Sea History 101 - Summer 2002

No. 101

NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY

SUMMER 2002

SEA HISTOR~

75

THE ART, LITERATURE, ADVENTURE, LORE & LEARNING OF THE SEA

The Marine Art of Charles Peterson The Crystal Project: Bases in the Subarctic Literary Characters in Figureheads The Superstitions of Fishermen

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JEROME E. JOSEPH Executive Vice President

GROWTH, STABILITY AND EXCELLENCE

SEA HISTORY

No. 101

SUMMER2002

CONTENTS FEATURED IN THIS ISSUE

US ARMY

7 OCEANIC MISSION IV: They Said of Winston Churchill, Not Since Francis Drake Had Such a Man Been on the River, by Peter Stanford London's watermen join in to carry Churchill's wartime message of freedom into a new century.

10 The Crystal Project, by Charles Dana Gibson H ow yachtsmen, polar explorers, scientists and government agencies worked together to set up bases in the subarctic to get fighter planes to Britain in World War ll 15 Literary Masterpieces in Wood, by Carol A. Olsen Ships ofthe 1800s carried magnificent figureheads featuring characters from and authors ofthe literature that was increasingly popular and accessible in Europe and America.

10 M YSTIC SEA PO RT

20 Sluys, 24 June 1340: How Lowly Archers Won the Naval Battle that Launched the Hundred Years' War, by Robert L. Swain Edward Ill bankrupted his throne to meet the challenge ofthe French fleet in a decisive battle whose outcome was determined by a deadly volley ofarrows.

24 MARINE ART: Memories and Reflections-the Marine Art of Charles Peterson A Midwestern artist finds his inspiration in the changeable waters ofthe Great Lakes and the world ofthe men who made their living from the sea.

28 Superstitions of Fishermen, by Dr. Louis Arthur No rto n To predict and control the natural forces that determined their success or failure, fishermen developed superstitions to explain and affect the world.

15 32 A Norwegian Legacy: Two Ships, a Shipyard and a Pioneering Spirit,

by Olaf Engvig Two prototypes separated by a century ofinnovation in ship design come to a yard in Norway for restoration and construction.

COVER: A Mackinaw, a Great Lakes fishing boat, sails into its home port at Ephraim, Wisconsin, after a successful Lift. They must make a choice: run for their dock before the squaLL hits, or take time to be prudent and reef now. Sailors know the answer, often from hard experience, but many can't resist the gamble. ("The Time to Reef Is Wh en You First Think of It," by Charles Peterson, watercolor, 20 x 24 inches (See pages 24-26))

DEPARTMENTS 2 D ECK LOG & LETTERS

6

NMHS:

A CAUSE IN MOTION

2 7 MARINE ART NEWS

34

36

SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & M USEUM N EWS/CALENDAR

AMERI CAN M ERCHANT MARINE MUSEUM N EWS

40 42 48

CROSSWORD PUZZLE REVIEWS P ATRONS

20 SEA HISTORY (iss n 0146-9312) is pub lished quarterly by the National Maritime Historical Society, 5 John Wal sh Blvd., PO Box 68, Peekski ll NY 10566. Periodicals postage paid at Peekskill NY 10566 and add'! ma ili ng offices.

COPYRIGHT© 2002 by rhe National M aritime Historical Society. Tel: 914-737-7878.

POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Sea History, PO Box 68, Peekski ll NY 10566.

NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY

LETTERS

DECK LOG

Proving Ourselves It's a grand pursuit, sailing in the wake of our members' interests!

As I write, I'm in a chilly but exalted state after a wet, frothy day on the wind- Your article "We Were There to Prove lashed waters of New York Harbor, thanks to Captains Huntley Gill and Pamela Ourselves" in Sea History 100 (Spring2002) Hepburn of the North River Historic Ship Society (and NMHS) and, among prompts me to write of an experience I had others, our new member Arthur Imperatore, Jr., ofNYWaterway, who provided during World War II. I was the Gunnery Officer aboardA04 l , ferries to carry New Yorkers to visit working watercraft free of charge. The seas a Navy tanker assigned to convoy duty in were too high to permit some landings we meant to make, but the trip was golden the Atlantic ro refuel the destroyer escorts for those who braved wind-lanced rain to step aboard the ferries. And NMHS of the convoys. We were well armed and I stepped forward in our continuing work with local institutions to raise the sea had a Gunner's Mate crew of abo ut fifteen awareness of Americans. men. One day the ship got a message that A few weeks earlier I was aboard the bark Elissa of 1877, sailing out of we were to receive three rated men, NeGalveston, Texas, w ith people ranging from our Patron member Carrington groes, as they were called then, who were to Weems to Captain Steve Cobb, skipper. NMHS had some hand in saving Elissa, be absorbed into the proper departments an effort launched by our founder Karl Kortum and Curator at Large Peter with no special attention . One of these, a Throckmorton, both gone from this earth but not from our hearts. With the Gunner's Mate third class, joined my crew. strong leadership of the Galveston Historical Foundation, we went on to help in Another of my men, from Tennessee, the superb restoration of the Elissa. was not yet rated to petty officer. He rook Cobb, a longtime NMHS member, was also skipper of New York's tall ship pains to tell me that he'd better not have to Wavertree of 1885 when, in the summer of 2000, she ventured forth under sail work for (and I quote) , "that black SOB." for the first time since she was dismasted off Cape Horn in 1910. With other I, of course, rold him that he would follow friends aboard, a real turnout of the historic ship community, were our Sponsor whatever orders I gave him. But with the members Alix and Dan Thorne, involved in both Wavertree and Elissa restora- cooperation of the Chief, we did not ass ign tions. They had thoughts to offer which you'll read in a future Sea History-where the two together. I just didn't want that kind of trouble. such concerns bring people together.

Well, about three months later my man A few weeks after that our Plankowner member Virginia Steele Grubb and I joined other friends old and new for the dedication of John Noble's voyaging from the South came to me and said (again, barge studio at the Noble Maritime Collection in Staten Island, New York. The I quote): "I want you to know I'll work for studio m ade only one actual voyage, when John took a tow from a friendly Nova that b- -d any time you want. He is a Scotia schooner to venture up the East River and out on Long Island Sound to good man and really knows his job. I'm learninga lotfrom him! "That aboutbrought sketch some sand-dredging pals at work.

But in his "little leaking Monticello," as he called it, the artist hewed out the tears to my eyes, and still does, for he was indeed a good man and worked hard ro mighty lithographs and tremendous paintings which caught the working life of attain the 100% acceptance he received the port, its changing traffics and lusty people-of whom John himself, schoonerfrom my gang and, in fact, ultimately from man and ship's carpenter, was one. The studio thus voyaged in the realms of gold, the entire ship's company. He, as well as the of high endeavor, hard work under the open sky, and the far reaches of memory other two, were very capable petty officers and imagination. and we were really pleased to have them.

And in the "Oceanic Mission" on page 7 of this issue we report on a venture One of the others was a Radioman, the supported by the working watermen of England's Thames River joined by other a Machinist's Mate, both third class. historians, university professors and others to develop the fresh challenge of a Of course this is a personal experience, person of the last century, Winston Churchill-whose message was truly oceanic. but I feel it is worth reporting and recordCarrying his message into this century and forward should help the cause of ing. I am proud of the event. freedom in all times and places, as it did while he stood for freedom's cause in ALLANW. STEPHENS, CDR, USNR (RET.) d esperate days.

Santa Barbara, California

Passage Making: Our Own Endeavor Publishing Sea History, with its attendant educational programs, makes some contribution to that cause-and we now appeal to all hands to join in supporting this, our own endeavor. Our campaign for Sea History and our other activities is outlined in our "Passage Making" report, which we will be happy to send to anyone requesting a copy. We have a tough windward passage to make, publishing this magazine. We need more members like you to assure the future of our work together. On page 4 Joyce Riess offers one bit of help every member can act on. We'll publish other measures taken by members as they come in, bringing fresh support to your Society's voyage into history.

PETER STANFORD,

2

Editor at Large

An Ordeal that Brings People Together I read your fine article in Sea History 100 regarding USS Mason (DE 529). My book, The Ordeal ofConvoy NY 119 (cited in the article), covered the valiant service of USS Mason along with others in that classic encounter of man against the sea. All the D Es involved distinguished themselves, not leas t USS Mason.

During my writing of the book, I remember a meeting with Lorenzo DuFau

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

and some of the other Mason crew members on Sunday morning in Harlem. The rendezvous poinrwas the lobbyofa YMCA, where we had a most productive meeting.

I again saw DuFau, James Graham , and others at a book party held at South Street Seaport on 14 June 1973. After nearly thirty years, I saw them again last year at the keel laying of the new Mason here in Bath, Maine. Unril I look in the mirror, it all seems like yesterday.

CHARLES DANA GIBSON Camden, Maine

We have already accomplished much on a limited budget-we've built a following of nearly 200 members, conducted extensive research, interviewed maritime experts from around the world, identified and conracted potential designers and boat builders, and garnered the support oflocal and state leaders in New Hampshire.

For additional information on rhe Ranger Foundation, conracr us at PO Box 6578, Portsmouth N H 03802-65 78; 603 433-3221; e-mail: info@rangerfoundarion .org; web sire: www.rangerfoundarion.org.

Just Driving a Boat-Indeed!

I was so pleased to read the great letter in Sea History 97 by Walter Cro nkite extolling the wartime service of the American merchanr marine. Over the past sixty years I had never really thought about the war.

Now at 82, with the 60th anniversary of our first graduating class of 1942 from the US Merchanr Marine Academy at Kings Point coming up this year, all of a sudden the memories seem to be important. I had command of two Liberty ships during the war in enemy action, but nothing compared to some.

W hile playing golf recently, my babyboomer oppo nent, having seen the movie Saving Private Ryan, commented: "We sure owe those fellows a lot."

When I said, "You are welcome!" his response was: "Hell , the only thing yo u ever did in war was drive a boat. "

The Ranger Foundation, Inc. Portsmouth, New Hampshire

TOM COCCHIARO, Chair

Capt. Lambert Wickes Preceded Jones Dennis Conrad's article on] ohn Paul] ones (SH lOO) was an excellent discussion of Jones's actions against the British. However, whereas] ones' s most remarkable cruise occurred in Apri l and May 1778, Capt.

Lambert Wickes (referred to briefly in the article) carried our a similar devastating attack on British shipping in the Irish Sea nearly a year earlier, in ] une 1777.

Between 18 and 25] une, Wickes and his ship Reprisal took eighteen prizes, disrupted the linen trade between England and Ireland, caused marine insurance rates to increase subsranrially, and raised pressure on the Royal Navy to divert ships to the area.

Yer more imporranr, since the prizes were sent into French ports, and Reprisal ended the cruise in St. Malo, the tension between

Britain and France was significan tly increased, as the Mari ne and Secret Committees of the Continental Congress wanted, ultimately leading to France's entry into the American Revolution on America's side.

W ickes and Reprisal also carried Benjamin Franklin to France, landing in December 1776. En route, two prizes were taken, leading Frankl in to write ofWickes: "I was much pleas' d with what I saw of [Wickes's] Conduct as an Officer, when ... we made Preparation for Engagement, the good Order & Readiness with which it was done, being far beyond my expectation, and I believe equal to any thing of the kind in the best ships of the King's Fleet."

NORMAN H. PLUMM ER Easton, Maryland

Bowditch Showed the Way The man who deserves more credit than anyo ne for the growth of US sea power in 1800-1850 has been shamefully neglected in US history! When Nathaniel Bowditch gave American seamen The American Practical Navigator (better know as "Bowditch") he did more than any sea captain, or gro up of them, to advance US shipping. He deserves more than the three-and-a-half pages devoted to him in current revisions of his book. May I suggest that Sea History give us a good article on Nat Bowditch to help correct this shameful neglect of our first great mathematician?

FRANK TURBERVILLE, JR.

Milton, North Carolina

CAPTAIN NICHOLAS ]. CRAIG

Southwest H arbo r, Maine Ranger to Sail Again!

I am writing on behalf of T he Ranger Fo undation to fo llow up on the lead article on John PaulJones's Ranger in yo ur Sprin g 2002 issue. Whi le we were thrilled to see an article on a subject near and dear to our hearts, we were disappointed that there was no mention of our organization and its effort to recreate this fa mous Revolutionary War ship.

Members of the Foundation have been working diligently over the past two years to lay the gro undwork for building this historic replica. T he new Ranger will serve as a bright beacon th ro ugh which we will tell the story of our fl edglin g American navy's assault on the mightiest naval power in the world.

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

Join Us for a Voyage into History Our seafaring heritage comes alive in the pages of Sea History, from the ancient mariners of Greece to Portuguese navigators opening up the ocean world to the heroic efforts of seamen in thi s century's conflicts . Each iss ue brings new insights and new discoveries. If you love the sea, rivers, lakes,

and bays-if you love the legacy of those who sail in deep water and their workaday craft, then you belong with us.

Join today!

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1 800 221-NMHS (6647) or visit us at: www.seahistory.org.

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Return to: National Maritime Historical Society, PO Box 68, Peekskill NY I 0566

3

NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY OFFICERS&TRUSTEES: Chairman, Howard Slom ick; Vice Chairmen, Richard o R. Lopes, Edward G. Zelinsky; Vice Presidents, Burchenal Green , Norma Sranford; Treasurer, Wi lliam H. Whire; Secretary, Marshall Srreiberr; Trustees, Donald M. Birney, Walrer R. Brown, Sabato Ca w cci, Richard T. du Moul in, David Fowler, Jack Gaffney, Fred C. Hawkins, Rodney N. Hou ghton , Sreve n W. Jon es, Richard M. Larrabee, 11, Warren G. Leback, Guy E. C. Maidand , Karen E. Markoe, M ichael R. McKay, James J. McNamara, David A. O 'N eil , Ronald L. O swald, David Plarrner, Craig A. C. Reynolds, Bradford D . Smirh , David B. Vieror, Alexa nd er E. Zagoreos; Chairmen Emeriti, Alan G. C hoare, Guy E. C. Maidand, C raig A. C. Reynolds; President Emeritus, Perer Sranford FOUNDER: Karl Korwm (1917-1996) OVERSEERS: Chairman, RADM David C. Brown; Walrer Cronk.ire, Alan D. Hu rchison , Jakob Isbrandrsen,John Lehman , Warren Marr, 11, Brian A. McAJl isrer, John Stobarr, Wi lliam G. Winrerer A.DV1SORS: Co-Chairmen, Frank O . Braynard , MelbourneS mirh ; D.K. Abbass, Raymond Aker, Geo rge F. Bass, Francis E. Bowker, Oswald L. Bren , No rman J. Brouwer, RADM Joseph F. C allo, Francis J. Duffy, John W. Ewald, Joseph L. Farr, Timorhy Foore, Wi lliam Gi lkerson , T homas C. Gi llm er, Walrer J . Handelman, C harles E. H erdendorf, Sreven A. H yman, Haj o Knuuel, G unnar Lundeberg, Co nrad M ilster, Wi lliam G. Mu ller, David E. Perkins, Nancy Hughes Richardso n, T imorhy J. Runyan , Shanno n J. Wall , Thomas W ells NMH SSTAFF: ChiefofStaff,B urchenal G reen; Director ofEducation, David B. Allen; Development. As1drew Scri van; Membership Coordinator, Nancy Schnaars; Membership Secretary, Irene Eisenfeld; Membership Assistant, Asrn Makelainen; Accounting, Jill Romeo; Secretmy to the President, Karen Rirell ;SEA HISTORY STAFF: Editor,]usrine AJ1lsrrom ; Executive Editor, Norma Sranford; Editor at Large, Perer Scan fo rd ; Advertising, Marin Engler

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WITH US:

Address:

5 John Walsh Bou leva rd PO Box 68 Peekskill NY 10566 Phone: 9 14 737-7878 Fax: 914 737-78 16 Web sire: www.seal1isrory.org nmhs@seahisrory.o rg E-mail:

MEMBERSHIP is invired. Afrerguard $ 10,000; Benefacror $5,000; Plankowner $2,5 00; Sponsor $ 1,000; Donor $500; Parro n $250; Friend $ 100; Contribu tor $75; Fam ily $50; Regular $35. All members outside the USA please add $ 10 for postage. SEA HI STORY is senr to al l members. Indi vidual copies cosr $3.75 .

Adverrising: l 800 22 1-N MHS (6647), x235

4

CALL FOR VOLUNTEERS!

The other day I was riding on the commuter ferry between Haverstraw and Ossining, New York. I was reading the latest issue of Sea History when a fellow passenger asked abo ut the magazine. I showed it to him and explained about the National Maritime Historical Sociery. H e was so interested that I gave him my copy. Several other passe ngers overheard this exchan ge and I ended up giving out the few remaining co pies of Sea History that I had in my bri efcase .

As a volunteer for NMHS, I know that we are always looking for new members.

It dawned on me that if we had complimentary copi es of Sea History at marinas and ferry terminals, we might find so me new members. Therefore, I'm putting out a call for some volun teers.

If anyone would be wi llin g to drop off comp limentary copies of Sea History magazine at local marinas, ferries and other boat-oriented sites, or even at th eir doctors' offi ces or other waiting rooms, please call NMHS at 1-800-221-6647 or email us at nmhs@seahistory. org. We'll get the magazines to you ASAP. Let's increase our membership and ensure the continuing ben efits ofNMHS! JOYCE RIESS New C iry, New Yo rk

We are currently working with The Bowditch Initiative in Salem, Massachusetts, on an article on Nathaniel Bowditch for an upcoming issue.-ED.

Leudi di Liguria (in Italian), shows several

ERRATA & ADDENDA

Having served in three different destroyers of three different classes, Quick (DMS 32/ DD 49 0), Hazelwood (DD 531) and Ozbourn (DD 846) , during m y naval service, I read Dr. Winkler's fine article, "A Centennial of American Destroye rs," in Sea History 100 with great interes t.

I wish to point out one inaccurate statement co ncerning the Sumner/Gearing-class FRAM I refos with rega rd to the ASROC install ation. The ASROC launching system was largely self-contained, with mi ss ile reloads housed in a magazine aft of the launcher location topside. Th is arrangement did not require "a section added between engine compartments to host the ASROC launcher," and no lengthening of the hulls of these ships was ever ca rri ed out.

C DR THOMAS M. PERKJNS, USN (RET) Port Orchard, Washington

In Pete Seeger's letter on page 29 of Sea History 100 (reprin ted from SH 7) he writes: "In the 15th century Iralian sailors with their square-sailed ships were amazed to see Arab ships literally sailing rings around them with their triangular lateen rigs." Actually, the prevalence oflateen-rigged ships in the Mediterranean began much earlier.

There is evidence (some inscriptions and bas-reli efs) that the Romans knew the triangular-s haped sails Jong befo re the Arab arrival in the Mediterranean world. This kind of rig, however, was quite uncommon. From the 7 th century on , the lateen sail becam e universal in the Mediterranean area, probably sp read by the Arab expansion of that time. T he Cronica of G iovan ni Vi ll ani tells us th at in the yea r 1304 the first ships of a new kind, the Northern European "coccas" (o r cogs) arrived in the Mediterranean from Bayonne in Gascony. Of course, their ri g was more advanced than the square ri g used in class ical times by Greeks and Romans.

From the 14th century on, as a rule, only quite large ships used square sails in the Mediterranean area. Medium and small ships went on using lateen sails until the end of the era of sail. There still survives in Liguria a gro up of small latee n-ri gged sailing vessels called "leudi ." My new booklet,

pictures of them.

GIOVANN I P ANELLA

Genoa, Italy

David Winkler responds: Your comments are appreciated. After going back to my sources I find I was a victim ofbad folklore. Actually, with the Gearing class, a section was added when they were first built, for extra fa.el capacity. Otherwise, they are identical to the Sumner class.

I'm gladyou pointed this out as the Naval Historical Foundation is involved in producing a video based on the article and we'd hate to replicate that error.

SEA HISTORY I 01 , SUMMER 2002

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SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

5

I

NMHS: A CAUSE IN MOTION A CALL TO THE MEMBERSHIP IN 2002 The heart of the National Maritime Historical Society is our membership. There can be no National Maritime Historical Society and no Sea History without the support of active and involved members .

Our goal for 2002 is to increase our size by 2002 new people. T here are myriad ways to help NMHS and the maritime heritage we are all working to preserve, and we are asking for yo ur support and comment in all the following areas:

• ,t • Renew yo ur own membership with the first renewal notice we send yo u. Your early renewal saves us money and lets us and potential funders know that the membership supports the Society's mission and activities .

