel to aid the ship and protect it from air raids, the Meredith Victory sailed for Pusan, 450 sea miles away.

In the Museum 's Gallant Ship Room a plaque dominates the south wall. The citation on the plaque reads: At the height of the epoch-making evacuation of Hu ngnam , Korea by the United Nations forces in December 1950, the SS Meredith Victory was requested to assist in the removal of Korean civilians trapped and threatened with death by the encircling enemy armies . Most ofthe militwy personnel had been pu Iled out and the city was aflame from enemy gunfire. Despite imminent dan ger of artillery and air attack and while her escape route became more precarious by the hour, the Meredith Victory, her tankful/ ofjet fuel , held her position in the shell-torn harbor until 14,000 men, women and children had crowded into the ship . One of the last ships to leave Hungnam, the Meredith Victory set her course through enemy minefields and although having little food and water and neither doctors nor interpreters accomplished the three-day voyage to safety at Pusan with her human cargo including several babies born en route without a single loss of life. The courage, resourcefulness , sound seamanship and teamwork of her master, officers and crew in successfully completing one ofthe greatest marine rescues in the history ofthe world have caused the name ofthe ship the Meredith Victory to be pe1petuated as that of a gallant ship.

CLARENCE G. MORSE FREDERICK H . M UELLER Maritime Administrator Secretary of Commerce The American Merchant Marine Museum will pay homage to the Meredith Victory in an ex hibition that runs from May 25 through October 3 1, 1998. Thi s show will be the first in a series of exhibitions that will be installed by the Museum though June 25, 2000.

The Museum is presentl y looking for interesting artifacts from mariners who served during the Korean War. These artifac ts will be featured in our upcoming exhibiti ons. If readers of Sea History have artifacts that they wou ld like to loan to the Mu seum or ifthe readers have interesti ng stories about the Korean War that they would like to share in upcom ing issues of The Manifest , please contact the Museum office. We would like to feature these stories in The Manifest as a tribute to the mariners who aided the United States and United Nations forces during this historical confl ict.

LINDA f ASBACH, Director AMMM, US Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point NY 11024; 516 773-5515 54

voyage ended when the rudder was severely damaged. Viking Voyage 1000, spon sored by the Lands End Direct Merchants, will be access ibl e via the Internet. (Marian Rivman, New Vinland Found ation ; 2 12 691 -1 11 2; e-mai l: rivmanpr@aol. com ; web site: http :// beyond.landsend .com) ... In Britain , the Sail Training Association has acquired two unfinished steel hulls to be completed as sail training vessels. Each is about 500gt, with a length of 157 feet and a beam of33 fee t. Accommodations will be for a permanent crew of 6, with 11 volunteer officers and 45 trainees.

The STA has receivedÂŁ3 .5 million from the National Lottery and must raise the remai ning ÂŁ6.5 million .... The Italian Navy is planning to build four new sail training brigantines to add to the 67year-old Amerigo Vespucci, which is undergoing a major overhaul and refit. ... The blockade runner Denbigh, lost on the night of 23 May I865 while attempting to enter port, was located and recorded near Ga lveston by a team from the Institute of Nautical Archaeo logy.

(I A, PO Drawer HG , College Station TX 7784 1-5 137; 409 845-6694; e-mai l: cap2812@unix.tamu.edu) ... Louis Hough , author of the manuscript "An Extraordinary Steam Schooner: Adeline Smith," is the recipient of the first $I,OOO Karl Kortum Endowment for Maritime History Award . Launched in 1912, the Adeline Smith, designed to carry prepackaged lumber loaded by dockside electric cranes, was a precursor of today 's container ships. The Endowment was established in 1995 in honor of Kortum , founder of the National Maritime Museum in San Francisco CA, with a gift of $ 10,000. The deadl ine for the next award is 12 September 1999, and research submi ssions are accepted on a continuing basis. (Mark Goldstein , Library, Bldg. E, Fort Mason , San Francisco CA 94123; 415 556-9874; e-ma il : Mark_Goldstein@nps. gov) ...

The Naval Historical Foundation (NHF) is launching a campaign to expand its Oral History Program. NHF is acqu iri ng abstracts of oral hi story interviews in repositories across the country and is enli sting the help of Navy retirees as vol unteer interviewers and interviewees. (David Winkler, NHF, Bldg. 57, Washington avy Yard, 901 M Street, SE, Washington DC 203740571 ; 202 678-4333) ... The National Trust for Historic Preservation has issued a catalog of its historic preserSEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

vation information booklets. Among the topics covered are membershi p development, personnel issues and vo lunteer management. Free copies are avai lable by cal ling 202 588-6296 or on the Internet at www .InfoSeries.com .... The Historic Naval Ships Association has published a new ed ition of its Historic Naval Ships Visitors' Guide. The price, incl uding p&h, is $8, and it can be ordered from James W. Cheevers, Executive Secretary ofHNSA , US Naval Academy Museum , 118 Mary land Ave., Annapo lis MD 21402-5034 . ... T he Waterfront Center is repr inting Water-

fronts: Cities Reclaim Their Edge ($39.95) , by Ann Breen and D ick Rigby, co-directors of the Center. Origina lly published in 1994, it conta ins 75 case studies from the first five years of the Center's annual juried competition . The illustrated, 351-page book costs $39.95.

(TWC, 1622 Wisconsin Ave ., NW, Wash ington DC 20007; 202 337-0356; www.mindspring.com/~waterfro n t/) .. .

