Re-Using the Un-Used
after before
reused unused
Understanding 19th and 20th century theories of Restoration, Preservation, Conservation and Adaptive Reuse
By: Shaily Parikh Guided by: Supriya Kukreja Interior Design Undergraduate Thesis, 2020 Faculty of Design, CEPT University
Declaration This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other Degree or Diploma in any University or other institutions and to the best of my knowledge does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I consent to this copy of thesis, when in the library of CEPT Library, being available on loan and photocopying.
Student Name & Code No: Shaily Parikh UI3615
Signature of student:
Date: 28th May, 2020
FACULTY OF DESIGN Student Name & Code
:
Shaily Parikh UI3615
Thesis Title
:
Re - Using the Un – Used: Understanding 19th and 20th century theories of Restoration, Preservation, Conservation and Adaptive Reuse
APPROVAL The following study is hereby approved as a creditable work on the approved subject carried out and presented in the manner, sufficiently satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a pre-requisite to the degree of Bachelor of Interior Design for which it has been submitted. It is to be understood that by this approval, the undersigned does not endorse or approve the statements made, opinions expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but approves the study only for the purpose for which it has been submitted and satisfies him/her to the requirements laid down in the academic programme. Supriya Kukreja
Name & Signature of the Guide
WWW.CEPT.AC.IN
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Dedication I dedicate the thesis to my fellow peers and students belonging to the field of Interior Design and Architecture. As the study is about the Reuse practices and it’s theories, which are applicable to both Architecture and Interior Design practices, I hope it contributes to the present literature in the fields of Interior Design, Architecture and Hertiage Coservation.
Acknowledgement I am extremely grateful to my family for all the support these 22 years of my life as well as in my academic journey throughout the five years. I thank my Guide, Supriya Kukreja, for the helpful guidance and knowledge at each and every stage of the thesis as well as for the subject of Research. To all my friends and batchmates at CEPT University for constantly inspiring me, motivating me and pushing me to work better and better. At last to each and every person involved in my academic journey including the Internal faculties, Amal Sir, Rishav Sir, Kireet Sir and Kaulav Sir for all the useful and helpful lectures and knowledge, the External Reviewers, the Teaching Assistants and all the people that were a part of the Thesis discussions and contributed to my thought process for this Thesis.
1 2 3 4
CONTENTS Abstract Aim and Objectives Scope and Limitations Purpose Relevance to the field Framework Methodology 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Understanding the terms 1.2.1 Restoration 1.2.2 Preservation 1.2.3 Conservation 1.2.4 Adaptive Reuse 2.1 19th and 20th century theories - Reusing the unused buildings 2.1.1 Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc - Restoration 2.1.2 John Ruskin - Conservation 2.1.3 William Morris - Preservation 2.1.4 Camilo Boito - Restoration, Conservation 2.1.5 Alois Riegl - Preservation 2.1.6 Cesare Brandi - Modern Restoration and Conservation
1 2 3 3 4 4 5 9 13 13 16 19 21 30 31 37 41 45 49 51
2.2 Evolution of theories - From Restoration to Adaptive Reuse
55
2.3 Developing Framework from theories
61
3.1 Approaches through Reuse practices
71
3.1.1 Typological Approach 3.1.2 Technical Approach 3.1.3 Programatic Approach 3.1.4 Strategic Approach
73 83 87 90
4.1 Conclusion
101
Appendix - Mapping the theories
105
Bibliography
107
Re - Using the Un - Used | Thesis Proposal
Abstract
A rich history of a place leads to significant presence of old buildings belonging to the ancient and medieval era. They are then left to ruin or are unused in this modern era. Attempts have been made to Restore, Preserve and Conserve these buildings for the future generations. In those attempts, many architects, authors and art historians have drafted theories which are now the guidelines for protecting old buildings through different methods and approaches. From Viollet-LeDuc’s Restoration theory in early 19th century to the Venice Charter’s theory suggesting the concept of Adaptive Reuse in mid 20th century, these Theories have experienced an ‘Evolution’. The idea behind these theories which started from emotional values of preserving the past, now includes number of financial, sustainable and economic reasons. The aim of this study is to understand the 19th and 20th century theories for reusing the unused buildings and study the evolution of Restoration, Preservation, Conservation theories leading to Reuse practices. Further, Approaches through these reuse practices are identified and analysed. The study will conclude with finding the relevance of the reuse practices and its approaches.
Keywords: Restoration, Conservation, Preservation, Adaptive Reuse, Reuse Practices, Adaptive Reuse Approaches
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Thesis Proposal
Aim The thesis aims to study the theories and practices of reusing the unused buildings through 19th and 20th century theories.
Objectives Theories from 19th and 20th century will be studied to identify their progress and evolution and approaches will be drawn which can be used for the conversion and reuse practices. The Objectives of the thesis is: (i) To understand the theories of Restoration, Preservation and Conservation. (ii) To study the 19th and 20th century theories for protecting and reusing the unused buildings (iii) To understand and trace the evolution of these theories to its uses in practical approaches (iv) To identify practical approaches from the theories to understand them as ‘Practices’. (v) To find and conclude the relevance and future of practical approaches for Building Reuse
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Thesis Proposal
Scope and Limitation The study is an attempt to understand the 19th and 20th century theories of reusing old and unused buildings. Only sources in the field of heritage conservation, architecture and interior design are considered and may not be applicable to other fields. The thesis only includes known literature. Other literature applicable to the topic but not available or accessible are not included for the study. Although an attempt has been made for the research to be as complete as possible, the list of theories and practical approaches included in the thesis is not exhaustive.
Purpose Statement The purpose of this Theoretical study is to study the theories of reuse practices including Restoration, Preservation, Conservation and Adaptive Reuse. According to the readings and observations, theories of Restoration, Preservation and Conservation are studied in larger amount both as theories and practices. However, Adaptive Reuse is still an emerging practice and is not theoritised in length. The study is an attempt to create awareness towards Adaptive Reuse to be used as a Design strategy as well as theoritise the topic for detailed study and may this overview be a useful starting point for a more in-depth study on the topic and valuable in guiding future research questions.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Thesis Proposal
Relevance to the field The study of Adaptive Reuse, Conservation and Restoration in this thesis is viewed from the fields of Architecture and Interior Design. The approaches drawn from the theories can be applied in the practice of both Architecture and Interior Design. The study finds Adaptive Reuse as an effective Design strategy which can be used in an Interior Design practices. Moreover one of the objectives of the research is to find out the relevance of the Adaptive Reuse approaches from an Interior view.
Framework Building Reuse
AS THEORIES
Restoration Preservation
Minimum Relevance to the field of Interior Design
Hence, the practices are not included within the scope of this study
Conservation Adaptive Reuse
Still not a theory in it’s own but evolved from other theories
Approaches to Adapt an Unused building into a new function
AS PRACTICE
Typological | Technical | Programmatic | Strategic
Fig (a): Thesis Framework
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Thesis Proposal
Methodology
INTRODUCING THE TERMS
STUDYING THE THEORIES
EXPLANATION
ELABORATION
RESTORATION. PRESERVATION, CONSERVATION
EVOUTION OF THE THEORIES
ADAPTIVE REUSE
FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT
5
BUILDING REUSE IN THEORIES
19th AND 20th CENTURY THEORIES
Re - Using the Un - Used | Thesis Proposal
IDENTIFICATION OF APPROACHES
MANIFESTATION
APPROACHES
TYPOLOGICAL APPROACH RELEVANCE OF THE APPROACHES
TECHNICAL APPROACH
PROGRAMMATIC APPROACH
BUILDING REUSE IN PRACTICES
INVESTIGATION
CONCLUSION
STRATEGIC APPROACH
Fig (b): Methodology of the Research
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Chapter 1: Explanation
EXPLANATION
1 1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Chapter 1: Explanation
This chapter discusses the terms mentioned and used in the theories selected for the study: Restoration, Preservation and Conservation which are mentioned in the 19th and 20th century theories are defined and explained for a better understanding. Further, the term ‘Adaptive Reuse’ which is evolved from these theories is explained in length.
Introduction
Understanding the terms Restoration Preservation Conservation Adaptive Reuse
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Introduction
1.1 Introduction Venice Charter is a set of guidelines formed in 1964 for Conservation and Restoration of hertiage buildings.
Nara document of Authenticity addresses the understanding for authenticity of cultural heritage The importance of heritage buildings
Heritage buildings are a bridge which connect the present communities to it’s past. Heritage building helps in giving an identity to the cities and their communities. Hence, it is the communities which should look after these heritage buildings to preseve, restore or reuse them for furture generations. According to a preamble in Venice charter, heritage buildings are the old traditions of the communities. Nara document also states the importance of heritage building as “the diversity of cultures and heritage in our worlds is an irreplacable source of spiritual and intellectual richness of all humankind�.
Restoration, Preservation, Conervation and Adaptive Reuse is explained in Chapter-1
It is the awareness to protect and guard these heritage buildings that led to numerous theories which proposed ways of protecting these buildings in many ways such as Restoration, Preservation, Conservation and Adaptive Reuse. However, most theories have emphasised upon maintaining these buildings to respect the authenticity of the original style, design and architecture. The methods to restore and preserve these buildings were suggested with very minimum amount of necessary interventions so that the originality is maintained.
Jukka Jokilehto was an architect and D.Phil in Conservation practices. He is the author of many books on Architecture Conservation
Jokilehto believed that one of the most prominent reasons for conservation is the protection of community identity attached to the encircling of the building. He further stated that identity is sometimes considered as a political tool and a motivation for creating decisions regarding the restoration or destruction of a small amount.
Reasons for Conservation and Restoration
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Introduction
The thoery of Violletle-Duc and the Venice Charter is studied in Chapter-2
These theories were written in 19th and 20th century by architects, theorists art historians and authors. Starting from Viollet-le-Duc, a French architect suggesting the method of Restoration for heritage building, to the Venice Charter stating Adaptive reuse as a way of Conservation, the emergence of the theory and practice of Adaptive Reuse can be traced through these theories. Adaptive reuse is also called as a ‘Design strategy’ and a ‘sustainable practice’ by many authors and theorists. Adaptive Reuse protects the heritage building as well as allows modern interventions for the ever changing technologies and trends of the world. The method of Adaptive reuse connects us to both our historic past as well as the innovative future. This is a design strategy that not only saves the old buildings but also allows the modern unused buildings to be reused as the same or a different function after going through a design transformation.
The importance of Adaptive Reuse
The study is an attempt to bring more awareness towards the theory and practice of Adaptive Reuse so that it can be studied in more depth and also practiced by Architects and Interior Designers. During my academic journey in the Faculty of Design, I designed a Fitness and Sports centre reusing an unused industrial shed, as a part of a studio project. It is then, I came across the practice of Adaptive Reuse and was completely inspired by how a design strategy can transform and bring an empty, aged and unused building to life. According to me, Adaptive Resue is a way to bring back the building from its death.
Purpose and reason of the Thesis topic
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Introduction
Theorists for Restoration, Preservation, Conservation theories
Eugene Viollet-Le-Duc Early 19th century
John Ruskin Early 19th century
William Morris Mid 19th century
Restoration Stylistic Restoration
Conservation Anti - Restoration
Preservation Conservation
Fig. 1.1 (a): Chronological order of theorists and their theories
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Introduction
Camillo Boito Mid 19th century
Alois Reigl Late 19th, ealry 20th century
Cesare Brandi Mid 20th century
Restoration Conservation
Preservation
Preservation Restoration Conservation
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
1.2 Understanding the Terms 1.2.1 Restoration The Oxford dictionary ‘Restoration’ as :
Dictionary definition of ‘Restoration’
defines the term
“the work of repairing and cleaning an old building, a painting, etc. so that its condition is as good as it originally was” Restoration is simply repairing the ruined and bring the current condition of building to the original state. The methods of Restoration includes repairing the damage and replifying the original style by either the same materials or new materials in case of material unavaibilities. Thus, Restoration in a simple way can be defined as re-making what has been ruined and bringing back the authenticity of the building.
James Douglas - the author of the book ‘Building Adaptation’
Restoration is a part of bringing back the physical qualities or the decorative qualities of an old building as close to the original one - according to James Douglas (2006). Restoration practices are performed with the original materials and the same techniques such that the works, style and character of the first architect is reflected.