With membership at this level yo u will also receive a Co uncil of American Maritime Museums Admission Privilege Card , which entitles yo u to free admission to 75 of America's best known museums of the sea and inland waterways.

Members at the Patron ($250) level and above are recognized in Sea History.

• ,t • Consider becoming a Sustai ning Member of NMHS at a higher level than might otherwise be convenient. With a Sustaining Membership, the amo unt yo u choose wi ll be charged to yo ur credit card acco unt every month or quarter. A month ly donation of$4 l .67 makes you a Donor ($500); a quarterly donation of $62.50 makes yo u a Patron ($25 0).

• ,t •

• ,t •

Renew your mem bership at a higher level when possible. Members who renew at the Friend ($ 100) level or higher receive a complim entary subscription to Sea History Gazette, containing news items from museums, ship preservation efforts, underwater archaeological discoveries, sail training events, and other maritime subj ects.

Volunteer to put a copy of Sea History at a local marina, a ferryboat reading rack, a doctor's office, or anywhere there is a waiting room. ] ust give us a call at 800 2216647 or e-mail us at nmhs@seahistory.org and let us know how many copies of each issue yo u can distribute.

Annual Awards Dinner Wednesday, 23 October 2002 at the

New York Yacht Club 37 West 44th Street New York, New York Reception at 5:30PM Dinner at 7PM $275 per person

For reservations and information contact: NMHS PO Box 68 Peekskill NY 10566 phone: 800 221-6647 , xO

•• 6

Seating is limited, so please reserve your space immediately.

Black tie optional

• ,t • And talk us up everywhere! It works, as you can read in Joyce Riess's "Letter to the Editor" on page 4 of this issue .

• ,t • We have begun a series oflocal receptio ns, usually when members of the staff attend a maritime event in those regions. It gives staff the opportunity to meet interesting and interested members across the country, and gets members talking to other members in their area. So far, we have gathered in: San Francisco, Cal ifornia; Houston, T exas; Boston, Massachusetts; Wi lmington, North Carolina; and Wilmington, Delaware. T he next reception is planned for Bath, Main e, this comi ng September in conjunction wirh the annual meeting of th e Coun cil for American Maritime Museums.

BURCHENALGREEN

• ,t •

Vice President

NMHS Education Department Goes to College

NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY

•• •• •

Better yet, as a gift, enroll your doctor, marina, local historical sociery or library as a member of NMHS for o nl y $20, and make sure that the magazine is put out where potential new members can read it.

•• ••

The newest education program developed by the National Maritime Historical Society, and sponsored by the David M. Milto n C haritable T rust, is a college-level course that illustrates the history of maritime commerce and its impact on our nation's early economic development. Designed primarily to enable teachers to acq uire the knowledge and skills necessary to teach this subj ect to their own students, the classes are available to educators of all sorts and to the public in general. The first courses will be taught by NMHS staff this summer at Manhattanville College in Purchase, New York.

Participants in rhe courses will receive a reaching packer of materials, which includes, among orher things, copies of historic primary-so urce documents thar co ncern the maritime heritage of their local town or city. The list of documents includes copies of300year-old personal letters of crewmembers writing to their wives and family abo ut the ship and its current trading expedition, manifests of the ships belonging to local merchants and the destination of their outgoing cargo, transcripts of the trials of pirates and sm ugglers, logbooks from Royal Navy ships anchored in the harbor, and photographs or paintings of historic ships that affected the history of the area.

Teachers will study the history of the documen ts and learn how best to interpret them with their students. T hroughout the college course the teachers will use these documents and lectures to develop lesson plans that best fit with the curriculum in their particular school districts. As part of the course the participants will spend time aboard an historic ship or replica of an historic ship of a type that has affected the economic development of their region. O n board they will experience the skills necessary to sailing the ships that carried cargos of goods, people and ideas to America.

NMHS will develop this college course to include documents relevant to cities along America's waterways, including river towns in the West and Midwest, and will offer this co urse to teachers and others across the country .

DA VJD B. ALLEN,

Director ofEducation

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

THE OCEANIC MISSION IV

They Said of Winston Churchill, Not Since Francis Drake Had Such a Man Been on the River

by Peter Stanford "Hoo-hoo-ha-hoo-hoo-oo!" T he wo rk- elder, mo re organic li fe-ways still flourish journey to their resting place inland at the ing watercraft crowding the jostled waters like fresh-faced flowers in the crannied family plot in Bladon, near his birthplace at of the London River were sal uting their wall, where the river's story is remembered. Blenheim . C hurchill's grave is marked by a own, the sweating teams of the Barge D rivThis day is the watermen's, and they simple stone carrying his name and dates, ing Race of 23 June 2001 . T he race is run have reclaimed the river as the active force 1874 to 1965-years of peril, trial and by "dumb" barges, which have no power it has been in the life of London. T he high endeavor in freedom 's cause. but a solitary oarsman, or fo r the race, two for mer Port of Lo ndon launch Havengore First Lord of the Admiral ry in World oarsmen who cannily wo rk 20-foot sweeps led the parade of honking watercraft. War I (in which office he incidentally sponto maneuver their bulky, hippopotamus- Aboard is H arry Marshall, Lord Mayor of sored the first tanks, which came to dominosed craft into favorable currents in the Westminster, wearing his golden chain of nate all battlefields) , he became Prime M intide flooding in fro m the North ister in 1940, in the wo rst days of Sea to make their way upstream .

World War II, with the promise It's that swirling current that carthat all he could offer was "blood, ri es the barge- the swee ps, roil, tears and sweat"- that, and manned with watermen's savvy, the un rel en ting fight against Nazi just work the hulk into the best Germany, whose dominance he stream. No one knows how long rightly said threatened a new dark chis art has been practiced- quite age for mankind. possibly it runs back to the wild T urned out of office when vicCeltic watermen who brought tory was wo n, he returned as cargoes into the Roman ciry of Prime M inister in 195 1 to play a Londini um, some 2000 years ago. remarkable role in advocating reT he Londo n River watermen sistance to the Soviet ryranny of today may not be wild Celts, which presented another deadly but they are anything but tam e. threat to freedom , and , remarkT heir whoop ing sirens echoed The race over, a honking gaggle of working watercraft accompa- ably, urging moderation in puroff the fretted srone fro nts of nies the barges downstream through the heart of London, with suit of the Cold War (his phrase) official buildings reaching back D oggett's Watermen (in red) and the Queen's Waterman (in which helped assure that that to the days of George III and green), accompanying ~he Lo~d Mayor _o f Westmin~ter aboard struggle too was won, a quarter H avengore to see to fiur p lay m the ancient contest ;ust ended. furt h er, to t h e era w h en t h e century after his life ended, withAmerican plantations were a colony gov- office to salute the occasion. He trained out the to tal war which he devo ted his fi nal erned from chis ciry and connected to it by with the US Navy in Norfolk, Virginia, years to avert. chis waterway. T he horn blas ts kept up, as and can speak pretry good American when C hurchill was a Tory, and few wo rking ifa flight of wild geese we re paddling down called on. T here are a few colonials or ex- people voted fo r him or his parry. But at his colonials aboard: myself, as an American funeral, the dockworkers on the London the river.

T heir honks echoed off the great brick searcher-out of history, and O wen Palmer River lowered the cargo booms of their warehouses of the 1800s, when this water- as a New Zealand entrepreneur, embarked cranes in spon ta neous salute to a man who way served as the aorta of the oceanic En- with his wife Sally Browne, as owners. had changed history for the better. T he glish-speaki ng comirywhich now embraces T hey bought the H avengore in 1996 when toas t among the watermen at the T hree the globe. Surely the most importan t cargo the 85-foot vessel was in ro ugh shape. D awes was: "T he long life is over- the carried down the river in all those years was Supported by a crew of volunteers the pair mission continues." It is the task of the the English language, recen tly character- restored the graceful launch to operating H avengore to carry that mission forward, a ized by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan condition and have given her a new mis- mission rooted, as we have seen, in the affections of the people C hurchi ll served. as humaniry's first common language-a sion, the subj ect of this report. 1 As the long, triumphant day ended, the language which was changed by the world as the ideas it carried did their part to ship's company repaired to the T hree Dawes Leadership in Time of N eed p ub in Gravesend, near the river mouth, ro Leadership will always be needed to adchange the wo rld.

And the hooting echoed brazenly off rejoice in the day and reflect on that mis- vance freedom 's cause, and today amid a th e suave glass faces of the condos inhab- sion-which the watermen considered so new worldwide threat to civilization we ited by today's new-rich, too manyofwhom important that they placed the Havengore can appreciate the imaginative but to ugh hardly know and generally could care less at the head of their jubilant, water-churn- qual iry of C hurchi ll 's leadership, which carried him and the cause he served thro ugh about the amazing sto ry th at led to the ing parade.

Havengore had served as the funeral difficult and sometimes painful choices. wealth and freedoms they enjoy. Amo ng T he hardest choice to make was the these rather faceless fro ntages nestle, here barge which carried the mortal remai ns of and there, pubs of notable antiquiry, where W inston Churchill on the first leg of the decision to attack the French fleet at MersSEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

7

el-Kebir on the Mediterranean coas t of Africa in 1940, to prevenr the ships fallin g inro rhe hands of Nazi Ge rmany after the German conquest of F rance. F rench naval authorities had pledged to keep the fleet our of G erman hands, and th ree years later, when German tanks ro lled into unoccupied France, they kept their wo rd, sinking their ships as promised .

What C hurchill and his cabinet saw at the rime, however, was th at th e Italian fl eet alone o utnumbered the British ships available to hold the Mediterranean . With French ships added, the com est would be impossible, and who knew what pressure the N azis wo uld bring to bear to get those ships? In o ther pons, French ships were seized by British crews o r effectively neutralized, with so me French crews electing to sail with the Bri tish to conrinue the fight.

But at M ers-el-Kebir, Admiral Genso ul refus ed to com e to any terms with British demands to remove or neutralize the fle er, even the offered alternative to escort the ships to o ne of the French islands in the Caribbean, o ur of the wa r zo ne. The British ships o pened fire, much against the will of rhe co mmand ing admiral, and ended up mangling th e French fl eet, with heavy loss of life.2 Ir was, C hurchill said, the most painful decisio n of a war full of suffering, and wh en he had fini shed his report to Parliament he sat down in tears.

The H ouse go t to its feet as one perso n to salute C hurchill in his travail. For the first time thi s included the back co untry T ories wh o des pi sed C hurchill for his liberali sm and his fl amboyanr ways. The terrible deed had united Parliam ent behind him , in a deeply painful decisio n.

So mething similar happened in rh e United Stares, where President Roosevelt's military chi efs, who had tended to view Britain as a ro tte n apple ready to fall, now began to believe that England under C h urchill wo uld figh t, however painful the road .

And when the yo ung men of the Royal Air Fo rce bega n to repel the Nazi Luftwaffe in the skies over England in the fall of 1940, Roosevelt's policy of defendin g America in a dan gero us wo rld by supporting England 's fi ght became the more compelling.

The Atlantic Charter of Freedom O n aJ ul yafternoon a year later, Roosevelt's emissary H arry Hopkins visited 10 D ownmg Street to sit with C hurchill in the

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Pr1v otc O:ff' lee Au/Il!s t 194].

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A bove, the A tlantic Charter, Magna Carta of the Free World, as drafted by Winston Churchill and, after fa rther changes, adopted by the US and Britain before America was at war. Every promise made in this statement was kept by the US and Britain after the war.

At right, Roosevelt and Churchill sing "For Those in Peril on the Sea " aboard HMS Prince of Wales in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. Behind them stand a British Air Marshal US Admiral Ernest ]. King, and Army Chief ofStaff George C. Marshall. Harry Hopkins, who brought about this meeting, peers over their shoulders. Prince of W ales was sunk just four months later by Japanese bombers. By then the US was in the war.

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

The sea is one-and perhaps someday we'll see Havengore on New York$ Brooklyn Heights waterfront, where Churchill$ American mother Jennie Jerome was born .... garden. The US had provided 50 old Carrying papers scrawled out or di cdestroyers to support the Battle of the tated by Churchill at moments of deciAtlantic against the German drive to sion , Havengore is set to travel European sever Britain's oceanic lifeline, and coasts and rivers, with teachers and stuRoosevelt's Lend Lease program was dents aboard to study decisions that sending shiploads of arms to Britain and shaped victory in war and the remarkSoviet Russia, which Germany had by able victory over Soviet Communism then invaded. Churchill also shipped won without total war. Thus H avengore British arms to Russia, remarking that if will be a traveling center of discussion Hider invaded hell, he would at least among different gro ups, drawing on the make a favorab le reference to the Devil resources of the archives of C hurchill AboardHavengore: Sally Browne, PS, Owen Palin the House of Commons.

College, Cambridge, which have been mer, Ken Livingston, Mayor of London, and Dai Churchill says in his war memoirs made available to the proj ect.

Liyanage, former Mayor ofMedway that as he and Harry sat in the sunlit It is good to work with original sources garden, Harry presently remarked that "the British Empire! But C hurchill was also de- rather than original suppositions! At ChurPresident would like very much to have a vo ted to freedom's cause. chill College I found it refreshing to follow meeting with me in some lonely bay or the trail of a perso n vas tly more interesting other. " This led to the meeting of August Serving in the Ranks than the poster-child image that has taken 1941 in Newfo undland, where military C hurchill, who had the im agination to shape in people's minds because of this plans were coordinated berween the neu- proclaim soaring humane goals at the em- man's giant deeds and compelling thoughts. tral US and embattled Britain. And at battled center of hum an iry's most atro- His greatest gift, perhaps, was to inspire Churchill's initiative, what became known cious war, also made conspicuous mis- common people to uncommon deeds. as the Atlantic Charter was drawn up to set takes, often inspired by that same visionary I believe freedom will always need such out the aims of the war effort America was quali ry. H e believed excessively in the ef- leaders to serve its cause. The sea is onebacking. fects of firepower, visualizing a mythical and perhaps someday we'll see H avengore The ch oices h ere were interes ting: "wall of fire" from naval guns that would on New York's Brooklyn Heights waterRoosevelt was reluctant to subscribe to defend British soldiers ashore in Wo rld front, where C hu rchill's American mother anything suggesting a renewed League of War I; but he also backed the 15-inch guns Jennie Jero me was born, carrying her son 's Nations, which would gethim in hot water that sent the German High Seas Fleet scut- message to a new generation. with the powerful isolationist forces in tling back to its bases at Jutland in that war, America, which at that time included even never to emerge again but to surrender. such liberal internationalists as Chester He interfered excessively in operations, I. A full description of the boat, her history and Bowles. But as the text shows, C hurchill to the exasperation of his military chiefs. restoration is found in Sally Browne, "Port of managed to get in his clause on a "more He bored and offended some otherwise London Authority's Havengore: Saving Sir Winpermanent system of general security. " And intelligent people with his flights of rheto- ston Churchill's Funeral Launch, " The American Neptune, 59 (2), 101- 12. to Churchill's "Freedom from Fear," Roose- ric. But often his interventions worked, 2. An authoritative report on the attack, by no velt added his "Freedom from Want. " and many people caugh t on that his rhetomeans favorable to Churchill's decision, is given The leadership of this extrao rdinary pair ric, theatrical as it was, was an embodiment in Warren Tute, The Deadly Stroke (Coward was strong and soundly rooted with the of his thought processes-which although McCann, New York, 1973). Tute'spostwardigpeoples they led-to the point that every by no means invariably right were gro unded ging revealed that Gensoul never forwarded the promise made in the charter was observed in reality as well as in his prophetic dreams. Caribbean alternative to the captive government after Roosevelt's death and Churchill's disIn a word, he was answerable fo r what he in France-he would not even consider this "with missal as Prime Minister at the end of the stood for. H e saw things through and strove English guns pointed at our ships.... "Thus the best war. In the Soviet-controlled areas after mightily to live up to the motto: "March chance for a peaceful resolution was discarded. victory the charter's ideals of no territorial always in the ranks of honour. " President Further Reading: Roy Jenkins, Churchill: A aggrandizement and of restoring liberties Kennedy termed him "the most honored and Biography (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New and devas tated economies and societies honorable man to walk the stage of human Yo rk, 2 001) offers a lively picture ofthe man were not observed. In the English-speaking history in the time in which we live." from an opposition MP. It skimps the reach of comity its word became law. the Atlantic Charter, and Churchill's bid to Education and Leadership And its principles were soon adopted by end the Cold War in 1949- but then, who the United Nations, born as a military For those who believe we n eed these can catch the whole WSC? alliance following US entty into the war. qualities both today and in what Thomas T hey remain enshrined in UN policies and J efferson once called " the ocean of time" Tax-deductible contributions to HELM may agencies today, and we may hope for the opening upon us, the Havengore project be made through NMHS. For further inforfuture. Not bad going for a document first h as been in co rporated as the ch arity mation: H ELM, PO Box 167, Gillingham, put forth by an aging Tory devoted to H ELM: Havengore Education and Lead- Kent ME7 4RD, England, or visit their web site at: www.havengore.com. saving what could be saved of the then ership Mission.

SEA HISTORY 101, SUMMER 2002

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THE CRYSTAL PROJECT How Yachtsmen, Polar Explorers , Scientists and Government Agencies Worked Together to Set Up Bases in the Subarctic to Get Fighter Planes to Britain in World War II

by Charles Dana Gibson

I

pographical surveying and base construction fell to the US Army Corps of Engineers. Hydrographic surveying and chart preparation became the responsibility of the Hydrographic Office of the US Navy.

The US Coast Guard provided aerial reconnaissance, laid out buoyage, and at one point assigned its commissioned trawlers to assist the Army Trans port Service in the movement of men and materiel north. The Crystal Project employed American and Norwegian vessels and one flying the flag of Free France.

Despite the assortment of participating entities, Crystal went surprisingly well with little friction among the services and nationalities. One is led to surmise that much of the interservice harmony existed because few of those involved had belonged to the military establishment before the war and they therefore placed minimal emphasis on encroachment of service turf.

Another con tributing factor may have been that Lt. Colonel Wimsatt, although a career officer, had the wisdom to leave most of the decision making to the experienced Arctic hands.

Because of his experience surveying in Labrador in the 1930s, Alexander Forbes was called to Washington in the spring of 1941 to advise on the suitability of northern Labrador for the construction of airstrips.

He hedged an answer, explaining that more survey flights as well as on-the-ground inspection would be needed before a concrete judgment could be offered. He was thereupon entered as a civil service employee of the War Department and flown to Gander, Newfoundland. There he reported to Elliot Roosevelt, who was in charge of aerial reconnaissance, initially to be confined to the Labrador coast. The sites to be surveyed were ones photographed by Forbes in the 1930s and more recently by the Roosevelt-

10

SEA HISTORY 101, SUMMER 2002

n 1941, a critical need arose to trans- III-owed their conception, and in large port fighter aircraft to Britain. To part their development, to five men. Elliot send fighters by ship required that they Roosevelt (FDR's son) was one of the be broken down into component units and scheme's originators following his reconboxed, then reassembled at the overseas noitering of the Labrador coast on an overdestinations. Besides the time and labor flight in 1940 in company with the Arctic that required, the shipments were sub- aviator Burnt Balchen. As the president's jected to the German submarine campaign, son, Elliot would lend the project a cerwhich was beginning to exact a heavy toll tainty and a priority which it might not on shipping. The solution was to create an otherwise have had. Alexander Forbes, a air route with flight legs short enough to self-taught topographer, had visited and surveyed the Labrador coast as a yachtsman accommodate the fighters ' limited range.

The p lanned route would start in Mon- and later by air in the 1930s. John T. tana with stopovers for fuel at Port Churchill Crowell, a master mariner with extensive on Hudson Bay and at Southampton Is- experience in Arctic waters, was commisland at the north end of the Bay. The route sioned into the Army Air Corps specifically would then continue to sites in either La- for locating the sites. Paul Grening, a masbrador or northern Quebec and on Baffin ter mariner and a civilian employee of the Island. The airstrips at Churchill and Army Transport Service, was responsible Southampton Island were code-named for locating the ships to ferry in men and Crimson; those in northern Quebec and construction materials. Since the primary on Baffin Island were code-named Crystal. purpose of the Crystals was aeronautic, F com the Crystal airstrips the planes would they came under the overall purview of the fly to Greenland and Iceland en route to US Army Air Corps, Lt. Col. Robert W . C. Scotland. Weather stations at the Crystal Wimsatt being appointed the project's combases would also transmit to England me- mander.

