2.2. TOURISM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

through territorial action, only when existing cognitive deficiencies related to the functioning of the territory as an open and complex system (structural) and to the way in which the different inter-factors and relationships must be managed to achieve growth and development (functional), are closed. By do this, Boisier focused its proposal on the strengthening and specialization of those in charge of planning. Finally, Diez et al.(2014) affirm that the conceptual framework necessary to overcome controversies and difficulties evidenced in the different development strategies must have broad participation and social organization for its formulation. That conceptual framework must start from a precise diagnosis of the reasons for the backwardness or disparity of the region and the situation and capacity of the private sector to boost the local economy. Due to the social tensions present in all development processes, there must be a transparent Government Administration capable of defending and guaranteeing the rights of the weakest and most vulnerable sectors. These axes imply better levels of governance and institutional strengthening. However, in more recent years, some trends explain how globalization, the basis of the world economic system and widely supported by neoliberal governments, is the cause of many of the problems suffered by the planet. It also has relegated the Southern Regions, including Latin America, to continue in underdevelopment by turning them into suppliers of raw materials and natural resources at low cost to the north economies, thus continuing with processes of neocolonialism and economic dependence. For Norberg-Hodge (2019), some of the negative impacts that globalization has caused to the world are loss of jobs and sources of income, deterioration of human beings physical and mental health, environmental destruction, increase CO2 emissions, erosion of democracy, and loss of credibility of institutions, increase in inequality, loss of food sovereignty, lack of resilience of the regions and increase the polarization of social conflicts. For this reason, concepts such as location, social economy, solidarity economy, happiness economy, alternative economy, circular economy, among others, have emerged in order to reduce the dependence of regions on imported products, favoring local production and markets to meet local communities’needs. From the foregoing, it can be concluded that institutional strengthening, markets, companies, organizations, local institutions, as well as civil society itself and its communities, are vital elements that must be consolidated and empowered in the processes of development and structural change to be implemented in Latin America in order to overcome underdevelopment.

2.2. TOURISM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT There are several definitions of Planning. The one raised by Saarinen, Rogerson, and Hall (2017) has already been mentioned. Another definition more oriented to public or private administration processes understands planning as a set of procedures to relate what you want to achieve (objectives), with how to achieve it (strategy), and the instruments available for such purposes (policies, programs, budgets) (Soms, 2007). On the other hand, planning, under the strategic approach, was defined by Cuervo García (1975) as the process of determining the organization base objectives and the policies and strategies that govern the acquisition, use, and management of resources to achieve those objectives. As can be seen, all the definitions have in common the vision of the future, a strategy or plan of action, and the fulfillment of objectives. However, considering the various areas in which it is applied, planning is not always the tool used to define the strategies to be

implemented or an organization or entity´s future objectives. This is more easily understood when territorial development planning is analyzing. In that process, strategies and proposed goals or objectives do not arise within an analysis or diagnosis stage in the planning process but rather from political agreements, dialogues between social actors, or they are decisions taken by authorities at different levels of government.(Soms, 2007) Therefore, it is important to understand that strategic planning can be understood as a process or method. Planning as a process refers to the governance of a regional system (management capacity, possibility of alliances, and availability of resources) and to those context factors (political project, social demands, economic model) that guide and give meaning to a strategic proposal (Soms, 2007). In this case and considering what Soms (2007) exposed, the process depends on several factors that must be analyzed and evaluated to establish the necessary actions to achieve the proposed objectives or the social demands received: regulatory frameworks, management capacity, the possibility of alliances, available resources, etc. On the other hand, planning as a method is an ordered sequence of activities and procedures that ensure the internal and external coherence of a plan, as well as the viability of the objectives and actions to be undertaken (Soms, 2007). In this case, the most important steps of a planning process begin with the analysis of the current situation to establish a diagnosis or baseline, the establishment of objectives or goals, the definition of strategies or action plans, the execution or implementation of these actions and the evaluation of the results obtained. After that clarification, it will be analyzed in a general and rapid way how the planning process has evolved in the development of tourism, a sector that has led the development in many countries and regions, including Spain, Greece, Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, and Sri Lanka, also Mexico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic, since the last century (Saporiti de Baldrich, 2006). Tourism is an overly complex phenomenon; its multidisciplinary character implies all the resources of a territory or tourism destination in a global way. It also requires a diversity of actors and resources well related to each other for its correct development, thus becoming a complex system made up of various interconnected elements. That is why the tourism system must be understood, analyzed, studied, and planned according to a systemic approach and, it is an interesting exercise to see how the planning process has been executed in the different stages of tourism development. During the post-war period, world economies grew at unprecedented levels, generating development and improving the citizens living conditions. This growth brought changes in the demand for goods and services, and tourism was one of the economic activities benefited. A new middle or working class had access to tourism, and taking into account previous trends, which established beach and sea as desired places for therapeutic reasons, entertainment, or to demonstrate status, new coastal destinations began to establish themselves. It can be said that a process of "democratization", both in tourism and in regional expansion, took place and tourism began to have a great social, economic, and regional relevance until a real "boom", known as Fordist tourism, took place. (Ostelea, Tourism Management School, 2020) Since that time, tourism has been an important economic activity for many regions that, thanks to their position and special geographical aspects, are able to generate visits, attract tourists, offer products and services that meet the needs of a certain group of visitors. However, the activity generates not only economic development and positive impacts on destinations. There are many studies that show the negative impacts caused by tourism, and