Meaning of restoring an old building to its original state
Original state
Restored state
Image 1.2 (a): Old vs. New - Restoration process
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
However, the Image 1.1 (a) shows that the Restored state of the brick wall is loudly standing out from its original state, but the intention of Restoration is to repair the ruins by accurately depicting the originality as closely as possible. Due to possibilities of unavaibility of the original materials and techniques there can be a prominent difference in the appearance of the materials and forms. This aspect is one of the major drawbacks of the Restoration theory which is considered by many theorists. The thesis discusses the Restoration process in detail in Chapter - 2 in the theories of the following theorists: Viollet-Le-Duc
Boito
Brandi
Early 19th century
Mid 19th century
Late 19th century
Restoration
Fig. 1.2 (a): Restoration proposed by Theorists
This concept can be understood in further detail by an example of a 19th century Lebanese home into a contemporay home just when the theories and practices of Restoration were suggested by the theorists (Fig. 1.1 (a)). The example is of a restoration project of a Lebanaese home Beirut mansion
Image 1.2 (b): Restoration of 19th century home
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
Image 1.1 (c): Difference of Old and New - After restoring the balcony facade
Image 1.1 (d): Original elements reflecting Labanese culture
The restoration of the house took place in 2017 and the project featured “full restoration of the building, retaining the original features while transforming it into a contemporary family home”. Restoration projects involve many specialists such as conservator, architectural restorer and architectural historian. This project was a result of skillful efforts of the team involving such people. The facade was collapsed, and then went through process of restoration. All the levels of the house were supported by an aluminium structure which reflected the Lebanese culture by the arches of ‘Liwan’ connecting the inside to the outside.
Full restoration project
According to architect Annabel Kariam Kassar, the restoration of this house is fully inspired by the emotional and cultural landscape that surrounded the house. The different layers of the architecture of the house has a deep impact on this full restoration project.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
1.2.2 Preservation
Preservation in other terms is the maintenance of the building so that it doesnt get damaged or aged. It involves methods to slow down its decay. James Douglas - the author of the book ‘Building Adaptation’
Douglas (2006) defined in his theories that preservation methods are intended to sustain and protect whatever is currently present. These methods are constant attempts to show the existing condition of the building even though some parts are damaged. The target of the Preservation methods is to avoid the high level of natural decay. The intentions of preservations are mainly:
Maintain the existing fabric
Preservation
Mitigate damage
Meaning of Preservation
The Oxford dictionary defines Preservation as “the act of keeping something in its original state or in good condition”
Dictionary Definition of Preservation
Preservation is a step before Restoration which requires maintaning the building in its original state before it gets damaged or to ruined. The importance of the original style, character and architecture is higher in Preservation methods as compared to Restoration. One of the strongest critique to Preservation is that it limits change and advancement for the building as the progress of time and technology. As their is a constant attempt of keeping the original state of the building alive, their becomes a huge gap between history and the present development.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
Preservation practice is suggested by theorists alongside Conservation. Theorists who were against restoration proposed the idea of maintaining the building and hence preservation practice came in the picture. Preservation was never the sole practice as theorists proposed both Preservation and Conservation together.
Preservation and Conservation theories are mentioned together as observed in the theories in Chapter-2
Morris
Reigl
Brandi
Mid 19th century
Late 19th century
Early 20th century
Preservation
Fig. 1.2 (b): Conservation proposed by Theorists
Preservation must not necessarily address to the whole building. Any aspect of the building from Ornamentation, Architecture style, Artistic finsishes, Cultural values, Natural light character, can be preserved.
Image 1.2 (e): The facade character of the industrial mill is preserved
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Image 1.2 (f): The mill’s industrial core and character is preserved
Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
The example shows that the elements of an Industrial building are preserved even though the function is changed. Project Mayfair building
An old mill is reused as a studio space in Melbourne (image 1.1 (e) and (f)) in which it was important to preserve the mill’s industrial character, such as original shafts, wheels and belts while making the buildings more comfortable and energy- efficient. The architect of the project said that the “most sustainable thing we can do is not build new� things.
Image 1.2 (g): Preservation of the old stone walls in the reuse of an old house
Image 1.2 (h): The strong inherent character of the massive stone walls is preserved
The example shows the preservation of the structural elements and the original character of an old building in the new function
This stone house transformation in Switzerland preserves all the old stone walls that the house originally had, retaining its inherant strong character. The new interventions are done in such a way that it compliments the original wall masonry and retains the volume of the old walls.
Examples of Preservation
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
1.2.3 Conservation
Theorists John Ruskin and William Morris, pioneers of Conservation movement have called conservation a ‘maintenance’ of building
Conservation is simply looking after a place to retain its originality. It is a step before restoration as per many theorists, as restoration is repairing the damaged while conservation is taking care of the building so that it doesn’t get damaged.
Conservation has also been called ‘maintenance’ in some theories as it is about maintaining the building to keep its cultural and historic significance alive. Conservation = Maintenance The dictionary meaning of the word ‘Conservation’ as defined in the Oxford dictionary is: “the act of preventing something from being lost, wasted, damaged, or destroyed” Oxford dictionary also defines Conservation especially for buildings as:
Dictionary definition of ‘Conservation’
As mentioned in the Burra charter ICOMOS, Australia.
Conservation practices includes other practices
“the official protection of buildings that have historical or artistic importance” Many theories define conservation as an amalgamation of various practices including: preservation, restoration, reconstruction, and adaptation Conservation in the deeper sense is concerned with evolving a strategy of development in town and city which reports the profound psychological need for stability amidst change and continuity amidst progress. Conservation practice has developed its own principles concerning the restoration, reconstruction, intervention and transformation of buildings and built places.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
Preservation
Restoration
CONSERVATION
Adaptation
Reconstruction
Fig. 1.2 (c): An amalgamation of practices
The practice of Conservation was first proposed by John Ruskin who was a pioneer of the Conservation movement. It was first started as an Anti-restoration which strongly opposed the idea of restoration at first. Chapter-2 studies the theory of John Ruskin and other theorists who suggested conservation in detail. Ruskin
Morris
Venice Charter
Early 19th century
Mid 19th century
Mid 20th century
Conservation
Fig. 1.2 (d): Conservation proposed by Theorists
The origin of the Conservation movement
The Conservation movement first started by John Ruskin emphasized on Protection, Conservation and Maintenance of the heritage buildings and majority of the architects and designers were in favour of the theory. He gave priority to the identity and work of the first architect giving importance to the originiality and authencity, which became an inspiration for the present architecture.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
1.2.4 Adaptive Reuse
'History' and 'Past' remind us of what our Lives have been and how they are changing. The elemental need for familiar buildings and spaces acting as a reference points connects us to our History and Past with our Old buildings, neighbourhoods, and landscape to establish a stable image of our environment and our lives. Christian Norberg-Schulz a Norwegian architect, author, educator and architectural theorist, was part of the Modernist Movement in architecture and associated with architectural phenomenology. The importance and need of 'History' and 'Past' of the buildings
"The center (meaning a familiar place) represents to mankind what is known, in contrast to the unknown and somewhat frightening world around him. These places are the goals where we experience the meaningful events of our existence, but they are also points of departure from which we orient ourselves and take possession of the environment" - wrote by Christian Noberg-Schulz in Existence, Space and Architecture. The constant change of the structures which have been built, used, resued, rebuilt, preserved, left to ruin, or torn down, creates a history of the buildings that the humans have created. The rebirth of countless historic buildings and historic areas, which give us a base, a feeling of continuity, a sense of security which can only be derived and followed, help people through the difficult years which lie ahead.
'Adaptive Reuse' - a bridge connecting the Past and the Future
Adaptive Reuse is one such concept which becomes a bridge connecting the people from their past to the future for the buildings or the spaces they have created, lived, experienced, rebuilt and left. The buildings/structures/spaces which are 'Adaptively' reused should retain the the historic values of the past as well as allow modern technologies and interventions for the future.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
To quote M.K. Gandhi "Every thing changes continually. What is history indeed but a record of changes? And if there had been no changes in the past, there would be no history to write about". Main objective in adaptive reuse of a building with a historic-cultural or otherwise definitive specialty is to build a bridge between life styles and potentials of the past and today, that are; dynamics that created the past and potentials of developing today’s diverse culture. Interior and structural renovations must preserve structural value and bring it back to life as well as introduce aesthetic changes for new requirements when adapting new architectural and Interior programmes to existing structures. Derek Latham is a British architect and founder of Lathams, a Derby-based architectural and urban design practice. Objective of 'Adaptive Reuse'
As Derek Latham has put it: adaptive re-use or refunctionizing is important both because it offers us ways to live our past and also it offers nouvelle design ideas. Re-use and comprehension of the core concept thus emerge as a solution.
Our cities, urban environment and society are evolving at a rapid, an almost uncomfortable pace. In a blind rush to modernize, when we destroy and build, many ties get severed in the process, erasing urban memories and denying us a sense of Continuity. It is here that Adaptive Reuse plays a very important role.
Adaptive Reuse towards Urban environment
Rapid urbanization, that lead to increasingly irregular and chaotic construcion, has adversely affected physical environ along with historic environment. The fact that we are steeply loosing historical setting, buildings, monuments and other cultural artefacts adding to the question of protecting them has a profound importance in complications of urbanization.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
The thesis is an attempt to bring awareness towards practice of Adaptive reuse and opens up for a further research on : Adaptive Reuse for ‘modern buildings’.
'Adaptive Reuse' - for modern buildings
But, what happens when a building of an urban era needs a design transformation? Or a modern space which is left unused and ruined needs to revive itself for a different function? Moving towards the Urbanization, the need of the historical and heritage buildings is rising, making a drastic upliftment of the practices like Adaptive Reuse to reuse the ancientera buildings for a modern function. But the buildings which belong to the modern era which are not directly connected to the history but have a significant connection to its past need an enlightment to be commonly used through Adaptive reuse approaches.
Even though the practice of Reusing the Old buildings for a different function have been practised since ages, Adaptive Reuse as a Design Strategy in its own right has been only emerged since 1970's when their was a significance of the concept through various (Conservation) theories by Architects and Authors like Cesare Brandi, The Athens Charter, Alois Riegl, Camillo Boito, John Ruskin and William Morris. The Idea and Practices of Conservation and Restoration has led to the development of the Adaptive Reuse as an Independent and Important Strategy.
Viollet-Le-Duc
Morris
Early 19th cent.
Mid 19th cent.
Ruskin
Reigl
Late 19th, early 20th cent.
Boito
Early 19th cent.
Mid 19th cent.
Brandi
Mid 20th cent.
19th century theories Fig 1.2(e): Theorists covered in the study
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20th century theories
Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
Kenneth Powell, an architectural historian, critic and consultant has written extensively on 20th-century and contemporary British architecture
Serban Cantacuzino was a Romanian architect in the 20th century
Origin of the Adaptive Reuse 'Strategy'
Adaptive reuse has been in existence indirectly since many ages. In earlier times, buildings were reused for a new functions. For example, French Revolution religious buildings were used as Industrial and Military functions. But, there was very less recognition in terms of a theory and a practice of its own. These practice did not evolve as ‘Adaptive Reuse’ and were simply there without any greater awareness because they were a result of a mere intention of Preservation. According to Kenneth Powell, the driving force behind the reuse of these buildings was basically Functional and Financial.
Adaptive reuse as a practice was recognised by Sherban Cantacuzino as a independent practice of its own regardless of any Conservation or Preservation phenomena. He said: “Because their structure tends to outlive their function, buildings have continuously been adapted to new uses - a fact which has enabled generation after generation to derive a sense of continuity and stability from their physical surroundings. When buildings were abandoned, pilfered for materials or condemned for political reasons, the process of destrcution was often slow and incomplete compared to the effect of the modern bull-dozer”.