Besides the Air Corps, a number of teorological data necessary for planning bomber operations against Germany. other service branches were involved. ToThe Crimson segment of the route offered no substantial challenges. Rail service con- .Aizcnc ow.JI nected Port Churchill with the rest of Canada and, during the ice-free months of summer, shipping reached Churchill from the Atlantic via the Hudson Strait. Sourhampton Island's approaches by sea were relatively well charted, and it had a harbor of sorts for landing equipment. Building airfields at both locations would be relatively easy. The Crystal airstrips were quite a different matter. Three separate sites would be needed, each with access by sea-a prerequisite for bringing in workers and construction equipment for the building of airstrips.

The subarctic bases-to be designated Crystal I, II, and

Balchen overflight of north of the Arctic circle.

1940. After reflying the Trawler support: Lark, areas at low level, RooPolarbjorn. Although it sevelt and Forbes agreed is fairly certain that the that none of the locaSe/is accompanied the extions appeared acceptpedition past Port Burable. Upon returning to well, the record does not Gander, Roosevelt se- The Hudson's Bay Co. trading post at Fort Chimo, ca 1941-42 (US Army photo) tell to which group she cured authorizatio n to was assigned . overfly the Ungava Bay region of northern addition to carrying cargo, three of the • CRYSTAL III, THE NORTHERN BASE: Lt. Quebec, concentrating on an area near trawlers would tow barges. The seven trawl- Cdr. Charles ]. Hubbard was to command Fort Chimo. Fort Chimo, on the Koksoak ers would fo llow Sicilien to a final depar- until a base location was selected. The River, had long been a trading post of the ture point on the northern Labrador coast. overwintering party was then to be comHudson's Bay Company. According to the There they would take on deck loads of manded by a Captain D yer, USAAC. 3 Canadians, coastal steamers of medium lumber from the freighter and split into Trawler support: Cormoran t, Quest. draft were able to reach Fort Chi mo, which three groups, each going to a different Port Burwell was found to be deserted during the summer months was used by Crystal site. when they arrived. An old Hudson 's Bay the Eskimos as a supply base. 1 Grening tentatively selected the harbor Company post stood abandoned, most of En route to Fort Chimo by float plane, of Hebron on the coast of Labrador as the its buildings in ruins. Since there were no Roosevelt and Forbes sighted a large flat final departure point. However, Lt. Cdr. usable docks, the offloading of lumber area about four miles upriver from the Charles J. Hubbard, USNR, who had been from Sicilien to the trawlers was done at trading post. Landing across the river from chosen to accompany the expedition and ancho r. T he Crystal I trawler group was the post and hiking upstream to confirm who had knowledge of the area, argued the first to take on its deck load and on 9 what they had seen, they esti mated that that Hebron was a poor choice as there October it left for Fort Chimo. As soon as two or more runways of up to 5,000 feet in were deadly tide rips and uncharted haz- the Crystal II and Crystal III trawlers relength could be constructed without un- ards along that section of the coast. He ceived their loads, they sailed north for due earth moving. T hey returned to Gan- suggested Port Burwell on the southern Baffin Island. der, Roosevelt continuing on to Washing- side of the Hudson Strait, a recommendaThe trawlers assigned to Crystal I took ton to recommend the site. T he War De- tion approved by Lt. Colonel Wimsatt. a southerly route across Ungava Bay to the partment approved the recommendation.

Once the loading of the trawlers began mouth of the Koksoak River. Forbes was T he Crystal Project had called for two at Halifax, it was discovered that they did responsible for preparing sketch charts of additional airstrip locations north of the not have the hold capacity to handle all the the approaches to the river and its channel Hudson Strait. Crystal II was to be some- cargo that had come north aboard Sicilien. up to Fort Chimo. The gro up arrived at the where in the area of Frobisher Bay on Hurriedly, the Norwegian navy's Selis, an mouth of the river at maximum ebb tide, Baffin Island and Crystal III abo ut 150 antisubmarine trawler then at Lunenburg, which precluded passage until the tide miles farther north and east near C umber- Nova Scotia, was time chartered and sent slacked. Schlossbach ordered the trawlers land Sound. Once the sites were selected, to join the expedition at Halifax. Even with anchored, but this proved a difficult task, base camps would have to be established Selis added, a good part of the supplies still as the skipper of the Cambridge soon disfor overwintering so that work could begin remained aboard Sicilien, requiring the covered. With her anchor bouncing along the next spring, and enough vessels had to freighter to continue beyond Port Burwell the rocky bottom, the Cambridge went be quickly found to carry the needed men to the Crystal II and III locations. Prior to hard aground in a matter of minutes. Meanleaving Halifax, the command arrange- while, the Fabia had anchored at what and construction materials.

From the New England fishing fleet, ments were decided, and the trawlers were proved to be the position of maximum Grening chartered five diesel-powered assigned to the base group they wo uld current, her anchor cable paying out at such a rapid rate that the man on the trawlers-Fabia, Flow, Cambridge, Lark, support. and Cormorant--complete with their regu- • CRYSTAL I, FORT CHIMO: Lt. Com- anchor winch could not brake the drum. lar crews, which were then sent on to mander Schlossbach, USNR. Schlossbach' s Barely in time, her skipper throttled his Halifax. Two other trawlers, Polarbjorn polar experience had included overwinter- engine and, with the vessel headed upand Quest, ofNorwegian registry, were also ing in the Arctic when he had been associ- stream , the winchman gained enough slack chartered. 2 At Halifax, the trawlers were to ated with the British explorer Sir Hubert in th e anchor cable to lock down the dogs load personnel, radio equipment, prefab Wilkins. Trawler support: Fabia, Flow, on the winch drum. The not-so-lucky Camhousing, and enough fuel and supplies to Cambridge. bridge, hard aground with her hull pressed subsist at the base camps over the coming • CRYSTAL II, FROBISHER BAY: Major John agai nst an underwater boulder, heeled over, winter. All of this was to be brought to T. Crowell, USAAC. Crowell had sailed as allowing water in through her engine room Halifax from Boston on the Army freighter master of the schooner Thebaud during ventilators. The crew finally managed to USAT Sicilien. At Halifax, the freighter's Donald MacMillan's Arctic explorations seal things off, and, aro und midnight, the cargo would go aboard the trawlers. In and, like Schlossbach, he had overwintered rising tide floated her off without serious

SEA HISTORY 10 l , SUMMER 2002

11

Bartlett's schooner, bei ng damage. Early the next mornslower than the trawler, was ing, all three trawlers headed to follow. T he site for the upriver on the flood tide. By 22 October, their missions acCrystal II airstrip had yet to be established, and Forbes was complished , th e C rys tal I urgently needed to ass ist both trawlers were on their way back in that endeavo r and in the to Boston. survey of the ap proaches to By early October, the subC rystal II once its location arct ic wate rs of northern was selected.

Canada were normally devoid When theMorrisseyarrived of shipping. However, by the at Port Burwell, Polaris was second week of October 1941 , nowhere to be seen. Rather the job of locating sites for C1ys tal II and III was just get- The survey team prepares to leave for the north aboard the schooner Effie than wait for her, Forbes inting underway. No one on the M. Morrissey, which sails today as the Ernesti na out of New Bedford, structed Bartlett to co ntinue mi ss ion had an y firsthand Massachusetts. Captain Bob Bartlett is fifth from right; Commander on to Frobisher Bay. On enknowledge of the area, so navi- Forbes stands behind him. (US Army photo) tering the bay, they encountered an extensive ice pack gating the waters off Baffin Island so late in the year was not going to be graphic Office was that a survey ship, ac- around which Bartlett had to maneuver, at an easy matter. compani ed by a tender and equipped for times even ramming the ice to get through.

Crowell and his C rystal II gro up of wire dragging, should leave for the U ngava Once through the ice pack, Forbes's first eight men, badly pressed for time, estab- area as soon as ice broke up in the late task was to find Crowell's base camp-not lished an overwintering base camp on Fro- spring. Priority emphasis should be placed an easy undertaking, since Crowell's radio bisher Bay despite the fact that the adj acent on more thoroughly mapping the mouth had been inoperative for some time. Bartlett area seemed of questionable merit for an of the Koksoak and the upriver channel to anchored the schooner to the so uth of airstrip . A suitable site could be found in Fort Chimo-a task which wo uld be ac- Fletcher Island while Forbes took the whalethe spring. After overwintering materials complished before the arrival of the supply boat and began to search. On the second and supplies were ferried as hore from ships carryi ng materials for the construc- day, Forbes went ashore on an island higher Sicilien and the trawlers, the freighter left tion of the airfield . Forbes recom mended than most, climbed to its summit, and saw to meet Hubbard at the mouth ofFrobisher that the approaches to the Crystal II and in the distance what appeared to be buildC1ystal III sites also be surveyed.To Forbes's ings and a flag. Re boarding the whaleboat, Bay and the trawlers departed.

Once Sicilien joined up with his gro up, surprise-his hydrographic skills having he headed toward the site, being shortly met by Crowell and one of his men with Hubbard began his search for a base camp been gained only as an amateur pursuitunder the guidance of a local Eskimo pilot. he was selected to lead these efforts using as their rifles at the ready, not sure whether A likely spot was located on Padloping his survey headquarters the chartered schoo- Forbes and his party were friend or foe. 5 Island off the northern coast of Baffin ner Effie M. Morrissey, owned and skip- Crowell returned with Fo rb es ro the Island. Construction materials for winter pered by Robert A. Bartlett, a 67-year-old Morrissey and piloted the schooner to an quarters were quickly moved ashore-none veteran Arctic explorer. In 1909, Bartlett anchorage off the camp. Forbes agreed that too soon as Sicilien and the two trawlers had served as master of Robert E. Peary's the terrain near Crowell's camp was not barely cleared in time to avoid being caught ship Roosevelt and had accompanied Peary suitable for an airstrip and the search conacross the ice to within five degrees of the tinued. Later in the week, they found a in the ice.

When Forbes reported to Washington North Pole. Forbes was to join Bartlett's location about 30 miles from where the after his return from C rys tal I, he discov- schoo ner at St. John's, Newfoundland, early overwintering camp had been. The site ered that he had been called ro active duty in the coming summer. ab utted Koojesse Inlet east of the Sylvia Forbes's initial instructions from the Grenell River. T he alluvial plain formed by in the US Navy. With the rank of commander, he was to spend the winter at the Hydrographic Office were that once he the ri ve r provided an excellent platform for Navy's H ydrographic Office plotting the and his team completed the survey of the an airstrip .

By the summer of 1942, the Russian soundings that he had recorded of Ungava Koksoak, they were to go to Frob isher Bay Bay and the Koksoak River. From those where Crowell had established his base front stood in danger of collapse. If that observations, adjustments wo uld be made camp the previo us October. 4 However, were to happen, the need to fly fighters to to the British Admiralty charts drawn from since it was subsequently felt that enough the United Kingdom would take on added surveys made during the 1800s. Although was known about the Koksoak River to urgency, so Washington put an even higher Forbes's work was superior to the old Brit- allow it to be navigated-at least for the priority on the C rys tal Project. On 16 ish charts, his own survey had been a hasty time being-Forbes and his survey team August, wo rd came by radio that the charone and, as he himself cautioned, should were ordered to go to Port Burwell aboard tered transport Fairfax, carrying constructhe Morrissey and meet the trawler Polaris, tion workers and equipment, was to leave not be relied upon.

His recommendation to the H ydro- on which they wo uld go to Frobisher Bay. Halifax earlier than had been initially sched12

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

uled. That change pressed Forbes and his parry aboard Mo rrissey went to find a safe entrance channel to north to Frobisher Bay. Bartlett, in the Crystal II site quickly. The an article he wrote describing that immediate need was to fix geosummer's work, stated that Crystal graphic coordinates at the entrance II then housed 1,500 construction to a channel which Forbes had workers and a garrison of 100 tentatively selected. Once at the rroops. 8 channel's entrance point, the arBy the end of 1943, the three riving ships were to pi ck up a pilot ,., phases of the Crystal Project had (in this case Crowell). been completed, but the endeavor Providentially, a Coast Guard was not to serve the purpose for cutter canying a seaplane put in an Workers stationed at Crystal IIfill fresh water casks from glacier which it had been built. By rhe fall appearance and Forbes arranged runoff in 1943. (US Army photo) of 1943, the submarine menace in for a flight to take him over the the Atlantic had been largely overchannel at low tide. It was a lucky move, as team- this one tasked with making a de- come. It had become unnecessary to ferry he spotted a rock pinnacle practically on tailed survey of the Koksoak River and planes over the Arctic wastes as practical the range that he had marked out for proceeding to Frobisher Bay to refine the methods had been developed for shipping Crowell to use when bringing in the ships. 6 work accomplished there during the previ- unboxed light aircraft by securing them to The range was adjusted in time for the ous summer. Effie M. Morrissey was again framing constructed above the well decks arrivals of the freight/ passenger ship Fairfax chartered for the survey parry. of tankers. Following completion, Crystal and the freighter Eleanor. On their heels When Forbes and his team reached Fon II and III served as weather-reporting stacame a large Army tug accompanied by a Chi mo, they witnessed rhe system that had tions until rhe conclusion of the war in smaller tug to be used to barge in cargoes been set in place for supplying Crystal I. Europe. Crystal I was the support base for from Fairfax and Eleanor.

Ships as well as tugs with barges were the rwo more northerly facilities and a base As the construction work was carried proceeding as far as Fort Chimo. There for planes engaged on ice patrols. Today, out, Fairfax was anchored off, serving as a everything was offloaded onto small barges Fort Chimo and the Crystal II sire at barracks ship for the workers. The small which, during the periods of half flood to Frobisher Bay are important settlements tug with a barge on the hip was kept busy full flood, were rowed upriver to the air- with commercial ai rports . J, offloading trucks, earth movers, and build- strip by shoal-draft gasoline-powered moing materials from other arriving ships: tor launches. The Crystal I base had devel- This article is condensedfrom an appendix in Denny, Norluna, Eagle, and Maltran. A oped into an impressive facilirywith all the the author's recently published Over Seas: major setback was experienced in August comforts, including a movie theater and an US Army Maritime Operations , 1898 when rhe freighter Arlyn, which had much- assortment of other amenities. At one point Through the Fall of the Philippines, Gibson needed equipment, was torpedoed in the that summer, it was even enlivened by a and Gibson (Ensign Press, PO Box 638, visit from a United Service Organization Camden ME 04843;www.ensignpress.com).

Suait of Belle Isle.

Work continued so late in rhe season (USO) troupe. It was a far cry from the Mr. Gibson is the author of eight books on that the last cargo ship to leave Crystal II in uninhabited, barren scene that Forbes and maritime history topics, including Dictiothe fall had to break her way out through Roosevelt had viewed back in 1941. While nary of Transports and Combatant Vesfive inches of ice to reach open water. on the Koksoak, Forbes visited the wreck sels, Steam and Sail, Employed by the Throughout the winter of 1942-43, work of rhe freighter Norluna which had run Union Army 1861-1868, which won the continued on the Crystal II base complex. afoul of rhe rocks during the previous sum- john Lyman Award in the American Naval In April 1943, Forbes was placed in mer being judged a total loss. 7 Following H istory category from the North American charge of another Navy hydrographic the survey of the Koksoak River, Forbes Society for Oceanic History.

NOTES 1 Ar Fort Chima, the range of ride is alm ost 30 feet , and it was only at rhe stare of high ride that the river was considered navigable by ships of any real size.

2 Quest was once owned by Sir Ernest Shackleton. He died aboard her in Antarctica on 5 January 1922.

3 The first names of Lr. Commander Schlossbach and Cap rain D yer were not given in any of the so urces I accessed.

4 D espite hi s reco mmendation that a wiredrag survey be mad e of rhe Koksoak, Forbes

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

had nor been provided with vessels necessary for conducting that rype of survey. W ire drag surveys, which use rwo vessels rowing a cable berween them, can loca te underwater hazards nor detectable by one vessel using parallel lines of so undings.

5 At this poim in rhe war, German plans ro land raiding parries in the Canadian subarctic were unclear. Crowell would probably have known that German weather detachments had been discovered on Greenland rhe summer before, acco unting for his apprehensio n regard ing the approaching whaleboat.

6 In those waters, rock pinnacles are very sm all

in area, often precipitously dropping away to depths as great as 100 fathoms (600 feet). Onl y wire dragging cou ld have lo cated such hazards with any cerrainry. Outside of that one discovered pinnacle, the remainder of the channel wo uld prove to be safe.

7 Forbes, Questfor a Northern Air Route, p 104.

During the summer of 1986, I visited Fort Chima by air and from a distance viewed the rusry remains of Norluna still lying just as Forbes had described ir.

8 Robert A. Barrlerr, "Servicing Arctic Air Bases," National Geographic, Vo l. LXXXIX (May 1946), pp602-616.

13

3 CENTUR IES OF EXPLORATI ON,

Jul y 12 - Oc t 14 For d eta i ls, v is il www. p em.o r g

INNOVAT I ON AND ARTISTRY.

with THE GLORY OF THE FRENCH MARITIME TRADITION

AT THE PEABODY ESSEX MUSEUM

East India Square

Salem, MA 01970 978 745 9500

[ he'!Boston<!l5lobe

Literary ______, . . . . . . pieces in Wood

by Carol A. Olsen

F

igureheads have decorated watercraft for at least 5,500 years with stunning variety and diverse meaning within different cultures. In the flowering of literacy and widespread reading of classic and popular poetry and novels that crested after 1800, these decorative elements on ships' bows often featured figures out of literature who meet and overcome adversity.

The characters presented here span 500 years ofliterature, beginning with the 16thcentury epic poem The Lusiads, which heralds in ten cantos the heroic deeds of Portuguese sailors, especially during Vasco da Gama's voyage to India in the 1490s. E n route, da Gama and his sailors encounter

the sunken-eyed, grotesque Cape ofStorms personification called Adamastor, who threatens that if the Portuguese cross seas where no ship has sailed before: Year by year your fleets will meet Shipwreck, with calamities so combined That death alone will bring you peace of mind.

Adamastor's hellish spirit spews from his own pathetic situation. As a Titan he unwisely tried to kiss the nymph Tethys, considered "loveliest of all the ocean." She avenged his insolence by turn ing him into a clay-faced promontory to forever jut into the sea threatening sai lors, and, to heighten his anguish, she often stays within view in mock enticement. Overcoming the heartstopping horror of Adamastor's threats to them, the Portuguese sailors persevere and ultimately gain lasting national glory. The Adamastor figurehead, seen centuries later on the 1896 Portuguese cruiserAdamastor, is in part an emblem of triumph over tremendous difficulty.

The poet from whose imagination Adamastor springs is Luis Vaz de Cam6es who was himself the subject of a figurehead on the Lisbon-built military brig Camoesof 1883. In 1559, after having been shipwrecked in rhe mouth of the Mekong River With figureheads such in Cambodia, Cam6es managed to swim to as the dread aspect of shore clutching rhe unfinished Lusiads Adamastor (left, Museu da Marinha, manuscript, and chat poem is still among Lisbon) or the noble Portugal's best-loved works.

Written 30 years after The Lusiads, visage of Orlando Edmund Spenser's highly allegorical Faerie (above, Mystic SeaQueene, which he began publishing in 1590, port) owners made statements about their alludes to the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. ships and their society. Nearly three centuries later, an 1860 ship

SEA HISTORY 101, SUMMER 2002

named Faerie Queene carried the elegantly detailed, crowned and royal female figurehead now on display at M useo Navale in La Spezia, Italy.

Another key character in Faerie Queene is the warrior maiden Britomart, representing the virtue C hastity. A female warrior figurehead said to be from the 1846 vessel Britomartis at the Royal Naval Dockyard in Chatham, England.

William Shakespeare's comedy As You Like !tenjoyed great popularity in England more than two centuries after it was written when 19th-century British ships named Orlando were a tribute to this play' s young hero. A warrior figurehead at Mystic Seaport, inscribed on its left side "HMS Orlando," is believed to portray this character.

At the play's beginning, Orlando is despised by his older brother O liver, who privately curses: I hope I shall see an End of him ; for my Soul (yet I know nor why) hares nothing more than he. Yer he's gentle, never school' d, and yet learned, full of noble Devise, and all Sorts enchantingly beloved, and indeed so much in the Heart of the World, and especially of my own People, who best know him , that I am altogether misprised-

15

The uniquely American character of Minnehaha (from the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Museum) appropriately adorned the uniquely American McKay clipper ship named for her.

T he loathed Orlando, in fac t, loves Rosalind, who ques tions "Is his H ead worth a H at? O r his C hin wo rth a Beard ?" In response Orlando festoons the fo rest with affectionate words for beautiful Rosalind, and eventually wins a better life and her hand.

Spain 's Miguel de Cervantes penned Don Quixote in 1604 and its instant success continues to this day as we still care for the knigh t-errant who courageously duels a windmill in his ques t to honor Dulcinea.

