From China to Chinatown by shiqi deng

FROM CHINA TO CHINATOWN the urban impacts of spice trading and cooking recIPES with cHINESE sPICES Shiqi Deng

MA Architecture Royal College of Art 2018 word count: 8290

FROM CHINA TO CHINATOWN the urban impacts of spice trading and cooking recIPES with cHINESE sPICES

Shiqi Deng

MA Architecture Royal College of Art 2018 word count: 8290

TABLE OF CONTENTS List of illustrations

Introduction

Spice trading

Chapter 1 : Spices , Food and Chinatown

Origin of Chinatown Evolution of Chinatown and Chinese food

Chapter 2 : A numbing bite of Sichuan

What is Sichuan pepper Pingchang- towads “the town of Sichuan Pepper” Cooking time! the right way to numb your mouth!

Chapter 3 : “Hottest” lady from Guizhou

A commercial legend of Chili The “chili city” in Zunyi Cooking time!How to set your mouth on fire!

Chapter 4 : A story of star

Star Anise Napo- The hometown of star anise in China Cooking time ! Starry anise ,starry taste!

Conclusion : Every bite matters

References

Appendix

List of illustrations

Fig.1 Anthony Brown, Chinatown London Night Time Set , (London: Dreamstime, 2016)<https://www. thesqua.re/blog/chinatown-london-chinese-newyear-27-jan-16-march/>[Accessed 17th March, 2018] Fig.2-5 Pingchang publicity department, Friends gathering for the second Sicuhan pepper harvesting festival . (Sichuan : Pingchang publicity, 2017) <https:// www.botanical-online.com/english/pepper_ zanthoxylum_piperitum.htm> [Accessed 22nd March 2018] Fig.6 Barshu restaurant, (London: google reviews, 2014)<https://www.google.co.uk/maps/uv?hl=zhCN&pb=!1s0x487604d2f3b6c873%3A0x33cd98c6 6b65476!2m19!8m1!8b1!16m16!1b.htm>[Accessed 22nd March 2018] Fig.7 Chili City, Raw Chili being processed , <http://www. ctps.cn/PhotoNet/product.asp?proid=2878996> [Accessed 17th June 2018] Fig.8 Masterplan of Chili city, (Guiyang, 2015)<http:// gz.cnipai.com/list/32954.htm> [Accessed 15th June] Fig.9 Guizhou TV News, Hottest market in China , (Guiyang, 2017) <https://www.suilengea.com/ wn/449/evemhgmh.html> [Accessed 17th June 2018] 62

Fig.10 Napo county publicity department, Housing in a mountainous area , (Napo, 2015) <http://staranise. forestry.gov.cn/bjlvyou/index.jhtml>[Accessed 17th June] Fig.11 Napo county publicity department, Stockbreeding under Star anise tree , (Napo, 2015)<http://staranise. forestry.gov.cn/bjlvyou/index.jhtml>[Accessed 17th June] Fig.12 Napo county publicity department, Fresh star aniseed, (Napo,2014)<http://staranise.forestry.gov. cn/bajiaozhix/18689.jhtml>[Accessed 17th June]

Fig.13 Anthony Brown, Gate of Chinatown London , (London: Dreamstime, 2016) <https://www. thesqua.re/blog/chinatown-london-chinese-newyear-27-jan-16-march/>[Accessed 17th March, 2018]

Thanks to Igea Troiani and Claude Liu who helped with their feedback and editing advices. And to everyone participated in tasting food, cooking and photographing support.

"...Thus to the Eastern wealth through storms we go, But now, the cape once doubâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;led, fear no more; A constant trade-wind will securely blow, And gently lay us on the spicy shore." -Annus Mirabilis, John Dryden, 1650

Introduction What are spices? Is spice an ingredient of cooking? Is spice an aromatic part of a special plant, be it its root, seed or flower? Is spice the source of unique scent and taste, that can bring your memories back? Is spice the main goods of global trading that started thousands of years ago? Yes, Spices are all of them, and beyond them.

As the witness of over thousands of years of the evolution of human civilization, the trading of spices brought diverse cultures of the Western, Southern and Eastern worlds together. And it was also mentioned in the “Spices: A Global Histor y” written by Fred Gzarra in 2009, “the exchange of spices from those different regions stimulated the first global age and the beginning of economic globalization, wherein actions in one area of the world greatly affected people and events on another, far-off continent.” 1 And where there are people, there will be activities. The space people used for farming, planting, living, and celebrating gradually formed the logic and rudiment of the urbanization and spices as a significant good, had a strong influence on the spatial aspect. There was a long history in East and South Asia of spices before European arrived in these areas. During antiquity, spices had a limited supply and can only be experienced by few cultures, which made them so mysterious and rare to

the Europeans. Even the English word “Spice” derives from the Latin “Species”, defined as “small quantity but with high value”. Hearing the stories of planting and harvesting the spices from places that the Europeans never seen inspired various tales and legends. Some of these legends were tied to the religion and constructed imagination of paradise, a place of perfection that might exist.2 And people who believed in these stories also believed that the scents of the exotic plants such as cinnamon were part of the scents of paradise. So, the desire of reaching to the dream lands promoted the trading and adventure to the undiscovered world, and the East world was also willing to exchange the spices for the goods valuable to them such as metal and jewels. The history of spices trading is an epitome of globalization, and the development of the regions along the silk road reflects the impacts that the spices trading can have on urbanization. The silk road was an ancient trading route that connected the East and the West, referring to both

1.Fred Gzarra, Spices:A Global Hstory , (London: Reaktion Books, 2009), p.7. 2.Fred Gzarra, Spices:A Global Hstory , (London: Reaktion Books, 2009), p.12.