Cantacuzino Late 20th century
De Arc 21st century
Powell Late 20th century
Venice Charter
Adaptive Reuse as a Theory and Practice 20th century theories
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
From just Preserving and Conserving Historic buildings
Restoration: Replicating the original characters of the building by re-making the physical elements Viollet-le-Duc's Theory Conservation (Anti-Restoration): Focus on the maintenance of the building Ruskin's Theory Preservation: Slowing down the decay and maintaining the existing fabric Morris' Theory Introduction of the idea of Interventions by suggesting distinguishing the old and new, respecting the authenticity of the building Boito's Theory
19th Century
Differences between the Restoration and Conservation practices through different level and types of values, Introduction of three categories of Interventions Reigl's Theory Structural Durability of the building being the driving force behind the Adaptation Cantacuzino's Theory Purpose of Adaptive Reuse changed from just Preservation values to Financial and Technological Improvements Brand's Theory Direct address of Adaptive Reuse as a method for Conservation The Venice Charter To giving importance to the New Functions
Adaptive Reuse Formalized as a Theory and Practice Powell's Theory
20th Century
Use of Adaptive Reuse practices as a 'Design Strategy'
21st Century Fig 1.2 (f): Emergence of Adaptive Reuse Practice
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Understanding the terms
The main aspects which are considered while reusing a building for a new function are mainly Typology, Function, Scale, Time period/Era of the original structure. The Typology and Function of the building decides the function of the new building accordingly. Similarly, the scale of the original building determines the space planning and the user occupancy of the new use.
TYPOLOGY & FUNCTION
TIME PERIOD/ ERA
SCALE
Fig 1.2 (g): The aspects of the Adaptive Reuse practices
The term ‘historic’ refers to the time ancient as well as medieval era - the time of forts and palaces
The Evolution of these Building typologies is directly related to Adaptive Reuse
Right from the Historic times, when the Residences used to be Forts and Palaces, to the Modern typologies of Residences which are Bunaglows and Flats, Adaptive Reuse practice is directly proportional to this chronology of the Building Typologies. Forts and Palace generally adapt into Hotels and Resorts because both the Functions have the similar amount of number of spaces. Whilst, the smaller scale buildings like Houses, Offices and Shops adapt into similar smaller functions like Cafe, Restaurants and Retail Outlets. Hence, The Time Period / Era of the building and Scale of the building determine the Typology and the Function of the building that it will adapt to. This theory is connected with the theory of Evolution of the Building typologies, where the Historic buildings consists of the Forts and Palaces, Medieval buildings consists of the Warehouses, Industries, Factories and the Modern period consists of the Houses, Schools and Shops which are in large number in the current times.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Chapter 2: Elaboration
ELABORATION
2 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6
2.2 2.3 27
Re - Using the Un - Used | Chapter 2: Elaboration
This chapter studies and analyses the 19th and 20th century theories about Restoration and Conservation movements which lead to the theory of Adaptive Reuse. The chronology of the Evolution of theories of Restoration, Preservation and Conservation are studied to find out the significance of Adaptive Reuse as a Theory of its own.
19th and 20th century theories Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (Early 19th century) John Ruskin (Early 19th century) William Morris (Mid 19th century) Camillo Boito (Mid 19th century) Alois Riegl (Late 19th and early 20th century) Cesare Brandi (Mid 20th century)
Evolution of the Theories - From Restoration to Adaptive Reuse
Developing framework from Theories
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Chapter 2: Elaboration
According to Kenneth Powell, Building reuse was done since ages before 19th century but with a much smaller scale without any recognition. For example, during French revolution, buildings were used for military purposes because of increase in military activities
Eugene Viollet-Le-Duc was the first one to theoritise Building Reuse by proposing Restoration and Stylistic Restoration and became the pioneer of Restoration movement
John Ruskin’s anti - theory to Restoration which proposed Conservation for building reuse became the pioneer of the Conservation moment
Many other autors, architects and art historians theoritised Building Reuse with their ideologies and perceptions which led to a significant evolution
These theories are the foundation and guidelines for the current times and have brought a larger awareness towards protection and reuse of old and unused buildings and it is the communities’ job to protect their building styles and heritage values Fig 2 (a): The Origin of the Theories
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Re - Using the Un - Used | 19th and 20th century theories
2.1. 19th and 20th century theories The selected Theories for the study started from the 19th century and have evolved with the course of time. They indirectly lead to either the evolution of Adaptive Reuse from Conservation, Preservation or Restoration, or directly address different forms of Adaptive reuse. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
Viollet-le-Duc - RESTORATION Ruskin - CONSERVATION Morris - PRESERVATION Boito - RESTORATION & CONSERVATION Riegl - PRESERVATION Brandi - RESTORATION & CONSERVATION
Serban Cantacuzino Kenneth Powell Rodrigo Perez De Arc The Venice Charter
ADAPTIVE REUSE
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2.1.1 Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (Early 19th century)
Viollet-Le-Duc: The pioneer of Restoration movement
Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, a French architect and inspector was a pioneer of the Restoration movement. His knowledge and knowhow of traditional techniques and skills towards the buildings led to his love for heritage and historic buildings. His ideology involved keeping the Old as it is without introducing the New. He was involved in many Restoration projects across Europe which led to his leadership in the Restoration movement. His Theory: Viollet-Le-Duc’s theory proposed Interventions which were Respecting the Original style of the building. He was not against introducing New elements but those elements should be the most nearest form of the Old. In his theory he stated: "the best means of preserving a building is to find a use for it, and to satisfy its requirments so completely that there shall be no occasion to make any changes."
This theory focused and insisted on finding an appropriate use which can compliment the originality of the building without much changes. Also, preserving the values and the spirits of the original Architects and Designers. His approach towards restoring buildings was practical, clear, direct which was adapted by many architects Finding the appropriate use and designers at that time. and restoring the original
User needs are ever changing which does not fit the age of the built
Theory Critique: As an argument to Viollet-Le-Duc's theory, User needs and functions change over the time and is not a consistent entity. Finding a proper use for a building does not necessary propel further restoration of heritage buildings several times in their life span. And apparently, Restoration is not an ultimate solution to use the building for a particular and specific function.
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Stylistic Restoration: Viollet-le-Duc believed that the term Restoration and the thing itself are both modern. To restore a building is not to preserve it, to repair, or to rebuild it; it is to reinstate it in a condition of completeness which may never have existed at any given time.
"Spirit of Age" and "Spirit of Time" - should be restored
According to him, the building should be restored based on the time which it was constructed. He believed in keeping the "spirit of age" and the "spirit of time" alive even after ages. As he considered Age and Time important features of the building, these factors should be the driving factors while considering Reuse. He further addressed the unavaibility of the same materials as the materials change time to time, stating that materials may not be original.
Finding suitable use for the building
Minimum New materials
RESTORATION Respect the Time and Age of the Building
Stylistic Restoration
Keep and Reflect the Original style
Fig 2.1.1 (a): Fundamentals of Viollet-Le-Duc’s Theory
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Viollet-Le-Duc's Restoration projects: Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc worked on many restoration projects in the 19th century and due to his works and theories he was the Pioneer of the Restoration movement. Some of his restoration projects include: 1. Notre-Dame de Paris 2. Basilica of Saint Denis 3. Mont Saint-Michel, Sainte-Chapelle 4. Medieval walls of the city of Carcassonne.
Viollet-Le-Duc introduction
His later writings on the relationship between form and function in architecture had a notable influence on a new generation of architects, including Antoni GaudĂ, Victor Horta, and Louis Sullivan.
Image 2.1.1 (a): Notre dame de Paris
Notre Dame, Paris Restoration project
The original structure had a major damage during the French revolution. The restoration work for this project was mainly done on the facade which includes many statues over the portals. Initially two changes were proposed for the interior of the building which included re-constructing the bays to their original volume of four stories, and removing the marble neoclassical structures and decorations from the choir.
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All the initial proposal of Viollet-le-duc were approved except the removal of the choir built under Louis XIV. He also turned down the proposal to add two new spires on the top of the towers saying “such a monument would be remarkable but would not be Notre-Dame de Paris”.
Viollet-Le-Duc’s restoration proposal
As a solution, the original spire and the bell tower over the transept was re-constructed as a part of a restoration measure. It was then taken down in 1786 due to high unstability in the wind.
Image 2.1.1 (b): Facade restored by Viollet-Le-Duc
Process of Restoration
Image 2.1.1 (c): The treasury of the cathedral, designed by Viollet-le-Duc to replace destroyed Archbishop’s residence
After the project approval, drawings of the existing decorative elements were made and photogaphs were taken to replicate them in the restored sculptors. The sculptors made new statues of saints, gargoyles, chimeras and other architectural elements. And this is how the damaged statues, sculptors and architectural elements of Notre Dame were restored by Violletle-Duc.
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Other craftsmen made stained glass windows in Gothic grisaille patterns designed by Viollet-leDuc to replace the destroyed medieval windows in the chapels of the ground floor of the nave of the cathedral. He also designed a new treasury in the Gothic style to serve as the museum of the cathedral, replacing the residence of the Archbishop, which had been destroyed in a riot in 1831. (Image 2.1.1 (c))
Image 2.1.1 (d): Window of the Chapel of Saint-Clotilde designed by Viollet-le-Duc
Elements designed and restored by Viollet-le-Duc
Image 2.1.1 (e): Reliquary designed by Violletle-Duc
Viollet-le-Duc also casted new bells for the north tower after they had been removed in 1791. A supporting structure was also made as an addition to the tower. He also re-constructed the sacristy on the south side of the church which was burned in the revolution. In addition to these, decorative statues were restored all over the church. The spire was completed and decorated with the statues of the face of Saint Thomas whose stark resemblance to that of Viollet-le-duc went unnoticed. (image 2.1.1.(f))
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Image 2.1.1 (f): Saint Thomas on the spire, resembling Viollet-le-Duc
The Notre-Dame restoration project was a 25year long project. At the same time, Viollet-LeDuc also restored some other monuments and heritage buildings while traveling outside Paris. His main involvement in all of his restoration works was: inspecting, drawing, maiking recommendations, checking the progress of more than twenty different restoration projects. In 1846, a restored tower with masonry started forming cracks whose restoration was done by some other architect. Viollet-Le-Duc took over the project and was able to restore the interior of the Church Saint-Denis successfully. The original burial chamber of the King of France was also restored by him. All these projects show that Viollet-Le-Duc was the first one in many who mastered the art of Restoration and it is due to him, the practice of Restoration was theoritised and is still practised all over the world. He wrote in his theories that his sole intention is to save each part of the monument in its original character, and to make sure that the restored parts dont conflict with them.
Viollet-Le-Duc’s contribution to Restoration practices
The Neo-Gothic has become the standard style for church furnishing throughout the France today, because of Viollet-Le-Duc.
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2.1.2 John Ruskin (Early 19th Century)
An Anti-Restoration Theory
After Viollet-Le-Duc's theory of Restoration, there were many crtitiques along with English architect John Ruskin. His bold statements about the theory led to a Anti-Restoration movement which highly denied the need to restore/change the needful. According to him, Conservation of the building was a prior step before Restoration. He believed in taking care of the built so much that it does not require any Restoration a.k.a "changes". His Theory: Ruskin believed that Restoration can led to falsification of the original and thus there can be a significant amount of change over the time. He suggested in regular maintenance of the building. According to him, the theory of Restoration was not much understood and a misuse of the method can loose the authentic characters that the original building possess. He also critiqued and questionned the restoration theory penned by Viollet-le-duc saying that it was impossible.
'Maintain the building so that you do not have to restore after it is dead'
Restoration is making a dead alive, Conservation is taking care of the alive
"It is impossible, as impossible as to raise the dead, to restore anything that has ever been great or beautiful architecture...that spirit which is given only by the hand and eye of the workman, never can be recalled....And as for direct and simple copying, it is palpably impossible." Ruskin stated. Addressing the building as a "corpse" which cant be alive by restoration or in that matter by any method once it is dead. He strongly believed in maintaining the building before it dies. Preserving, Maintaining and Conserving was the focus proposals of Ruskin's theory. He agreed to 'Age' and 'Time' being the major features of the building, but questioned the method as the solution. There was no mention about the techniques and materials to be used for the theory.
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Conservation movement: Ruskin states the whole Restoration theory - a lie from the very beginning. "Do not let us talk then of restoration. The thing is a Lie from beginning to end. ....Take proper care of your monuments, and you will not need to restore them".
Pioneer of the Conservation movement
Ruskin was the pioneer of the Conservation movement which proposed maintaining the building so that there is'nt a need to restore it after it gets damaged. His Conservation theory was favoured by majority of architects and art historians which led to influence William Morris and his theory of Conservation-Preservation. Ruskin's sole intention was to respect the originality and the authenticity of the buildings and according to him, those features can not be replicated by anyone but the original architect.