An 1868 Medfo rd-built ship named Don Quixote carried a plate-armored Don Q uixo te figurehead, now housed at the Sjofartmuseet in Gothenburg, Sweden.

More contemporary figures also made their way onto ships' bows. In 1790, Robert Burns wrote the poem Tam o 'Shanterat the reques t of antiquarian Captain Francis Grose, whose interest was the W itches M eetings at Aloway Church. In it, Burns imagines that after drinking in to th e night with fri ends, T am o'Shanter begins his dark ride home alone, crooning as he goes.

See ing a witch dancing in the churchya rd dressed only in a short-tailed shirt (cur ry sark in Sco ttish), T am yells so mething drunkenly appreciative; although the witch angrily fli es after him, she is only able to

16

yank the tail off his ho rse just before he gallops across a bridge. Tam is safe on the other side, knowing that witches cannot cross running wate r. T his white witch was represented on the 1869 D umbar ton-built tea clipper Cutty Sark in G reenwich, England; a co py of the fig urehead is on the ship while the ori ginal is d isplayed inside the vessel.

Burns himself is the subject of a very nice little bust figurehead o n display at the Smithsonian's National M useum ofAmerican H istory. W hil e the attribute of a book, seen in his left hand, might be expected for an author, in fact many fi gureheads of the 1800s hold books. T hey may represe nt poetry or popul ar novels as often as they represent the Bible, th e more usual interpretation.

Clearly figureheads fro m li teramre do not have to be from a story with a maritime theme, as evidenced by the exo tically beautiful Lalla Rookh fro m a Liverpool tea clipper of 1856. T he boo k Lalla Rookh was written in 18 17 by T homas M oore and reprinted th ro ugh out the 1800s. Lalla Rookh is a beautiful , intelligent and pampered Indian princess traveling overland fro m her Delhi home to the "enchanting valley of Cash mere," where she will marry the prince of Bucharia. T he journey of many days is made more pleasant by specially planted gardens and well-placed art wo rks on view for her travel ing party, and a poet named Feram orz has been provided to tell entertaining stories. She falls in love

with Feramorz and, in the happy ending, learns he is, afte r all, the very prin ce she is to marry. W hile the 1856 fi gurehead is preserved in the C utty Sark Collection, a later, equally elaborate Lalla Rookh fi gurehead is presumably lost. Sh e was on the iron bark Lalla Rookh, built in Liverpool in 1876 and reported in a photo capti on in Sea Breezes (Sept. 1925) as "recently sold to shipbreakers."

Lo rna D oo ne, the heroine of British author Richard D oddridge Blac kmore's 1869 ro mance of the same name, was co mmemorated in the name of an 1876 Dundee schooner. T he Harmony (ex Lorna Doone), as illustrated in Sea Breezes 70 (1 925), still carried a ve ry stylish female figurehead w hich one may assume is original to Lorna Doone rather than chosen by the schoo ner's later owners, the Moravian C hurch and Mission Agency, which used her to carry stores and miss ionaries between London and Labrador. Although called the "yo ung queen of wealth and beauty" in the Victorian novel, Lo rna has virtually no voice.

More often she is spoken of by the action hero John Ridd as the ideal of "perfect loveliness ." T he event-filled novel Lorna Doone, in continuous print since 1869, may interest the 2 1st-century reader for the wo rld the Victorian lady inhabits.

Crossing the Atlantic, American H enry Wadswo rth Longfellow's poem The Song ofHiawatha tells of the prophet Hiawatha who is to bring peace to the warring Indian nations. Although the scroll-skirt style of

The figurehead ofthe white witch carries the tail of Tam o 'Shanter's horse- her only prize from a fatile chase. A copy greets visitors to the clipper C utty Sark in England, while the original can be seen belowdecks.

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

the Hiawatha figurehead in the C utty Sark Collection does not show his feet, in the story Hiawatha is blessed with magic moccasins that enable him to stride a mile at a time and by thought alone to direct and power a canoe (a skill a shipowner might especially appreciate) . In Longfellow's work, Hiawatha's marriage to Minnehaha leads to a golden age of happiness and peace, and the figurehead bears a peace pipe at its side.

Minnehaha is herself the subj ect of a figurehead. Longfellow describes her as having feet as rapid as the river and tresses flowing like water. Her name, in fact, means "laughing water," and she was on the bow of the 1856 Donald M cKay vessel Minnehaha, the launch of which was attended by Longfellow and the actress Julia Bennett Barrow, who at the time was celebrated fo r her recitations of Longfellow's wo rk in Boston; Barrow's on-stage costume was that of an Indian maiden. The carving is now in the collection of the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Museum in Virginia. Similarly, a figurehead from the 1827 ship Ta/ma at the Peabody Museum in Salem, M assachusetts, is said to portray the l 9thcentury actor F rarn;:ois Joseph Talma in his role as Roman emperor Nero.

But perhaps the motherlode of literary sources is from the pen of Sir Wal ter Scott, whose w ritings include the novel Ivanhoe, the poem Lady ofthe Lake, and many other works which lent their names to l 9thcentu ry ships. A few decades later, poet laureate Lord Alfred T ennyso n presented Idylls ofthe King, drawn, like Scott's wo rk, from Sir Thom as Malory's Le Morte D 'Arthur of the 1400s. The well-received chivalric themes resulted in what were, fo r the times, blockbuster book sales, and, perhaps not coincidentally, the heroes of those books became figurehead subj ects. A few include the carving said to be Sir Galahad at the Seamen's C hurch Institute in N ew York C ity and a tentatively identifi ed Sir Lancelot in the C utty Sark Collection. At the Museo N avale in La Spezia, there is a M erlin the Magician from the 1846 ship Cambria, and the Friar T uck figurehead at Valhalla Maritime M useum survives an 1857 Aberdeen clipper.

While these examples clearly have literary connections, I suspect that others are less apparent. For example, a fi gurehead in the Cutty Sark Collection said to be Benjamin Disraeli might be a nod to his role as Britain's prime minister. H owever, two decades before Disraeli held that pos t, he had begun writing novels to express his poThe lovely Lalla Rookh (at the Cutty Sark Col- litical views. Sybil or The Two Nations, lection), an Indian princess, guided a British tea from 1845, for example, examines the enormous divide between England 's rich clipper in exotic eastern waters. and poor. W e might consider whether a shipowner chose Disraeli for a figurehead in sympath y to his published views.

It might also be wo rthwhile to rethink figureheads that look rock solid in their attribution. For example, Mystic Seaport has a handso mely des igned and powerfully executed St. Geo rge fi gurehead . W hile this may srricdy be rhe patron saint of England, perhaps the representation is meant to be broader.

M ight it be the Red C ross Knight in Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene, who only later becomes St. Geo rge? Early in the sto ry, the Red Cross Knight is a very flawed human being-a man who abandons the virtuous lady U na to enj oy the companionship of seducti ve Duessa, later shown to be a scabby, filthy witch.

Once reunited with U na, the Red C ross Knight visits th e house ofH oliness, and instructions from res idents Faith, Hope, Patience, Penance, Remorse, and ReSEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

Heroes of chivalric tales, such as this character identified as Sir Galahad at the Seamen s Church Institute, New York, were enormously popular in the 1800s. pentance underscore the moral allegory of this Elizabethan poem. From a mountai n where he stands with Contemplation, the Red Cross Knight sees himself in a distant vision as St. George, the patron saint of England. At las t, ready to show his strength against a "Dragon horrible and Stearne," as the Queen had earlier directed him to do, he fights for two-and-a-half days until the drago n gushes black blood in death . U na's fa mil y is now free from th e beas t, and although the Red C ross Knight loves Una, whom he soon weds, he returns to the Queen fo r six more yea rs of pro mised service: "V nto his Faerie Queene backe to return, T he which he shortly did, and Vna lefr to mourne." In Faerie Queene the Red C ross Knight's arduous path toward sainthood is splendidly stocked with heroi c challenges, which might make for a fa r more interesting figurehead. Perhaps a 19th-centu ry shipowner thought so too.

T he increasing populari ty of li terary figures ornamenting ships stemmed fro m practical co nsideratio ns as well as the growing availabili ty of literary wo rks. While a contemporary portrait of a lady in an 1876 dress may be elegant, it is also soo n our of dare. On the other hand, there is a timeless

17

The author Joseph Conrad was featured on the sail training ship that bore his name. A bronze copy ofthe original can be seen on the ship today at Mystic. (Photo: Mystic Seap ort)

for a small yacht in T exas. Cyrano, the witty cavalier who silently loves Roxane, yet gives the handsome Christian words to win her, is also the spirited fi ghter who shouts to a taunter:

quality to a literary figure such as King Arthur carrying Excalibur (as I interpret an unlabeled figurehead at the Museu da M arinha in Lisbon).

Additionally, with figureheads, owners could enhance the reputations of their ships using classic, mythic and romantic characters recognized by a broad cross section of the population thanks to the increased access to books in the 1800s. When l 9thcenrury readers saw in literary heroes values of strength, honor, loyal ty, and triumph in adversity, I suggest there is an ass umption that figureheads of these heroes helped to convey those quali ties to their ships. More specifically, it seems to me that when a shipping enterprise chooses a fi gurehead from literature that is wildly popular at that time and has been eno rmously popular for 400 years, as in the case of Don Quixote, the enterprise buys into that popularity. Nineteenth-century shipowners were entrepreneurs who did everything they could to enhance their business, from debating hull designs, calculating costs, and fi guring logistics, to selecting capable captains and publicizing their ships' launchings and successful voyages. I doubt this acumen stopped short of the choice of a figurehead.

Ultimately, however, choosing a figure from literature is a strong cultural statement; it is a deliberate choice to honor the values the poem, play, or novel represents.

T he paths of enduring literary fi gures are never easy-that is typically what makes their stories great. Therefore, in any port in the wo rld, these carvings became the fi gurative language for what is funny and sad and most admired in the co untries from which the ships came.

18

Always the answer-yes! Let me die sou nder some rosy-golden sunset, saying A good thing, fo r a good cause! By the sword, T he point of honor- by the hand of one Worthy to be my foeman, let me fallSteel in my heart, and laughter on my lips!

Through the early decades of the 1900s, the practice of placing fi gureheads on merchant ships gradually diappeared, a notable exception being the ships of the Norwegian Fred. Olsen Line. Since 1936, at least It seems in these little carvings that the 54 of the line's merchant vessels have had desire to find heroes in literature and keep bows decorated with glass mosaic, paint- them with us in a maritime context continings or beauriful bronze fi gureheads. T o- ues-to our credit, I wo uld say. .t day, figureheads can also be found on some commercial cruise vessels, as well as train- Carol A . Olsen has an M A in M arine Aring ships, small boats, and yachts. chaeology from Texas A&M University and a Joseph Conrad, accounted by many sail- BA in Art H istory from the University of ors as the great master of the seagoing sto ry California at Berkeley. H er work in l nmarsat in English, author of such tales as H eart of satellite communications fo r ships compleDarkness, Lord Jim and Chance, was hon- ments an academic interest in figureheads. ored in a figurehead carved by Bruce Rogers All photos by the author unless otherwise in 193 5 for the full-rigged ship Joseph stated.

Conrad. T he figurehead guided the sail training ship through her historic voyage round the world with young people in crew, under the leadership of 1-:i-~-._-<11 Alan Villiers. Today, the calm, intelligent face of this leading sea writer gazes out from the bow of the 1882 iron ship, on exhibit at Mys tic Seaport 111 Connecticut.

* * * * * In 198 3 D avid C lar ke o f Bristol, Rhode Island, provided a photograph of the Cyrano de Bergerac figurehead he carved

Figureheads, such as this Cyrano de Bergerac, can sometimes still be foun d on yachts. (Photo: David Clarke)

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

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SEA HISTORY 101, SUMMER 2002

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Sluys, 24 June 1340

How Lowly Archers Won the Naval Battle that Launched the Hundred Years' War

by Robert L. Swain n the late 1330s, Phili p VI of France flaunted his growing mili tary muscle by dispatching ships to raid the Channel Islands of Jersey and G uernsey and ordering a hired fleet of Genoese ships to plunder the sea lanes shared with England.

Emboldened by his success, Philip fo llowed these bully tactics by sending other sh ips to harass England's southeast coast in the fall of 1338 , which pro mpted a yo unger Edward III of England to order what few royal ships he had to raid the French coast. This limited retaliation by Edward did not stop Philip's ships from ranging England's eastern and southern coasts, sacking port towns.

T hen, fo r further insul t, French ships intercepted a group of English merchantmen returning home with the proceeds from that year's wool sales in Flanders.

Philip seized co ntrol of Flanders in a direct threat to England's principal market fo r its wool. Alarmed by this, Edward knew that he could not permit Philip to continue and determined to send aid to Flanders across the No rth Sea. The more experi-

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enced Philip anticipated this response from Edward and countered by contracting with a new batch of French and Genoese ship owners to operate as pirates, harassing any shi ps Edward might employ to defend his interests abroad .

After a year of feints and co unter-feints, armed co nflict broke out in Flanders. T he English supported the cloth manufac turers there who imported English wool, while Philip backed the landowning nobility led by the Francophile count ofFlanders. Philip also persuaded the pope to suspend the Flem ings' divine services. In response, Edward fo rmally claimed the French crown, and the citizens of Ghent immediately recognized him as king of France.

Phili p decided to crush the dissident cloth manufac turers by assembling a great f1eet to transport a French army to the Low Count ries. Th is wo uld fo restall Edward bringing an army to Flanders to help fulfill promises ofassistance to the rebels in Ghem and interrup t English trade heading for An twerp or other ports in Flanders.

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Philip, like most kings at the time, considered a fleet to be mainly a convenience for his armies, serving as transport for menat-arms, horses, and weapons. Philip wanted his fleet com manders to concentrate on landing the army safely at Sluys, sixty miles no rtheast of Calais and the nearest thing to a deepwater port along the coast. The fleet also wo uld protect the coast against counterinvasion and cover the ro ute to Bruges.

Sluys, which was to be the French fleet's base in the coming seaso n, stood amidst a jigsaw puzzle of islands separated from one another by broad channels and sluices. T his waterway fi lled twice a day and then reverted to swampy gullies on the change of tides, while the chief water road thro ugh this tangle was the estuary of the Swyn.

Sluys also was wi thin the reach of the English, less than two hundred nautical miles from London . Edward has tily assembled a make-do fleet of 150 cogs from ports along the eastern and so uthern coasts, begging and borrowing from numerous sources to afford even this. T he undramatic cogs were deep-draft, ro und-hulled merchammen, generally 80 feet long and 24 feet wide. Edward adapted them as wa rships by addi ng a wooden "castle" at the bow and stern of each shi p and building crow's-nest platfo rms at the mastheads 60 fee t above the decks fro m which archers could launch arrows.

Amo ng the citizen-soldiers recruited by Edward and his nobles fo r the army and fleet were an estimated 4,000 men-at-arms and 12,000 longbowmen, an element that wo uld prove devastatingly effective in the weeks ahead (and dominate the wa rs of Europe in the years to come). Soo n to be regarded fa r and wide as fea rsome, the longbows carried by English arch ers were made of strong ye t flexible yew and ranged ro six feet in length. W hen released , arrows could hit targets several hundred fee t away and puncture body arm or at closer range.

Edward's grandfa ther, Edward I, had discovered the longbow in Wales during his campaigns there and borrowed the design fo r English warfare. Edward saw that the longbow was lighter, easier to carry, and could release more arrows than the

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

Naval battles were a brutalfree-for-aff in the time ofPhilip and Edward, as can be seen in this confrontation between two cogs, iffustrated in an English psalter of ca. 1330. (The British Library, London (Roy. I 0.E.IVf 19 det))

powerful, but heavier and more awkward crossbow and wrought greater havoc against enemies. But the longbow, unlike the mechanically sprung crossbow, called for highly skilled archers to achieve its full effect. So Edward III insisted that a bow be put in the hands of every English boy at age seven and that archery be practiced on holidays and feast days. Later, he would instruct sheriffs to enforce its practice, while forbidding some spans that would take time away from archery. Determined to hold an edge over the French with this weapon, Edward had recently forbidden the export of bows and arrows to F ranee.

Although spies had reported to the English that Philip VI's fleet at Sluys was "so great a number of ships that their masts would seem like a great wood," Edward was eager to get at the enemy. He ordered hasty training for shipboard action while suppliers finished provisioning his fleet of converted English cogs. The cost was more than Edward co uld afford, but the pawning of royal jewels and special pleas from him that produced reluctant promises of additional funds at last got him underway.

Benefiting from favorable winds, Edward displayed his nautical talents by bringing his fleet to within sight of the enemy just twenty-four hours after exi ting the Thames on the eve of the feast of Saint John the Baptist. To enhance morale that night, Edward sent word among his crews that those who fought well in the coming battle would have not only God's blessing but whatever they were able to lay their hands on as well.

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

At first light on 24 June 1340 (then recognized as Midsummer D ay), Edward held off his final approach to the French fleet until the sun was up. Then, with an early breeze behind him, Edward maneuvered his fleet so that the wind was on the starboard quarter to keep the morning sun in the eyes of the French. At first, the French thought Edward was trying to avoid giving battle, but were dissuaded of this when they saw banners being unfurled on the English ships . Soon fluttering from the masrofEdward's flagship, the Thomas, was the king's coat-of-arms quartered with the arms of F ranee.

Some of the sharper-eyed French could make out Edward standing on the deck of the Thomas, wearing a surcoat of scarlet and blue, embroidered with leopards and lilies (which remain to this day on the royal escutcheon). The larger French fleet lay anchored and chained together, blocking the mouth of the Swyn River and the route to Bruges. Neither of the two French admirals in command on the scene was a man of the sea and, as a consequence, they chose to hold a set position.

Moving with the ride and impatient to engage before the French fully began their day, Edward signaled his captains to begin their planned assault in uni ts of three against the anchored enemy, despite the fact that nineteen of the French ships were larger than anything the English had ever seen before. Quick-shooting English longbowmen, wearing padded jackers and steel caps, were massed on the decks of each ship, while English men-at-arms finished the

laborious process of donning their armor.

Edward's fleet closed on the stationary French ships by ten in the morning to the so unds of trumpets blaring. Decades later, the chronicler Jean Froissart recounted: There began a sore battle on both pans: archers and cross-bows began to shoot, and men of arms approached and fought hand to hand: and the better to come together they had great hooks and grapplers of iron, to cast out of one ship into another, and so tied them fast together.

There were many deeds of arms done. .. . This battle was right fierce and terrible; for the battles on the sea are more dangerous and fiercer than the battles by land: for on the sea there is no rescuing nor fleeing; there is no remedy but to fight and to abide fortune, and every man to shew his prowess .

In a series of attacks, two English cogs at a time, filled with archers, would come alongside a single enemy ship and loose an iron cloud of arrows onto its deck. At this short range, the English arrows easily pierced the mail coats and shields of the French men-at-arms, inflicting more casualties than the enemy did with its slower salvos from crossbows.

After the exchange of missiles and arrows, the third English ship in each advancing group swung in on the enemy with grappling irons at the ready as the captain bumped his ship alongside the tethered Frenchman. Grappling irons were thrown over the rail of the enemy ship to hold the contending ships together. Shouting and cheering, Engli sh m en-at-arms th en

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"This battle was right fierce and terrible; for the battles on the sea are more dangerous and fiercer than the battles by land: for on the sea there is no rescuing nor fleeing; there is no remedy but to fight and to abide fortune, and every man to shew his prowess. " swarmed over the enemy deck, flailing their swords, axes and half-pikes, while divers were sent to bore holes just below the waterline of the French ships. As an accompaniment, English bowmen continued to loose flights of arrows. D eck after deck became a blood-soaked shambles, with bodies piled everywhere.

The English tactic of three-on-one was repeated throughout the fleet, with quick advantage to Edward's men, who fought as though on land, scrambling across enemy decks serving as wooden battlefields. While the outcome of the battle was serried early on, the fighting from deck to deck lasted nine hours . The battle was worse than if fought on land since those engaged could only stand and fight, not retreat or run away. U ltimately, Edward's men-at-arms ranged across the enemy decks at will.

Before it ended, thousands of Frenchmen (some would guess the number at roughly 10,000) had been killed by arrows, hacked to death in hand-to-hand fighting, or thrown overboard. Some of the enemy knights, desperate to get free of the assault, had stripped off their armor before jump-

ing into the water, hoping to swim to safety. Sadly for them, most were met by Flemish citizen-soldiers on the shore and were clubbed to death in the shallows.