the maritime and terrestrial routes that linked the Middle East and Southern Europe with Asia. Deriving from Han Dynasty ( 207 BCE – 220 CE ), the Chinese imperial envoy Zhang Qian （张骞）expanded the Central Asian section of the trade routes through the mission of exploration to the “west world” which was recorded as “ 西域 ”in ancient Chinese literature. And the Han Dynasty placed great emphasis on the safety of their trade goods and expanded the Great Wall of China to ensure the protection of the trading routes.3 At that time, the trade between Europe, Middle East and Asia was counted in months, or years. Such a long journey required the trade caravans to stop for supply and rest, which enabled them not only to trade for goods, but also to exchange their religions, technologies, and syncretic philosophies. In the meanwhile, the trade caravans preferred to trade the high value goods but with small volume and weight which let the silk and spices become their best choices to buy and sell. And the cities with suitable geographical and traffic condition benefited from the silk road included Dimashq, Istanbul and Ürümqi.4 Generally speaking, the spices

trading with other goods trading opened the long-distance economic and political relations between the Asia and West world. During the age of exploration, the developed cargo vessels highly increased the spice trading efficiency. From late fifteenth to the nineteenth century, The Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, England, these European countries competed for the market in spices in both South Asia and South East Asia, and the new marine routes were explored mainly for spices trading.5 At the same time, sailors took the seeds from the world and successfully planted some of them in Europe. For these two reason, Spices had become more common to the Europeans. They were no longer the luxur y that can only be served to the nobility but were introduced to civilian life. For instance, the black pepper once as expensive as the gold before the age of exploration, was widely used in civilians’ daily life and had forever changed the Europeans’ eating habits, which in turn changed the way they prepared, ate and appreciated food.6 Therefore, Spices as culinary ingredients,

3. Boulnois Luce, Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants . (Hong Kong: Odyssey Books, 2005), p. 66. 4. Xinru Liu,The Silk Road in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p.21. 5. Gary Paul, Cumin, Camels, and Caravans: A Spice Odyssey .( San Francisco: University of California Press, 2014), p.12. 6. Jack Turner, Spice: The History of a Temptation. (New York: Knopf Books, 2008), p.23

had been gradually integrated into the society, and the evolution of places for planting, harvesting and trading the spices were the results of the spices on spatial aspect. In contrast with the rise of cities along the silk road in middle age, nowadays within the advanced logistic and the global trading market, the impacts of spices trading were more embodied in the origin and destination. Because of the irreplaceable tastes and scents of specific spices in some cuisines, more targeted spices trading happened between the exotic restaurants and their origins. China as one of the main participants in spices trading from 200BC still plays a significant role in current spices market, especially with the increasing popularity of Chinese food and the appearance of Chinatown all over the world. In addition, the history of Chinatown is always closely interrelated to the Chinese restaurants, and the spices used in Chinese cuisine are the secrets of its fascinating taste. In other words, the spice used in Chinese food is a significant part of the rising Chinatowns which reflects the urban and spatial impacts that a little spice can have far beyond their origins.

We often ignored the power of spices and food, but there must be a moment, that a scent or a taste, can drag you back in your deep memories, to experience those laughter and tears again and again. Food is the basic need for human to maintain life, but food also has strong influence on peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s emotion. To serve the authentic food outside their origins stimulates a series of spatial, economic and political consequences in current global world such as the port-city development, the field planting the food sources and the appearance of Chinatown. To illustrate those impacts, this book will take a first look at the history of Chinatown and the relationship it has with the Chinese food. Then the following chapters will focus on three spices that are irreplaceable in the most popular Chinese cuisines but were imported from China. And each chapter will be attached with recipes of how to cook with these spices. Finally, the urban and spatial impacts of these spices will be demonstrated through the food preparation and tasting.

Fig.1 Chinatown London Night time by Anthony Brown, 2013

SPICE, FOOD AND CHINATOWN

We the Chinese conquered the world - through our food. - Chinese saying

Chinatown is an ethnic neighbourhood of Chinese people located outside mainland China. And the rises of most Chinatowns resulted from the massive immigration to the territories with only few, or without any Chinese residents started from the age of exploration. And the Binondo in Manila was considered as the first Chinatown in the world established in late 16th. With more frequent communications through the maritime routes between West and East, early ethnic exchanges happened at the main port cities such as Liverpool in Europe and San Francisco in North America. In 1830s, the first direct trading vessel from China arrived in Liverpool’s dock to trade spices and other goods which brought the earliest Chinese immigrants to Europe. These migrants employed by the Blue Funnel Shipping Line and the commercial trading line built up strong connections between the cities of Shanghai, Hongkong and Liverpool.1 By 1850s, the increased

Chinese population had formed their ethnic community which is the earliest Chinatown in Europe. Similarly, on the American continent, the history of early Chinese neighbourhoods can be tracked through the marine trading. The Chinatown in San Francisco is the largest Chinatown outside Asia resulting from the San Francisco port city development and the gold rush in the middle 19th Century. The early Chinatown operated as a port entry for Chinese immigrants attracted by the legends of gold. Even the translation of “San Francisco” in Chinese is the meaning of “old golden mountain” ( 旧金山 ). Furthermore, the early Chinatowns founded in North America were distributed in almost every main settlement along the West Coast from Victoria to San Diego which could provide ports for large size trading vessels that came from Asia. 2 In general, the origin of Chinatown is the migrants that came from the trading vessels, and spice is one of the main goods they traded.

1. Liverpool Chinese Community, History of Chinatown , (Liverpool, 2015), <http://www.liverpoolchinatown.co.uk/history. php>[accessed 4th June 2018] 2. McCunn, Ruthanne Lum, An Illustrated History of the Chinese in America , (San Francisco: Design Enterprises, 1979), p.18.

“We the Chinese conquered the world – through our food.” A Chinese saying shows the confidence that Chinese people have in their food and the food is also closely tied into the Chinese c u l t u r e . Mo r e o v e r, Yo n g C h e n , a professor at the University of Columbia also linked the importance of Chinese food to the rise of Chinatown in his book "Chop Suey" USA:The Story of Chinese Food in America. Chinese food and Chinatown are interdepended to each other, the Chinatown won’t exist without the Chinese food. 3 He also addressed that 1850s to 1890s was first period that Chinese migrants built up their community in America, and during that time they were under racial discrimination so that even the food was underestimated. The racial tensions flared when lower-paid Chinese worker replaced white labour, and the growing dispute between them directly caused the passing of Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. However, the Chinese food relieved the homesick and pain for the migrants and the restaurants provided space for their social activities. The situation wasn’t changed until the early 20th century when the increasing immigration from

all over the world had become the main part of middle class in America. The attractive Chinese food with reasonable price perfectly matched their eating habits and the food serving had become the main income to the Chinese people.4 In the meanwhile, on a cultural aspect, the Chinese restaurant had been turned into a stage where Chinese people can communicate with the mainstream society.5 Literally speaking, Chinese food opened the door for the people who were under racial discrimination to talk to the society and the food also dominated the future development of Chinatown. The social status of Chinese people was highly improved after President Roosevelt repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943. This action ended 60 years of legal racial discrimination to the Chinese people and brought a bright future to Chinatown. Meanwhile, Chinese food has been localized for two reasons: first is to meet people’s taste, and the second is because of the difficulties in supplying the food sources and spices.6 Local food materials were used to replace some ingredients that were not easily