On 28 January , P r es id ent C linto n signed a p rocla ma tion committing t he US to pa r t icipate in activities associated with "1998: the Year of the Ocean (YOTO)." The announcement finall y brought the US in li ne with the Uni ted Nations , whi ch proclaimed 1998 at the Year of the Ocean in 1994. The intent of YOTO is to focus public and government attention on the importance of the ocean and marine env ironment and highlight ways in which marine resources can be susta ined. (web site: www .yoto. com) ... The historic Ca pe Ha tteras Lighthouse of 1872 is in gr ave da nger of colla pse due to continued beach erosion. The National Park Service mai ntains that the best solution is to move the tower 2,900 feet to the southwest, placing it 1,600 feet from the shoreline.

Opposed to this are local businessmen who be lieve that a fourth steel groin shou ld be constructed off the coast and that an e laborate system to replenish sand on the shoreline should be implemented .... Cambridge University's Erika Hagelberg has a na lyzed the DNA of the remai ns of early settle r s arou nd the Pacific and reports that they all came from Southeast As ia. This finding refutes explorer Thor Heyerdahl ' s contention that South Americans cou ld have sailed to the South Pacific to become its first settlers.... The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) voted in December 1997 to allow US merchant marine veterans of WWII to join. .t SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

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Discover Your Maritime Past Come explore our unique 19th-century seafaring village, a thi rteen building complex w ith eight National Historic Register sites.

Visit Our New Exhibits -ill- Travels to the Pacific Rim -ill- The Thomas and James Buttersworth Collection of Marine Paintings -ill- A Love Affair with Maine: Textile Art of Irene T. Mclellan Cruise our web site-www,acad ia.net/pmmnseum

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REVIEWS Salvage Man: Edward Ellsberg and the US Navy, by John Alden (Nava l Institute Press, Annapoli s MD, 1998, 3 l 5pp, illu s, notes, biblio, index , ISBN 155750-027-4; $37.50hc) "S hip torpedoed. Getto sea!" So reads a typical message to then Commander Ellsberg in a wo rking day (or ni ght) in hi s assignments as salvage leader in the E uropean TheaterofOperations in World War II. This experiencecaJTied him from ra ising su nken wrecks in the harbors of Abyss ini a, liberated by the British from Italy, to similar work in harbors taken by the British 8th Anny in North Africa, and fin all y to the beaches of Normandy, where he cleared up an unho ly mess in the placement of the Phoeni x ca issons for Operation Mulberry-the artificial harbors that enabled the Ang lo-A merican-Canadian armies to crack the wa ll of Hitler ' s Fortress Europe in the spring of 1944. l came to know Ellsberg ' s legendary feats from my father A lfred Stanford, who served as Dep uty Comm ander of the US Mulben-y. Admiral Cunningham, British commander in the Mediterranea n, saw how Ellsberg's method s wo rked , and also ho w he threw him self

into the work in person, and gave El ls berg high marks, supporting him through all diffi culties, including those with US Navy commanders who resented Ellsberg's abrasive ways. Fortunately, Cunningham was in England for the Normand y invasion in 1944, and hi s urgent operational memo written just two-anda-half weeks before the invas ion broke through the bureaucratic fog and brought the matter of unusable Phoeni x units to Winston Churchill's attention, which finally led to acti on. This was Ellsberg ' s shining moment, testing pumps that didn ' t function, taking no one's word for anything, training emergency crews, and commandeering needed equipment.

Commander Alden' s technical serv ice in the US Navy enables him to picture clearl y and acc urately the complex probl ems E ll sberg dealt with in hi s Paul Bunyanesque way. Thi s fine biography traces Ellsberg's career from a to ugh childhood through graduating at the top of his class from the US a val Academy , and the salvage of the sunken American submarine S-51 in the 1920s, into a leading role in US Navy salvage in WWII. Alden brings thi s indomitable person to life in these pages, w ithout

gi lding any lilies. He carefu ll y compares different vers ions of critical events and catches the flavor of E ll sberg's talk as well as the rhythm of hi s walk, and what my fat her used to ca ll the sa intl y si mpli c ity of his character.

P ETER STANFORD

Shipping and C ulture: The Norwegian Fish C lub ofSan Francisco, 1914-1996,

by Olaf T. Engvig (The Fish Club, San Francisco CA, 1996, 19 l pp, illus, notes, index, ISB 0-9655451-0-5 ; $49hc) Cou ld you be interested in the story of a fishing cl ub founded by people of orwegian stock li ving in San Franc isco in 19 14, on the l OOth anni versary of Norwegian independence? It mi ght he lp if I to ld you that the club never goes fishing , it meets for weekly fish dinners at a restaurant called Jack's, and it has done wonders to keep ali ve seafaring connections that bind this hardy Scandinav ian race together in all corners of the ocean world.

Take for instance, Roald Am undsen ' s Gj¢a, the hardy sloop in whi ch the expl o re r sa iled the Northwest Passage throu gh the Arctic waters between northern most Canada and the No rth Pole in

Old 6 Rare Maritime Books Bought and Sold • Exploration and voyages by sea; • Shipbuilding, seamanship and navigation; •Naval history •Whaling • Yachting and Cruising • Commercial fisheries • Lighthouses, pirates and shipwrecks • Logbooks, documents and manuscripts •Sea charts • Books relating to marine art, antiques and ship models

We are eager to purchase single volumes or e11tire collectio11s i11 these subject areas.