By early evening, the English had managed to capture or sink the vast majority of the French fleet. They also recovered two of their ships, the Edward and the Christopher, which had been seized by the French in the previous two years. It turned out that Edward III had been wo unded slightly in the thigh, bur one of the French admirals suffered more severely. H e was hanged from a cross pole crudely fastened to the mast of one of the captured ships. Only thirty of the enemy ships, mainly those rowed and sailed by the Genoese, managed to pull out to sea and escape capture.

Edward's captains allowed the plundering of the seized enemy ships to reward their men, and only after this was accomplished were the blood-drenched hulks set afire and abandoned. The floating bonfires lit the night sky for hours, providing a glorious sight for Edward's fleet anchored off shore.

Sluys turned our to be so great a victory for the English that no Frenchman dared

inform Philip VI of the outcome for two days. It was left to the king's jester to mention the "cowardly" act of the enemy at Sluys. When Philip asked for an exp lanation, th e jester replied, "Because at Sluys the other day the English had no t the courage to jump into the sea, as did our noble Frenchmen. " Later it was claimed that "If fish could have spoken that day, they wo uld have learned French. " Most important for Edward, by destroying Philip 's fleet, he had gained control of the C hannel and North Sea. T his was crucial to ensuring the flow of English wool to Flanders for years to come, from which Edward derived sufficient tax income to pursue what turned out to be the Hundred Years' War. Just the mention of Sluys was enough to loosen the purse strings of numerous parliaments. !,

Mr. Swain writes from New York City. His article "Henry VIIf's First War at Sea" recently appeared in MHQ: T he Quarterly Journal of Military History. His nautical experience includes sailing in his youth and college summers spent as a merchant seaman.

When it comes to maritime history, we helped vvrite the book.

CROWLEY and MTL Founded 1892

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SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

Join NMHS members and other sea-minded fellow travelers for a Farewell Cruise on the QUEEN ELIZABETH

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4-10 May 2003 New York/Bermuda/Newport RI/New York In May 1969 the exciting new QUEEN ELI'ZABETH 2 made her debut entrance into New York Harbor amid the fanfare of spectator boats and the welcoming plumes of spray from fireboats.

In May 2003 the QE2 will make her last scheduled cruise from New York to Bermuda before moving on to service out of the United Kingdom cruising from Southampton; it will be the close of an era-a third of a century of sailing to and from New York.

On Sunday, 4 May 2003, the QE2 will sail from New York on a sixnight cruise to Bermuda and Newport, Rhode Island, returning to New York on Saturday, 10 May. It will be her last cruise from New York to Bermuda, spending two days and a night in Bermuda and a day at Newport.

To celebrate this beloved ship, the National Maritime Hi storical Society, the Steamship Historical Society of America and other maritime societies will be aboard QE2 for this farewell cruise.

Specific events and itinerary are not yet finalized, but the bookings are already open, reservations are being taken, and thi s cruise will sell out fast. If you are interested in what will surely be a historymaking cruise aboard QE2 , we recommend that you book now.

For full information and to make reservations call Denise Bonnici at

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By permission from a painting by Gordon Bauwens, © 2000. Quality art prints available en the QE2.

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Mauretania upper/lower $840 pp Mauretania twin inside $1102 pp Mauretania twin outside $ 1200 pp Caronia categories start at $1405 pp Princess Grill categories start at $2442 pp Queens Grill categories start at $3282 pp

MARINE ART:

Memories and2{ejfections ~

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"Coffee's Ready," 24 x 36 inches, oil on linen. This peaceful morning scene at Manitowoc shows a bit ofthe harbor now occupied by the Wisconsin Maritime Museum. I have painted it as it might have looked I 00 years ago, with cargo schooners and a steam barge.

fter Navy service in the Pacific in World War II , Charles Peterson studied at Chicago's Art Institute and graduated fro m the American Academy of Art. He earned a BA at Marietta College and an MFA at Ohio U nivers ity and pursued further study at the U ni versity of W isconsin. T hereafter he enjoyed a twenty-year career as Professor of Art, including fifteen as head of the Art Depanmen t at Marietta College. In 1973 Peterson moved with his family to Ephraim, Wisconsin, and took up a new career as fulltime painter in which he soon established a national reputation.

Initially Peterso n became widely known fo r his ill usrrations for WoodenBoat, Sail,

"Empty H anded: Mate's Boat," 21x28 inches, watercolor. These men have approached a whale for a successful harpooning followed by a wild "Nantucket sleigh ride" and finally lost a potentially valuable and certainly dangerous quarry. They are returning to their ship exhausted, frustrated but glad to be alive-an aspect ofthe industry rarely portrayed. ~--------~~~-----------~

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SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

the Marine Art of Charles Peterson "Sheet Her In," 21x28 inches, watercolor. In this painting I tried to convey something ofthe life of the lobstermen who must tend their traps in all weather, often in areas of other traffic. All sailors can sympathize with them in this dangerous situation, wondering if they will pick up enough headway to come about, or attempt to cross the schooner's path. Either way it will be a close call. Traffic in heavy fog is a common hazard; three of our fishermen were lost this p ast year, when their vessel was overrun by a barge float.

"Sabbath at Sea, " 24 x 36 inches, oil on linen. The typical Banks schooner was crewed by neighbors, friends and family members all from the same little town, often with the same social and religious orientation. H ere, the men and the boy (perhaps the captain's nephew) are immersed in readings from the Book of Common Prayer, but the thoughts ofsome are instinctively tuned to the feel ofthe ship, her rolling and pitching, her groans, creaks and rattles as she carries them home from the Banks.

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SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

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"Evening at Horseshoe, " 20112 x 28 inches, watercolor. Over the years I have twice sought safety from gales by sailing into this perfect refuge at the entrance to our harbor. Named for its shape, the island has sheltered ships for 150 years (and who knows how many birch bark canoes before that). Ole Larson lived and logged on the island in the early 1900s, and I imagined him welcoming a lu mber schooner to his dock after a stormy late-afternoon dash through "Death's Door" into Green Bay. Cruising World and other boating magazines. In 1987 he was invited to show his wo rk at Mystic Seaport Gallery's prestigious International Competitions, where, in 1991 and again in 1992, he won the covered Thomas Hoyne Award.

In 1988 the White Door Publishing Company began national distribution of Peterson's "Memories Collection" and his "Maritime Collection " of signed, limitededirion prints, widening the circle of enthusiastic collectors of his work. His popularity grew quickly, and in 1992 US. Art magazine began listing him among the nation 's top ten most popular artists in the print industry. White Door published his first book, Of Time and Place, in 1994 and his second, Reflections, in 2001. -i "Company, "25 x 16 1h inches, watercolor. Done as a two-page spread for W oodenBoat 's story about sailing along the Maine coast, this picture was composed to allow printing the story over the misty right half When the painting was returned, I saw that I could balance the composition by showing the top gear of a schooner, a potential hazard, emerging from the fog bank.

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SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

MARINE ART NEWS BOOK REVIEW

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Flying Boats: The }-Class Yachts of Aviation, by Ian Marshall and Alexander Frater (Howell Press, Charlottesville VA, 2002, 136pp, illus, index, ISBN 1-57427- 121-0; $50hc) Ian Marshall, renowned for his vigorous, delicately limned watercolors of the liners and warships of the age of steam, has now introduced great metal birds into his world of steamships and empire in his wonderfully evocative Flying Boats. The paintings speak for themselves, but Marshall also gives us a text showing how widespread the network was that bound the world together by aircraft landing on water, from Pan American's great China clippers of just before World War II on into the war years, with England's Sunderland flying boats, the rugged US PBYs, and a surprising variety of German, Italian and Japanese aircraft. The story winds up with the agile puddle jumpers that still land on remote lakes from Canada to Africa and beyond.

PETER STANFORD

Editor at Large

New Art Exhibits • Carla Massoni Gallery: 29 J une-28 July 2002, "The Golden Age of Sail is Now": Photographs by Michael Kahn (203 High Street, Chestertown MD 21620; 410 778-7330; e-mail: info@massoniart.com) • Edward Carter Gallery: 3-29 August 2002, "The Golden Age of Sail is Now": Photographs by Michael Kahn (The Inn at Canal Square, 122 Market Street, Lewes DE 19958; 302 644-7513; web site: www.edwardcartergall eries.com) • Maritime Gallery at Mystic Seaport: 2 1 September-3 November 2002, 23rd Annual Mystic International (47 Gteenmanville Ave., PO Box 6000, Mystic CT 0635 5; 860 572-5388; web site: www.mysticseaport.org/gallery) •National Maritime Museum: 9 M ay-3 1 October 2002, "New Visions of the Sea: Contemporary Art" (Greenwich, London, SElO 9NF, UK; web site: www.nmm.ac.uk) •Noble Maritime Collection: 8 June-29 September 2002, The Etchings of John Taylor Arms (1000 Richmond Terrace, Staten Island NY 1030 l ; 718 447-6490; web site: www.noblemaritime.org) • Peabody Essex Museum: 12 J uly- 14 October 2002, "Rendezvous with the Sea: The G lory of the French Maritime Tradition" (One Eas t India Square, Salem MA 01970; 978 745-9500; web site: www.pem.org) • Penobscot Marine Museum: 25 May-7 September 2002, "Send in the Marines": Co ntemporary Marine Art (5 Church Street, PO Bo x 498, Searsport ME 0 4974; 207 548-2529; e-mail: museumoffices@ penobscotmarinemuseum. org) •Ventura County Maritime Museum: 17 June-31August2002, "Nautica 02"; 2 September-3 1 October 2002, American Society of Marine Artists, Region 5 (2731 Somh Victoria, Oxnard CA 93035; 805 984-6260; e- mail: vccm@aol.com)

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2 0 0 2 SEA HISTORY 101, SUMMER 2002

27

Superstitions of Fisftemten

by Dr. Louis Arthur Norton

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griculture and manufacturing accounted for the bulk of American commerce during the 19th-centu ry, but fishing contributed significantl y to the nation's economy. Historically fishing was the mainstay of the commerce of colonial New England and the C hesapeake.

T h is essay examines one aspect of the social histo ry of fishermen of the era.

T he fis herman was a peculiar maritime breed. U nlike an ordinary sailor whose trade was to pass through the seas, a fis herman had to harves t these seas fo r a livelihood-seas upon which h e lived and worked and over which he had litrle co ntrol. Superstition was a way to try to make sense of the weather, to try to foretell when and where fish would be found , and to try to make the unpredictable predictable. By observing and chronicling irregular even ts, he rationalized a probable cause of these phenom ena-or at leas t explanat io ns, dogma or fa bles chat, at the time, made sense. T his was the genesis of superstiti on, "a quali ry that seems indigenous to the ocean. " 1 The sun had just burned off the chill morning fog ove r Scellwagen's Bank off Cape Ann when a G louces ter fi sherma n spit on th e head of the first fis h of the day.

H e returned him to the sea to guara ntee a good catch. Lacer chat afternoon the same fisherman saved the largest fis h of his catch to be cut and dressed las t, to ass ure th at more big fish would be taken tomorrow.

When his hold was full he raised a broom to the top of the mainmas t to signal the remaining fishermen that he had metaphorically swept the banks clean of fish .

This should promise a safe return passage.

And so a 19th-centu ry fisherm an observed his superstitious rituals.

M ost superstitions were passed down through generations from local oral traditions and folklore. Therefore, findin g primary source material is difficult. Superstitions of1 9th-century fishermen largely came from Northern Europe and evolved variously among the fishing brethren in the northern New England states, the Canadian Maritime Provinces, the West Indies, and the C hesapeake estuary. T he superstitions and ri tuals of fis hermen we re affected by the nature of the individual fi shery in which they we re engaged-a lobsterman, for example, had different requirements than an offshore halibut do ryman. Still, th e

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superstitions of these disparate fis hi ng "subspecialties" generally shared common goals, which can be linked in fo ur categori es. T he fi rst is identify ing rhe ca uses of good and bad luck and fi nding means to encourage the fo rmer and p revent the latter; the second is eschatological, involving death or dying; the third is related to weather; and rhe fo urth category applies to omens and actio ns char affect one's well-being.

The Mark of a Jonah Luck is an elusive entiry char produces success or fai lure. Spirring on the firs r fish caugh t and releasing it, as well as saving the biggest fis h to be processed last, were actions intended to enco urage good luck.

T hese superstitions, like many, were pagan in origin. The first fish taken was to be sacrificed, ret urned to the sea, in reverence to Poseidon the god of the sea, and, if the fis h was female, it wo uld be indicative of a good trip to fo llow. Saving the largest to be processed last was also a sign of deference to the gods.

Most supersti tious fishermen were even more intent on ide nti fyi ng the source of bad luck in order to avoid it. The best known method was to find, and deal with, a "Jonah ," the allegorical figure fo und in Dories ready to cast off.from the mother ship. (Photo: Doris Day)

the Old Testament. T he ship char carried Jonah from Joppa was a vehicle of escape, escape from the pervasive God of the H ebrews. W hen the ship encountered a terrible storm, the crew identified Jonah as a likely cause of the tempest as well as the possible means of their salvation . Ar fi rs t, the men hesitated throwing Jonal1 overboard to his probable death and desperately rowed co bring the ship to land. T he sailors failed, "so they too k up Jonah and cast him forth inro the sea; and the sea ceased from its raging. " 2 T hus mariners could cast out bad luck fro m their ship by purging their wooden -walled co mmuni ry of evil.

T he mark ofa Jonah took many forms in maritime fo lklore. For example, a fisherman who was co nsisrenrly unlucky on voyages was classified as a Jonah . Being a fo reigner, having diffe rent physical charac teristics or even favo ring dark colors of clothing associated with death could brand a man a Jonah on fis hing boars. Ifa fisherman bro ke a looking glass, spilled salt at dinner, drove a nail on Sunday, or left a half-filled bucker of water on deck, especially with a macke rel in it, it was considered a Jonah sign. So mething as simple as leaving the mo ther-ship in a fishing dory in a direction contrary to th e custo m of the rest of the crew called attention to oneself. Certain off-watch acti vities such as playing checkers, making coy boars, or playing the fiddle could lead to suspicion of "Jonah-hood ."

(Iro ni cally merchant sailors commonly did these things to help pass the time.)

W hen cerri ble m isforrun e occurred without an obvious cause, the fi shermen resorted to !or-drawing to unearth a hidde n Jon ah. T he cook placed a coin, nail or small piece of wood in the ship's bread or pudding, and the man who received it was p1:oclaim ed a Jonah suspect. If a man considered lucky by the crew obtained the unwelcome token, it was a bad omen for the future. This fisherman exorcised the curse by carrying his bed sack on deck ("jerking the straw" or "the donkey's breakfas t"), settin g it afire, and fumigating himself with all manner of materials commonly fo und on ships while reciting strange incantations.3 In a sense, a vessel could be anthropomorph ized into a Jonah ifir became chroni cally u np rofitable. Because a ship represented a substantial inves tment, the soluti on wras to relocate the ship to another

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

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A fishing boat loaded with dories and gear prepares to set out. (Photo: Edwin Levick) port, change the n am e, o r perhaps modify the vessel in some way, bur certainly altering its use. T h erefore, the unsuccess ful green-and-buff fishin g schooner called the Noank Netter could reappear as the profitable New H ave n collier Coal Carter.

Fiddler's Green A death was a fri ghtening event at sea.

Fishermen avoided speakin g to p riests dressed in black or lawyers, grim serious men, just before setting sail because they had an aura of demise. Superstitions co ncern ing ghosts led to elaborate burial ceremonies at sea. Sh rouding the body with sailcloth and placing weigh rs on the body ensured that the corpse sank to the depths of rhe sea called Davy Jones' (D evil Jonah 's) locker. T h e spirit of the sailor wo uld then enter "Fiddler's Green," an underwater h eaven for mariners presided over by a kindly wi tch known as M other Carey. If a violent storm was about to appear on the ocean above, M other Carey wo uld transfo rm h er ghos rly seamen into stormy petrels so that they could squawk and swoop about a ship to warn the mariners of the approaching danger.

W hen an unmarried m an was lost at sea, after an appro priate passage of rime his possessions were auctioned off to the crew.

The seaman who acquired a more personal item like a shirr, pipe or razo r wo uld nor dare to use it until the vessel had docked at home fo r fear of offen d ing the former shipmate's ghosr. 4 Such a death fo cused th e m inds of those left behind on the omens they should have heeded, or noticed . T hey often talked of the departed shipmate, relating d reams or unusual behavior that mighrhave predicted the calamity that roo k him away. An accident on board made bystanders remember some litrle circums tance that m ight be considered a forewarning. T herefore it fo llows that fishermen as a group put great faith in the predictions of fo rtune-tellers, and the business of fo rtune tell ing thri ved in many porrs. 5 T he "srone fete" cerem onywas a mo urning custom grounded in superstition. T he grieving captain's widow or family wo uld prepare a feast on the one-year an niversary of the death of a captain lost at sea. Prior to the banquet a cooper wo uld build a cask, preferably from wood salvaged from th e

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

lost vessel or from a captain's sea chest. T he barrel wo uld then be vaguely rigged to resem ble the lost ship . T he widow wo uld honor one gues t by appo inting him first mate and he, in turn, selected a crew. T he "mate an d crew" then spent th e even ing drinki ng and singi ng, dragging the mock vessel fro m tavern to tavern. Ar an appointed hour the crew would smash the cask with stones until it fell apart to release the captain's spirit from his shi p so that he might enter heaven.

Another destructive ritual based on superstition was called rhe "dead horse ceremo ny, "6 although it was mo re commonl y a tradition of blue water sailors. T he crew of a vessel beat and burned a mock straw horse suspended in the rigging after working off their advanced wages that paid bills left beh ind on shore. This supposedly released a demon that deprived them of fiscal freedom- however temporarily.

Whistling Up a Breeze A constant concern at sea was weather, which was both a close friend and an unforgiving enemy. Superstitions about fog, storms, doldrums, and rogue waves abound.

Cloud forma tions, sky color, and wind directions all conjure supers titions relating to weather prediction. Sailors' p roverbs often embody accumulated fo lk wisdom on weather co ndi tions so important to shi ps at sea. Such was, fo r example, the time-honored adage: Red sky in the mo rning Sail ors rake warning; Red sky at night, Sailors' deligh r.

Sailors' oft-cited app rehension at "sun dogs"

(a halo around the sun) is also justified by meteorological science.

Others, however, defy rational interpretation. Killing a storm y petrel (Mother C arey's chicken) or an albatross could bring about a terrible gale.

Leaving a hatch cover bottom-side up or allowing it to fall into the hold wo uld invite huge rogue waves. Whisrling on deck might just provoke a hurricane, bur, paradoxically, if there was no wind at all, one could "whisrle up a breeze"presumably nor too loud or too long! T o assure a fair wind a sailor scratched the aft side of the mainmast with a knife. Ar night helmsmen plotted the direction of shooting stars that pointed toward the direction of fair winds . Carrying an umbrella on shipboard was very bad luck, a certain prelude to extremely violent wind.

Adverse weather and xe nophobia produced a weather-related variation of the Jonah concept. As an illustration, sailors of Finnish and Lapp ancestry were thought to be wizards with power over winds and storms. 7 It was considered a bad omen to have one on board a vessel because he might decide to induce a headwind to slow the progress of the ship . The crew might badger a man from one of these countries into turning the wind to the ship's favor.

Similarly men with certain Scottish family names such as Coull, Ross, and Whyte were thought to be unlucky on the fishing gro unds. 8

The Sacred Cod Superstitions that had lirrle bearing on the sailor's immediate welfare were srricrly adhered to in some communities. C arrying salt in one's pocket promoted good luck, particularl y when fishing. Avoiding being hit by the excrement of the sea gulls also averred misfortune. (Although some fishermen co nsidered a sea gull "strike" a sign of good luck because it was an unpleasant, bur common occurrence.) C hewing food while sewing clothing that yo u have not taken off evaded bad luck. O ne never left a bucket on deck because one might accidentally "kick the bucker" and fall overboard, presumably to one's dearh.9 Shellbacks never sat on an upside-down bucker on deck or passed a flag to a fellow sailor th ro ugh rhe rungs of a ladder or misfortune was sure to follow. An astute fis herman always left a few fish scales on deck when cl eaning up to attract fish for

29

With the crew clustered on the foredeck, the fishing schooner Henry Ford buries her lee rail.