Protecting building without doing any changes
Anti Restoration Theory
CONSERVATION
Prime Importance to the Authenticity of the built
Maintaining and Conserving the building
Fig 2.1.2 (a): Fundamentals of Ruskin's Theory
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Ruskin’s paintings and ‘The seven lamps of Architecture': Born in 8 February, 1819 in London, John Ruskin grew up to have keen interests in Literature, Art and Architecture. During his trip to Italy, Ruskin appreciated the nature and the landscape, typical themes of the paintings. In his writings, the influence of the English Romantic culture is clear.
Ruskin’s introduction and his interests
In the second volume of the Modern Painters, he wrote about some Italian idealist painters and his interest in painting, especially watercolours is manifested through his paintings. He also lived in Tuscany where he learned the Italian fine arts and especially he knew the Romanesque style. This style was different from the Gothic style of Northern Europe: in Italy the Romanesque style was influenced by local architectural culture.
Image 2.1.2 (a): Painting of Cantorini Palace, Venice by Ruskin
Theory of Conservation in Ruskin’s book
Image 2.1.2 (b): Painting of the historic center by Ruskin
Returned to England in 1849, he published The seven lamps of architecture, which analysed the signifance of the Architectural Conservation. On this theme Ruskin elaborates his theory. At the same time, Viollet-le-duc was working in France. The type of restoration employed by Viollet-leduc was decried by John Ruskin in the book. He wrote that the restoration is the worst of the destruction, accompanied with false description of the thing destroyed.
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Ruskin’s ideology
‘Neither by the public, nor by those who have the care of public monuments, is the true meaning of the word ‘restoration’ understood. It means the most total destruction which a building can suffer: a destruction out of which no remnants can be gathered: a destruction acconpmanied with false description of the thing destroyed. Do not let us deceive ourselves in this important matter; it is impossible; as impossible as to raise the dead, to restore anything that has ever been great or beautiful in architecture.’
Image 2.1.2 (c): The seven lamps of Architecture - book by John Ruskin
His love for the original style of Architecture and Ornamentation which can be clearly seen in his paintings, were the main driving factor for his theory. In the Introduction, Ruskin wrote that the architect must keep the history of buildings as a precious heritage. He introduces the concept of Intergrated Conservation where it is important to preserve the character and the style of the architecture and the status conservation. Conservation is a way of planning designed to conserve historic buildings, areas and monuments in an effort to connect the historical background of a place to its population and primarily its culture. Ruskin on Conservation
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2.1.3 William Morris (Mid 19th century)
Influenced by Ruskin's Theory
Establishment of SPAB and the main motive
William Morris, one of the key person in the Conservation of heritage buildings in England, was highly influenced by Ruskin. He emphasised on heritage buildings as unique works of artists in a specific historic period and thus giving importance to the age of the building. He believed in preserving the important and unique features of the building instead of removing or restoring them, even if the Function is changed. Morris mentioned the function and the use of the building to be changed which was similar to Viollet-le-Duc's theory, but the method and approach to the building even if the function is changed was that of Ruskin's. With the establishment of the Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) in 1877 in England, Morris emphasis on Conservation and Preservation of the heritage buildings and the original art and architecture was highlighted and uplifted. The main motive behind SPAB was Ruskin and his theory. SPAB functioned "to put protection in the place of restoration" and "to stave off decay by daily care". Morris stated that the only ways to protect these buildings is to maintain them and repair them. However, contradicting to Ruskin's theory, he suggested very minimum amount of alteration and changes to make the building more practical for the changing times. He also explained a complete rejection of restoration in his manifesto for SPAB. He believed the restoration of the buildings can make the future generation rigid and reluctant to study them.
Emphasis on Anti-restoration
He emphasised the anti-restoration theory by saying that since heritage buildings had experienced change based on the sense of the restorer and the spirit of their own time, it can leave a gap in the history.
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These Conservation theories are the result of the idea of protecting the heritage Value, which started by Ruskin was followed by Morris and taken forward by Reigl.
Against Stylistic restoration
Both Ruskin and Morris were highly against styistic restoration saying that re-building and replicating the original style were merely copying and insulting the original master. And this disagreement led to the theory of Conservation which today, is followed by many architects and art historians.
Preservation even if the function changes
Anti Restoration Theory
PRESERVATION CONSERVATION
Minimum changes to keep up with the changing times
Maintaining and Conserving the building
Fig 2.1.3 (a): Fundamentals of Morris' Theory
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Morris as a Preservationist: William Morris (24 March 1834 – 3 October 1896) was a British textile designer, poet, novelist, translator, and socialist activist associated with the British Arts and Crafts Movement. He was a major contributor to the revival of traditional British textile arts and methods of production. His literary contributions helped to establish the modern fantasy genre, while he played a significant role proliferating the early socialist movement in Britain. Though being a textile designer, his interest in architecture was the reason for his emotional values towards the heritage buildings. SPAB founded by Morris was highly influenced by the restoration practices at that time and wanted to bring a significant change through his theory. Another sole inspiration for Morris was the theory of John Ruskin. Both of them had huge amount of respect for the architecture of the Middle Ages, but were disturbed by elements of the Gothic revival which was significant in the works of Viollet-le-duc Morris’ Introduction
Morris did not crtique the idea of restoration, he was against the approach which led some architects insulting the works of original master by failing in replicating the work or removing the original detail and adding new construction.
Morris’ preservation model
Morris also penned an alternative building preservation model based on retaining all survival building fabric. According to the model, regardless of the amount of decay over the passage of time, only minimal and necessary measures should be taken for the existing state to prevent any further decay. He also coined “Anti-scrape society” for the SPAB, which was his humorous take to acknowledge the architects and artisans who at that time, were conserving and preserving the buildings without any alterations.
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Image 2.1.3 (a): Woodcut design
Kelmscott
Manor:
Image 2.1.3 (b): Kelmscott Manor: As it appears today
One such Preservation project led by Morris was his own home in Oxfordshire. It was a summer home which was built in late 16th century. Due to his preservational measures towards the home, it survived for a long time with many minimum amount of changes reflecting Morris’ theory of respecting the authenticity. Today, SPAB is one of the organisations along with British National trust and National Trust for historic Preservation in United states which follows Morris’ theories and ideas and spreads awareness for Preservation of buildings. These images 2.1.3 (a) and 2.1.3 (b) depict Kelmscott Manor, the beloved country home that Morris preserved for his family and posterity.
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2.1.4 Camillo Boito (Mid 19th century)
Follower of Viollet-Le-Duc and Practical guidelines for Restoration Archeological Restoration
For antique monuments
Picturesque Restoration
For medieval monuments Architectural Restoration
For Renaissance and other historic monuments Fig 2.1.4 (a):Boito's methods and methodologies
The follower of Viollet-Le-Duc's theory, Camillo Boito proposed practical guidelines for restoration and conservation of heritage buildings which led to the establishment of Italian Conservation movement. He was both follower of Viollet-LeDuc as well as an admirer of Morris' restoration approach. However, according to him, replicating or repairing the original often tends to misrepresentation of the original style. This led to a critique to both Viollet-Le-Duc and Ruskin's theories. He agreed to all the previous theories but disagreed to the approaches for the same and hence he proposed practical guidelines that can be standardized for every heritage building. Boito's methods to define the Old and New: “1. Difference of style between the new and the old 2. Difference of construction methods 3. Suppression of profiles or decorations 4. Exhibition of removed old pieces, installed next to the monument 5. Engrave the date of restoration in each restored piece 6. Descriptive eigraph carved on the monument 7. Description and photographs of the different phases of work, placed within the building or in a place close to it, or description printed in a publication 8. Notoriety� The ideas of the previous theories - stylistic restoration and conservation had a significant contrast. Boito apposed this contrast and proposed an interventional approach to offer middle grounds to both the theories. 3 Levels of interventions were suggested to keep all the original layers untouched. He further classified three categories of architecture based on their age: Antique, Medieval and Modern - since the Renaissance. These categories helped Boito in the application of the methodologies mentioned above.
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These methods and methodologies focus on the purpose of differentiating between the Old and New. They also offered as guidelines for works like documentation. He also stated the difference between the Restoration and Conservation theory as: Restoration - "do as little as possible" while, Conservation - "more attempts to maintain" Restoration - "sad necessity" while, Pioneer of the RestorationConservation movement
Conservation - "should prevent restoration"
Practical guidelines for Standardization
Different Approaches for the existing theories
RESTORATION
Three classifications of the age of the building
CONSERVATION
Eight methodologies for the Restoration
Difference between Restoration and Conservation
Fig 2.1.4 (b): Fundamentals of Boito' Theory
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Boito’s projects for Restoration and Conservation: Camillo Boito (30 October 1836 – 28 June 1914) was an Italian architect and engineer, and a noted art critic, art historian and novelist. During his extensive work restoring ancient buildings, he tried to reconcile the conflicting views of his contemporaries on architectural restoration, notably those of Eugene Violletle-Duc and John Ruskin. The concern was for maintaining authenticity in terms of the identification of original materials. At the same time, the intention was to promote a “scientific” attitude toward restoration. Boito’s principles were well accepted and inspired modern legislation on restoration of historical monuments in several countries. Boito’s Introduction
Boito is perhaps most famous for his restoration of the Church and Campanile of Santi Maria e Donato at Murano, inspired by the theories and techniques of Viollet-Le-Duc. Porta Ticinese was one of his works in Milan in the mid 19th century. He also worked on Basilica of Saint Anthony in Padua in the late 19th century. Further, he designed the Cemetry of Gallarate. As an architect, his works can be seen in Gallarate Hospital in Gallarate and one of his most reknowned work on Casa di Riposo per Musicisti in Milan. Built in the same time period, it now serves as a rest home for retired musicians. Further, he also helped in forming Italian laws for protecting historical monuments Boito’s notable projects
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Image 2.1.4 (a): Church and Campanile of Santa Maria e Donato at Murano
Image 2.1.4 (b): Porta Ticinese in Milan
The image 2.1.4 (b) is of Porta Ticinese which is one of the three gates in Milan which are still existing. It was restored by Boito in 1861 and as a restoration measure, two lateral arches were inserted for structual stability. The other two gates - Porta Nuova and Pusterla di Saint’ Ambriogo are also still standing tall in Milan. The documentation on their restoration however, is unknown. The image 2.1.4(c) is Casa di riposo per musicisti - Boito’s project as an architect
Image 2.1.4 (c): Casa di riposo per musicisti, Milan
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2.1.5 Alois Riegl (Late 19th century, early 20th century) Reigl introduced different values for the restoration and conservation of the heritage building in first decade of the 20th century. He distinguished both the practices based on prioritizing between different values. He categorized these values into two groups: Memorial Values Age Value Historic value
Present day Values Use Value Art Value Relative Art Value
Fig 2.1.5 (a): Riegl’s Theory Values
Intended Memorial Values
Newness Value
He further distinguished between the Age valule and Historic Value as: Age Value : In favour of the appropriate restoration of monuments Historic Value : The result of faithful preservation of monuments
Different Values for Restoration and Consevration
He stated that "[historical value] stand in irresolvable conflict with age-value only in those cases where copies are made to subsitute for an original in all its historical and aesthetic aspects"
Riegl for Restoration: Reigl's theories were in favour of both restoration as well as anti restoration. According to him, the period belonging to the building should be respected which aligns with Viollet-le-duc and preservation of the building should be the approach for protecting the values of the period which is parallel to Ruskin's ideology. His views on the restoration theories
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Riegl for Conservation: Reigl opposed the idea of “pure conservation� saying that it is impossible. According to him, heritage buildings should be respected in all the stages and phases of alteration.
His views on the conservation theories
He also pointed out the cleaning of a painting as a modern intervention and both historic and age values should be considered during the conservation and preservation of the heritage building. For the restoration, he identified three approaches: Radical - allowed very minimum alteration and intervention with the sole intention of enhancing the old and decayed character Art Historical - Prioritised conservation and protection of the original as the proof of the past Conservative - suggested re-making and rebuilding the original Hence, Reigl was in favour of both the Conservation and Restoration theories with the idea which prioritised Conservation and Preservation but also stating Restoration as a necessary measure.
Origin of the Adaptive Reuse by introducing Interventions
A hint for Adaptive Reuse
Indirect address of Adaptive Reuse can be seen in this theory which aligns with the idea of Levels of Interventions.
Different Values for Restoration & Construction
Introduced Interventions
Fig 2.1.5 (b): Fundamentals of Riegl's Theory
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PRESERVATION
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2.1.6 Cesare Brandi (Mid 20th century) Brandi approach to restoration and conservation was rational. According to him, the specific aesthetic, historic and ‘claims’ should be respected and traced properly for any restoration which involves ‘Work of Art’.