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since 1976

56

SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

1905. The first vessel to accomplish this hi storic feat, the Gj¢a was towed into San Franc isco and hauled ashore in Golden Gate Park to be a monument to seafaring endeavor. But the stout little vessel became a sun-bleached wreck, exposed to Pacific winds and blazing Cali fo rnia sun with no shelter and no attendants to look after her. The Fish Club restored and rebuilt her with city support. Lacki ng a secure fundin g base, the club returned the Gj¢a to Norway, where she is on ex hibition today.

The Gj¢a's story is only one of a score or more that crowd these lively pages recording the doings of a club whose aim , as expressed by Mr. Engvig, was to meet together at lunch to share "fish from the Pacifi c and wine fro m the Californ ian vineyards, and to chat about current events , Norway and the future."

Mr. Engvig's work sav ing hi storic steamers in Norwegian waters has been noted in Sea History before (see SH64).

Here, he convincing ly demonstrates the human side of the work of phys ical restoration, and hi s observation as to why thi s aspect is so important to the heritage of mankind is worth quoting: Only a culturally deprived society will leave little behind and provide the new generations with fess ba ffast and a smaller platform to build their fiv es on.

It is a good generation that saves fo r its children things to see and learnji-om , to make them f eel important and proud of themselves and their ancestors' achievements.

PS

Passage East, by Ian Marshall, commentary by John Max tone-Graham (Howe!I Press, Inc. , Charlottesville VA, 1997, I 60pp, illus, ISBN 1-57427-069-9; $60hc) Mr. Marshall's latest book is a most colorfu l portrayal , in words, drawings and waterco lors, of the British maritim e history associated with the openi ng of the Suez Canal. There is much to be learned by stud ying th e fine pencil sketches , the small watercolor studies and particul arly the fin ished paintings that truly express the fluid essence of watercolor.

A sense of energy througho ut thi s book keeps the pictures from being just portraits of shi ps. The artist's thorough research and knowledge of marine architecture, plu s hi s skill ed draftsmanship, allow him to capture the detail s and characteristics of early steamsh ips in the spontaneou s manner of watercolor. The small harbor craft in many of the drawSEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

ings and pamtmgs are rendered in a quick sketch form, an almost impression istic style that enhances the ir function and movement.

The "on-deck" scenes bring to life the co lor and activity of shipboard travel of thi s period and place. The spontaneity of Marshall's watercolor brushstrokes effectively recall s figures and fonns from out of the past, and the white space within and surrounding the paintings conveys a sense of intense sunli ght, typical of the Middle East.

Passage East is a unique co llection of marine art in the story it tells, as well as the outstanding quality of the watercolors. This book wi II be appreciated by marine art lovers everywhere.

DON C. NORRIS

NAVAL HISTORY BOOKS THE REAL HORNBLOWER The Life and Times of Admiral Sir James Gordon, GCH

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Facing Fearful Odds: The Siege of Wake Island, by Gregory J. W. Urwin (University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln NE and London UK, 1997, 727pp, maps, illus , biblio, appen , index, ISBN 0-8032455 -6; $58.95hc) In World War II, Wake Island had potential strategic value for any American offensive aimed at Japanese ho ldings in the western Pacific. Located 2,000 miles westward of Pearl Harbor, it had promi se for becoming a US bastion of power, which the Japanese knew could become a telling blow to their hopes fo r victory . But when the Japanese struck the Pac ific fleet at Pearl Harbor, construction had hardly begun on Wake, and defense installation s there were still rudimentary .

The c ivili an labor force ass igned to the island numbered nearl y a thousand men. Protection of the island rested with the Wake Island Detachment, part of the 1st Defense Battalion, US Marine Corps.

Planning fo r Wake's interim defense had considered that the contractor 's civilian workers would ass ist the marines in the event hostilities broke out. Only abo ut 60 of the civilians actually took up arms while a few others lent a hand in logistical support functi ons. The Marines beat off a first Japanese assault, but the Japanese soon returned in greater strength , forc ing a capitulation.

The fate of the American marines and civilians who surrendered at Wake varied. The marines and the bulk of the contractor's civilians were shipped to China, where they fared better than most Occidental military prisoners during most of the war. Eventuall y, a numberofthem were shipped to Japan as slave laborers.

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THE CAMPAIGN OF TRAFALGAR, 1303-1305 edit.ed by Robert. Gardiner 192 pages. 300 illu s. # l -86176-02 8-0/S49.95

HURRICANE OF FIRE The Union Assau lt on Fort Fisher

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LIGHTHOUSES AND KEEPERS The U.S. Lighthouse Service and Its Legacy

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REVIEWS The Japanese kept 368 of the civilian workers on the islands as construction laborers, with 20 of the military who were too badly wounded ortoo sick to be moved. As Japanese construction neared completion , 200 of the civilians were sent to Japan as POWs, and workers still remaining on Wake were executed by the Japanese.

Gregory Urwin reports thi s story with impress ive technical thoroughness, placing it in the framework of the Pacifi c War's earl y month s. Hi s di scuss ion of the naval command structure of those days reaches as far as the command strateg ists at Pearl Harbor who, faced with little choice, were forced to write off Wake Island.

Facing Femful Odds is a well -organi zed and extreme ly well-written piece of hi story.