(Photo: Morris Rosenfeld)

the next trip. A shark following a ship at sea struction of Sodom and Gomorrah; 31 was considered a particularly bad omen if December when Judas putatively hanged someone was sick on board. himself after his betrayal of Jesus. Fishing Superstitions related to health were com- on this day increased the likelihood of snagmon among fishermen. A potato in a pocket ging the body of a corpse wrapped in sailprevented rheumatism; a nutmeg cured cloth from the deep. Another fateful date scrofulous, an infectious disease of lymph was Candlemas, the Christian festival that glands that was commonly seen on the commemorates the ritual purification of neck. For seasickness, one drank seawater Mary forty days after the birth of Jes us. and tea and ate a dry biscuit, pickles, and a Candlemas, 2 February, also has heathen lot of pork fat, etc. Ingesting the liquid roots as it is a cross-quarter day, halfWay from a barrel containing the collected livers between the winter solstice and the spring of codfish cured anemia. Drinking plenty equinox. Some early Christian European of" iron water" maintained health on board. culrures continued to celebrate this Roman ("Iron water" was rainwater in a barrel on solar holiday (Saturnalia). It is not clear the deck that also contain an old cannon why sailing on this day should be an ill ball. The rusting iron ball provided just the omen, other than that the weather was very right "dose of iron" to prevent all sorts of unkind at this time of year. 11 ailments.) One wore earrings to cure poor Combining faith and superstition, voeyesight, but if only one eye was bad, the tive ship models were given to churches to earring was placed on the ear opposite the be suspended alofr over the congregation weak eye. Lucky bones, lucky stones, and so that they might also receive God's blesscertain fruit pits acted as prophylactics, a ing. Many fishing communities set aside good thing to carry for pleasurable eve- one day for a blessing of the entire fleet by nings on shore. A freshly cut piece of pine a prelate. Certainly fishermen commonly rubbed into a fishhook or fish-dressing wore amulets and religious medals. Merwound enhanced healing. Counting the chant sailors made ships in bottles, but warts found on your body aloud decreased votive crucifix scenes in bottles were a their number. The crossing of fingers prevalent crafr of the fishermen. warded off bad luck, as did spitting in your Thus fishermen, so preoccupied with hat. As a last resort snapping a piece of dry observing their surroundings, saw omens wood might cause "a lucky break" for a in every sign, action, or inaction. The Comfisherman. 10 monwealth of Massachusetts was caught Sailing on specific days of the week had up in one superstition and provided a good certain significance. One shunned sailing luck symbol for its fishermen, the very ona Friday because it was thedayofChrist's object of the fisherman's quest, a fish. A crucifixion. An alternate pagan explanation venerable gilded codfish hangs in the State was that Friday was named after Frigga House ofMassachusetts. This wooden icon (Freya) the vengeful Norse goddess, wife of was first placed in the Old State House that Odin, who did harm to men who sailed on was the seat of government prior to the her day. Other days to avoid were the first Revolution. The so-called "Sacred Cod" day of April, the putative birthday of Cain moved with the changing halls of governand the day he slew Abel; the second Mon- ment in 1798 and again in 1895. It was day of August, the anniversary of the de- ceremoniously carried "by three represen-

30

tatives in a procession escorted by the sergeant-at-arms. As they entered the new chamber, the venerable members of the legislature rose and gave a vigorous round of applause." 12 Superstition suggests that, as long as the emblem hangs there, the inhabitants of the Commonwealth will have good fortune.

Many of the men who went down to the sea in ships believed these superstitions, but there are no data about how deeply they permeated broader society. Like l 9thcentury fishermen, most of us perform small acts based on superstition without realizing it. These riruals are not likely to affect an upcoming event, but they give us confidence and peace of mind. Therefore superstitions, a human invention, are a hoped-for protection from some of our very human vulnerabilities. J,

Dr. Norton is professor emeritus at the University of Connecticut Health Center and author of Joshua Barney: Hero of the Revolution and 1812 (Annapolis MD: Naval Institute Press, 2000).

1. Cooper, James Fenimore, The Red Rover (New York: Putnam, 1850) 2. TheHolyBible,Jonah 1:15 3. Merchanr, Roberr, Oral Hisrory inrerview recording by Virginia Jones (Mystic CT: Mystic Seaport Museum, G. W. Blunt White Library, 1 April 1978) 4. Dana, Richard Henry, Two Years Before the Mast (New York: D. Appleron and Co., 1899) 5. Loverre, Leland Pearson, Naval Customs, Traditions and Usage (Annapolis, MD: United Srates Naval Institute, 1939), 267.

6. ibid. , 49.

7. Beck, Horace, Folklore and the Sea (Middlerown CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1973) 8. Rappaport, Angelo. Superstitions of Sailors (London: Stanley Paul and Co., Ltd., 1928), 258.

9. op cit., Merchant.

10. Shay, Frank, An American Sailor's Treasury: Sea Songs, Chanteys, Legends, and Lore (New York: W.W. Norron Company, 1951), 302.

11. Rappaporr, 260.

12. Kurlansky, Mark. Cod: A Biography ofthe Fish that Changed the World (New York: Walker and Company, 1997), 79.

The gilded Sacred Cod in the State House of Massachusetts (Courtesy of the Massachusetts Archives)

SEA HISTORff 10 I, SUMMER 2002

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Cmising up the J{udson on the steamer Afary Powe[{ in 1890 The view north up the Hudson River toward the Catskills is seen from the upper deck of the steamboat Mary Powell as she heads home to Rondout, New York, on a summer evening in 1890. Approaching on the left is the freight schooner Lizzie A. Tolles with a cargo of brick on deck. She, in turn, is passing the Esopus Meadows Lighthouse, which was built in 1871 and still stands today. Coming downriver in the farther distance is the steamboat M. Martin of the Newburgh-Albany line. In years past, the traveling public delighted in the re-

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A Norwegian Renaissance Two Ships, a Shipyard and a Pioneering Legacy

by OlafT. Engvig Ten years ago in Sea History (SH 64, pp

4H7), OlafEngvigreported on the initial stages of the restoration of the Norwegian steam schooner Va:rdalen. He returned the vessel to Trondheim, the port from which she was launched in 1891, and brought together skilled craftsmen and unemployed youth in an abandoned repair yard for a job-training program funded by local government.

Today, the vessel is in a shipyard in Rissa undergoing the final stages ofrestoration that will allow her to voyage once again in her home waters and elsewhere.

T

wo ships representing the pioneering spirit of two different cenruries are sharing a shipyard in Norway.

T he docks at Fosen Mekaniske Verksteder in Rissa are witnessing old and new in ship design and engineering with the restora-

'

32

tion of a 110-year-old cargo ship and the building of a vessel showcasing new developments in the concept of seaborne homes.

The first Pacific steam schooner was built in San Francisco in 1888 to serve in the lumber industry on the West Coast of the US. T hese hybrid vessels powered by sail and steam carried cargo and passengers along the coast crewed predominandy by the so-called "Scandinavian Navy" of recent immigrants. T hree years later, Vt£rdalen became the fi rst European copy of the new ship type. In 189 1, shipbuilders and designers came together at T rondhjcms Mck. Verksted to furth er develop this American inve ntion fo r the lumber industry in Norway. While the early steam schooners on the American West Coast were built enti rely of wood , Vt£rdalen was constructed in steel and iron.

What the builders of the Vt£rdalen came

up with proved , in fact, to be a proto type for the world tonnage of today. It was a cargo/passenger vessel in steel, with th e engine, superstructure and passenger accommodations all the way aft. In the 1890s, she was not considered a real ship, but a barge fo r lumber, and it earned her several derogatory nicknames. In those days a steamer was expected to be "balanced," with the power plant, wheel, charthouse and funnel in the middle of the ship and at least one mas t on each side. A raised forecasde and poop at each end were also included in commo n ship design.

The odd-looking Vt£rdalen, however, with her 8. 5-by-2.75-meter hatch in the middle of the ship proved to be a winner just like her American sis ters. She managed to make a pro fir when all competing vessels steamed in the red o r went bankrupt. T his first little No rwegian lumber schooner, providing postal services and inexpensive tickets, steamed in regular fjord routes with passengers, cargo and livestock for 56 years and continued as a coastal freighter for another 30 years before she finally was laid up at 86 years old. Fosen Mekaniske Verksteder in Rissa, where the V£rdafen is today, is located only twen ty miles from the Tro ndheim yard where she was built.

T he W orld being fitted out with custom- She has fi nally come home for the las t part made condominiums in the final stages of of her restoration.

Next to this innovation of a time long construction. (Alfphotos courtesy the author.) gone, another p roject materialized. The World, owned by ResidenSea, is another prototype, the lo ng-time dream of Knut Ulstein Kloster, Jr. , the man who transfo rmed the laid- up France into the cruise ship Norway. New challenges and setbacks came with his plan for a ship with spacious luxury apartments on seven decks for people who want to spend part of the year "living at sea around the world. " In a fierce international competition Fosen won the contract fo r The Wo rld, a vessel which received the No rdic shipping magazine Skipsrevyen' s Ship of the Year Award for 2001. The World set out on her first voyage in M arch.

Coastal skipper Jens Bye opened the yard in 196 1 to build improved coastal tonnage. Today it is headed by his daughter, Anna Synn0ve Bye. Rissa is a rural communi ty acflOss the fjord from Trondheim, best knO\wn fo r its many farms, but today fo rmer fai rmers and farmhands are ship builders, vworking on big passenger SEA HISTQ)RY 101 , SUMMER 2002

,

Regatta Press

Two pioneers share a shipyard-Va:rdalen with The World in the background.

and car ferri es before taking on the challenge of constructing The World.

Rissa was once a Viking stro nghold, and the pioneering spirit of seafaring and longship co nstruction those Norwegians left behind is still alive a thousand years later. Vikings sailed past Rissa going into or leaving Trondheim, the Viking capital.

They roamed the No rth Atlantic Ocean, and Leif Eriksson became the first named man to build a home in North America.

His voyage started in Trondheim.

With such tradition it is just natural to take on new and unknown challenges. Anna Sy11110ve Bye is a true bearer of the Viking spirit. Back in the Viking Age, women had a lot of power that persists today. Not only did this brave woman win the fierce competition to build this prototype, she also found time to look back and help restore another prototype, of 110 years ago.

In order to bring pride and self-esteem to new generations it is important to move ahead, but also to save and protect items from the past to make today's people proud of their ancesto rs and what they achieved.

The little steam schooner Vterdalen next to The World gave every visitor to Fosen a clear understanding of how far we have come in ship construction over the last hundred years.

1.

OlafEngvigpreviously restored the iron sail/ steamship Hansteen of 1866 and has been instrumental in saving and restoring other ships in Norway and elsewhere. For this work he has been awarded two prestigious medals from the king ofNorway.

For more information on The World, go to the web site at www.ResidenSea.com or call 800 970-6601 or 3 05 779-3399.

Wapama: The Last American Steam Schooner Of the more than 225 wooden Pacific steam schooners built on the West Coast of the United States around the turn of the last century, only one survives. That is the Wapama, built in 1915 and now resting on a barge at Point Richmond, California, awaiting a federal grant that will allow the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park to restore her.

The National Park Service has requested more than $3 million as a line item construction proj ect to stabilize the ship .

A unique American design, the vessels plied dangerous coastal waters carrying huge loads of lumber and other cargo as well as passengers. Articles in Sea H istory 79 and 83 document the history of the Wapama and the SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

reminiscences of the crews of the steam schooners as collected by Karl Kortum, founder ofNMHS and the San Francisco Maritime Museum.

The Wapama survives thanks to the dedication ofNMHS members, particularly Ed Z elinsky and RADM Tom Patterson in California, who refused to give up when the Park Service found itself considering scrapping the vessel due to a lack of funds .

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- Royal Naval Sailing Association " ... a fine, well researched, and readable document of historical importance."

-Geoffrey L. Haskins, International Hydrographic Review " ... this is a most enjoyable book, providing welcome documentation of another pioneering aspect of British marine history."

- Alan Haugh, Geomatics World "This book is highly enjoyable and a valuable work of scholarship."

-Gillian Hutchinson, IMCoS Journal

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The Wapama in Sausalito in the 1990s

fb- Regatta Press fbPO Box 6525 Ithaca, NY 14851-6525 USA Fax: 1-800-688-2877 or 1-607-277-6292 Phone: 607-277-2211 orderbook@cupserv.org

33

SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & MUSEUM NEWS SPUN YARN The Colum bia River Maritime M useum celebrated its 40th anniversary in May 2002. The museum in Astoria, Oregon, was fo unded in 1962 by graphic artist and marine artifact collector Rolf Klep. T he ann iversary coincides with the christening of rhe newly expanded facility. A $6-million remodeling project increased exhibit

The Columbia River Maritime Museum

space by 16 percent, allowing the insrallarion of a hose of new exhibits featuring Coast Guard rescue missions on rhe treacherous Columbia River Bar, local salmo n fishing, and navigation of rhe Columbia.

The museum also focuses on fur trade, exploration, local vessels, and naval history as well as rhe retired US Coast Guard Lightshi p Columbia. (CRMM, 1792 Marine Drive, Astoria OR 97103; 503 3252323; web sire: www.crmm.org) ... The Wisconsin M aritim e Museum recently installed the fully restored 67-ton triple expansion steam engine previously used aboard the 1911 carferry Chief Wawatam

The triple expansion steam engine from the carferry Chief Wawatam

as the first major exhibit in its $6.1-million renovation and expansion project. (WMM, 75 Mari rime Drive, Manitowoc WI 54220; 920 684-0218; web sire: www.wimaririme museum.org) ... The Iowa-class battleship New J ersey (BB 62) opened in October 2001 on rhe Camden, New Jersey,

34

waterfro nt. "Big J" was built ar rhe Philadelphia Naval Shipyard and launched in 1942. T hro ugh World War II, rhe Ko rean War, the Vietnam War and rhe Beirut Crisis, she earned 19 battle stars, becoming the co untry's most deco rated battleship.

O perated by the Ho me Port Alliance, rhe ship is rhe centerpiece of a waterfront development program that Camden hopes will be the impetus fo r the eco nomic revival of rhe impoverished city. O n Monday, 15 O ctober, more rhan 400 peo ple to ured the ship; rhe following Saturday approximately 1,000 visitors came aboard.

(25 00 Bro adway, Bldg. Pl , PD # l 8, Camden NJ 08104; 856 966- 1652; e-mail: homeportaltiance@aol. co m; Battleship New Jersey M useum, 62 Bardeship Place, Camden NJ 081 03; 856 877-6262) . . .

T he new twin sail training brigantines IrvingJohnson and Exy J ohnson, built by rhe Los Angeles Maritime Institute, were launched to great fanfare on 27 April, under rhe watchful eye of Exy Johnson.

T he 110-foot, 128-ton state-of-the-art wooden vessels will set sail in late summer, enabling rhe LAMI to increase rhe number of yo urh participating in irs TopSail Program to more than 10,000 per year. Mayor

Launching day in LA (Photo: Hal Barstow)

James H ahn proclaimed rhe vessels and their crews "The Official Tall Ships and Mari rime Ambassadors of rhe City of Los Angeles." (LAMI, Berth 84, Foot of 6rh Street, San Pedro CA 9073 1; 3 10 8336055; web site: www. brigantines.com) ...

T he Schooner Virginia Project, initiated with the goal of providing an educational and cultural link to the maritime heritage of the colony and rhe commonwealth of Virginia, is developing plans to build a replica of the 118-foot pilot schooner Virginia, which was owned and operated by the Virginia PilorAssociation from 1917 to 1926 and was rhe last sailing pilot schooner in use on the Chesapeake Bay. Pere (Contin ued on page 36)

TALL SHIPS C HALLENGE 2 002

Tall Ships Challenge 2002 is raki ng place on rhe Pacific Coast in August and September, organized by rhe American Sail Training Association in conjunction 'with host ports in the US and Canada. You can see the ships in: • Richmond, British Columbia: 8-12 August (Richmond Tall Ships 2002, City of Richmond, 69 11No.3 Road, Richmond BC, V6Y2C l , Canada; 866 264-7447 or604 233-3335; e-mail: info@richmondtallships.ca; web site: www. richmondrallships.ca) • Seattle, Washingto n: 15-19 August (Mari time Heritage Foundation, 1000 Valley Street, Searde WA 98109; 206 447-2622; e-mail: info@sea rdeseaporr.org; web sire: www.tallshipssearde.org) • San Francisco, California: 28 Augusr-2 September (Sail San Francisco, T he Cannery, Second Floor, 280 1 Leavenworth Srreer, San Francisco CA 94 133; 4 15 447-9822; email: info@sailsanfrancisco .org; web site: www.sailsanfrancisco.org) • Los Angeles, California: 6--10 September (Los Angeles Mari rime Museum, Berch 84, Foot of6rh Street, San Pedro CA9073 1; 310 548-76 18; e-mail: rallships@lamaririmemuseum.org; web sire: www.brigan rines.com/rallships/index.hrml) •San D iego, California: 12- 16 September (San Diego Mari rime Museum, 1492 N orth Harbor Drive, San D iego CA 92 101 ; 6 19 234-9 153, x l 26; web sire: www .sdmaririme.com) Races are scheduled to take place 20-27 August from Seattle to San Francisco and 2-5 September from San Francisco to Los Angeles. Parades of Sail are planned on rhe first day of rhe Tall Ships Chal lenge in each of rhe pores.

If yo u are interested in sailing on the participating ships, youth and adults can contact Ocean Voyages in Califo rnia ar 800 299-4444 or 4 15 332-468 1 or via e-mail ar sail@oceanvoyages .com. (Steve Baker, Race Director, ASTA, PO Box 1459, N ewport RI 02852; 401 846- 1775; e-mail: as ra@sailrraining. org; web site: rallships.sailtraining.org) SEA HISTORY 101, SUMMER 2002

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SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & MUSEUM NEWS

A model ofthe proposed Schooner Virginia Boudreau of Tri Coastal Marine has been selected to built the replica. The Schooner Virginia Project is in the midst of a $5.5million "B uilding Virginia" capital campaign, which has garnered $750,000 from th e Commonwealth of Virginia and $250,000 from rhe Virginia Department of Transportation through the T ransportation Enhancement Program. Construction will rake place in a publicly accessible site along the Elizabeth River on the Norfo lk, Virginia, waterfront. (SVP, 5000 World Trade Center, Norfolk VA 23510;

757 627-7400; web sire: www.schooner virginia.org) ... The Welland Canal berween Lakes Ontario and Erie spurred rhe development of vessels with a specific hull shape and rigging arrangement, but few, if any, of these sailing canal ships have survived. The wreck of one such vessel in Humber Bay, Lake Ontario, was examined and photographed last summer by a joint Canadian/US team led by East Carolina University student Kimberly Monk. The Welland Sailing Canal Ship Sligo, built as the barkentine Prince of Wales in 1860 and re-rigged in 187 4 as a three-masted schooner, was finally cut down in 1909 to a single-masted tow barge for carrying limesrone. Nine years later she was caught in a storm and sank. (Institute of Nautical Ar-

A photomosaic ofthe Sligo

chaeology, PO Drawer HG, College Station TX 7784 1; web sire:www.tamug.edu/ sligo) ... The Maine Memory Network (www.mainememory.net), a web site sponsored by the Maine Hisrorical Society, contains a growing collection of original historic photographs and documentsmany of which are relevant to the state's maritime history-from libraries, museums and historical societies in Maine.

(Maine Hisrorical Society, 489 Congress Street, Portland ME 04101; e-mail: info@mainememoty.net) ... Walter Lord, author of such successful books as A Night to Remember and Day ofInfamy, examining and popularizing historical events like the sinking of the Titanic and Pearl Harbor, died on 19 May 2002, atthe age of84 ....

T. M. (Mac) Deford has been selected as the new director of the Penobscot Marine Museum, replacing Renny Stackpole, who has been the museum's director for the past 13 years. Deford moved to Maine after retiring from Merrill Lynch International in 1997 and has served on a number

(Continued on page 38)

AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE MUSEUM NEWS: Do You Hear Me Down Below?

The American Merchant Marine Museum at the United States Merchant Marine Academy sponsors the Kings Point C hapter of the American Merchant Marine Veterans. The fraternal group of Long Island Veterans of World War II meet at the Museum the last Wednesday of each month. Under the leadership of chapter member Bernard Flarow, the Kings Point chapter sponsored the erection of a monument to the United States Merchant Marine in Eisenhower Park in Nassau County, New York. Ir was unveiled and dedicated at an impressive ceremony in the Park on National Maritime Day, 22 May 2002.

RADM Joseph Stewart, USMS, superintendent of the United Stares Merchant Marine Academy, was the speaker.

At the conclusion of the program, Mr. Flatow conducted a special recognition ceremony for those merchant mariners and Navy armed guard who gave their lives during the wars of the past 227 years. Ir was both unique and very couching. After recounting a bosun's traditional use of a pipe to "Pipe the side" as a mark of respect or honor for a person of high rank boarding or leaving the ship and its use during a funeral

36

as the coffin passes over the side, he gave a long blast on the bosun pipe and said: "Do you hear me down beneath the sea?