3. Yong Chen, Chop Suey, USA: The Story of Chinese Food in America . (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), p.24-28 4. Dicker Lavern Mau, The Chinese in San Francisco, A Pictorial History . (New York:Dover Publications, 1979), p. 35-42 5. David Wu, Sidney Cheung, The Globalizationof Chinese Food . (Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001), p.77 6. J.A.G. Roberts, China to Chinatown: Chinese Food in the West, (London: Reaktion Books, 2002), p.138

accessible. But there were still some restaurants serving the authentic Chinese cuisines with expansive price. In later 20th century, these authentic restaurants had become more popular as more immigrations come from Asia, and these restaurants also obtained high reputation for their food culture and fascinating taste. As a result, more spices and food materials used for the authentic cuisines were imported from China and the food service gradually dominated the evolution of Chinatown. Compared to the initial Chinatown that operated as space mainly for Chinese community, current Chinatowns have shifted their functions into tourist site and places full of restaurants. And the Chinatown in London is a typical instance that illustrated the history and development of both Chinatown and Chinese restaurants. The old London Chinatown was located in the Limehouse dockland area of the East end in London, and it was established by the sailors and traders who came to the Britain with the trade in the second half of 19th century. But the old London Chinatown had a bad reputation from exaggerated

reports of opium dens and slum housing.7 Nowadays, famous for the restaurants and Chinese supermarkets, current London Chinatown has been located in the city centre mainly for three reasons. Firstly, much of the old Chinatown was damaged by aerial bombing during the second world war. Secondly, the post-war economic depression lowered the house rent in central London that Chinese people could afford. Thirdly, the influx of new immigrants from Hong Kong brought in Cantonese cuisines. Till the 1980s, the new Chinatown was formed mainly by the Cantonese restaurants and the Chinese supermarkets.8 However, the present London Chinatown has developed in serving more diverse and authentic Chinese Cuisines rather than only the Cantonese cuisine. And this area was decorated with traditional Chinese architectural features such as the large red arch entrance structures known in Chinese as ‘Paifang’ ( 牌坊 ) and the imperial guardian stone lion statues. Entering from the Paifang, the streets were planned as pedestrians only. And these pedestrians are also the space for important Chinese festival

7. London Chinatown community centre, Our history, (London, 2017) < http://www.ccc.org.uk/about-us/our-history> [Accessed 20th March 2018] 8. Sales, Rosemary; d'Angelo, Alessio and Liang, Xiujing, London's Chinatown , (London:Routledge, 2009). p.33

celebration. In general, the Chinese food is the main reason of the flourish in London Chinatown, and the region where produced the food spices in China, are strongly connected to Chinatown through spices trading. Spice trading not only influence the urban form of its destination, but also its origin. In China, there are 8 great regional cuisines, all with distinctive styles from one another due to factors such as availability of resources, climate, geography, history, cooking techniques and lifestyle. More specifically, the differences between these cuisines derive from the plants and the spices the local population can grow based on the climate and geological condition. Attached with cooking suggestions and recipes, the following chapter will introduce the numbing pepper, known as the soul of Sichuan Cuisine that is a plant grown in South China, Japan and Korea and widely exported to the world as an irreplaceable spice. With the increasing demand on this spice, more numbing pepper fields have been cultivated, which improves the local economy and urban development. Then chapter 3 will introduce the story of “the godmother” brand, which is a commercial and national miracle whereby little bottles of chili sauce are exported to all over 12

the world and have become a beloved condiment by people from various social and cultural backgrounds. This company that produces the “godmother” chilli sauce has a high standard when purchasing the raw chili as material, and this caused the appearance of the "Chili City of China', a new built trading center for chili. Then the last Chapter will indicate the “story of stars”— the star anise that is grown in the Guangxi province in South China. To conclude, the history of Chinatown is also the history of globalization of Chinese food. From the emergence of Chinatown and the spice planting fields, Spices traded for cooking Chinese food affect the urban form both in their origins and destinations. Also, with the rapid development of logistic and economy, people are becoming pickier on food taste and quality which promotes the present spice trading.

Spices in LungFeung Chinese supermarket, London Chinatown

a NUMBING BITE OF SICHUAN

China is the place for food, Sichuan is the place for flavour. – Chinese saying

There are 8 regional cuisines distribute in different areas in China, and Sichuan cuisine is the most spread one to the worl d w h i l e t he or i g i n is Si chu an Province. The complex topography of Sichuan Province including its mountains, hills, plains, plateaus and the Sichuan Basin, has shaped its food customs with versatile and distinct ingredients, Sichuan pepper is the unique and most significant spice among them. Sichuan cuisine, or known as Szechwan cuisine, is a style of Chinese cuisine originating from Sichuan Province in Southwestern China. It has bold flavours, particularly the pungency and spiciness resulting from liberal use of garlic and chili peppers, as well as the unique flavour of Sichuan pepper which is also called numbing pepper. If there is one taste most closely associated with Sichuan cuisine, it is Sichuan peppercorn, the numbing spice. Together with the chilli pepper, the numbing pepper can be found in most, if not all, Sichuan dishes, it is the má—

numbing—to chili pepper’s là—spicy hot—that constitute the word málà, which is practically synonymous with Sichuan food. While many cuisines make use of the chili pepper, no other cuisine features Sichuan pepper—which the Sichuanese call hua jiao ( 花椒 ), or flower pepper, because of its flowery shape when dried. And Sichuan pepper has a unique aroma and flavour distinctive from the pungent flavour of black, white, or chili peppers. Instead, it has slight lemony overtones and creates a tingly numbness in the mouth (caused by its 3% of hydroxy alpha sanshool) that sets the stage for hot spices.1 According to Harold McGee in On Food and Cooking, they are not simply pungent; "they produce a strange, tingling, buzzing, numbing sensation that is something like the effect of carbonated drinks or of a mild electric current (touching the terminals of a ninevolt battery to the tongue). Sanshools appear to act on several different kinds of ner ve endings at once, inducing sensitivity to touch and cold in nerves that are ordinarily not sensitive, and so