CHARLES D. GIBSO Abram's Eyes: The Native American Legacy of Nant u cket I s la nd , by Nathaniel Philbrick (Mill Hill Press, 304pp , illus , notes, index, ISB N 096389 10-8- l ; $35hc) To many , Abram Quary 's pass ing in 1854 signified the end of the Nantucket Indian . He and hi s brethren who worked in the whale fishery would be nostalg ica ll y remembered by the island 's whites

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- including Herman Melvj I le-who romantici zed the island 's former glory as the preeminent whaling seaport. Philbrick has peered into the pensive, " dark brown and clear eyes" in Abram Quary 's portrait and reveals to us a little-known subject. He skillfu ll y uncovers and delineatesa detailed account of antucket's Native American legacy and its ancient legends, richl y supported by engravings, photographs, portraits and the archaeological record.

Philbrick uses Abram Quary as the starting point, not the epilogue of a vanished people, to share with us that other Nantucket, the island once described as " full of Indians." The author explains how the driftwhaling skill s of the Wampanoag Indians of the Tomokommoth tribe played an important role in the formation of Engli sh-Indian alongshore whaling operations , an indu stry that lasted from 1690 to 1760 and laid the foundation for the deepwater whale fishery to come.

These images predate the golden age of whaling, which has loomed so large as to drown out the Native American legacy.

T he Wampanoag presence is absent today, but the island 's very name, "faraway land" in the nati ve language, keenly represents a forgotten legacy which is di stinctl y Nantucket. Abram Quary, refusing to allow this legacy to be entirely forgotten , has given us insight into the hi storical record of hi s people.

This book affirms and enriches the depth of the maritime and American historical nan-ative whi le retri ev ing a dimension of Nantucket Island 's pas t, all through a deeper look into Abram 's eyes.

STEVEN W . Jo ES T he Pacific War Revisited , edited by Gi.inter Bischof and Robert L. Dupont (Loui siana State University Press, Baton Rouge LA , 1997, 230pp, illus, biblio, notes, index , ISB 0-8071-2156-8; $25hc) The introduction of this interesting collection of articl es, taken from a conference held in 1991 at the University of New Orleans on the Pacific War, suggests that " the authors demonstrate that the study of the war is a vibrant, evolving pursuit. " And they do!

In the first section, " Po litics, Strategy, and Log istics," Michael Schaller examines Doug las MacArthur's role as a politician and public relati ons expert versus hi s role as a military leader.

Ronald H . Spector, writing on the fourth dimension of strategy, social forces , in-

terestingly di scusses the popularity of the wa r as a miss ion to save mankind and the ultimate press ures to end it quickly. D aniel K. Blewett recounts the ava ilability of fuel to the fleet , and the tankers to get it there , as a key to the war, and Ke nneth J. Hagan writes on the guerre de course aspect of the submarine war in the Pacific- an unusual role for a d o minant power to pl ay, and an enonnou s ly successful one.

In the second section, " POWs and Nurses," Gregory J. W. Urwin te ll s of the experi ences of the men on Wake Island during their brief but spectac ul ar defense of the island and the ir long captivity, and Kathleen Warnes writes of the Army and avy nurses captured on Bataan and Corregidor and others who served o n hospital ships and shore bases.

In the third sect ion , "Raci sm and the Bomb," Hennan S. Wolk describes the fruition of the campaign launched in 1939 by Genera l Hap Arnold to create the B-29 and establish a dominant role for the Air Force that would ass ure its surv iva l in postwar military politics.

Lastl y, Stephen E. Ambrose and Brian Loring Vi lla di scuss the use of the atom ic bomb, analyzing American convicti ons that va lidated the use of the bomb to our leaders ' minds.

Some new information is presented , older ideas are collected in new contexts, and the res ult is a provocative book that shou ld be of interest to all students of World War IL TOWN SE D H OR OR

Their Fathers ' Work: Casting Nets with the World's Fishermen, by William M cC loskey (McGraw-Hill/Internationa l Marine, Camden ME, 1998 , 352pp, illu s, index, ISB 0-07-0453470; 24.95 hc) The depth and breadth to which the autho r has experienced , researched and chronic led the fi shing wo rld for over two decades makes this book encycloped ic in scope and genuine ly rewarding.

Hi s voice is an honest one, tempered by liv ing and working side by side with fishermen from every economic class and widely divergent cultures. He is able to re late the joys, fru strations, prejudices and superstitions of these men (and occasionall y women) with heartfelt respect, but without overindul gence.

McClos key carries thi s same balance into hns a pproach toward the politics of mode1rn fi shing, whi ch is rife with controver·sy and entanglement for all but the SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

most detached observer. The res ult is a book that covers the fundamentals of fish ing from the hi ghest political levels down to the detailed mechanics of different types of fishing gear in a refreshingly straightforward way.

What makes Their Fathers' Work so worthwh ile is that the author occasionally gets caught up in the lives of those he works with and almost unintentionall y reveals their glory. The reader then has the surprise and satisfaction of finding something valuable and real. But more could be done to ex plain the people who live in this modern age side-by-side and often hand-in-hand with progress, yet still deeply rooted in trad ition and much clo se r to humanity 's fundamental struggles than most will ever experience.