Do you hear me down below? I am calling all seamen who gave their lives serving in the merchant marine and the armed guard of the United States. This is Ensign Flatow of the United States Maritime Service and formerly Radio Officer on the Liberty ships Thomas Donaldson and Thomas Nuttall.

"I have been designated as chief bosun to conduct a special memorial service ro accord all you men who served bravely and gallantly from 1775 , the rime of the Revolutionary War, and throughout all wars.

We have not forgotten you!

"We know of your hardships and the sickness, disease and starvation by the British during your incarceration aboard the British prison ships anchored in Wallabout Bay. We know of the pain and suffering inflicted by the Germans when they sank your ship in World War I, and we know of the pain, suffering and hypothermia inflicted by the Germans and Japanese when they sank yo ur ship in World War II, and the terrible treatment yo u received in prisoner-of-war camps.

"We remember the Barde of the Atlantic, rhe Murmansk Run, North Africa, Sicily,Anzio, Normandy. You participated in every invasion in the Pacific-Guadalcanal, Bougainville, Tarawa, Eniwetok, Guam, Saipan, Tinian, the Philippines, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and countless other islands, too numerous to mention.

"We don't know exactly how many of you are out there since few of the records kept were accurate, bur you know who you are and you know the name of the ship on which yo u served and gave your life. I don't have the n ames of the 866 ships sunk during World War II, or the names of other ships sunk during the past 227 years, but when I pipe you aboard, I want all those who served to muster on the quarterdeck of your ship to receive the recognition and honor you all deserve.

"I will now pipe you aboard," with a blasron the bosun pipe. "Since you are now all assembled on your ships, I will ask all present here ro stand at attention to honor our depaned shipmates."

CAPT. CHARLES RENICK, Pres. Emeritus

(AMMM, USMMA, King.> Point NY 11024;

516 773-5515; e-mail- ammmuseum@aoLcom) SEA HISTORY 101, SUMMER 2002

Old &Rare Maritime Books Bought and Sold

A spirit of hard work, enterprise & cooperation sailed the tall ships of yesterday & the Liberty Ships of World War IL.. and that's what makes things move today!

BAY REFRACTORY

• Explorarion and voyages by sea • Shipbuilding, seamanship and navigarion • Naval hisro ry •Whaling • Yachring and Cru ising • Com mercial fisheries • Lighrhouses, pirares and shipwrecks • Logbooks, documems and manuscriprs • Sea charrs • Buoks relaring ro marine arr, antiques and ship models

We are eager to purchase single volumes or entire coLLections in these subject areas.

Ten Pound Island Book Co. 76 Langsford Street, Gloucester, MA 01930 (978) 283-5299 e-mail: tenpound@shore.net web: www.tenpound.com Catalog available on request.

164 Wolcott Street Brooklyn, NY 11231 Tel: 7 18-625-3844 SINCE 1976

Help our historic ships deliver their message!

At 1h off the list price, buy a copy of this vital compendium for yourself or your local school or library.*

International Register of Historic Ships

by Norman J. Brouwer The third edition of the World Ship Trust's authoritative Register, published with Sea History Press, is the most comprehensive listing of surviving historic ships ever published, featuring nearly 2,000 historic ships from over 50 countries. The Register delivers the full story, providing updates on restoration projects, remains of historic ships preserved in museums, and contact information for all the vessels.

Price: $50 for the hardcover edition; $30 softcover, plus $5 each shipping and handling in the USA. ($10 Foreign shipping, surface mail) Price for members of the National Mari time Historical Society ( l 0% member's discount) : $45hc; $27sc + $5s/h. * Order 3 copies or more, and we'll bring the discount to 50% off to get the word out: $37.50 hardcover, $23 softcover.

To order by credit card, call

800 221-NMHS (6647), or pay by check and mail your order to:

National Maritime Historical Society, PO Box 68, Peekskill NY 10566.

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

37

SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT &

LEN TANTILLO A View of Troy, New York, 1847 Giclee signed limited print editions, 14 x 24 in. $ 150 - 22 x 35 in. $250 L. F. Tantillo, Fine Art, 243 Irish Hill Road, Nassau, NY 12 123

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Historic New York Har6or Comes to Life on noreca rds illusrrared by

Wiaiam G. Muller 3

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2 The Lav inia Campbell (Holiday) 3 The Wavertree of 1885 (blank) 4 Box of pre·mixed cards

rCards --------------measure 6 x 4'h inches. Box of ten with white en1 /4

1 velopes: $13.95 (or $ 12.55 for NMHS members). All orders I add $3.50 s&h. (NYS residents add applicable sales tax .)

I Send check or money order to I NMHS, PO Box 68, Peekskill NY 10566

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38

of boards in Maine, including serving as president of the Board at the Farnsworth Museum and Wyeth Center in Rockland, Maine. (PMM, Church Street, PO Box 498, Searsport ME 0497 4-0498; 207 5482529; web site: www.penobscotmarine museum.erg) ... Maritime museums and cultural organizations in The Netherlands are recognizing the 400th anniversary of the founding of the Dutch East India Company in 1602 with exhibits and other commemorations. Many events are noted on the web site www.VOC2002.nl. Ongoing exhibits are being held at the Nederlands ScheepvaartmuseumAmsterdam (tel: 31 (20) 52 32 222; web site: www.scheep vaartmuseum.nl), the M aritiem Museum Rotterdam (tel: 31 (10) 4 13 26 80; web site: www.maritiemmuseum.nl), Amsterdam Historical Museum (tel: 31 (20) 523 18 22; web site: www.ahm.nl), and the Batavia Yard in Lelystad (tel 31 (320) 26 14 09; web site: www.bataviawerf.nl) ....

A new group, "Keepers of Mispillion Light," is working to acquire, save and restore the 1872 lighthouse in Delaware, named "Most Endangered Lighthouse in the United States" by Lighthouse Digest in 2001. (KML, PO Box 148, Milford DE 19963; LD , PO Box 1690, Wells ME 04090; 207 646-0515; web site: www .LighthouseDigest.com) ... The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Mid-Atlantic Region in Philadelphiahasopened "Beacons on the Shore: Lighthouses of the Mid-Atlantic Region," an exhibit focusing on several themes including the architectural evolution, technological development, and maintenance oflighthouses. The exhibit, open through 11 January 2003, features architectural drawings and documents from the records of NARA, Mid-Atlantic Region, photographs from the Still Pictures Branch of NARA, lighthouse models, and artifacts donated by private citizens. (Robert N .C. Nix Federal Building, Chestnut St. between 9th and 10th Streets, Philadelphia PA; 215 5975694)

Full information on these and other stories is in Sea History Gazette, January/February-March/April 2002. To subscribe, send $18. 75 (+$10forforeign postage) to NMHS, PO Box 68, Peekskill NY I 0566. For credit card orders, call I 800 221-NMHS (6647), xO, or sign up onlineatwww.seahistory.org.

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

MUSEUM NEWS CALENDAR Festivals, Events, Lectures, Etc. • Boats, Books & Brushes, with Taste!: 6-8 September 2002, a li terary, arts, food and maritim e event in New London CT (Chamber of Commerce of Eastern Co nn ecti cut, 860 443-8332; web sire: www.sai lnewlo ndon.com) • Boston Antique & Classic Boat Festival: 24-25 August 2002, in Salem MA (16 Presron Road, Somerville MA 02 143; 6 17 666-8530; web site: by-the-sea.com/bacbfes ti val) • Maine Maritime Museum: 2 1 September 2002: Class ic Boat &Antique Engine Rend ezvous (243 Washin gron St., Bath M E 04530; 207 443-1316; web site: www.barhm ai ne.com) • Newport International Boat Show: 1215 September 2002 (366 Th ames Street, PO Box 698, Newport RI 02840; 401 846- 111 5; web site: www.newpo rrboa tshow.co m) • Tuckerton Seaport: 17-18 Au gust 2002, 3rd Annual Class ic Boat Festival (1 20 W est Mai n Street, PO Box 52, T uckerto n NJ 08087; 609 296-8868; e-mail : T uckcpo n @aol.com; web site: www.tuckertonseaporr.o rg) • Victoria Real Estate Board & Monday Publications Classic Boat Festival: 30 August- 1 September 2002 (3035 Nanaimo St. , Victoria BC, VST 4W2, Canada; 250 385-7766; web site: www. vreb.org) • Wooden Boat Foundation: 30 Au gusr-5 Septemb er 2002, Symposium o n Wooden Boat Bui ldin g; 6- 8 September 2002, 26th Annu al W ooden Boat Festival (380 Jefferso n Street, Port T ownsend WA 9836 8; 360 3853628; web site: www.woodenboa t. o rg)

Conferences • American Lighthouse Foundation: 1721 Sep rem ber 2002, Internacional Ligh rho use Co nference in N ew Bedford MA (PO Box 889, Wells ME 04090; 207 646-0 245; web sire: www.lighrhousefoundation. o rg) •Historic Naval Ships Association: 14- 18 Septemb er 2002, 37rhAnnual Co nference in Buffalo NY (Channi ng M. Z ucker, 4640 H oylake Drive, Virginia Beach VA 23462; 757 499- 1044; fax: 757 499-0440; e- mail : hnsaOl @aol. com; web sire: www. hnsa.o rg) • CALL FOR PAPERS: International Conference on Maritime Heritage in Malta: 2426 March 2003. Send proposals by 27 September 2002 to Conference Secretari at, Maritim e Heritage 2003, Wessex Insti tute ofTechnology, Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southam pron, S0 40 7AA, UK; 44 (238) 29 3223; fax: 44 (238) 29 2853; web sire: www.wessex.ac. uk/ co nferences/2003/herirage03/.

Exhibits • Australian National Maritime Museum: 28 March-24 N ovember 200 2, "Oceans Apart: The Story of Ann & Matth ew Flinders" (Darling H arbour, Sydney, NS W Australi a; (2) 9298 3777; web sire: www.a nmm .gov.au)

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

• Calvert Marine Museum: from 6 April 2002, "Sirens & Sirenians" (PO Box 97, Solomons MD 20688; 4 10 326-2042; web sire: www. calve rtm arin emuse um.com) • Custom House Maritime Museum: from 15 July 2002, "Ware rfow ling by Boat: A Vanishing Traditi on in th e G reat M arsh" (25 Water Street, Newburypo rt MA 019 50; 978 462-868 1) • Fort Miami Heritage Society: M ay 20022004, "Shared Wate rs: Na ti ves and French Newcomers on rh e G rea r Lakes" (Priscilla U. Byrns H eritage Center, 708 Marker Street, Sr. Joseph MI 49085; 6 16 983- 1191 ; web sire: www.forrmiami .org/ priscilla.html) • HerreshoffMarineMuseum: from27 April 2002, "The Mushrooms: T he Story Behind Scars & Stripes Challenges" and "Sail-Making in th e D ays of Ca nvas" (1 Burnside Street, PO Box 450, Bristol Rl 02809; web site: www. herreshoff. org) • Hudson River Maritime Museum: from April 2002, "35 0 Yea rs of Hudson River Maritim e Histo ry" (1 Rondour Landing, Kingsto n NY 12401 ; 845 338-007 1) • Maine Maritime Museum: 9 August- D ecember 2002, "Dirigo: Portrait of a Ship," America's first steel squ are ri gger (243 Washington Street, Bath ME 04530; 207 44313 16; web site: www. barhmaine.com) •Michigan Historical Museum: 12 January- 18 August 2002, "Schooner in the Sand: U nlockin g th e Secrets of a G reat Lakes Shipwreck" (7 17 W es t Allegan Street, Lansing MI 48909; 517 373-3559; web sire:www.sos.state .mi.us/ histo ry/ muse um) •Michigan Maritime Museum : from 28 April 2002, "Eastland:Ameri ca's G rear M ari tim e Disaster" (260 Dyckm an Avenue, South H aven MI 49090; 800 747-3810 ; web sire: www. mi chi ganmaritimemuseum.org) •National Archives, Mid-Atlantic Region, Philadelphia: 28 January 2002-11 January 2003: "Beacons on th e Shore: Lighthouses of th e Mid-Atlantic Region" (Robert N. C. N ix Federal Building, C hestnut Street, Philadelphi a PA; 2 15 597-5 694) • Scandinavia House: 17 April- 16 August 2002, "Scandia: Important Early Maps of the N orthern Regions and Maps and C harts of N orway from the Collection of William B. and Inger G. Gins berg" (58 ParkAvenu e, N ew York NY 10016; 21 2 879-9779; web sire: www.scandinaviahouse.o rg) • South Street Seaport Museum : from 23 March 2002, "All Ava ilable Boats: H arbor Vo ices & Images 9.11 .01 " (207 Front Street, New York NY 10038; 2 12 748-8600; web sire: www.so urhsrseaporr. org) • Staten Island Institute ofArts & Sciences: from 12 June 2002, "20th Ce ntu ry Staten Island Ferryboats" (75 Stuyvesant Place, Staten Island NY 10301-1 998; 7 18 727- 11 35)

SEA HISTORY

BOOl{S COMMODORE KILBURNIE An Age of Sail Novel

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CROSSWORD PUZZLE NOW WHERE DID ACROSS 5 Heroes of this type of tale were popular figureheads.

7 One of the new sail training vessels launched in LA 8 Churchill offered his "blood, toi l, and swear. " 9 The character who becomes Sr. George 12 Churchill's burial site 14 Trawler that went aground in the Koksoak River 16 Head of the Fosen Mekaniske Verksreder 21 Type of merchantman converted for battle 23 Agreement worked out between Roosevelt and Churchill in August 1941 24 One of these troupes visited a subarctic base in the summer of 1943.

26 Ship named after work by Spenser 28 Artist featured in this issue 33 Author of Tam o 'Shanter 34 Name of plan to build airstrips in the subarctic to ferry planes to Europe 35 One of the ships bringing supplies to Crystal II 39 Trawler assigned to Fort Chimo 40 River from which Edward III departed in June 1340 41 Civilian employee of the Army Trans port Service responsible for locating ships to ferry men and equipment to subarctic sires 42 Arctic explorer now sailing as the Ernestina

45 Acronym for the Havengore project 47 WWII could not have been won without these 2700 merchant ships.

49 Two-masted vessels square rigged ori the foremast and fore-and-aft rigged on the mainmast 50 Last surviving example of the American clipper, parts of which were recovered from the Falklands 52 Time of day in the painting "Coffee's Ready" 53 Froissart described the Battle ofSluys as "right_ and terrible. " 54 One of these could be placed in bread or pudding to discover a Jonah on board a fishing boat.

DOWN Bodyofwateron which 19 Down takes place

40

I READ ABOUT THAT?

2 This maritime museum celebrated its 40th anniversary this year.

3 Fishermen attempted to explain and ward off this terminal event.

4 Edward III led his fleet against this fleet.

6 A day on which fishermen were reluctant to sail 10 See 54 Across 11 The Bartle ofSluys was instrumental in launching this conflict.

13 The Vierdalen is this type of vessel built for the lumber trade.

15 The freighter Arlyn was torpedoed in this strait on its way to Crystal II. 17 A mourning ceremony held a year after the death of a captain lost at sea 18 Bay selected for site of Crystal II 19 Watermen's contest 20 Author of Ivanhoe 22 This vessel's engine is newly on display at the Wisconsin Maritime Museum.

25 The Vierdalen is being restored in this Norwegian port.

27 An organization founded on the principles of 23 Across

29 Human inventions to explain and control natural phenomena 30 This long-nosed hero is featured on a yacht's bow.

31 Lead agency involved in 34 Across 32 Painting fearuring fishermen worshipping on a Banks schooner 34 Phrase coined by Churchill to describe the conflict between East and West after WWII 36 Adamastor is the personification of this Site.

37 British prime minister during WWII 38 A forbidden activity on a fishing boat 43 This type of water was thought to cure ailments.

44 Site rejected by Hubbard as the final departure point for ships going to subarctic air bases 46 This structure was added to merchantmen to turn them into warships.

48 Island U1sed as site for Crystal II and III 51 River wrhere Philip's fleet awaited Edward (Answers on page 43)

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

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The Art of the Sea

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2003

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SEA HISTORY 101, SUMMER 2002

The glory and beauty of ships and the sea have in spired great works of art through the centuries and continue to inspire the artists of today. Brilliant images, from fullri gged ships and fishing schooners to grand ocean lin ers, workaday tug s and small pleasure craft, fill this cale ndar and will brighten your days. Royalties from sales of this calendar benefit the National Maritime Historical Society. Calendar is wall hanging, full color, 11x14 inches; $ 11.95 + $3.50 s/h. Send $15.45 (or $ 14.25 for NMHS me mbers) to :

NMHS , PO Box 68, Peekskill NY 10566 Or order by credit card by phoning:

1-800-221-NMHS (6647) 41

IEWS Demon of the Waters: The True Story of the Mutiny on the Whaleship Globe, by G regory Gibson, illusrrared by Erik Ronnberg (Lirde, Brown and Co., Bosron MA, N ew York N Y and London UK, 2002, 320pp, illus, notes, biblio, index, ISBN 03 16-29923-5; $24.95hc) T he grain of blood-stained sand ar rhe heart of rhis pearl of a yarn is rhe murderous career ofSamuel Comstock, rhe "strange young man," as Gibson calls him, who, despising family and friends and rhe privileged career open to him in rhe palmy days of New England whaling, decided to acr our a grisly fa ntasy in which he would seize a whaling ship, kill its officers, and rhen, after serding in on a Sourh Pacific island, kill rhe resr of rhe crew and reign as solitary monarch of a native kingdom, wirh women and slaves to do his every bidding.

Comstock was a capable, arhleric yo ung man as well as a born killer, and in 1824 he seized rhe whaleship Globe, promising a select group of henchmen a life of ease, sexual delights and Iuxury ashore. His consran r rh rears of death to anyone who stepped our of line were effective wirh rhe resr of rhe crew; such rhrears carried considerable credibili ty in view of his casual killings. H e gor as far as rhe island, havi ng m urdered rhe captain and officers of rhe Globe, when one of his co-conspirators, seeming to have fa thomed his ulrimare purpose, murdered him.

We learn close-up and apparendy very rrue-to-life (and death) details of this tale from Samuel's yo unger bro ther George, who survived the mutiny and its aftermath.

George wro te a novel, A Voyage to the Pacific, published in 1838, fifteen years after the setting-out of the Globe on her fa ral voyage and, later, a biography of rhe brother he feared and coverdy admired.

Gregory G ibson, rare book dealer of G loucester, Massachusetts, came on this sto ry thro ugh the journal of a crew member aboard rhe warship rhar rescued che survivo rs of the mutiny, after a small contingent including George had fled the island, sail ing the Globe to Sourh America. A considerable scholar in his own right, G ibson saw possi ble sources of Melville's inspiration for Moby-Dick in this journal,

42

"sitting there in its own glow, having miraculously surfaced, like some ghost ship, with its own long-fo rgotten tale to rel!. " And herein lies the magic of G ibson's book, the gradual emergence into daylight of rhe ship, rhe trade she sailed in, rhe crews (remarkably yo ung) who manned these vessels, and the "web of consanguini ty, friendship and religion" that bound together rhe whaling community centered on Nantucket.

W e also learn in living, accurate detail how rhe Globe was framed up in white oak in a Connecricu t River town, how rhe ship was sailed with the duties of crew members made clear, and rhe overriding demands of discipline and instant response to orders on which the safe navigation of these old wind machines utterly depended.

We explore also the commercialworldofNewYo rk'sSourh Street, conducted in buildings that still stand today.

With such stars ofour profession as the wooden-shipbuilder Llewellyn H owland to advise on shipbuilding, Matthew Stackpole to guide him through rich archives of Nantucket and M artha's Vineyard, the modelmaker Erik Ronnberg to offer his encyclopedic knowledge of old ships (and to provide the exquisite drawings that accompany rhe rexr), and rhe fo lklorist Stuart Frank to offer a deeply info rmed humane perspective on seafarin g and seafarers, G ibson has done more rhan tell rhe tale of a mutiny-he offers us a recreated world of seafaring under sail.

T he reconstructed narrative of the cruise and mutiny is crisply told, bur it is in the boldly sketched and brilliandy colored evocation of the vanished wo rld of the whaling trade thar this reader found the greatest reward, in a book whose pages he will be sure to revisit in coming years.

PETER STANFORD

The D ictionary of Nautical Literacy, by Robert M cKenn a (International M arine, Camden M E, 2001 , 4 16pp, illus, ISBN 007- 136211 -8; $29.95hc) The language of the sea and things pertinent to the sea is different from the language of everyday life ashore. Of course, there are lots of words we all use often that

find their o rigins in the nautical lexicon.