Brandi on Restoration and Conservation
His Conservation practices in Italy were a reflection of his rational rules for these practices. He highly emphasised on the Aesthetic aspects stating it as the highest integrity of someone’s work.
Brandi’s theory was introduced as a critical restoration theory and further developed as careful restoration and conservation of heritage buildings. He quoted the different forms of restoration as ‘simple respect’ and ‘radical operation’. He mentioned: "reestablishment of the potential unity of the work of the art, as long as this is possible without producing an artistic or historical faux and without erasing the passage of the time". Hence, Brandi’s beleiefs viewed the theory of restoration as a way to return to the past without introducing new elements or removing any signs of decay.
Restoration - Conservation as a Methodology
He defined the restoration-conservation theory as a Methodology which starts with the identification of the “work of art” and the existing state of the Aesthetics with the historical past.
According to him, the original architecture of the building was a work of art which should be altered based on the Aesthetic approach.
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Aesthetic and historical values of the original work was important to Brandi. He believed that any work of restoration should be based on these values and the recommendations by the conceivable harmony of the building.
Focus on the Historical and Aesthetic values
However, functional aspects of the building were also considered by Brandi in which he stated that functional performances are the driver for the restoration practices which is based on the Industrial or Art work. Hence, Aesthetic, Historic and Functional values were the main emphasis of Brandi’s theory based on which the restoration and conservation of the buildings should be performed. His theory explains three principles for the same which are: 1. Any reintegration should be easily recognizable at close distance but, at the same time, it should not offend the unity that is being restored. 2. A part of material that directly results in the building's image is irreplaceable since it forms the appearance and not the structure. 3. Any restoration should be carried out in a way that it will not be an obstacle for necessary future interventions. His approach in his theories was more thoughtful and practical for the restoration works compared to the previous theories. The respect for the original building was inevitable aspect according to him. Regarding the materials for restoration, he stated that some materials hold a huge significance in the original work and can not be replaced at any time and at any cost. This implies the theory of Conservation also.
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He indentified the conservation practices modern conservation, in three categories: Physical form and fabric, history, and context. This aspects of the heritage building must be significantly recognizable after the alterations, he believed. Loss and Compensation were the main concerns of Brandi, which he considered crucial issues for these practices.
Principles of Restoration
Preservation of historical, functional and aesthetic values
MODERN RESTORATION CONSERVATION
Fig 2.1.6 (a): Fundamentals of Brandi's Theory
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Not imitating the Original style, not removing signs
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In conclusion of the theoretical study,
The beginning of more theoretical discussions on Adaptive Reuse, as a way to preserve historic monuments, only really started in the 19th century when it quickly became a debate split between two opposing perspectives. One orthodoxy can be described as the ‘restoration movement’ led by Viollet-le-Duc in France, whilst the other may be defined as the ‘conservation movement’ led by John Ruskin and his pupil William Morris in England.
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2.2 Evolution of Theories - From Restoration to Adaptive Resue For the Research in the Subject of Adaptive Reuse, the most recent and relevant theories for Understanding the concept is of 19th and 20th Century, which started from the idea of practise of Restoration for the Heritage and Historic buildlings with the intention of keeping the historic values alive, consequently led to the Strategy of Adaptive Reuse being the method in which new functions can be added in the favour of Urban, Economical, Cultural and Social advancement. Adaptive Reuse in this contemporary era is considered as a Strategy to protect the past, present as well as the Future of the buildings.
19th and 20th Century Theories leading to 21st Century Practices
The evolution of these theories shows that the intentions of protecting the heritage buildings have changed from value based to user needs and demands. These theories serve as the backbone for the modern practices of Restoration, Preservation and Conservation practices. However, the theory of Adaptive Reuse - a theory in its own, is still emerging. One of the reasons being the link between all these practices and theories are ever changing according to the future advancements. Methods like Conservation, Restoration, Preservation revolve around a single idea or intention, while Adaptive reuse include many aspects from adding a new function to an old building to a complete design transformation.
RESTORATION
PRESERVATION
CONSERVATION
ADAPTIVE REUSE
19th century theories 20th century theories
Fig 2.2 (a): 19th and 20th Century theories leading to 21st century practices
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Practice/Method
Idea/Intention
Restoration
Restoring the Original without new materials and techniques. RELIVE THE PAST
Preservation
Maintain the building and prevent further damage SECURE THE PAST
Conservation
Conserving the Value and Significance of the place and built VALUE THE PAST
Adaptive Reuse
Transform the building for the New but still respecting the Old FOR THE FUTURE, RESPECTING THE PAST
Fig 2.2 (b): 'Conservation, Preservation, Restoration VS Adaptive Reuse
RESTORATION
PRESERVATION
CONSERVATION
Origin
ADAPTIVE REUSE OF HERITAGE BUILDINGS
To respect the History as well as build for Future
ADAPTIVE REUSE OF MODERN BUILDINGS
To use the Unused
Fig 2.2 (c): Evolution of Theories and Further Scope
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Future Scope of study
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Serban Cantacuzino Cantacuzino’s theory was one of the first theory to identify Adaptive reuse and define it in terms of a practice. His theory focused on solely the functional and economic aspect of the buildings which raised a concern for structural durability of the old buildings. He proposed adaptive reuse as a solution to strenghthen the structure of the built and believed that the adaptation leads to urban development of the societies.
Adaptive reuse for increasing the structual durability
"Because structure tends to outline function, buildings throughout history have been adapted to all sorts of new uses. Except when the cataclysm of natural forces or war wreaked wholesale destruction, chage in the urban fabric was slow, which enabled generation after generation to derive a sense of continuity and stability from its physical surroundings."
Kenneth Powell According to Powell, buildings had been transformed since 19th century regardless of the need of restoration or conservation practices. The concept of changing the functions of the buildings and adapting them for a new function have been practiced since ages.
Functional and Financial factors the dirving forces for Adaptive Reuse
However, the formal recognition of the Adaptive reuse as a theory and practice as a solution to protect the heritage building has only been significant since 1970s, he stated. To back this theory, he gave the most prominent example of French revolution in which buildings which were structurally durable were adapted into different functions and changed requirements. Many religious buildings during that period were sold, confiscated or altered for the military and industrial uses. The only difference is that the interventions done at that time was only on the basis on spatial needs with hardly any motives to protect the historic buildings and their values, which emerged only in 19th century
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Rodrigo Perez de Arc
Adaptive Reuse for Urban Development and a Sustainable practice
De Arc's motive to suggest the reuse of heritage building was for the urban development. He belived that the reuse of buildings result in economic, social as well financial quality of the town. Adaptive reuse in his view allows durability to the building, reduces the material costs, creates a historic and spatial sense of place which adds up to the existing character of the building. However, the need for preserving the building and its historic and architectural values was not considered or mentioned in his theory.
Adaptive resue: Forms of use Many authors have directly or indirectly defined Adaptive Reuse. A significant change can be seen where the idea behind the concept starting from just protecting the building and its heritage values to also changing its function so that it can be used for other uses have emerged. Largely, the concept of adaptive reuse involves all the practices and theories discussed in the study till now. However in this modern era, it has been discussed in mainly two forms: 1. Within-Use Adaptation And, 2. Across-Use Adaptation The within-use adaptation refers to adapting a building for its primary function, while, The across-use adaptation adapts building in the form of functional changes.
Forms of Adaptive Reuse
After studying the 19th and 20th centurIy theories, it is observed that those theories mostly discussed within-use form of adaptation. The level of Interventions were also introduced for the primary function of the building. Across-use adaptation was first discussed in the Venice Charter which refered to the change of function.
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ADAPTIVE REUSE Within-use Adaptation
Across-use Adaptation
19th and 20th century theories
The Venice Charter
Fig 2.2 (d): Forms of Adaptive Reuse
The Venice Charter (Mid 20th century) During the 20th century, there were constant attempts to conserve the buildings of the partwar era. The intention was mildly changed from heritage protection to functional needs. Although, some architects believed that the heritage buildings obstruct future developments. On the contrary many architects and conservationsists worked for these buildings which led to a movement in the 1960s. ‘Historic’ term was only applicable for the ancient and medieval buildings upto the 19th century. It is the destruction of the second world war that led to an increased awareness and values towards heritage protection. In 1964, following the Second Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings in Venice, the Venice Charter as the International restorer charter, and ICOMOS as the International council on monuments and sites were established. The Venice Charter one of the most prominent post-war document which played a significant role in the history of Conservation.
Across use adpatiation as a way of conservation
In the review of Conservation theory in the charter, Adaptive reuse was introduced as a form of conservation practice.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Evolution of theories
The conservation of monuments is always faciliated by making use of them for some socially useful purpose. Communities living around the buildings were considered as the driving factor for the conservation. This emerged as a need for social usefulness in the existing buildings. After the Venice Charter, many authors and theorists have adapted the social aspect of the reuse. The Venice Charter was developed and evolved from the 1931 Athens Charter which emphasised the conservation and restoration practice rather than adaptive reuse. The Venice Charter then distinguished between the two as : Conservation practices are used for maintaining the building, while, Restoration practices address the historic and aesthetic values of the building
Priority to Social usefulness of the heritage buildings
The Conservation movement mentioned in the Venice Charter was termed as “Modern Conservation� movement and the charter directly proposed Across-use adaptation as a way of building conservation.
Adaptive Reuse as a way of Conservation
Distinguished between Conservation and Restoration
MODERN CONSERVATION
Fig 2.2 (b): Fundamentals of The Venice Charter
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Community as a driving force for conservation leading to social usefulness
Re - Using the Un - Used | Developing framework from theories
2.3 Developing Framework from theories The 19th and 20th century theories are studied to trace the evolution and emergence of Adaptive Reuse. A key observation made for these theroies was - theories were presented in three groups.
STYLISTIC RESTORATION
RESTORATIONCONSERVATION
CONSERVATION (ANTI RESTORATION)
Fig 2.3 (a): Three groups of the key - theories
These Theories have played a fundametal role in the development of national and international conservation policies and legislations. The table below shows the evolution of key theories over time: Theorists
Time period
Theory Overview Found the Stylistic Restoration movement Insisted finding a proper use of buildings to minimize alterations in future
Viollet-Le-Duc
Early 19th century
Replicating the building in the original style and material Inserting new elements as a restoration process which reflect the original character Using the same materials and techniques and possessing the resources of the first Opposed Stylistic restoration as the biggest critique to previous theory
Ruskin
Early 19th century
Started the conservation (anti-restoration) movement Insisted maintenance and daily care
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Theorists
Time Period
Theory Overview Critique of Stylistic Restoration Highly influenced by Ruskin and followed his Conservation approaches
Morris
Mid 19th century
Respecting the work of the original master and preserving the work of artsist Emphasised on maintenance and repair Very limited alterations to make the building practical The unique features of building should be preserved even though the function changes Followed both VIollet-le-duc’s restoration and Ruskin’s conservation theories to form a Restoration - Conservation movement Stated the main aim of restoration by categorizing the building’s age value into three classes
Boito
Mid 19th century
Identifying and distinguishing between the old and new as the most important factor of restoration To retaiin all the original layers of the building, introduced levels of intervention Should respect the heritage value of the building and vary the restoration process of each building case by case Maintenance as a way to prevent restoration Prioritized various values as a way of distinguishing between restoration and conservation
Riegl
Late 19th and Early 20th century
Preservation of a heritage building by identifying the values of its period as each heritage building belongs to a period Reproduction was justifiable if it was possible for a heritage building to lose the visual elements of its decoration Introduced three categories of intervention
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Theorists
Time Period
Theory Overview Pioneered the modern restorationconservation movement Heritage building should be returned to its original state without removing the signs of decay HIstorical, functional and aesthetic values of the building should be preserved
Brandi
Mid 20th century
Thoughtful restoration must respect the original building and be identifiable The real age of the heritage building should not be hidden to respect the original time period of the building and the authentic style of the building should be conserved instead of imitated Played an important role in the restoratio conservation practices and development of international conservation policies An international document which directly stated adaptive reuse as a way of conservation and the covered the conservation movement as a standard
Venice Charter
Mid 20th century
Conservation of a heritage building was considered as a strategy to make the building practical The architecture integrity and historical authenticity of the building should be considered
Fig 2.3 (b): Main points for all the Theories studied
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Fig 2.3 (b) shows the direct or indirect consideration of Adaptive reuse by these theories. Different levels of interventions and alterations are proposed for the old buildings. However, according to Kenneth Powell, adaptive reuse has been directly addressed since the 1970s.