JOSEPH STANFORD

The American-Built Clipper Ship, 1850-1856, by William L. Crothers (International Marine, Camden ME, 1997, 530pp, illu s, ref, index, ISBN 0-0701450 1-6; $65 hc) The title of this book is a clear announcement of its content; it is about the American-built clipper ship- the most remarkable, fastest and largest ships ever to sail- regardless of who may have purchased them or what fl ags they might have flown. There is no wandering into related types: no semi clippers, no stee l clippers, no Briti sh clippers.

The entire discourse is one of construction; the author makes 1ittle attempt to follow the development of the clipper. With thi s approach the story becomes a desc riptive and detailed study of ship 's anatomy, through chapters assembled into three sections: "Prelude to Bu ilding the Ship"; "Construction of the Hull"; and "Completion of the Ship."

The author spent his 35-year career as a practicing naval architect in the Ph iladelphia Naval Shipyard. His clear and detailed drawings are renderings that the original designers never made.

They provide a descriptive and graphi c text for our present understanding of the exceptional structure that allowed clippers to carry sail under extreme conditions of wind and sea.

It is well known that American clipper ships of the mid 1800s spread the greatest amount of sail ever before known, proportionate to their hull size.

Crothers reveal s how the stresses of such enormous sail force were absorbed.

Further it is of considerable interest to learn that clippers , like the great frigates SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

In the sixteenth ce ntury, Spa in's control over its vast New World empire depended on th e sailors and officers who mann ed (> / the galleo ns and m erc hant vessels of its U/ Atlanti c Oeets. Pablo Perez-Mallaina

•

J

seafa rers-their compensation, divisio n of labor, and relations hi ps wi th oth er seafa rers-as we ll as the dangers and hardships they encountered, such as shipwrecks, pirates, and insubordin ation .

With a novelist's eye for both detail and drama, Perez- M allaina evokes th e golden age of seafaring in thi s thoroughly researched fl / and generously illustrated accou nt.

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$29 .95 hardcover

Daily Life on the Indies Fleets PABLO E. PEREZ-MALLAINA translated by Ca rla R ahn Phillips THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY PRESS 1-800-537-5487 • www.press.j hu. edu

Tall Ships Books Fiction and nonfiction from the age of fighting sail to WWI , WW2 and modern times. New and used books. Send $3 for printed catalog to Tall Ships Books, PO Box 80278, Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52408 Visit us at www.tallshipsbooks.com

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pioneering stud y of illn ess and accidents-and the ir treatment-on board an American fri ga te sent to the Mediterranean to engage in th e now forgotten wars with th e Barbary States in 1802.

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59

REVIEWS

It Didn't Happen On My Watch

by George Murphy, retired United States Lines Chief Engineer and Port Engim:er. 50% au tobiographical; 50% sea stories; 100% entertaining. Written from the uniq ue down under perspective of the engine room.

Spans over 40 years Uni ted States Lines history from WWII and its glory years to its slow decent into bankruptcy. Includes many fascina ting, heroic and humorous sea stories and photos.

"Any person who served in the merchant marine or military will relate to It Didn 't Happen On My Watch. This book tells it like it is! Sometimes serious, sometimes sad, but mostly humorous. Recommended reading for all veterans."

George Searle, National President Merchant Marine Veterans Hard cover, 360pp, photos $26.00 incl: s/h. NC res. add $1.38 ORDER VISA/MC:

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Or send check/mo to: Triangle Publishing, PO Box 1223, F uq uay-Varina, NC 27526.

The American Neptune Enjoy the leading scholarly journal of maritime history and arts in the US. The American Neptune, a quarterly publication of the Peabody Essex Museum, is a great read for co ll ectors, model makers, and all who love sh ips and the sea.

We offer Sea History readers an opportunity to subscri be to The American Neptune for $33, a $6 savi ngs over our regul ar subscription rate ($36 fo r non-US residents. Institutions: call for rates). To start your subscription, send a check or money order to :

The American Neptune Peabody Essex Museum East Ind ia Sq uare Salem, MA 01970 (508) 745 -1 876 Yo u may charge your subscription by fax at (508) 744-6776, or e-mail dori_ phillips@ pem.org. We accept VISA, MasterCard and American Express.

Visit our website at www.pem.org/neptune

60

of a half century before, had diagonal frame riders to prevent hogging.

Thi s book, as complete as it is on clipper ship design, may well inspire model ship builders of the more ambitious kind to build their models with exposed structure. It is a guide fo r historians who wish to immerse themselves in the structu ral anatomy of the fas t sai li ng ships of the 1800s.

T HOMAS C. GILLMER, NA Hen Frigates: Wives ofMerchantCaptains under Sail, by Joan Druett (Simon &Schuster, New York NY, 1998, 272pp, illus, appen, index, ISBN 0-684-839687; $25 hc) A brief inscripti on in a hidden cemetery on the Polynes ian island of Rarotonga sent Joan Druett in quest of the women who plied the seas in coasters , whalers, clippers and down easters with hu sbands and fathers. "TO the Memory of Mary Ann ," read the stone she fo und, " the beloved wife of Captn . A. D .

Sherman of the American Whale Ship Harrison WHO depa1ted thi s li fe Jan uary 5, 1850 Aged 24 Years." As Druett was to di scover, hundreds of women voyaged the seas during the 1800s and earl y 1900s in shi ps that came to be called "hen fri gates."

Druett's search took he r halfway aro und the world , to museums and archi ves in New England , Long Island and elsewhere, where she found journals, memoirs and letters written by the intrepid women who left their homes on land to accompany their men on long, dangerous seagoing voyages. Educated women of thi s era frequentl y maintained di aries and Hen Frigates weaves together passages from such writings, exploring all aspects of the life they fo und at sea, in evocative narrati ves that are by turns lively, lonely and tragic.