for that reason, its planning and management have been a cause for concern and constant analysis among experts and sector managers. Throughout the history of tourism as an economic activity, there have been different planning approaches for the sector and tourist destinations. Saarinen, Rogerson, and Hall (2017), identify six different approaches starting around the '60s with the called "Boosterism". Its objective was growth without taking into account the impacts that tourism could have on the environment or society. At that time, the construction of facilities and infrastructure to meet the needs of a growing demand was sought. The growth occurred without any order, so it is considered that this process is not part of the concept of planning; it was only a way to develop the sector. Despite the above, this approach based purely on economic growth is still used in some tourist destinations, where the activity and its development are not regulated. At the end of the '60s, the Economic Planning Tradition was implemented. Its main objective was the generation of economic benefits, it was completely oriented to the market, and its development depended mainly on the interests of the sector business fabric, without taking into account other aspects or important actors in the tourism destinations. Despite the above and given the importance and great influence that tourism entrepreneurs have acquired, this approach continues to guide planning actions in some tourist destinations. After the publication of the book The Limits of Growth, written by Drs. Donella H. Meadows, Dennis Meadows, and Jorgen Randers, on behalf of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1972, tourism began to be viewed in a more critical way. Since that time, several academics have analyzed and written about the negative effects of tourism, especially mass and not regulated tourism. An example of this is the so-called "Doxey Irridex" (1975), which studies the progressive transformation of attitudes and relationships between the local population and tourists and shows how these relationships end in antagonism and local irritation towards tourists (Ostelea, Tourism Management School, 2020). Other examples are the books España A Go-Go by Mario Gaviria (1974), Costa del Sol by J. J. Galán, A. Martín, J. Ruiz and A. Mandly (1977) and España en Venta by Francisco Jurdao (1979). Taking into account the new panorama, awareness towards the care of the environment began to awaken. In the field of tourism and as a response to mass tourism and its negative impacts, the alternative tourism concept began its development, and with it arose the Spatial and Environmental Tourism Planning Tradition. One of its objectives was to put limits on the sector growth, especially the consumption of the resources in the destination. Some of the topics that began to be included in the documents formulated under the environmental spatial approach were the tourism carrying capacities; the management of visitors, administration or manipulation of travel patterns, tourist flows, tourists concentration or dispersion in the destination; the creation of positive perceptions of natural environments in order to involve tourists in the conservation processes; the natural parks or protected areas management; the establishment of environmentally sensitive areas, among others. As can be seen, the approach develops mainly environmental aspects seeking the preservation of natural spaces and environmental awareness. It is oriented to organize tourism as an economic activity used as a resource for the conservation of nature so that economic aspects are at a lower level. Another tourism planning approach, contemporary to the previous one, was the Community-based tourism Planning Tradition; it concentrates its planning efforts on sociocultural aspects of the destination. It sought to promote issues such as the promotion of

the control that communities exercised over-tourism activity, the understanding of community attitudes towards tourism, and the impacts of tourism on the community. After the Earth Summit 1992, organized by the UN in Rio de Janeiro, where sustainable development was proposed as the only strategy to achieve adequate development in the long term, the emergence of concepts such as soft tourism, appropriate tourism, green tourism took place.Also, the Sustainable and Integrated Tourism Planning Approach emerged. This approach integrates economic, environmental, and social aspects into a model that aims to be holistic, preserve important ecological processes and protect biodiversity and cultural heritage. This approach is more systemic and broader; it sees tourism as another activity in the territory that must be integrated with other activities and with other planning processes. The approach includes actions to achieve a better understanding of the tourism system, the establishment of goals, objectives, and priorities, coordination and joint work between the public and private sectors, the satisfaction of local needs, and the competitive promotion of the destination within the tourism market. The evolution of the idea of Sustainable Development and its application in tourism motivated the creation of concepts such as ethical tourism, responsible tourism, sustainable tourism, fair tourism, which seek to make tourism a more equitable activity, with an adequate balance between economic, social and environmental aspects; an activity that generates wellbeing and resources among the host communities. In the '90s, with the adoption of neoliberal policies, regulatory changes for the consolidation of a global economy, and the commodification of cities, the New Public Tourism Planning was consolidated. The main pillar of this approach lies in the implementation of government actions to facilitate tourism. These actions involve the investment of public resources in infrastructure that benefits tourism activity, in destination promotion, even allowing the privatization of public infrastructures for tourism use and exploitation, the restructuring of public space, among others. This approach is seen as a potential tool to achieve the proper development of the tourism sector, creating benefits and well-being for the different stakeholders. However, it has created conflicts with some local communities since their inhabitants consider that the investments made in tourism instead of benefiting them exclude them from their own place due to phenomena such as overtourism, gentrification, the monoculture of tourism, etc. According to Saarinen, Rogerson, and Hall (2017), we can currently find in practice examples of the 6 identified approaches; that is, they are all in use despite their weaknesses or negative impacts. In many destinations, the market is still marking the next steps without the application of any planning or regulation tools. Now, following the chronology proposed, after the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in the city of Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002, some initiatives began to use tourism to fight climate change, achieve global environmental change, and as a tool to eradicate poverty. Considering this last initiative, different international cooperation organizations or NGOs began to see tourism as an ally and allocated resources to finance local tourism projects and social initiatives in underdeveloped regions with high levels of poverty. So that, other tourism typologies such as Pro-poor tourism, volunteer tourism, and community-based tourism appeared. Finally, based on the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2012, where the central themes were the green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication, the SDG Sustainable