1.Taylor Hu, Sourcing Hua Jiao Sichuan Peppercorn , (The Mala Market, 2014) <https://blog.themalamarket.com/sourcingsichuan-peppercorn/> [Accessed 20th March 2018]

as to cause a kind of general neurological confusion."2 ORIGIN : PINGCHANG -- TOWARDS “THE TOWN OF SICHUAN PEPPER” Due to the high popularity of the Sichuan cuisine and the increasing needs of exporting them to the Chinatowns all over the world as an economic crop, p l a nt i n g t h e S i c hu a n p e pp e r a l s o stimulates the economy in the areas located at the mountain districts with poor transportation infrastructure but are suitable for Sichuan pepper planting. For inst ance, t he Pingchang Town located in the mountain district in Sichuan Province is a beneficiary from the increasing exportation of Sichuan pepper. Since 2015, the town government has listed the Sichuan pepper planting industry as the main aim in the town developing plan. Why choose pepper as the main crop? The reason is not only the growing demand, but also the positive impacts that the Sichuan pepper tree can have on landscape and environment. In the summer of 1998, China suffered

severe flooding from Yangtze River, Peral river and Nen River, which affected 15 milion people along the river stream. And the soil loss turned to be the reason that caused the severe flooding. There was a long history in China to turn the forest to farmland. However, the farmland has less ability to keep the soil than forest, and when the heavy rain comes, the soil will flow away with the rainwater and cause the flooding events. Therefore, after the “1998 China floods”, Chinese government established a series policies and finical supports to encourage local farmers to restore the farmland back to forest, also known as the “defarming and reforestation” policy. 3 With the promotion of restoring the forest, The Sichuan pepper tree with both the land stabilization ability and economic benefit has become the prior choice to Pingchang Town.

Fig.2 Sichuan pepper field in Pingchang town

2. McGee H, On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, (New York: Scribner, 2007), p. 429 3. Yucai Lee, Returning Farmland to Forest Program in China, (Beijing: China Forestry Publishing, 2005),p. 207-221

Fig. 3 Sichuan Pepper Harvesting Festival in Pingchang

Fig.4 Harvesting Festival opening ceremony

Fig.5 New roads built around the Sichuan pepper fields

3 Years after introducing the Sichuan Pepper planting, 200,000 acers of Sichuan Pepper fields were cultivated in 285 villages located in Pingchang Town administrative region and more than 180 Sichuan pepper cooperation was founded. 4 This number will increase to 300, 000 acers and 220 cooperation by 2020. “Within the huge amount of Sichuan pepper production, the challenge has shifted to the optimize the value of it. “Said by the Dajun Zhou, the director of forest department in Pingchang town. To advertise and sell the Sichuan Pepper, the Pingchang Town government hosted the “Sichuan Pepper Harvesting Festival “which engaged the manual harvest with tourist industry. This festival is a distinctive event affected by the Sichuan Pepper trading. The festival is usually hosted in late June with various activities including the art performance, the commodities fair and the Sichuan Pepper forest tour etc. To host this festival, the old town square is used as the main site for the opening ceremony. And new roads and car park space were built around the pepper field for both tourists and farmers. Then, the commodities fair was hosted in temporary pavilion which will last for half month. As the result of this event, the government cooperated with the local

4. Pingchang Publicity Department, Overcome poverty and achieve prosperity with Sichuan peppercorn, (Sichuan : Pingchang publicity, 2017) <http://nc.mofcom.gov.cn/article/dfxw/201712/954352.html> [Accessed 22nd March 2018]

cooperation and producers have invested over 1,000,000 RMB which is equal to 110,000 GBP on the transportation infrastructure, processing factories, and retailing centers. 5 Therefore, these poor villages in mountain districted are developing based on the Sichuan pepper planting and a producing – harvesting – selling and exporting – Investing chain was formed step by step towards the “town of Sichuan Pepper” in China as its ambition in next 10 years. To conclude, the Pingchang Town development plan is the result of Sichuan pepper trading, and the Sichuan pepper fields, the newly built infrastructure and buildings were the consequence that a little peppercorn can have on its origin. DESTINATION: THE AUTHENTIC S I C H UA N R E S TAU R A N T S I N LONDON CHINATOWN

London”. To achieve this, for the interior design, Barshu restaurant was decorated by traditional elements of Sichuan such as the face masks for Sichuan opera, the wood furniture and sculptured timber façade. For the food, chefs from Sichuan are legendary for their ability to combine the different tastes into exquisite complex flavours, and Sichuan pepper is highly needed to cook the food. Imported from the places like Pingchang Town, Sichuan pepper plays an important role in the future evolution of Chinatown. Because the influx of new immigrants the widely diffusedness of authentic cuisines and the large number of Chinese oversea students, more and more authentic restaurants like B arshu restaurant are settling down in Chinatown. Thus, Chinatown is expanding step by step with more authentic restaurants, and the Sichuan pepper, is an irreplaceable spice in the developing process.

8800 km away, in London Chinatown, Barshu Restaurant is serving the authentic Sichuan Cuisine. Opened in 2010s and different from the localized Chinese restaurants in Chinatown, its mission is to “bring the original Sichuan flavour to

To better study how the food and spices can inf luence Chinatown, cooking and food preparation were used as the methodology and the following section in this chapter will introduce three typical authentic dishes in which the Sichuan pepper dominates the taste.

5. Pingchang Publicity Department, Friends gathering for the second Sicuhan pepper harvesting festival. (Sichuan : Pingchang publicity, 2017) <https://www.botanical-online.com/english/pepper_zanthoxylum_piperitum.htm> [Accessed 22nd March 2018]

Fig.6 Barshu Sichuan restaurant in London Chinatown

Spicy and Numbing Crayfish 麻辣小龙虾

This dish even includes the numbing in its name and is a very popular night food all over China in recent years. This is a choice when you want your mouth on fire, and recently the restaurants in London Chinatown started to serve this dish but the price is doubled from the normal dishes due to the larger quantity of the ingredients it needs. And Chinese people prefer to cook it with shell-on crayfish, that caused the shell-on forzen package sold in Chinatown, but it was packed and farmed in Scotland.

Material: Ginger, spring onion, garlic, dried red chili, Sichuan pepper, 500g fresh Crayfish

■ Heat up a wok in medium heat. Add 2 teaspoons of cooking oil. ■ Add the spring onion and, garlic and ginger. Stir fry the 30 seconds ■ Add the Sichuan peppercorn, chill flakes and heat them up for 30 seconds. Then mix with spring onion, garlic and ginger ■Add the red dried chili and the crayish ■Add 1 bay leave, white pepper, salt, Chinese cooking wine and dark soy sauce. Turn to high heat and stir fry for 1-2 minutes ■ Garnish with green spring onion and then it’s done! 21

MA PO TOFU 麻婆豆腐

Tofu is a significant contribution of Chinese cuisine to the world and MaPo Tofu is the signiture dish in Sichuan cuisine famous for the numbing taste. The technique of making tofu has been introduced to UK, and the rest material can all be found in local market, but the Sichuan pepper and chili powder are relying on importation. This dish serve in almost every restaurant in every Chinatown and got a nick name "rice killer" because it goes more delicious with rice.