Direct or Indirect consideration of Adaptive Reuse
Generally, theorists put an emphasis on thoughtful and careful maintenance and conservation rather than restoration. In the contemporary era, this is impossible to just focus on maintenance due to changes in user demands and advances in technology. These contemporary changes necessite some levels of adaptation in heritage buildings especially for those which are still in use.
Analysing the evolution of these principle theories, a stark difference can be seen between the 19th and 20th century theories of how the intention to Restore and Conserve old and unused buildings was just to protect the heritage values in 19th century but with the addition of values like Age, Aesthetic and Funtion, they were evoloved and gained importance in 20th century.
19th century theories
Fig 2.3 (c): Difference betweee19th and 20th century theories
On the Basis on the Values
Restoration and Conservation
20th century theories
This significant change has lead to the contemporary practice of Adaptice Reuse which has even more values and aspects attached to it and this study opens up to the further study to know what are those aspects.
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As such, although these theories are important in the practice of adaptive reuse, they usually remain as theoretical guidelines and are less considered in practice.
Advances in technology
Adaptive Reuse
Change in User demands
Fig 2.3 (d): Difference in the 19th and 20th century theories and thus the emergence to Adaptive Reuse
The analysis of theories since the 19th century revealed that there was a controversial debate between theorists regarding restoration and conservation of heritage buildings. Some theorists believed in the stylistic/faithful restoration of heritage buildings. Stylistic restoration refers to considering the original style of a heritage building in any work carried out to the building. John Bold used the term 'historicist reconstruction', which may be a synonym to stylistic restoration. They believed that historicist reconstruction aims to prevent the unavoidable processes of time and decay.
Tomaszewski and Polistamp were against Stylistic restoration and believed that it led to damage and destruction of the heritage buildings and as a result, Conservation of the buildings was practised in a larger amount comparatively. However, both Restoration and Conservation are pracitised in the present times depending upon various other factors related to the building and the community of the loci which weren’t considered earlier. Inferences and Findings for the 19th and 20th century Theories
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Believers of stylistic restoration suggested that the Historic Value of the building should be appreciated rather than the Age Value. Hence, they proposed a complete removal of the signs of decay and believed in the stylistic restoration such that the original era in which the building was made must be reflected without any signs of decay and damage. Their emphasis was on the specific period of time that the building belonged to and their intention was to respect the authentic features and heritage values of that era. When the theory of Stylistic Restoration was drafted, the intention was to replicate the originality of the building with the exact same materials to make it look like the original. Many supporters of Stylistic Restoration agreed to this ideology but some theorist strongly disagreed saying that with the ever-changing technology and advancements, finding the exact same materials and their availability is sometimes next to impossible. They suggested that instead of repicating and removing all the signs of decay, the damages and ruins of the building should be respected and shown to reflect the correct age of the building. These theorists believed that using different materials shows difference and distinguishes the building from the old and new which is necessary to convey the true feeling of a place.
Inferences and Findings for the 19th and 20th century Theories
Today, all these past attempts can be seen on many heritage buildings which shows the buildings history as well as the changes it has gone through over the time. In the 19th century, Stylitic restoration was a huge part of the Reuse practices that carried out due to Viollet-Le-Duc’s theory and his works. However, from late 19th century, many theorists started criticizing the method and charters such as the Athens Charter and Australian ICOMOS also critised the practice. But, on the contrary, over the time, restoration is practiced by many conservators and architects globally.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Developing framework from theories
This chapter analyses the 19th and 20th century and a significant evolution can be seen through the theories. Both the theories and their application have been mentioned in the study. It can be prominently seen that all the Interventions proposed by the theorists were directly indirectly forms of Adaptive Reuse. They introduced different levels and forms of Adaptive Reuse and as a contemporary practice now, it is an addition of many values and factors with the aspects mentioned in this theories. Adaptive reuse has been represented in such a way that it covers and justifies almost all activities carried out on heritage buildings, and consequently include Restoration, Preservation, Conservation and even maintenance. RESTORATION
Adaptive Reuse
CONSERVATION
PRESERVATION
Fig 2.3 (e): Adaptive Reuse as a collaborative term
Further analysis of the study shows that how the intentions of protecting the old buildoings has evolved from a value base to technological needs and user demands. In today times, both heritage and historic values and technological advancements are considered while undergoing these Reuse practices. In this ever-changing times, efforts are been made to upgrade the heritage buildings without compromising their heritage values as much as possible. Restoration, Conservation and Maintenance as a part of Adaptive Reuse
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Debatable take on the relevance of the theories in the contemporary era
It is clear that there are different perspectives on the adaptive reuse of heritage buildings and different experts apply different theories, depending on Philosophy, country, culture, and heritage policies. Considering spirit of place and spirit of time/age as part of authentic features and values of a heritage building, a debate still remains in terms of which theory or theories are reliable and applicable in the contemporary era.
Stylistic restoration of a heritage building with the same materials or preservation of all signs of decay and past works carried out on a heritage building and restoration of the building with different materials. Keeping intact remnants of past works carried out on heritage buildings throughout history can show different historical layers of a building. As stated by PowelI, a multilayered historical building is a gift from the past. This sentiment is reinforced by Plevoets, who considered that the connection of the different historical layers of a building can enhance the depth and richness of its memory, and thus contributes to the spirit of a place. However as stated by Jokilehto, some may sacrifice the patina of age for the continuous use of a heritage building, thus consider stylistic restoration. Although numerous theories are, to some extent, related to adaptive reuse, most of them have not been taken into account related to practice of adaptive reuse. This literature study lifts awareness of potential underpinning theories related to the conservation, restoration, and adaptation of heritage buildings. Comprehending these theories paves the way for scholars, experts, and students to strengthen research and practice in adaptive reuse of heritage buildings by incorporating the theoretical position that underpins their work. Direct relation of theories to Adaptive reuse 'Adaptive Reuse' needs more awareness in Research
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INVESTIGATION
3 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4
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In this chapter, different Approaches that have been evolved by the theories mentioned are identified and analysed to get a wholistic idea. Four main approaches to deal with an unused building have been discussed in the chapter based on the sources and literature found. The chapter also shows evolution of these strategies in the 20th century and opens a scope for a detailed research on each of these approach for future study.
Approaches through Reuse practices Typological Approach Technical Approach Programmatic Approach Strategic Approach
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3.1 Approaches through Reuse Practices The Evolution of the Theories led to a specific and emergent practice of 'Adaptive Reuse'. 1970s was the year from when this historic movement started. Adaptive Reuse became a establishing and a creative discipline by that time, which had its own philosophy or a theory behind it.
Reuse as a creative disciple with a philosophy or a theory
However, there was only one approach or rather still is which is approach or theory of 'contemporary use'. On the contrary even then, but especially since then, various approaches have coexisted; each of which offers its own insights and identifies its own salient issues.
These approaches are the analysis of various Theorists who stated their own way and methods of dealing with a heritage building for its reuse. The study covers the most prominent approaches which are well established in the literature done till the date and hence, all the approaches and theories are not covered in the study.
Typological Approach
Technical Approach
REUSE APPROACHES
Programatic Approach
Fig 3.1 (a): Four approaches for the Reuse practice
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Strategic Approach
Re - Using the Un - Used | Approaches through Reuse Practices
Sherban Cantacuzino Typological Approach
James Douglas Derek Latham
James Douglas Technical Approach
Christopher Gorse and David Highfield Georg Giebeler
Sherban Cantacuzino Programatic Approach
Darak Latham Kenneth Powell
Philippe Robert Strategic Approach
Graeme Brooker and Sally Stone Peter Jager Johannes Cramer and Stephane Breitling
Fig 3.1 (b): Authors, Theorists behind the Approaches
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3.1.1 Typological Approach
Cantacuzino as the pioneering researcher for Adaptive Reuse
Sherban Cantacuzino, the author of 'New Uses for Old buildings' was a pioneering researcher for Adaptive Reuse during the time of 1970s. The Introductory essay to this book is a history or Adaptive Reuse and its role in current conservation practise, and is followed by a selection international examples organised according to the typology of the host space. Cantacuzino discusses eleven different typologies for which he formulates new possible functions:
1. Churches and Chapels 2. Monastics and Religious establishments 3. Fortificationa, gates and barracks 4. Town houses, country houses, other houses and ancillaries 5. Schools 6. Corn Exchanges 7. Barns and Granaries 8. Mills 9. Maltings and Breweries 10. Warehouses and Other Industrial Buildings 11. Pumping Stations
Categorization of buildings into Typologies
These typologies being very specific and relevant to only some parts of the world, he further categorised the typologies into six categories according to the several building types. Following Cantacuzino's documentary or category based approach, several authors have studied Adaptive Reuse by analysing case studies through the typology of the host space and have developed ideas similar to those of Cantacuzino.
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Industrial Buildings
Factory Warehouse Barn Granary Mill Brewery Malting Mining Site
Religious Buildings
Church & Chapel Convent Benguinage Presbytery
Semi-public Buildings
City Hall Museum School Hospital Court House Office Library Theatre Hotel & Hostel Post Office Railway station
Residential Buildings
Castle Country House Farm Town house Apartment building
Military Buildings
Fortress Barrack Gate
Commercial Buildings
Craft shop Department store Exchange Bank Market Boutique Passage
Typological Approach
Fig 3.1.1 (a): Categorization of Typologies according to found literature
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Cantacuzino proposes a number of possible new functions and new uses for each building typology that he has discussed.
Typological Approach
Categorizing the building Typology
Proposed possible new uses for each typology
Fig 3.1.1 (b): Typological Approach - Cantacuzino
Later, Douglas backed this theory by focusing on the reason for the redundancy of the specific building and its typology in the first place.
Development of the Typological approch
Since then, many studies have been established in this genre and theorists have investigated the reuse possibilities and appropriate approaches for each specific type of building types including religious buildings, industrial buildings, and housing. The Fig 3.1.1 (a) presents a classification of heritage categories and typologies, according to the literature sources if the theorists mentioned in Fig 3.1 (b), dealing with each building types. Only sources in the field of heritage conservation, architecture and interior architecture are considered, beside these disciplines, adaptive reuse has also been studied within the fields of urban regeneration, engineering, sustainability and economy but these publications are not part of this research.
Scope and Limitations for the Theories referred
Moreover, the thesis only includes international literature. As heritage conservation is often organised on national or local level, a wide variety of regional literature is available but these are not reviewed within the scope of this study. Although an attempt has been made for the research to be as complete as possible, this list is not exhaustive.
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Based on the Fig 3.1.1 (a), the building typologies that have received major attention in relation to their adaptive reuse has been distinguished; these typologies include, 1. Industrial buildings 2. Residential buildings And, 3. Churches
Industrial buildings
Major Studies
Other religious buildings
Semi-public buildings
Residential buildings
Military buildings
Commercial buildings
Churches
Minor Studies
Fig 3.1.1 (c): Available Research & Literature on the Typologies
Other typologies have been discussed only limitedly, among which religious buildings other than churches, military buildings, and commercial buildings. Based on the table it seems that some typologies have received minor attention, but as the study has only cited international literature, they may have been studied more in-depth in nationally conducted studies.
Scope and Limitations for the Typologies
For example, post offices are only cited in the work of Douglas, but an important Dutch study has been carried out recently dealing with the rehabilitation of this building type. Still, this overview may be a useful starting point for a more in-depth study on a specific building category or typology, and may be valuable in guiding future research questions.
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Reuse of Industrial Buildings - Example The Warehouse Hotel The Warehouse Hotel is an Adaptive Reuse project in Singapore which was reused in 2016.
Before
Spice Warehouse
After
Boutique hotel
Image 3.1.1 (a): 1895 - Storehouse for river
Image 3.1.1 (b): 1950 - Red light area acts
Image 3.1.1 (c): 1986 - Warehouse disco
Image 3.1.1 (d): 2016 - Boutique hotel
Functional changes over the time
Built in 1895 as one of the countless warehouses that lined Singapore river, these buildings were started as storehouses for a trade route. After engaging in activities for Red light areas in 1950s, and disco for young people which resulted in place for suicidal cases, the warehouse finally is being reused as a boutique hotel since 2016. Typological measures: Original design elements like louvre windows, doors, cornices, mouldings and the Chinese characterss on the leftmost goble are sensitively retained are restored.