What we discover as we read their words, is that life at sea seemed to intensify their roles as wives and mothers in a worl d that was isolating and difficult, rather than 1iberati ng. They rare!y bro ke out of traditional fe male acti vities, writing, sewing, cleaning, bearing children, spending time with their husbands and families, sometimes teaching, cooking and caring for the sick and injured. They had little roo m to exerc ise contro l over their surro undings, as they could do at home, confined as they were to the cramped captain 's quarters. Both loneliness and lack of pri vacy were common complaints, and the lack of fe male com-

p a n y was the most difficult burden, as they went thro ugh emotional and medi cal cri ses and day-to-day difficulties without famil y and friends.

Even so, many of them returned to sea again and again, because they found the life adventurous, because they did no t want to be separated from their husbands, or because those husbands insisted on their presence. The era of the he n fri gates did not last long-as steame rs took over the long-haul trades , owners did not allow captains to take fami li es with them. But while sa iling ships plied the waters, it was not unusual to find wives and children on board.

The bibliograph y is a treas ure trove of nearly 150 journals, diaries , letters and remini scences written by seafaring women, publi shed and unpublished , gleaned from a dozen instituti ons in the US and Canada.

J USTINE A HLSTR OM

Ultimate Voyage: A Book of Five Mariners , by Willi a m Gilke rso n (Shambhala Publications, Inc., Boston MA & London UK, 1998, 314pp, illus, ISBN 1-57062-364-3; $25hc) ln one echoing clap of thunder, fi ve babies destined for the sea li fe are born in a medieval seaport town, whose people and ways we come to know closely in an hi storic era when ships were beginning to make very long voyages to discover the oceanic world. Thi s yarn of discovery, by the noted historian and arti st Bill Gilkerson, whose paintings and drawings cast their ow n unique spell , come to life with a special kind of consciousness, 1ike that of the Arthuri an wizard Me rl in , embracing past, present and future.

The fi ve characters, celebrating a common birthday, come fro m widely separated strata in the hierarchical soc iety of our ancient, sea-haunted townand that fact helps bind them more closely together in the voyage which they decide to make together to the far side of the world. The Flying Dutchman, the Ancient Mariner and Sinbad the Sailor fi nd their stories retold with new resonance and meaning in the colorful and quintessenti all y chall enging string of adventures in di stant seas and ali en lands that our mariners encounter. Each learns so me thi ng spec ial ab o ut him se lf, whether not to over-mast a ship, not to be too generous with riches , or not to grow jealous about love. And you , reader, can learn the fresh wonder of a world re born from legend, at the hands of a SEA HISTORY 85 , SUMMER 1998

resourcefu l spinner of authentic sea lore and legend , whose pages are stre wn with beguiling incident and the chaUenge of seafaring-in a story illuminated with drawings that capture Solomon ' s wo nder at the way of a ship in the sea.

PS Lighthouses and Keepers: The US Lighthouse Service and Its Legacy , by Dennis L. Noble (Naval In stitute Press, Annapolis MD, 1997, 272pp, illus, notes, gloss , biblio , index, ISBN 1-55750-6388; $34.95hc) This book is unique among the many that exist about lighthouses. In addition to the hi stories of some of the major lighthou ses, the material on construction methods and the technical information on signal apparatus is of considerable interest. Al so covered in some detail are the lives of keepers of lighthouses as they performed their lonely and often dangerous duties.

The chapter on the "Black Fleet," the lighthouse and buoy tenders that serviced aids to navigation , covers the development of tenders from sailing ships to steam propulsion to modern diesel electric vessels and includes some of the adventures of these multipurpose vessels.

I found the chapter on lightships, a subject rarely covered , particularly timely. Those lightships that did not succumb to sinking by storms o r collisions usuaily led long and inte resting lives. The lights hip fleet is covered from the early days of sail to their eventual replacement with Texas-type offshore steel towers or large nav igationa l buoys.

For someone who has more than a casual interest in this subject, this book is a must.

D AVIDE. P ERKINS

Ranald MacDonald: Pacific Rim Adventurer , by Jo Ann Roe (Washington University Press, Pullman WA , 1997 , 256pp, illus, biblio, index, ISBN 0-87422146-3; $35hc, $ 18.95pb) In the earl y 1800s Japan was closed to nearl y a ll Westerners. Even shipwrecked Japanese sailors who had had contact with Western culture were refu sed repatriation to Japan. It was into thi s unfriendly climate thatRanald MacDonald, 24, feigned shipwreck and allowed himself to be taken pri soner in Japan in 1848 to satisfy the curiosity he had harbored since childhood about thi s country. Roe discusses in depth the origins and extent of Japanese isolation at the time of MacDonald ' s landing, his SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

extended stay in captivity and his influence, as Japan's first teacher of English , in laying the fo undation for later negotiations between Japan and Commodore Matthew Perry.

Upon hi s release, MacDonald headed back to sea, trying hi s fortune in Australi a's gold rush. MacDonald him self is nearly absent from the narrative at thi s point, as Roe describes the gold-feverstruck Australian continent and the conditions in the fi elds. The story then follows MacDonald back to hi s fami ly in the Pac ific Northwest and hi s explorations in what is now Canada.