Material: 500g fresh tofu, 100g minced (scalped) beef, spring onions, ginger, garlic, chili powder, Sichuan pepper

■ Dice the tofu into 2 cm cubes, and put them into a bowl of hot water to remove astringency. ■ Clean and cut the green onions into small pieces ■ heat wok with cooking oil, add ginger, garlic, Sichuan pepper, chili powder, pan fry it till the oil get red ■ Add chili powder and water till the boil again ■ Add diced tofu, boil it for 5-8 mins till the soup dry ■ Add spring onion and mix it with tofu ■ Add Sichuan pepper on the top then it's done! 23

“Hottest” lady from guizhou Old Godmother’ (Lao Gan Ma) is a household name in China. Anyone who frequents Chinese restaurants or supermarkets is familiar with the brand of chili sauces that is made in China since the 1990s – known for the little portrait of a Chinese woman on its label.

Archaeologists estimate that chili peppers had started being consumed by the Mayans in as early as 5000 BC and had started growing in around 7000 BC in Mesoamerica, which makes chili peppers one of the oldest agricultural products grown by humans. Long before Columbus found chi li p epp ers on his way to America, chili peppers had been growing there and Mexicans had been growing chili peppers for centuries. However, it was not until slave trade became widespread that chili peppers appeared in North America. The popularity of chili peppers in African food promoted their introduction to the New World: due to the popularity of chili peppers among Africans, slave traders had to carry a large amount of chili peppers. To accustom to the dietary habits of African slaves, slave owners also had to plant chili peppers in farms, causing constant presence of chili peppers in North America. In Africa, chili peppers were brought and made popular by Portuguese engaging in slave trade. In Europe, many theorists believe that it was Muslims who brought chili

peppers from India to Northwestern Syria or to Egypt, and then to East Europe. In Asia, it is commonly believed that chili peppers were introduced from America to China during the Ming Dynasty, initially to Jiangzhe and the Cantonese regions.1 However, chili peppers became most popular in Southwestern China and especially Sichuan and Guizhou. However, after carefully studying ancient C h i n e s e l it e r atu re , s om e s c h ol ar s have recently argued that China has much longer history of chili peppers consumption than commonly believed. Chili peppers have a high concentration of Vitamin C (198mg per 100g – the highest among all vegetables) and are also a rich source of Calcium, Iron, and other minerals. Chili peppers are widely used in Chinese medicine to enhance patients’ appetite and improve the functioning of their digestive system. Dried red chili peppers also have anti-bacterial effects and can be used as a pesticide. Chili peppers are one of the most important condiments us ed in Chines e fo o d,

1. Dan Collyns, Chillies heated ancient cuisine , (BBC News, 2007) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6367299. stm>[Accessed 7th June 2018]

especially Sichuan cuisine. For example, Chongqing Hot Pot uses a large amount of dried red chili peppers. Chili peppers are also the soul of the most famous chili sauce in China: the Old Godmother. THE LEGEND OF OLD GODMOTHER CHILI SAUCE I n t e r e s t i n g l y, t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e Godmother brand, Tao Bihua, now a giant entrepreneur, came from an extremely humble background: Tao was born into a poor family in 1947 and did not receive any formal education due to poverty. When she was 20, she was married to a husband who died a few years later and Tao had to look after two children on her own. To make a living, Tao opened a small shabby restaurant selling Chinese cold noodles. Gradually she found that the chilli sauce she added in the cold noodles was much beloved by the clients and became a major promoter of her business. Therefore, she started to concentrate on improving the flavour of the chilli sauce and after a few years’ experiment, her chilli sauce proved highly successful among the local clients.

Grabbing this opportunity, Tao hired two rooms and 40 workers and started her own business making chilli sauce. Poorly educated and lacking business and management-related knowledge, Tao participated in every manufacturing procedure by herself and made her a role model for the workers. She also carried the chilli sauce produced to local food stores to promote her products. Because of the chilli sauce’s high quality, Tao’s business started to grow and prosper and finally was enlarged to a company with more than 4000 employees and her Chili sauce has been sold to all over the world. 2

Godmother Chili sauce in London Chinatown

2.The Economy Times, How a chilli sauce is spicing up one of China’s best economies (Bloomberg, 2016)< //economictimes. indiatimes.com/articleshow/55536182.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst> [Accessed 23rd March 2018]

THE “ CHILI CITY OF CHINA” IN ZUNYI However, the successful business of the Godmother is not only about this person, more importantly, it is about the chili pepper she used. Zunyi, a prefecture level city in Guizhou Province is its main chili pepper supply. The Zunyi chili pepper is distinctive from other chili species for its suitable level of spice, plump fruit and high productivity. Every year, China produces one third of the Chili on the planet and Guizhou produces almost half of the total chili production in China, and 80% of the chili fields are in Zunyi for its suitable climate and geological condition.3 The Zunyi Chili has gained its reputation together with the legend of the Godmother brand since 2000. The success of the Godmother brand stimulated the emergence of other small chili sauce producer who want to copy the godmother’s success. And the attraction of Zunyi Chili strongly promotes the chili planting in this region. By 2010, more than 100 chili sauce companies were founded but only a few of them survived. Because the Godmother has

already dominated 80% of the Chili sauce market both in China and in terms of worldwide exportation, which makes the Godmother brand almost impossible for those small companies to challenge.4 The failure of these chili sauce companies directly caused the over production of the Zunyi chili. As Guizhou is a province full of mountains with poor transportation infrastructure, it is hard to sell the chili to other clients in time, so the chili industry suffered a heavy loss during 2013 to 2015. Because of the high reputation of the Zunyi Chili, the lo cal government regarded the failure and over production as an opportunity for further urban planning based on local chili industry. Therefore, the urban planning department cooperated with the Guizhou Transportation and Construction Group Company and invested 15 billion RMB to build a “Chili City of China” in Xiazi Town, 15 minutes’ drive from the Zunyi city. The Xiazi Town is an old chili market for Zunyi Chili. And the “Chili City” is a newly built trading centre that includes the exhibition and sell zones, cold store, warehouse and car parks. Opened in 2017, this trading centre occupied over