Development Goals were formulated in 2015 as a mechanism to implement concrete actions to eradicate poverty in the next 15 years, protect the planet and ensure prosperity for all. After this, terms such as green growth emerged, and the debate about the need for a possible decrease in tourist activity in some destinations begins to take hold, to become broader and more listened to. It is necessary and mandatory to mention that tourism has been mentioned as an important ally for the fulfillment of the SDGs. Tourism is specifically targeted in Goals 8, 12, and 14: sustainable economic growth, sustainable production and consumption, and sustainable use of the oceans and marine resources. In addition, 2017 was the International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development, and five key areas in which tourism and its actors can actively contribute to sustainable development were identified: sustainable economic growth; social inclusion, employment and poverty reduction; efficient use of resources, environmental protection, and climate change; cultural values, diversity, and heritage; and mutual understanding, peace, and security. This is how sustainability as a concept should govern the current requirements of development and strategic tourism planning at all levels and in each of its actions (Organización Mundial del Turismo y Organización de los Estados Americanos, 2018) Recently, different terms have emerged: responsible tourism, wellness tourism, transformative tourism, regenerative tourism, conscious tourism, meaningful travel, among others.All of them aim to use tourism as a source of sustainable development by making better use of local resources, supporting communities or actors in a fair way while at the same time, they manage to change the mentality of tourists so that they consciously modify their way of interacting in the destinations and really contribute to sustainable development and their conservation. Returning to the subject of tourism planning, it is necessary to mention that this process is key in the development of any destination, area, or tourism product. Planning is used to avoid territorial imbalance, ecological and landscape impacts, or ignorance of natural hazards by allowing the construction or location of infrastructures incompatible with the environment, the overexploitation of natural resources, the mixture and disorderly overlapping of uses of the different areas delimited in the territorial ordering, the conflict between activities and sectors and the lack of coordination between public agencies. It is also necessary to be clear about the interrelationship of the actors in the sector and to count and promote their participation in the planning process and in the formulation of strategic documents. In this case, it talks about strategic tourism plans as the systematic way to manage change and create the best possible future for a certain area, product, or destination. The formulation and implementation of strategic tourism plans must be done with the participation of at least four different kinds of actors: the tourism sector (entrepreneurs, entrepreneurs of the different economic activities, guides), the public sector (local, regional or national government), experts and consultants, local community and its leaders. Taking into account the above and as an additional issue, it should be mentioned that the proper functioning of tourism requires adequate management and regulation of the tourism destination or territory, being the Government or the Public Administration in charge of carrying out these tasks and becoming a fundamental element of the system. With the Government as a critical player in the tourism system, the term governance appears in the field of tourism. While this term and its implications began to receive attention in the late 1980s, its use in tourism is relatively recent and its study incipient.(Duran, 2013)

A preliminary proposal for its basic conceptualization was made by UNWTO in 2008 as follows: "tourism governance means the process of managing tourist destinations through synergistic and coordinated efforts by governments, at different levels and in different capacities; civil society living in the inbound tourism communities, and the business sector connected with the operation of the tourism system." However, the same organization proposed the following definition after conducted documentary research in 2010-2011: "Governance is a practice of government that is measurable, that is aimed to effectively direct the tourism sectors at the different levels of government through forms of coordination, collaboration and cooperation that are efficient, transparent and subject to accountability, that help to achieve goals of collective interest shared by networks of actors involved in the sector, to develop solutions and opportunities through agreements based on the recognition of interdependencies and shared responsibilities" (Duran, 2013). This definition implicates not only the use of public resources for coordination, collaboration, and cooperation but also its effectiveness in achieving collective goals shared by the actors involved in tourism and, of course, the participation of those actors (public and private) in the planning process and the establishment of goals. In conclusion, both regional development and tourism development require the Public Administration to lead and coordinate the different planning stages, to manage and articulate collaboration and cooperation with other public or private entities that complement tasks and speed up with their capacities and resources that cannot be achieved from the public and local sphere effectively.