MacDonald 's legacy in Japan , however, dominates this book, as it returns again and again to the achievements of "MacDonald's interpreters," the Japanese students he taught English during hi s captivity.

SHELLEY R EID

Battleships of the Bismarck Class: Bismarck and Tirpitz: Culmination and Finale of German Battleship Construction, by Gerhard Koop and KlausPeter Schmolke, trans . by Geoffrey Brooks (Naval Institute Press, Annapoli s MD, 1998 , 159pp, illus, bibli o, index, ISBN 1-55750-049-5 ; $39.95 hc) Planned as the first in a series of reference works , "Ship Classes of the German Navy ," this book examines the design, construction and pe1formance of the Bismarck-class battleship. Over 180 photographs, numerous plan drawings and diagrams laye red on the concise text make a dense, inform ati ve work . SR The Great South Sea: English Voyages and Encounters 1570-1750, by Glyndwr William s (Yale University Press, New Haven CT & London UK, 1997, 300pp, illus, bilio, index , ISBN 0300-07244-9; $37.50hc) In this informative volume Glyndwr Williams examines the developing picture of the South Sea region in the English imagination. He covers the journeys of Sir Francis Drake, Martin Frobisher and their successors, making a useful compendium of English voyages of exploration in the South Sea as the Pacific was opened to the Western world.

The narrative focuses on the voyagers' contribution s to English knowl edge about the Pacific.

In the period covered in his work, before Cook's great voyages in the later 1700s, English voyaging was based primaril y on raiding Spanish trade routes,

rather than exploration for its own sake.

While the reports of Eng li sh ex plorers' journeys added to the contemporary understanding of the Pacific region, navigational errors, incomplete documentation and sometimes fanciful editing combined to make a sometimes muddy picture of the territory beyond Cape Horn and the Strait of Magellan. Williams ' s work is thoroughly researched and supported by contemporary maps, each drawn as new travel reports expanded PS the pictu re of the Pacific.

The Age of the System, 1715-1815.

The History of English Sea Ordnance, 1523-1875, Vol. II , by Adrian B. Caruana (Jean Boudriot Publications, Rotherfie ld UK , 1997 , 500pp , illu s, biblio , index , ISB N 0-948864-22-6; $120hc) Caruana ' s li vely writing style combined with a wealth of British hi story and backgro und informati on have managed to make a lengthy reference work a fascinating read. This is the second volume of a series of three books on the hi story of English sea ordnance.

SR Merchants & Empire: Trading in Colonial New York , by Cathy Matson (Johns Hopkins University Press, Balti more MD & London UK, 1998 , 458pp, illu s, appen , notes, index , ISBN 0- 80 185602-7; $45 hc) In thi s well-written schol arl y work, Matson takes up the sometimes- neglected group she designates as " middling merchants"-not the few who made or increased vast fortunes in early commerce, but the majority of wholesalers who traded on a much small er scale. Starting with the region's ori gins as the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam , Merchants & Empire exam ines their role in New York ' s coloni al period. SR The 50-Gun Ship, by Rif Winfield (Navallnstitute Press , Annapoli s MD, 1997, 128pp, appen, biblio, notes, index, I SBN 1-86176-025-6; $49.95 hc) Thi s account of the British 50-gun ships, from the Chatham Shipshape series, traces their development and history and examines in depth their construction, costs and contributions to the success of the Royal Navy. Supported by a wealth of valuable illu strations and tables, thi s work is hampered, howeve r, by a crowded and awkward page layo ut. SR

61

DESSERT

Jolin !J\{jcol AfarineJj at tlie 'Batt{e of tlie !J\{j{e John Nicol's memoir of his life at sea from 1776 to 1801 is real stuff from the lower deck, a unique account of what it was like to serve in Nels on' s navy. As a boy in Edinburgh and London, Nicol was filled with wanderlust but obeyed his father and was apprenticed to a cooper. Finally free of his bond at 21, N icol went to sea aboard a naval vessel and spent the next quarter century at sea, seven years traversing the Atlantic during the American Revolution, eleven in the merchant service, sailing to A ustralia, the Pacific islands and China, and another seven in the Royal Navy.

When he finally settled ashore, he married a cousin and moved inland to avoid press gangs. He found it difficult to othing uncommon happened until we reached the Downs. I had all owed my beard to grow long, and myself to be very dirty, to be as unlikely as possible, when the man-ofwar boats came on board to press the crew. As we expected, they came. I was in the hold, sorti ng among the water casks, and escaped. They took every hand that wo uld answer. I rejoiced in my escape, but my joy was of short durati on.

One of the men they had taken had a sore leg, the boat brought him back, and I had the bad luck to be taken , and he was left.

Thus were all my schemes blown into the air. I found myself in a situati on I cou ld not leave, a bondage that had been imposed upon me agai nst my will , and no hopes of relief until the end of the war- not that I disliked it, but I had now become weary of wandering for a time, and longed to see Scotland again. My

get steady work and lived in poverty, until a sympathetic printer, John Howell, recognized the worth of the old man's tale and published it in 1822. John Nicol died three years later at the age of70, the proceeds from the book giving him some comforts at the end of his life.

The excerpt recounting his impressment into the navy from the merchantman Nottingham and his role at the Battle of the Nile on 1August1798, comes from The Life & Adventures of John Nicol, Mariner (New York NY and London UK: Farrar & Rinehart, Inc., 1936, pp 158, 168172) edited by Alexander Laing. The illustrations are by renowned marine artist Gordon Grant.

heart always pointed to my native land .