3. Yuanfang Xu, Huanru Wang, Zunyi Chili: Best Chili pepper in China, (DDCPC News,2017) <http://www.ddcpc.cn/2017/ xcb_0805/107627.html> [ Accessed 7th June 2018] 4. Echo Huang, The “hottest woman in China” is a 70-year-old grandmother with a chili sauce empire , (QUARTZ, 2017) < The “hottest woman in China” is a 70-year-old grandmother with a chili sauce empire > [Accessed 23rd March, 2018]

600 acres of land and the total building area is more than 250,000 square meters which made it the largest chili market in China attracting both national and international retailers form Europe and South Asia.5 Moreover, because of its size and ambition, it is not only selling the Zunyi Chili but also the Chili from other regions such as Sichuan and Chongqing, and the “Chili City” has become a real trading centre for chili. According to the latest report, the “Chili City” has made over 60 billion RMB transaction in only 6 months since it opened. * And chili trading also benefits other local industries such as accommodation, logistic, and catering. In general, the appearance of the chili city is due to the high demand in global chili market, especially as a result of the growing popularity of authentic Chinese food outside China. The Godmother chili sauce is a significant part in opening the global chili market to China, because it is easy to carry and ready to eat, and even one spoon of the chilli sauce will make a magical change to the food taste. “I am addicted to this chili sauce! Have it with everything!” written on the godmother Chili sauce review on Amazon with 5 stars. As the chili sauce is also getting

popular in the west world, people can buy it not only from Chinatown but also from local supermarket and online shops. The price is double as that in its origin but taking currency exchange rate out of consideration it is even cheaper than the local produced chili sauce. In contrast with the Sichuan pepper, the Godmother chili sauce is not only exported to the newly opened authentic restaurant, but also to the supermarkets outside Chinatown which makes it easier too cook Chinese food at home. The rest of this chapter will study how this little bottle of Chili sauce has influenced its origin and destination through cooking and material preparation. Then, it is time to set your mouth on fire.

Fig.7 raw chili being processed

5. Bote Luo, The largest chili market in China , (Farmers' daily, 2017)<http://finance.china.com.cn/roll/20170829/4370057. shtml>[Accessed 25th March 2018]

Fig. 8 Master plan of "Chili City"

Fig. 9 "hottest" market in China, The chili city reported by Local TV News

COLD SPICY CHICKen NOODLE 鸡丝凉面

Cold spicy chicken noodle is another authentic dish that served in every most restaurant in Chinatown. Some restaurants use their house chili sauce, but with godmother chili sauce you can cook it at home with few steps.

Material: 100g Chicken breast, 300g noodle, peanut, coriander, godmother chili sauce, soy sauce, vinegar

■ Dice the tofu into 2 cm cubes, and put them into a bowl of hot water to remove astringency. ■ steam noodles for 4-5 minutes on a steamer. ■ Add a small pinch of salt and rinse the noodles in the water. Drain the water. ■ Mix them directly with oil and then stir the noodles up, put down, stir up again. Just repeat those steps to help the noodles cool down as quick as possible. ■ Boil the chicken breast with cooking wine,salt, ginger and water for 20mins. Then take out cut it into pieces. ■ Add the Godmother chili sauce, soy sauce, vinegar and mix well. ■ Final step, add coriander and peanut on the top! 31

Double cooked pork 回锅肉

Double cooked pork can be done in many ways through using different sauces. And the food material except the imported sauce can all be found in local market. But the godmother chili sauce brings the flavor from its origin which makes it easy to cook and very original.

Material: 250g pork belly, Leek, cooking oil, godmother Chili sauce, soy sauce

■ In a medium pot, bring 2 quarts of water to a boil. Add the whole piece of pork belly and the ginger, and bring the pot to a boil again. ■ Boil for 15mins, remove the pork from the pot and run it under cold running water for about a minute. Set aside. ■ Thinly slice the pork belly ■ Heat your wok over high heat until just starting to smoke. Add 1 tablespoon of oil wait until you get a light caramelization. ■ Turn the heat to medium-low and scoop out the pork. Add another tablespoon of oil to the wok. ■ Add the Godmother chili sauce, soy sacue, pan fry it with high heat for 3mins. ■ Add Leek, cook for another 1 min then it's done! 33

a story of star Star anise is shaped like an eight-pointed star and contains seeds with an aniseed flavour, which comes from the spice's essential oil, anethole. It is used widely in Chinese cooking and is one of the five spices in Chinese five-spice powder.

Star anise, also known as illicium verum, is the dried brown multi-locule star shaped fruit indigenous to South Eastern China and it is now cultivated in Guangxi Province. This spice comes from an evergreen tree attaining a height of 8 - 15 meters with 10- 15cm leaves. The fruit is star shaped consisting 8 carpels arranged in a whorl with seeds in it. And the star anise tree requires specific climatic conditions available only in S outh Eastern China and some areas in South Asia, which has prevented European Countries from growing the star anise. So the demand on star anise has to be met by importation mainly from China and Vietnam. China has a long history using the star anise in medicine and cooking. Star anise is one of the distinctive flavours of Chinese food, and the well known fivespice powder mix contains the star anise and it is used to flavour vegetable, meat, to marinate meat and used for pickling.1 According to historical record, the use of star anise in China can be traced back

to as early as the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589 AD) and Guangxi Province is the main origin of star anise. The most famous producing area for star anise in Guangxi Province is the Zhuang Nationality Autonomous Region in Napo County. Because the climate and soil are best suited to grow star anise, this plant has been traditionally grown there in large scale since the end of the Qing Dynasty. From the beginning of the Republic of China, star anise grown there has even been exported to France as raw material for perfume, and the region has been awarded the honour of being â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Home of Star Anise in Chinaâ&#x20AC;? by the National Forestry Bureau in 2004. Currently, this county grows 320,000 mu star anise and processes 2100 tons of star anise essential oil per year, creating value amounting to 0.324 billion RMB per year. The growing of star anise and its related industry have promoted the wealth and standard of living for 120,000 res-idents in the county. During the harvest season every year,

1. Guo-Wei Wang, Wen-Ting Hu, Bao-Kang Huang, Lu-Ping Qin. 'Illicium verum: A review on its botany, traditional use, chemistry and pharmacology', Journal of Ethnopharmacology , 36 (2011),10-20 (p.17-19).