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Image 3.1.1 (e): Structural changes changing the Warehouse typology of the building
Three beams in the trusses have been added as additional support. A new building for a swimming pool has too been added to the premises. A double-volume space greets visitors at the Hotel lobby. Natural light filters in through the jack roofs in the daytime, while new portal frames serving as discreet structural interventions firnge the lobby space, providing a clear access and line of sight to the waterfront. The warehouse character is reflected strongly in the building even after the transformation.
Image 3.1.1 (f): 1895 - Hotel lobby reflection a strong character of the warehouse
The projects shows that even after the function and the building typology is altered, the presence of the original character is still preserved and restored. Hence, the Typological approach is depended upon the typological measures taken for the transformation of the building for Adaptive reuse.
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Reuse of Religious Buildings - Example Born Again: A Custom home A project where the original design is enhanced through the design decisions taken for the reuse.
Before
Church
After
House
Image 3.1.1 (g): The exterior Image 3.1.1 (h): The interior enhancing the original windows of the house reflecting church of the churrch - Project: Church conversion in Chicago typology
The elements of a Religious typologies usually include soaring ceilings, colurful and ornamented windows, and many other details. While a residential building has cozy spaces and simple, durable finishes, such as concrete floors and simple windows to make it a daily living home. A complete gutting is most likely required to install all new plumbing, electrical, and HVAC runs. In many cases, clients want to keep many of a building's original features, so placing those utilities requires careful planning. And those features clients want to preserve could call for restoration. While converting a building from religious use to residential presents challenges
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Typological measures:
Addition
Addition
Image 3.1.1 (i): Changes in the internal partitions and slab to fit both church and house typologies
One key strategy for maintaining the church's airiness and volume included removing the 18-foot ceilings throughout the 400-squarefoot primary space to expose the original rafters and give the public rooms a 25-foot ceiling height. The reinforced rafters also add interest to the upstairs bedrooms. This big move allowed full exposure of the main multi-sectioned stained-glass window, which now anchors the open kitchen-diningliving area.
The basement was finished into an accessory dwelling unit with three Changes in the internal bedrooms, two baths, and a full kitchen. A bell tower is another key partitions feature saved. Rising above the foyer, the tower extends well above the roofline. The impressive height of the structure is given a purpose and has been retained.
Image 3.1.1 (j): 25 ft. ceiling ht. in ground fl.
Image 3.1.1 (k): The false ceiling in the bedrooms doesnt cut the original windows
The projects shows that even after the function and the building typology is altered, the presence of the original character is still preserved and restored. Hence, the Typological approach is depended upon the typological measures taken for the transformation of the building for Adaptive reuse.
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Reuse of Residential Buildings - Example Khoj Studio Khoj Studio is adaptively reused from an old village residence in Khirkee, New Delhi,
Before
House
Image 3.1.1 (l): A village typology is changed into modern interventions
After
Studio
Image 3.1.1 (m): The entrance of the studio retains the earthy character of a village house
The Original buildings was used as an architect’s studio with the residence adjoining it. Khoj’s program comprises of artitst’s studios, offices and a residence for the artists. The building was strongly demarced into mainly worksapces and domestic spaces.
Image 3.1.1 (n): Original fenestrations
Image 3.1.1 (o): Metal frames added in the facade
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Image 3.1.1 (p): Bridges on the first and second level
Image 3.1.1 (q): Insertions and Interventions in the ground, first and second floor
Typological Measures: Village houses tend to have small spaces with a large number of internal partitions and a double height Chowk / Courtyard as a significant feature of the medieval era houses. The typological measures for Khoj studio led to insertions of slabs for extra number of spaces and removal of the partitions for open office workspace and exhibition areas. The Bridges on the first and terrace levels, and the staircase are key inserts made while redesigning to interconnected circulation between two buildings. These elements are free from the existing wall to avaoid disturbance to preexisting fenestrations.
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3.1.2 Technical Approach In contrast to Cantacuzino and the other authors mentioned here, some writers have approached building adaptation as primarily a technical question and, in a sense, have become even less theoretical in their thinking. In this vein there exist a number of guidebooks focused on how to adapt a building so as to Building adaptiation - merely ensure it can best accommodate a new function. a techinical question
The first, and best-known, book of this type is perhaps Highfield's The Rehabilitation and Re-use of Old Buildings (1987). Here, Highfield makes a distinction between domestic and nondomestic buildings and then goes on to develop a technical chapter in which he discusses the improvements necessary to adapt buildings in terms of: 1. Fire resistance 2. Thermal performace 3. Acoustic properties 4. Prevention of damp 5. Condensation and timber decay
Highfield on Technical Addproach for Sustainable redevelopment
Douglas dealing with technical aspects of reuse
To back up these specific questions, he also presents a series of technical studies of specific buildings. This reference text has been followed up by numerous other editions in which he has expanded the number and range of technical issues to be considered by the designer adapting existing structures to include issues of sustainable redevelopment. Moreover, next to presenting a typological approach, a major extent of the work of Douglas deals with technical aspects of reuse. Although the implications of protection of a building are discussed both by Highfield as by Douglas, they approach the host space merely as a container that can be adapted for functional, fincancial and technical end.
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Although of fundamental importance for the present and the future of adaptive reuse, there is little scope within the confines of either this, or the typological approach, for the consideration of conservation and heritage or what we may call the genius loci of the host building.
Emergence of the technological approach leading to even more technical challenges for the Designers
The last decennium however, these technical issues have inevitably come to the fore in the theory and practice of reuse as ecological imperatives have imposed even more complex technical challenges on the Designers of these newly adapted spaces, according to Carswell (2011).
Throughout the literature dedicated to these questions, there is emphasis on the fact that reusing existing building is, in principal, a sustainable practice in itself; the amount of resources needed for reuse being generally far less than those necessary for new constructions. However, all the authors dealing with these purely technical strategies of reuse also identify that historic buildings often perform poorly in terms of energy effiency and, as such, are not invariably beneficial in ecological terms.
Technical Approach
For sustainable redevelopment
And hence, ADAPTIVE REUSE
A sustainable practice
Fig 3.1.2 (a): Development of Adaptive Reuse as a Sustainable practice
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Frames Floors
Loadbearing Structures
Walls Roofs Underpinning Heavy-lifting
Internal Surfaces
Technical Approach
Building Envelop
Introduction to new floors Facade Accessibility & Circulation
Full-resistance
Comfort, Safety and Energy Efficiency
Thermal performance Acoustic performance Indoor air quality Preventing moisture and dampness
Fig 3.1.2 (b): Overview of the Technical aspects of Adaptive Reuse
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One consequence of the increased concern across the design world with issues of environmental importance is, naturally enough, an explosion in the theories and investigations into the issues.
Importance of an Interdisciplinary approach
Contrary to studies of 1980s and 1990s, the more recent studies do stress the importance of an interdisciplinary approach towards reuse of historic buildings, including issues of conservation, architecture, interior design and planning beside aspects of engineering.
The Fig 3.1.2 (b), presents an overview of the technical issues that have been discussed in relation to the adaptive reuse of buildings by different authors meintioned in Fig 3.1 (b). As these authors have approached the given building in a different way there is some overlap between the particular technical problems.
Scope and Limitations for the Technical approach
For example, discussions on improvement of walls, floor, etc. may include aspects of acoustic and thermal improvement. Moreover, the actual knowledge on these particular subjects may be more extensive than those sources taken as the reference for this study as the available standard works on construction are still particularly relevant in relation to adaptation of existing buildings. Nevertheless, the table gives an insight in the particular technical problems that are related to adaptive reuse, and the extent in which they are discussed in adaptive reuse literature.
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3.1.3 Programatic Approach A third approach to reuse that has yet to be fully examined in theoretical treatises but which has been applied in reality for some time, is the programmatic strategy. This approach involves selecting as a starting point a specific function or programme and then subsequently search for an existing (historic) building suitable to acccomodate it. In the studies that have been made into strategy there tends to be an emphasis on contemporary architecture and interventions rather than approach of heritage conservation.
REUSE
Fig 3.1.3 (a): Transformation of Reuse strategy
As an approach for heritage conservation Important for Contemporary Architecture and Interventions
Before After
Nevertheless, it is important that this approach will be further developed, in particular given that historic buildings are continually, and increasingly being adapted for a whole range of commercial functions: 1. Retail 2. Lesiure 3. Sport 4. Care 5 Domestic In each of these cases, the developers behind the projects often specifically look for the historic buildings because of their 'authentic charachter'. In the case of the retail sector, for example, this may be to help in brand differentiation or, because the buildings that occupy our city centre shopping areas are often old.
Programatic approach
Fig 3.1.3 (b): Functions fitting properly in the heritage built
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Authentic character of heritage built helping the functions
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Dwelling
Culture
Education
Retail
Office Programatic Approach
Leisure Care
Industry
Religious
Military
Mixed-use
Fig 3.1.3 (c): List of the programmes that a heritage building can adapt into
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'Being able to adapt buildings to different programs is essential'
The early investigations that exist into the programmatic approach to reuse, need to address these and other issues if, as some of its proponents claim, it can help solve not just practical and functional issues but also help alleviate social ills. Being able to adapt buildings to different programmes is essential, they suggest, if issues such as housing for an aging demographic is to be fully developed within our exisiting building stock. As hardly any studies exists that discuss one particular programme in relation to adaptive reuse, the Fig 3.1.3 (c) has been drawn on literature presenting a typological approach to present a general overview of the different programmes and the adaptive reuse literature that discuss these distinct programmes.
Major Studies
Dwelling
Leisure
Culture
Care
Education
Retail
Industry Minor Studies
Fig 3.1.3 (d): Available Research & Literature on the Programes
Religious
Military
Mixed-use
As Fig 3.1.3 (d) illustrates, dwelling, culture and education, retail, office programmes that have been extensively discussed in relation to adaptive reuse. Industry military functions, and religious functions have received limited attention; this, however, is not surprising as these programmes require very specific architectural charecteristics and as such are usually housed in a new building, or in existing buildings that are almost completely modified and do not show much resemblance anymore to the original building.
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3.1.4 Strategic Approach In 'Architecture as Palimpset ' Machado considers a series of metaphors from the practice of writing such as writing over, underlining, partially erasing, writing between the lines, etc. - to suggest different possible ways of thinking about the remodelling of buildings. He questions the predominant attention for the 'form-function relationship' - what we earlier defined as the typological approach - instead, he argues for an increased emphasis on the 'form/ form relationship' as he believes this to be the critical potential of the activity. Moreover, Machado continues that the activity of remodelling is not limited to the production of 'form', but rather the 'meaning' of the past and the way the architect or designer deals with it, should be considered as essential. He states:
Increased emphasis on Form / Form Relationship
"In the process of remodelling, the past takes on a greater significance because it, itself, is the material to be altered and reshaped. The past provides the already-written, the marked "canvas" on which each successive remodelling will find its own place. Thus, the past becomes a "package of sense", of built-up meaning to be accepted (maintained), transformed, or supressed (refused)."
Programatic approach
Fig 3.1.4 (a) Difference between Programatic and Strategic approaches
Strategic approach
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FORM / FUNCTION RELATIONSHIP
FORM / FORM RELATIONSHIP
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Robert's Seven 'Concepts of Conversion'
Although these more 'poetic' ideas did not initially receive much consideration, by 1989 they had been taken up by Robert who recalled the metaphor of the palimpset to explain the concept of conversion. Robert presents seven 'concepts of conversion' that he identifies as existent in a number of historical and contemporary examples: 1. Building within 2. Building over 3. Building around 4. Building alongside 5. Recycling materials or vestiges 6. Adapting to a new function 7. Building in the style of Each of these concepts refers to a specific physical intervention but contains traces, ableit less forceful ones, of Machado's more poetic palimpsest ideas. More recently, these ideas have emerged in the writings of Brooker and Stone, who, as with Robert, define different design strategies for building reuse by looking at exemplary case studies. They identify three strategies:
INSERTION
Design strategies INSTALLATION
INTERVENTION
Fig 3.1.4 (b): Brooker and Stone's Design Strategies
Their approach also starts from physical intervention but their focus is on the 'affective' aspect of each adatation; by applying one of the proposed strategies, they suggest, the meaning of the building can be either accepted, transfored or suppressed.