Re mo nstrance and compl a int were equall y vain .

I therefore made up my mind to it, and was as happy as a man in blasted prospects could be.

* * * *

.*

Captain Foley took command of the Goliah [or Goliath] , and we joined the blockade of Cadiz, where we remained, sending our boat to ass ist at the bombardments, and covering them until Admiral Nelson came out again , and picked out thirteen seventy-fours from the fl eet; the Goliah was one. She was the fastest sailing ship in the fl eet. We did not stay to water; but got a suppl y from the ships that were to remain, and away we set under a press of sail , not knowing where. We came to an anchor in the Straits of Messina. There was an American man-of-war at anchor; Cap-

Nicol taken by the press gang

62

tain Foley ordered him to unmoor, that the Go!iah might get her station, as it was a good one, near the shore; but Jonathan would not budge, but made answer; " I will let yo u to know I be long to the U nited States of America, and I will not give way to any nation under the sun , but in a good cause." So we came to an anchor where we could. We remained here but a short time, when we got inte l1igence that the French fl eet were up the Straits. We then made sa il for Egypt, but mi ssed them, and came back to Syracuse, and watered in twenty-four hours.

I was up all ni ght filling water. The day after we left Syracuse we fell in with a French brig, who had just left the fl eet.

Admiral Nelson took her in tow, and she conducted us to where they lay at anchor in Aboukir Bay. We had our anchors out at our stern port wi th a spring upon them, and the cable carried along the ship ' s side, so that the anchors were at our bows, as if there was no change in the arrangement.

This was to prevent the ships from sw inging round, as every ship was to be brought to by he r stern. We ran in between the French fl eet and the shore, to prevent any communi cation between the enemy and the shore. Soon as they were in s ight, a signal was made from th e Admiral's ship for every vessel, as she came up , to make the best of her way, firing upon the French ships as she passed, and "every man to take hi s bird ," as we joking called it. The Coli ah led the van. There was a French frigate right in our way. Captain Foley cried, "Sink that brute, what does he there?" In a moment she went to the bottom , and her crew were seen running into her rigging. The sun was just setting as we went into the bay, and a red and fiery sun it was. I would, if had I had my choice, been on the deck; th1ere I would have seen what was passing,, and the time would not have hung so i heavy; but every man does his duty witlh spirit, whether his station be in SEA fHISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

HMS Goliath (Nicol calls her Goliah)jires both broadsides at the Battle of St. Vincent on J4 February J 797, Nelson's other great victory before the Nile.

the slaughter-house or the magazine.* I saw as little of this action as I did of the one on the 14th February off Cape St Vincent. My station was in the powder magazine with the gunner. As we entered the bay , we stripped to ourtrowsers, opened our ports, cleared, and every ship we passed gave them a broad-side and three cheers. Any information we got was from the boys and women who carried the powder. The women behaved as well as the men , and got a present for their bravery from the Grand Signior.

When the French Admiral's ship blew up, the Goliah got such a shake, we thought the after-part of her had blown up until the boys told us what it was .

They brought us every now and then the cheering news of another French ship having struck, and we answered the cheers on deck with heart-felt joy . In the heat of the action, a shot came right into the magazine, but did no harm, as the carpenters plugged it up, and stopped the water that was rushing in. I was much indebted to the gunner's wife, who gave her husband and me a drink of wine every now and then, which lessened our fatigue much. There were some SEA HISTORY 85, SUMMER 1998

of the women wounded, and one woman belonging to Leith died of her wounds , and was buried on a small island in the bay. One woman bore a son in the heat of the action; she belonged to Edinburgh.

When we ceased firing, I went on deck to view the state of the fleets , and an awful sight it was. The whole bay was covered with dead bodies, mangled, wounded, and scorched, not a bit of clothes on them except their trowsers.

There were a number of French, belonging to the French Admiral 's ship, the L' Orient, who had swam to the Goliah , and were cowering under her forecastle.

Poor fellows, they were brought on board, and Captain Foley ordered them down to the steward 's room , to get provisions and clothing. One thing I observed in these Frenchmen quite different from any thing I had ever before observed. In the American war, when we took a French ship, the Duke de Chartres, the prisoners were as merry as if they had taken us, only saying, "Fortune de guerre," -you take me to-day, I take you to-morrow. Those we now had on board were thankful for our kindness , but were sullen, and as downcast as

if each had lost a ship of his own, The only incidents I heard of are two. One lad who was stationed by a salt-box, on which he sat to give out cartridges, and keep the lid close,-it is a trying birth, when asked for a cartridge, he gave none, yet he sat upright; his eyes were open. One of the men gave him a push; he fell all his length on the deck. There was not a blemish on his body, yet he was quite dead, and was thrown overboard. The other, a lad who had the match in his hand to fire his gun. In the act of applying it a shot took off his a.rm; it hung by a small piece of skin. The match fell to the deck. He looked to his arm, and seeing what had happened, seized the match in his left hand, and fired off the gun before he went to the cock-pit to have it dressed. They were in our mess, or I might never have heard of it. Two of the mess were killed , and I knew not of it until the day after. Thus terminated the glorious first of August, the busiest night in my life. J, *The seamen call the lower deck, near the main-mast, the slaughter-house, as it is a mid-ships [sic], and the enemy aim their fire principally at the body of the ship.

63

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