the Napo County is filled with business persons from all over China seeking after locally grown star anise. Some of them manufacture semi-products from star anises; some sell the star anise purchased to major cities in China, Europe, America, and Southeast Asia. The star an-ise exported from China to the UK are also produced in this County. 2 NAPO COUNTY - "HOMETOWN OF STAR ANISE IN CHINA" Star anise has always been highly sought after in the spice market. With Chinese cuisine being increasingly popular around the globe, the demand for star anise as an important spice in Chinese cuisine has been constantly rising as well. The Napo County is located in marginal mountainous area on the border of China where with poor traffic conditions and local residents suffered from poor living conditions. To enhance the standards of living for local residents, from the 1990s, the growing of star anise, which has good economic value, had been widely promoted in Napo County. Different

from Sichuan pepper, star anise trees are larger and taller, which means that the space under the trees can be well utilized. Hence, besides the growing of star anise, the forestland has also been used for stockbreeding to improve its economic value, resulting in an economic model where stock breeding and star anise growing develop simultaneously.3 In recent years, local residents in Napo utilized rich resource of forestland to grow star anise, which resulted in a great enhancement of the local standard of living and a large-scale renovation and im-provement of local housing with newly equipped sports and leisure facilities such as ping-pong table and volleyball court.

Fig.10 Napo - Old dwelling - isloated from outside world

2. Guangxi forestry science research institute, annual report on Star anise, ( Nanning: Guangxi forestry science research institute,2010-2017) 3. Aniseed of China, The Home of Star Anise in China , (Nanning : Aniseed of China, 2015)<http://staranise.forestry.gov.cn/ bajiaozhix/18689.jhtml>[Accessed 13th June 2018]

In summary, the exportation of star anise to European and American markets promoted the local cultural and economic development of the origin of star anise in China. The agricultural development of Napo County is directly linked to the increasing demand of star anise is due to the popularity of Chinese cuisine, in which star anise is an important and irreplaceable spice that can only be produced in China. The case of star anise production in Napo well illustrates the intricate relationship between landscape and urban development. Similarly, cooking and preparing the food was used as methodology to study the urban impacts and the following section will introduce two dishes that cooked with Star anise.

Fig.10 Stockbreeding under Star anise tree, Napo

Fig.12 Fresh star aniseed

Braised Pork in Brown Sauce 红烧肉

Using pork as the only main ingredient, the dish is slowly stewed for an hour, which makes the pork not greasy. Brown sugar is added to make brown syrup and better the flavour; but the secret of this dish is the star anise flavour combined with cinnamon. According to the interview to chefs in London Chinatown, 1/3 of the total star anise was used for this dish.

Material: 400g pork belly,brown sugar, star anise,cinnamon,dried chili, cooking oil,

■ Firstly cut the pork belly into cubes, rinse in boiling water for 1 minute. Then sauté until both sides becomes slightly brown. Transfer out (to a clay pot or a plate). ■ Put the brown sugar in wok to stir fry until all the sugar melts and you can see large bubbles. Keep stirring in the process. Turn off the fire and add warm water to make the sauce. Be careful when pouring the water in. Pour the caramelized sugar sauce into the pot. ■ Add hot water, star anise, cinimon, two dried chili into the pot ■ Simmer the pork for around 45 minutes and turn up the fire for thickening the sauce. 39

STARrY edamame 八角煮毛豆

The boiled edamame is a common appitizer in Asia which is to boil the edamame with different spice. The stary edamame is the one cooked with star anise. Easy to cook but kept the natural flavour and scent. Both edamame and star anise can be found in Asian market, but majority of the star anise are imported from China.

Material: 300g edamame, salt, 3-5 star anise

■ Heat the salt, a small dry skil-let over medium heat, stirring until hot and aromatic, about 3 minutes. then add water to boil ■ Boil the star anise in salted water until tender, about 8 minutes. ■ Add edamame to boil with anise together for 10mins. ■ Pour out the salt water and wait it cool down. 41

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Food, in turn, is central to urbanism, because it is so critical to creating and maintaining this vitality, complexity and intimacy, because it can help make and support walkable, mixed, human-scaled and diverse places and because it can also increase the focus of urban space on the public realm.â&#x20AC;? - Susan Parham, 2012

cONCLUSION eVERY BITE MATTERS

What spices bring to people are not only unique sents and tastes, but also special impacts on the environment people live in. Spices are essentially the roots, stalks, and leaves of plants and people’s demand for spices has tremendous influence on the plants’ origin areas’ landscape and social formation. The history of spice trading has also witnessed the evolution of globalization. For example, in as early as the Han Dynasty, there had been the ancient Silk Road led by China that connected Asia, Middle East, and Europe by silk and spice trading. Because the poorly developed transportation and the lack of information, the period of spice trading tended to be very lengthy. As a result, cities along the Silk Road such as Urumqi, Istanbul, and Damascus gradually developed as centres for the travling salesmen to trade and rest. In Medieval times, the monopoly over the spice market by the Middle East and Europe’s high demand for spice stimulated efforts on part of the European countries to explore new navigation lines, which resulted in the Age of Exploration. The exploration of new navigation lines significantly promoted the globalization

of spices, which were no longer the exclusive enjoyment by social elites, but became increasingly used as condiments by commoners in their daily life. Some spices such as black pepper were imported to Europe and changed people’s lives there forver. As the origin of the ancient Silk Road, spice trading had significantly influenced China. In the 19th centur y, China’s presence in Europe, North America, and major ports such as Liverpool and San Francisco was largely promoted by the development of ship manufacturing and more frequent trading around the world. In early times, because of linguistic barriers and cultural differences, Chinese people often stayed together and formed their own communities, which became the origin of Chinatowns. The influx of migrants also brought traditional Chinese food, which because of its unique flavour has been widely accepted in the Western world. As a result, Chinese restaurants became the main source of income for early migrants. During the mid- and late 20th century, increasing popularity of 43