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In Context + Environment, Brooker and Stone explain: "It is through an understanding and interpretation of the spirit of place and the particular contextual setting within a building exists that the designer or architect can heighten, change and reactivate a space. An existing structure is bound to its setting; it has certain qualities that are unique only to that particular situation. The designer can analyse and use these found qualities as the starting point or basis for the next layer of construction" Their use of categories and latent concern for a sense of place is also evident in the work of Jager who uses three types of classifications:
TRANSFORMATION
Design Strategies
CONVERSION
ADDITION
Fig 3.1.4 (c): Jager's Design Strategies
Cramer and Breitling develop these ideas in a slightly different way through a distinction between 'design strategies' and 'architectural expressions'.
Design Strategies
Fig 3.1.4 (d): Cramer and Breitling's Strategic approaches
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Architectural Expressions
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Corrective maintenance
Adaptation
Modernisation
Recycling materials of vestiges
Conversion
ARCHITECTURAL EXPRESSIONS
Fig 3.1.4 (e) Overlap of the Strategic Approaches
Junction & Delineation
Unification
Correspondence
Cramer & Breitling 2007
Replacement
Installation
Addition
Transformation
Jager 2010
Building in the style of
Adapting to a new function
Building around
Building alongside
Intervention
Insertion
Building within
Building over
Brooker & Stone 2004
Robert 1989
DESIGN STRATEGIES
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Approaches through Reuse Practices
Common to them all is an approach that is not only practical but also acknowledges a more poetic understanding of adaptive reuse similar to the ideas of Machado than any of the other strategies that has been mentioned. The Fig 3.1.4 (e) presents the strategies distinguished by the different authors. For all authors, different strategies have been placed having similar meaning and characteristics. The strategies have been placed on a vertical line. Their definitions and interpretation of the distinct strategies, however, may overlap.
An overlap of strategies of different authors
As such, an attempt has been made to indicate this overlap by creating horizontal lines, including strategies that are equal or very similar.
The table does not only points the different interpretations of the extent of the practice of 'adaptive reuse'. For example, Brooker and Stone approach adaptive reuse as an aspect of interior architecture. And they focus their strategies on alterations that are mainly within the contours of the given building.
Contrarily, Robert and Cramer & Breitling approach adaptive reuse much broader as they also refer to projects that replace an old building by a new building in the style of the original, or projects that involve a new building constructed with materials of old, demolished structures.
Difference in the strategies of different authors
Although this interpretation of adaptive reuse may seem rather far-reaching for buildings, they may be valuable in the context of larger sites or historic towns.
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Building within : Insertion - Example Timber framed Barn residence This project is the result of reviving a 1773 barn built of hundreds of timber elements that had been disassembled, stacked, and stored for over 40 years. The project is the best example of Building within and Insertion approach. All the elements are inserted in the shell of the barn and made functional.
Image 3.1.4 (a): Side elevation Image 3.1.4 (b): Perspective view of the house showing the of the timber residence shell of the barn
To divide the historically open space, a three-story architectural intervention made of room-sized wooden cubes was delicately placed within the timber structure. The cubes, shifting as they stack on one-another creates the impression of a threedimensional sculptural that fills the volume of the barns up to its roof. The homogeneous silver fir surface of the cubes contrasts the latticework of the Timber frame complimenting the historic construction with a modern intervention. The two historic characteristic passageways, called “tennen�, that cross the barn are left unobstructed with only light bridges spanning them on the upper levels. The original double barn doors are long lost, but they are replaced with transparent large glass gates. This allows the interior and exterior as a path lead straight out of the ground floor toward a picturesque adjacent lake.
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Image 3.1.4 (c): Insertions in the barn for the new use of residence
th internal volume and the sense of scale is completely changed due to the insertions of the internal partitions, staircases, beams and columns.
Image 3.1.4 (d): Partitions and Image 3.1.4 (e): Perspective view of the house showing the Staircase insertions shell of the barn
The project shows the approach of the approach of building within the old building. In this case, usually only the outer shell of the old building is retianed.
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Building over : Addition - Example Le Fresnoy - Art, Music, Dance Centre Le Fresnoy is a learning centre for students which has used an old bulding in the best way by building over it. The old building houses in-house activities like offices and other rooms while the new addtition is open to flexible spaces for all the activities like art, music and dance. First, a new, resolutely contemporary facade encloses the ensemble of buildings in a rectangular box.
Image 3.1.1 (f): La Fresnoy - Image 3.1.1 (g): La Fresnoy - built over an old building with outdoor staircase a start differentiation between old and new
The project suspends a large, ultra-technological roof, pierced by cloud-like glass openings and containing all necessary ductwork for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, over many of the existing 1920s structures. The roof acts as the project’s common denominator.
Image 3.1.1 (h): Changes over the time
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In keeping with the Surrealist image of the meeting of the umbrella and the sewing machine on the dissecting table, the scheme of the project aims to accelerate chance events by combining diverse elements, juxtaposing the great roof, the school and research laboratory, and the old Fresnoy, a place of spectacle.
The north side of the insertion is made out of corrugated steel, while the curtain wall facades of the southern sector give a transparent image to the entrance and main building facade. The other sides remain open, providing views of the old and new within and of the technical ductwork suspended under the new roof and over the old ones. The spaces between the two roofs contain places for installations and film projections located along a dramatic sequence of walkways.
Image 3.1.1 (i): Additions on the Existing
Image 3.1.1 (j): Intersection-Old-New
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MANIFESTATION
4 4.1
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This chapter is a conclusion of the theoretical study and the analysis of those theories done in the previous chapters. The aim of the thesis is to understand the evolution of theories and the approaches for reuse practices The study hereby concludes with finding the relevance and furture of the reuse approaches for the Architecture and Interior Practices
Conclusion
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4.1 Conclusion In this study, the focus has been on the notion of re-use and the various theories, designers and concepts that have developed around it. As per this study, the arguments have evolved over time and become ever more nuanced, complex and possibly, contradictory. The study suggests in today's context, there are four discernible schools of thought, each one of which emphasizes a different key issue. The typological and technical approaches are clearly practical in nature and as issues of sustainability become ever more pressing, will only grow in importance.
Typological Approach
Practical approaches
Technical Approach
Image 4.1 (a): Nature of typological and technical approaches
The programmatic and strategic approach are concerned with the role of adaptation of our buildings may be able to play in the adaptation of society at large to the issues it will face in the coming years. Moreover, the strategic approach begins to focus on a more 'poetic' understanding of adaptation and draw on the ideas of Machado and the notion of the palimpset.
Programatic Approach
Practical approaches Result of a poetic understanding
Strategic Approach
Image 4.1 (a): Nature of programatci and strategic approaches
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Although each of these strategies is different in nature and tone there is one thing they all seem to have in common. The people behind their conception, development and promotion have tended to be architects. This is perhaps one of the reasons why the more ethereal and intangible ideas of the palimpset have not been fully explored. This has been the case historically with Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, Alois Reigl, Camillo Boito, Sherban Cantacuzino and Radolfo Machado all coming from an architectural background. VIOLLET-LE-DUC ALOIS REIGL CAMILLO BOITO SHERBAN CANTACUZINO
Architectural Background
RADALFO MACHADO Image 4.1 (c): Professional background of theorists
In recent years however, there has been a sea change with more writings on the subject of reuse emanating from the pens of interior architects and designers. A case in point is Graeme Brooker and Sally Stone, another is Ellen Klingberg. In What is Interior Design? Brooker and Stone state: Interior architecture, interior design, interior decoration, and building reuse are very closely linked subjects, all of which deal, in varying degrees, with the transformation of a given space, whether that is the crumbling ruin of an ancient buildings or the drawn parameters of a new building proposal.
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This identification, and the increase in publications by interior designers, is to be welcomed. It is perhaps by introducing the sensibilties of the 'interior thinker' into the equation on adaptive reuse that another imbalance can be addressed; the focuses on practical questions evident in the strategies the study has outlined. Such a shift could be proposed, gives way to the emergence of a fifth contemporary approach which the study argues is necessary. That approach would draw more on the 'soft values' of the interior architect.
Fifth Approach
SOFT AND POETIC VALUES OF DESIGN
Image 4.1 (d): Fifth approach for Interior Designer
It would be able to draw the parallel between alteration and poetry identified by Fred Scott (2008) and introduces notions of empathy and generosity in our response to existing buildings and their adaptation to the needs and sensibilities of new users. NEEDS OF THE NEW USER
Fifth Approach
FUNCTIONAL TO THE NEW USE
USER-BASED APPROACH
Image 4.1 (e): Fifth approach which includesn User aspects of Interior design
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It could be an approach that combines the typological, technical, programmatic and strategic concerns has been discussed, but one that does so with more sensitivity; that does so in what we may call an 'interior approach'.
Technical Approach
Typological Approach
INTERIOR APPROACH
Programatic Approach
Strategic Approach
Image 4.1 (F): Fifth approach - Interior Approach
The study is an attempt to draw attention to the need for an understanding of 'the poetics of the space when adapted'. Hints at the possibility of applying intagible aspects to adaptation are found in the writings of Scott, those of Brooker and Stone (Graeme Brooker, 2009; Graeme Brooker & Stone, 2004) and also exist in work of Klingenberg (2012).
In conclusion, the study strongly stresses upon the importance of retaining a sense of the historic interior in adaptations, not just aesthetically however, but also through the notion of, what Klingenberg calls its 'cultural experience value', or the building's own genius loci.
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Re - Using the Un - Used | Appendix
Appendix: Mapping the Theories Restoration Stylistic restoration Eugene Viollet-Le-Duc Early 19th century
Conservation Anti restoration John Ruskin Early 19th century
Preservation Conservation William Morris Mid 19th century
Adaptive Reuse for Structural stability Adaptive Reuse as financial and functional Kenneth Powell 1999
Serban Cantacuzino 1989
Adaptive Reuse for urban development Rodrigo Perez De Arc 2014
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Adaptive Reuse as a way of Conservation
The Venice Charter 1964
Re - Using the Un - Used | Appendix
Evolution and Emergence
Restoration Conservation Camillo Boito Mid 19th century Preservation
19th century
The intention was to preserve old and unused buildings and protect their heritage values
Alois Reigl Late 19th, Mid 20th century Restoration Conservation Cesare Brandi Mid 20th century
20th century Start of 21st century Adaptive Reuse as a theory in its own
Adaptive Reuse of modern buildings
Future scope and further study
Future scope and further study
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Many other values and aspects such as Age, Aesthetics and Function were added which led to Adaptive Reuse This study opens up to the scope of further study where Adaptive Reuse can be classified as a theory in its own and be studied for modern buildings also.
Re - Using the Un - Used | Bibliography
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Image / Illustrations credits: Chapter - 1 1.2 (a): https://stockfresh.com/image/5936878/restoration-on-old-fortresswall 1.2 (b), (c), (d): https://www.archdaily.com/930302/annabel-karim-kassartransforms-19th-century-structure-into-a-contemporary-family-home?ad_ medium=gallery 1.2 (e), (f): https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/ architecture-design-blog/2016/oct/13/preserving-historical-buildings-themost-sustainable-thing-is-not-to-build-new-stuff 1.2 (g), (h): https://www.archdaily.com/557455/stone-house-transformationin-scaiano-wespi-de-meuron-romeo-architects
Chapter - 2 2.1.1 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_ Viollet-le-Duc 2.1.2 (a), (b), (c): https://www.academia.edu/3684733/John_Ruskin_The_ conservation_of_the_cultural_heritage 2.1.3 (a), (b): https://www.lib.umd.edu/williammorris/morris-aspreservationist 2.1.4 (a), (b), (c): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Boito
Chapter - 3 3.1.1 (a), (b), (c), (d), (f): https://www.archdaily.com/806054/thewarehouse-hotel-zarch-collaboratives 3.1.1 (g), (h), (j), (k): https://www.custombuilderonline.com/adaptive-reuseof-church-to-custom-home 3.1.1 (l), (m), (n), (o), (p): https://studiolotus.in/showcase/khojstudios/46
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3.1.4 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e): https://www.archdaily.com/936639/timberframed-barn-residence-and-meeting-space-leupold-brown-goldbacharchitekten 3.1.4 (f), (g), (h), (i), (j): http://www.tschumi.com/projects/14/ Note: Those Images / Illustrations not listed are the original works of the author.
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