T his volume, while not intended by its author to be complete, is not on ly filled with the common as well as the arcane, it is also fun to browse thro ugh, and I fo und that even rhe simple task oflooking something up took longer than I had expected as I paused just to thumb through the entries.

T he listings include sh ip names, battles, people (real and fictitio us), movies (yes, movies), literature, geography, and more.

It co ntains no t just wo rds, but phrases and expressions as well. If it has to do wich rhe sea, it stands a good chance of being listed.

So me listings are whimsical-" submarine races" comes to mind-some are very serious-" Battle ofT rafalgar"-and some are esoteric-"Mohawk" (a US-flagged passenger vessel that collided with a Norwegian mo torship and sank in 19 3 5) . Regardless of the category, the entries are thoughtful, succinct, and clear. Some made me want to find our more, bur the defi nitio n shown was satisfactory to most needs. And M cKenna does a fin e job of explaining the significance and importance of each entry to the maritime culture.

I would unflinchingly recommend to anyo ne with an interest in things nautical- whether current or historical- that this volume belongs on their bookshelf.

You will find, as I did, that you will keep going back to it, just to browse-and learn .

W ILLIAM H. WHITE Author, Warofl812 Trilogy Rumson, New Jersey Bandits at Sea, A Pirates Reader, edited

by C. R. Pennell (University Press, New York NY, 2000 , 360pp, illus, notes, appen, index, ISBN 0-8147-6678- 1; $24.95pb) As Richard Pennell points out in his well-written introduction to th is collection of scholarly studies of piracy, since the publication of Treasure Island in 1883, and subsequent hij acking by J. M. Barrie, Gilbert and Sullivan, and H ollywood, pirates have been romanticized beyond reality.

W hile the literature is vast, until very recendy few writers discarded the myth , and most of those depended heavily if nor solely on two basic source books: Exquemelin's ill-intentioned Buccaneers ofAmerica (1678) and Johnscm' s General History ofthe Pyrates (1 724), wlhich might or might not have been written by D aniel D efoe. As a result, piracy is considered a "soft" to pic by aca-

SEA HISTORY 10 1, SUMMER 2002

demics. With the recent publication of several important books by scholars who made good use of archival sources, however, the subject is gai ning respectability enough to merit courses on piracy at university level.

Bandits at Sea is intended as a teaching aid in such courses and a starting place for serious examination of the history of pirates. As a scholarly guide, the coll ection works very well indeed. Through fourteen substantial studies, the inquiring student is presented with not just the history of piracy, but the economics, motivations, sexuality, ethnicity, geography and politics of pirates as well.

Particularly outstanding is a discussion of pirate homosexuality with the demure title "The Buccaneer Co mmunity ," authored by B. R. Burg, whose insight into the reasons men become seamen is quite extraordinarily inspiring. All of the essays are well worth th e time and effort of thorough perusal. The fact that they span such a great spread ofspace and time adds greatly to their value. While nothing jars, a consistent tone being adeptly maintained, there is controversy enough to stimulate some exciting debates. The editor is to be congratulated on his enterprise in masterminding such a thoroughly worthy and groundbreaking addition to the historiography of crime at sea.

historically little attention has been paid ro their construction and use.

Providing technical detail and fascinating vignettes of key players such as Robert Cyril Thompson, Henry Kaiser and William Francis Gibbs, Elphick has surveyed the literature to produce an excellent design and operational history. This work will be the standard history of Liberty ships for the foreseeable future.

HAROLD BOYER

Aston, Pennsylvania

Snow Squall: The Last American Clipper Ship, by Nicholas D ean (Maine Maritime Museum, Bath ME, and Tilbury House, Gardiner ME, 2001, 30lpp, illus, biblio, index, ISBN 0-88448-231-6; $30hc) As the last surviving example of that fabled breed of ship, the American clipper, the Snow Squall is vital ly important as an icon and as an archaeological treasure. The main body of this book is concerned with the history of the vessel, following her voyaging career from 1852 to 1864, while short sections at the beginning and end by archaeologist David Switzer describe the expeditions to the Falkland Islands to document the ship and recover pans of the hull for analysis, conservation and display.

We should be very appreciative of the efforrs made by all involved in bringing back a large portion of her hull. The fact that these remnants had to be cut up and JOAN DRUETT Wellington, New Zealand sent to four separate museums-Portland H arbor Museum and Maine Maritime Liberty: The Ships That Won the War, Museum in Maine, South Street Seaport

by Peter Elphick (Naval Institute Press, Museum in New York, and the San FranAnnapolis MD, 2001, 512pp, illus, appen, cisco Maritime National Historical Parkbiblio, index, ISBN 1-55750-535-7; $45hc) speaks to the lack of commitment in this The words "Liberty ship" evoke a vessel country to our maritime heritage. It is born of worldwide struggle, sacrifice and disgraceful that a well-funded comprehensuccess. British designed and American sive archaeological dig and salvage operaproduced, 2,710 were constructed during tion could not be mounted much earlier to the war. Retired master mariner Peter save more of her and the other ships in the Elphick tells the story of how the Liberty Falklands and elsewhere while millions are ship came to be, its impact on the war, and being spent to build alleged "replicas" of its importance to the merchant fleets of the wooden ships. world after the war.

This book should be read by anyone Between October 1941 and the end of with an interest in our maritime heritage, World War II American shipyards pro- and particularly by shipmodel builders induced approximately 5,000 merchant ships. tent on creating an American clipper ship, Of a total of 21.7-million gross tons of who wi ll benefit from the excellent photoshipping lost during the war, Liberty ship graphs and highly detailed ship's lines and co nstruction replaced 19 .4-million gross plans included in this study.

LLOYD M CCAFFERY tons. Elphick states that the war could not have been won without these ships, but Cottonwood, Arizona

SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

The American Neptune Enjoy the leading scholarly journal of maritime history and arts in the US. The American Neptune, a quarterly publication of the Peabody Essex Muse um, is a great read for collectors, model makers, and all who love ships and the sea.

We offer Sea History readers an opportunity to subscribe to The American Neptune for $33, a $6 sav ings over our regular subscription rate ($36 for non-US residents . Institutions: call for rates). To start your subscription, send a check or money order to : The American Neptune Peabody Essex Museum East India Square Salem, MA 01970 (508) 745-1876 You may charge your subscription by fax at (508) 744-6776, or e-mail dori_phillips@ pem.org. We accept VISA, MasterCard and American Express.

Visit our website at www.pem.org/neptune

CROSSWORD ANSWERS ACROSS 5 C hivalri c 7 lrving ]ohnson 8 Tears 9 Red Cross Knight 12 Bladon 14 Cambridge 16 AnnaSynn0ve Bye 21 Cog 23 Atlantic C harter 24 USO 26 Faerie Queene 28 C harles Peterson 33 Burns 34 Crystal Project 35 Denny 39 Fabia 40 Thames 4 1 Grening 42 Effie M Morrissey 45 H ELM 47 Liberty ships 49 Brigantines 50 Snow Squall 52 Morning 53 Fierce 54 Nail DOWN

1 London River

2 3 4 6 10 11

Columbi a River Death French Candl emas Coin , Hundred Years W ar 13 Steam schooner 15 Belle Isle 17 Swne fere 18 Frob isher 19 Barge Driving Race 20 Sir Walrer Scott 22 Chief Wawatam 25 Rissa 27 United Nations 29 Superstitions 30 Cyrano 31 Army Air Co rps 32 "Sabbath at Sea" 34 Cold War 36 Cape of Storms 37 C hurchill 38 Whistling 43 Iron 44 Hebron 46 Castle 48 Baffin 51 Swyn

43

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Rickover: The Struggle for Excellence,

by Francis Duncan (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis MD, 2001, 416pp, illus, notes, sources, index, ISB N 1-55750-177-7; $37.50hc) When a delegation of Soviet naval officers came to Washington in 1972 to negotiate a naval agreemenr, rhey felt honored to be invited to dinner with the one American admiral they accorded legendary status: Admiral Hyman G. Rickover.

To understand how rhis Polish-born emigre became so respected within rhe upper Soviet naval echelon , ir would be well worth reading Francis Duncan's biography of rhe admiral. Duncan, a former historian with the Atomic Energy Commission, occasionally rode on sea trials with the admiral and had frequent chats with him . With the cooperation of Rickover's second wife, Duncan also gained access to personal correspondence and other materials.

As rhe man who brought America's naval nuclear propulsion program to fruition, Rickover demanded the highest engineering standards, as he understood that a Chernobyl-type incident involving one of his naval reactors would have the gravest consequences. In his struggle for excellence, his abrasive sryle aggravated many.

Yet he managed to confound his foes for more than three decades, staying on active duty long past the mandatory retirement age of 64.

How did Rickover pull it off? Duncan demonstrates rhar the admiral's early years growing up in Chicago and his early career in the Navy served to shape his persona.

Rickover also crafted unique organizational relationships thar had him working for bosses inside and outside of rhe Defense Department and fostered close relations with legislators and presidents.

In studying Rickover, Duncan also provides insights in to US naval history and rhe Pentagon's frequently mishandled weapons procurement programs. In summary, rhis is a valuable contribution to naval historiography.

As for those Soviet naval officers-they had to endure a stern Rickover chewing rhem our over the safety inadequacies of their naval reactor program.

DAV1D F. WI N KLER, PHD Naval Historical Foundation Washington DC

Merchants and Marvels: Commerce, Science and Art in Early Modern Europe, edited by Pamela H. Smith and Paula Findlen (Ro utledge, New York NY & London UK, 2002, 442pp, illus, index, ISBN 0415-928 15-X; $27.95pb) A cenrral thesis of rhe volume is that commerce in specimens and artistic represenration of nature featured centrally in the development of"natural philosophy" into "science" during 1500s and 1600s. Collectively, the papers argue that just as works of arr became important commodities in the expanding global eco nom y, so rhe commodification of natural objects had a similar impact on the development of scientific practice.

Maritime-inclined readers will be most interested in those chapters thar directly address products of global commerce and rheir impact on how science was undertaken. One chapter discusses tensions among rhe makers of early 16th-century Spanish sea charts, based in conflicting demands for politically or navigationally useful products. Another examines 1Sthcentury London as rhe center of scientific instrument manufacturing and the manner in which instruments were advertised to and shopped for by rhe public.

This volume grew our of a conference of rhe History of Science Society and a subsequent workshop organized by UCLA's Center for Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Studies. The ed itors are historians at Pomona College and Stanford University, respectively, although rhe authors draw widely from the fields of arr history and of science and cultural studies as well. In total, the volume is a rhoughrful addition to rhe growing literature rhat incorporates objects, their conrexr and their meaning into rhe broader historical discourse.

DANIEL FINAMORE

Peabody Essex Museum Salem, Massachusetts Wooden Ships from Texas, A World War I Saga, by Richard W. Bricker (Texas A&M University, Coll ege Srarion TX, 1998, 2 l 6pp, illus, bib! io , index, lSBN 089096-817-6; $29.95hc) The history of shipbuilding in World War I has; been approached in numerous publicatioins, bur in rhis reviewer's opinion Richard Bricker's book is of particularly high historical value in rwo areas of reSEA HISTORY 10 l , SUMMER 2002

search: (1 ) the detailed description of the construction of wooden sailing ships and steamers alo ng the US Gulf Coast; a nd (2) the exhaustive and instructive mining of extensive and scattered government records in the numerous repositories of the National Archives.

From "M as ter Carpenter's Certificate" to the final entry, "Certificate Surrendered ... abandoned ," the biographyofanAmerican merchant ship can be traced ch ro ugh paperwork required by the government.

This is the backbone and framework of Mr. Bricker's detailed pursuit of a number of large wooden sailing ships and steamers built in T exas and other Gulf states . This is exemplary work.

The resurgence ofwooden shipbuilding in World War I was generated by a demand for new construction from domes tic and fore ign buye rs. While it was initiated by private owners, with che entry of the US into the war in April 191 7, the US gove rn ment i nsti tu red a massive emergency building program in 19 18. The body of the author's offering describes the constru ction of several large auxiliary barkentines and schoon ers by an Italian immigrant, Henry Piaggio , whose lumber yard in G ulfport, Mississ ippi , predated hi s venture into shipbuilding. His Internacio nal Shipbuilding Company produced bi g barkentines and schooners in Orange, Texas.

T he description of che Pi agg io empire is thorough and is the result of good research into th e greater lumbering and shipbuilding industries of the pre- and postwa r years as well as fam ily and personal hi stori es of the individuals involved. In eleven chapters Bricker highlights the co nstruction , operation and fate of the barkentin es and schooners under study. The wooden ships suffered from fires, wartime incidents, crew troubles and the relentless competitio n from steamships which precluded any long-range profitable extension of th e sailing ship tradition . One chapter focuses on the building of hundred s of wooden steamers in chis period.

The book is illustrated with numerous historic photographs, although they are of mediocre quality. By contrast, the author incorporates many of his own paintings of the barkentines and other small boats and ships.

Wooden Ships of Texas provides a thorough report on a major m anufacturing

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REVIEWS

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efforr which fills a gap in rhe historiography of rhis narion and records rhe decline of wooden commercial shipbuilding.

CAPT. HAROLD HUYCKE Edmonds, Washington A Voyage for Madmen, by Peter Nichols (HarperCollins, New York NY, 2001, 296pp, illus, ISBN 0-06-019764-1; $26hc) This is an account of the Golden Globe Race of 1969, the first solo circumnavigation event. Of the nine participants, only one (Robin Knox-Johnston) completed the course. Six withdrew as a result of boat or equipment failure, one (BernardMoitessier) opted not to return to the urban culture of Europe and continued halfway around rhe world again to Tahiti, and one (the brilliant but tragic Donald Crowhurst) lost his grip on reality and committed suicide after trying to fake his circumnavigation.

Although the author is an accomplished mariner, he seems uncertain of his audience's understanding of things maritime. At one point the book is so elementary as to define "port tack," yet at others it launches into discussions of the origin and development of pilot charts and the hazards oflying ahull as a storm tactic. While in general iris a relatively shallow book that pays more attention to rhe sailors' motives and motivation than to their seamanship techniques, the last half-dozen chapters are a well-written and exciting read.

This book is a good starting point that will motivate the curious reader to seek out rhe much better accounts written by or about rhe individual participants.

CAPT. HAROLD SUTPHEN Kilmarnock, Virginia

way. Describing the process by which bl ubber was rendered into oil, the reader is told: "although a whale weighed tons, a dead whale floated, making it possible for the crew to handle it easily.... Rendering the whale began when the men hoisted it onto a platform that hung over the side of the main ship " (p 102). In reality, the relatively fragile stage bore the weight of crew members who stood on it above the whale while they cur away strips of blubber with longhandled cutting spades.

"Ir wasn't a crime to 'jump ship' on a whaler," the authors claim (p92) . Prior to departure, however, whalemen signed a contract, or ship's articles. As Mawer points out in his 1997 Ahab's Trade, "The ship's articles chained master and man together for a sentence of years, from which only death , incapacity or desertion offered escape. " Jumping ship, while a widely practiced form of desertion, constituted an illegal breach of contract.

T he book's African-American history seems right; the whaling research seems shaky. Such statements give a reader pause both in the reading process and in questioning what else might not be quite as stated. The topic, audience and long-gone African-American whalers deserve a revised second edition.

PETER SORENSEN Old Mystic, Connecticut

NEW&NOTED Collect Ships on Stamps, 3rd ed., by Peter Bolton (Stanley Gibbons Publications, Ringwood, Hampshire UK, 2001, 422pp, illus , ISBN 0-85259-486-06; ÂŁ22 .95) Available from sales@sran ley gibbons.co. uk or 5 Parkside, Chrisrchurch Black Hands, White Sails: The Story of Road, Ringwood, Hants, BH24 3SH, UK. African-American Whalers, by Frank L. This black-and white caralog of 14,250 and Patricia C. McK.issack (Scholastic Press, scamps is valuable and fascinating even if New York NY, 1999, l 52pp, illus, biblio, you are not in the marker to buy.

Archaeology at La lsabela: America's First ISBN 0-590-48313-7; $15.95hc) The authors tackle a maritime history European Town, by Kathleen Deagan and story for "young readers." Thar history, as Jose Marfa Cruxent (Yale University Press, the dusr jacket further notes, is: "the dra- New Haven CT &London UK, 2002, 368pp, matic, little-known story of the role Afri- illus, ref, index, ISBN 0-300-09041-2; $60hc) can Americans played in rhe east coasr Columbus's Outpost among the T ainos: whaling industry. " The book is long over- Spain and America at La lsabela, 1493due in terms ofits subject and audience and 1498, by Karhleen Deagan and Jose Mada garnered the Coretta Scott King Award. Cruxent (Yale University Press, New HaWhile topic, scope and delivery make this ven CT & London UK, 2002, 294pp, ill us, a book for all ages, the devil is in rhe details. appen, notes, ref, index, ISBN 0-300-09040There are stumbling blocks along the 4: $35hc) SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

Navy SEALs: A History of the Early Years, Kevin Dockery (Berkley Publishing Group/Penguin Putnam Inc., New York NY, 2001 , 364pp, illus, index, ISBN 0-42517825-0; $21.95hc) A Doryman's Day, by Captai n R. Barry Fisher (Tilbury H ouse, Gardiner ME, and Maine Maritime M useum, Bath ME, 200 1, 136pp, illus, ISBN 0-88448-233-2; $ l 5pb) The Makers of the Blueback Charts: A History oflmray Laurie Norie & Wilson Ltd, by Susanna Fisher (Regatta Press Ltd., Ithaca NY, 200 1, l 70pp, illus, sources, notes, ind ex, ISBN 0-9674826-5-8; $44.95hc) Bear of the Sea: Giant Jim Pattillo and the Roaring Years of the GloucesterNova Scotia Fishery, by Joseph E. Garland (Commonwealth Editions, Beverly MA, 200 1, 368pp, illus, sources, biblio, ISBN 1-889833-23-1; $14.95pb) Fighting Merchantman: British Merchant Shipping at War from World War One to the Falklands, by Sydney Goodman (Halsgrove, T iverton, Devon UK, 2001, 159p p, illus, ISBN 1-84 11 4- 1291; ÂŁ19.95hc) The California, New Zealand and Australia Mail Line ofSteam Packets, 18701871 , by Capt. T. G. S. Ward (Postal H istory Society of New Zealand, Auckland NZ, 2000, 34pp, illus, ISBN 0-908588-6 15; $9pb incl s&h) Available from Keith Griffiths, PO Box 83003, Edmonton PO, Auckland 1008, New Zealand; e-mail KAGriffiths@xtra.co.nz.

The Star Captains: Frigate Command in the Napoleonic Wars, byTom Wareham (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis MD, 200 l, 256pp, illus, notes, biblio, index, ISBN 1-55750-87 1-2; $34.95hc) The Evening Gun, by William H. White, illustrated by Paul Garnett (Tiller Publishing, St. M ichaels MD, 288pp, ISBN 1888671-45-9; $14.95pb) T he third novel in the author's War of 18 12 trilogy.

Civil and Merchant Vessel Encounters with United States Navy Ships, 18002000, by Greg H . W illiams (McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferso n NC, 2002, 3 l 7pp, index, ISBN 0-7864- 11 55-4; $45 hc) Remarkable and eclectic listing of encounters at sea and in port ranging from collisions, rescues and attempted rescues to attacks and diplomatic missions.

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SEA HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002

Sendyour 9reeti119s in true nauticaf sryCeJ witli NMHS's 2002 lioCiday card!

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M RS. RICHARD STROTHER B RUCE SWEDIEN M ARTIN T oYEN

CARRINGTO ' W EEMS

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SEA CHESTS Mu seum quality, handmade/painted, c ustomized , personalized choice of image/lettering, size, styl e & co lors. fn fo packer, $2.00 refundable.

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NAUTICAL FICTION & NONFICTION NEW, USED , RARE , OUT-OF-PRINT

MARINE ENGINEERS

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Association of modelers a nd researchers formed to pursu e the mutual interest in ships of all eras a nd types Membership includes the quarterl y Na111ica l Resear ch .lo11ma/ with articles by knowledgeable writers featuring ship model building and research of all periods. merchant. nava l and maritime hi story. Book reviews, qu eri es, replies. and shop notes are other features. including technica l drawings and photographs. Other services include the Maritime Institution Survey, Ship tJodel Repair & Restoration Service and the Techni ca l- ~sistance ecwork .

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48

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and NAVAL ARCHITECTS COST-EFFECTIVE INNOVATION

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SE1:A HISTORY 101 , SUMMER 2002