Chinese stipulated even greater number of Chinese restaurants being opened and resulted in restaurant-oriented Chinatowns such as the one in London. Therefore, the formation of Chin town is intimately connected to Chinese food and there can be no Chinatown without Chinese food. Spices that originate in China, such as Sichuan pepper, star anise, and Godmother chilli sauce, are the secrets why Chinese dishes are so beloved. Sichuan pepper, star anise, and the Godmother chilli sauce are selected as three spices that originate in China and are used to analyse the special impacts that spice trading has on the spices’ place of origin. Different from the ancient Silk Road where the period of trading was extremely long, modern logistics has greatly saved the transportation time of goods, which means that the special impact of spice trading is more apparent in its place of origin and place of destination. Sichuan pepper and star anise are both part of the “five sents” in Chinese food and most of them are only produced in China. The places of origin of Sichuan pepper are mainly distributed in Sichuan Province. With the increasing popularity of Sichuan dishes around the world and the increasing demand of Sichuan pepper as a major condiment 44

therein, Pingchang Town in Sichuan started to grow Sichuan peppers on large scale and held the Sichuan Pepper Har vest Festival to promote related industries. The town square of Pingchang Town is used for the festival’s opening ceremony and place of exhibition. In the future plan of Pingchang Town, the government will build more factories and warehouses related to the Sichuan pepper industry. On the other hand, the star anise trees grown in Guangxi Province are larger and taller, which means that the space under the trees could be well utilized for stockbreeding to improve the income of local residents, who as a result benefit from significantly higher standard of living and much better constructed infrastructure. In Guizhou Province, the high reputation of the Godmother chilli sauce greatly promoted the development of chilli industry in Zunyi. A 630-acre chilli trading centre named “China Chili City” was built there. This demonstrates how the increasing popularity of Chinese food and increasing demand for Chinese spice have significantly influenced the landscape and urban plan of the spices’ places of origin. The unique charm of Chinese food lies in its ability to perfectly mix up the flavour of spices, and increasing demand for

spices is also influencing Chinatowns, where Chinese restaurants concentrate. Spices such as Sichuan pepper, star anise, and the Godmother chilli sauce are mainly sold to Chinatowns. With the ability to supply more and more high quality spices, more fancy and authentic Chinese restaurants are opened in Chinatowns. These restaurants, centring in the old Chinatown, started to lease the shops in the blocks around them, which resulted in the gradual expansion of Chinatown. As the same time, besides the authentic food itself, these newly opened restaurants put as much emphasis on their exterior and interior design, which makes the appearance of Chinatown more akin to its origin. As a result, when you walk in Chinatown, special features of Chinese architecture and Chinese food express themselves more accurately as though you are placed in another country. The emergence of Chinatown started from Chinese food and the irreplaceable Chinese spices. Therefore, besides bringing people the enjoyment of unique flavour, every bite of Chinese food has also promoted the economic development of the spicesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; places of origin across the sea, changing local residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; living conditions and even leading the future of urban development there. Fig.13 Chinatown London

References

Aniseed of China, The Home of Star Anise in China, (Nanning : Aniseed of China, 2015)<http:// staranise.forestry.gov.cn/bajiaozhix/18689. jhtml>[Accessed 13th June 2018]

Bote Luo, The largest chili market in China, (Farmers' daily, 2017)<http://finance.china.com. cn/roll/20170829/4370057.shtml>[Accessed 25th March 2018] Boulnois Luce, Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants . (Hong Kong: Odyssey Books, 2005), p. 66. Dan Collyns, Chillies heated ancient cuisine, (BBC News, 2007) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/ americas/6367299.stm>[Accessed 7th June 2018] David Wu, Sidney Cheung, The Globalizationof Chinese Food. (Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001), p.77

Fred Gzarra, Spices:A Global Hstory , (London: Reaktion Books, 2009), p.7. Gary Paul, Cumin, Camels, and Caravans: A Spice Odyssey. ( San Francisco: University of California Press, 2014), p.12.

Guo-Wei Wang, Wen-Ting Hu, Bao-Kang Huang, Lu-Ping Qin. 'Illicium verum: A review on its botany, traditional use, chemistry and pharma-cology', Journal of Ethnopharmacology , 36 (2011),10-20 (p.17-19). Guangxi forestry science research institute, annual report on Star anise , ( Nanning: Guangxi forestry science research institute,2010-2017)

Dicker Lavern Mau, The Chinese in San Francisco, A Pictorial History . (New York:Dover Publications,

J.A.G. Roberts, China to Chinatown: Chinese Food in the West, (London: Reaktion Books, 2002), p.138

Economy Times, How a chilli sauce is

Jack Turner, Spice: The History of a Temptation . (New York: Knopf Books, 2008), p.23

1979), p. 35-42

spicing up one of China’s best economies

(Bloomberg, 2016)< //economictimes. indiatimes.com/articleshow/55536182. cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_ medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst> [Accessed 23rd March 2018]

Echo Huang, The “hottest woman in China” is a 70-year-old grandmother with a chili sauce empire, 46

(QUARTZ, 2017) < The “hottest wom-an in China” is a 70-year-old grandmother with a chili sauce empire > [Accessed 23rd March, 2018]

Liverpool Chinese Community, History of Chinatown , (Liverpool, 2015), <http://www.

liverpoolchinatown.co.uk/history.php>[accessed 4th June 2018]

London Chinatown community centre, Our history, (London, 2017) < http://www.ccc.org.uk/about-

us/our-history> [Accessed 20th March 2018] McCunn, Ruthanne Lum, An Illustrated History of the Chinese in America, (San Francisco: Design Enterprises, 1979), p.18.

McGee H, On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, (New York: Scribner, 2007), p. 429

Pingchang Publicity Department, Overcome poverty and achieve prosperity with Sichuan peppercorn ,

(Sichuan : Pingchang publicity, 2017) <http:// nc.mofcom.gov.cn/article/dfxw/201712/954352. html> [Accessed 22nd March 2018]

Xinru Liu,The Silk Road in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p.21. Yong Chen, Chop Suey, USA: The Story of Chinese Food in America. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), p.24-28

Yucai Lee, Returning Farmland to Forest Program in China , (Beijing: China Forestry Publishing, 2005),p. 207-221

Yuanfang Xu, Huanru Wang, Zunyi Chili: Best Chili pepper in China , (DDCPC News,2017) <http://

www.ddcpc.cn/2017/xcb_0805/107627.html> [ Accessed 7th June 2018]

Pingchang Publicity Department, Friends gathering for the second Sicuhan pepper harvesting festival.

(Sichuan : Pingchang publicity, 2017) <https:// www.botanical-online.com/english/pepper_ zanthoxylum_piperitum.htm> [Accessed 22nd March 2018]

Sales, Rosemary; d'Angelo, Alessio and Liang, Xiujing, London's Chinatown, (London:Routledge, 2009). p.33 Susan Parham, Food and Urbanism: The convivial city and sustainable future, (London: Bloomsbury, 2015) p. 2-35

Taylor Hu, Sourcing Hua Jiao Sichuan Peppercorn , (The Mala Market, 2014) <https:// blog.themalamarket.com/sourcing-sichuanpeppercorn/> [Accessed 20th March 2018]

APPENDIX

Photos of food material preparing , cooking , and photographing

MA Architecture Royal College of Art 2018 CHS Dissertation