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The Urban Chilling
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“The Urban Chilling”
The urban heat impact and mitigation methods for applying more Photovoltaic in Sydney CBD, Australia
Master Thesis
Shoobhangi Rana
Sustainable Building Investigation
Batch 2020 - 2022
Master Thesis Report Batch 2020-2022 RMIT University School of Property, Construction and Project Management Master of Energy Efficient and Sustainable Building
Author: Shoobhangi Rana (shoobhangirana.2@gmail.com) Supervisor: Prof. Rebecca Yang Course Coordinator: Prof. Rebecca Yang
Acknowledgements I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to Professor Rebecca Yang, thesis supervisor and course coordinator at RMIT University in Australia. Her patience, trust, cooperation, enthusiasm, and recommendations inspired me to complete the research effectively. Her bright competence and capable supervision have enriched the current shape of the research. I have profited much from her wealth of expertise and precise feedback while working under her encouraging guidance and painstaking supervision. I could not continue without my warm and heartfelt thanks to my parents and friends who have been there for supporting and believing me throughout this journey. Thanks for the strength and hope during this tough pandemic time of the world.
Project Summary Cities import energy, culminating in the urban heat island effect due to their high solar absorption and insufficient moisture availability (UHI). Urban heat islands render the densely populated cities more vulnerable to climate change due to human-induced warming and the UHI. Among other mitigation options, the study evaluates the potential benefit of implementing solar photovoltaic (PV) systems on urban rooftops and facades to mitigate UHI with other potential strategies. The installation of PV systems with UHI mitigation measures over City of Sydney, Australia reduces peak maximum temperatures by up to 4 °C since local generation offsets the requirement for energy import. Using this offset lower local maximum temperatures while also providing an immediate economic benefit from the generated energy. It is more cost-effective to deploy PV systems with a higher power output because of the increased indirect benefit from temperature changes. Over this, even the largest PV systems will not be able to stop global warming, but they may be able to limit the amount of energy that is imported, and hence the temperature in the environment. Due to the energy generated and the advantages of cooling beyond the local PV installation areas, urban residents and infrastructure would be less vulnerable to temperature variations. To assess changes in urban climate associated with the City of Sydney 2050 plan, a simulation software (ENVI-met 4.4.6) is used in this investigation. The software's simulations are validated using currently accessible site data for Sydney's CBD, Australia's most iconic central business district. A comparison of the four proposals and the actual condition (for the same date and time) shows the changes in the UHI in Sydney's central business district. Using input values for materials, ENVI-met needs to improve its ability to calculate the anthropogenic heat and the mean radiant temperature.
Content Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 2 Sydney Future Strategies – The 2050 Plan .............................................................................................. 3 Australian Temperature Overview.......................................................................................................... 5 UHI Challenges in the city of Sydney ....................................................................................................... 6 1.
Climate Conditions ..................................................................................................................6
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Increasing population & density ..............................................................................................7
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Surface Temperature Distribution ...........................................................................................7
Project Investigation Objective ............................................................................................................. 10 Existing Site Conditions......................................................................................................................... 11 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................ 12 Software Limitations............................................................................................................................. 14 The Cases .............................................................................................................................................. 18 I. Current Site Scenario (Case 1: Actual Site) .................................................................................. 18 II. Solar Panels on Façade Scenario (Case 2: Proposal 1) ................................................................. 20 III. Mixed – Solar Panels on Façade + Roof + Green Roof Scenario (Case 3: Proposal 2) .................. 22 IV. Solar Panels on Façade + Roof Scenario (Case 4: Proposal 3) .................................................... 24 V.Solar Panels on Façade + Green Roof Scenario (Case 5: Proposal 4)............................................. 26 Summary of the Results ........................................................................................................................ 28 Photovoltaic increases UHI – The Myth ................................................................................................ 30 About the proposed Solar Panels.......................................................................................................... 31 Proposed material innovation .............................................................................................................. 31 Towards the better future – Sydney 2030 plan ..................................................................................... 33 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................... 35 References ............................................................................................................................................ 36 Appendix .............................................................................................................................................. 40
Figures Figure 1: Temperature profile for Urban Heat Island (Sustainable Sydney 2030: Community strategic plan n.d.) ...........................................................................................................................................4 Figure 2: UHI intensity in Australian cities (Energy and climate change n.d.) ........................................6 Figure 3: Expected heatwaves for Sydney, Australia (Adapting for climate change n.d.) .......................6 Figure 4: Waterloo redevelopment in Sydney (Adapting for climate change n.d.) .................................7 Figure 5: Overview of Sydney CBD streets (Adapting for climate change n.d.) ......................................8 Figure 6: Maps showing the selected site for the study ..................................................................... 12 Figure 7: Site selected for the study at Central Business District of Sydney, NSW, Australia ................ 13 Figure 8: Plans showing the 2D plans for actual condition (left) of the site and proposed site (right) .. 17 Figure 9: 3-D view for the current site scenario ................................................................................. 18 Figure 10: Simulated results for Current Site Scenario ....................................................................... 19 Figure 11: 3-D view for the Solar Panels on Façade............................................................................ 20 Figure 12: Simulated results for the Solar Panels on Façade............................................................... 21 Figure 13: 3-D view for the Mixed – Solar Panels on Façade + Roof + Green Roof ............................... 22 Figure 14: Simulated results for the Mixed – Solar Panels on Façade + Roof + Green Roof .................. 23 Figure 15: 3-D view for the Solar Panels on Façade + Roof ................................................................. 24 Figure 16: Simulated results for the Solar Panels on Façade + Roof .................................................... 25 Figure 17: 3-D view for the Solar Panels on Facade + Green Roof ....................................................... 26 Figure 18: Simulated results for the Solar Panels on Facade + Green Roof .......................................... 27 Figure 19: Table showing the comparison for the actual design results and the proposals results ....... 28 Figure 20: Layering of the proposed Polycrystalline Solar Panels (Ma et al. 2017) .............................. 31 Figure 21: White PV module schematic principle illustration (left); PV modules fabricated (right) ...... 32 Figure 22: PV panels standard dimensions ........................................................................................ 32
Background
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Background Introduction Urbanization is a phenomenon that has existed throughout human history in various forms. Rapid urbanization has resulted from a combination of population growth and economic growth. Urban growth must take place in a way that maximizes the benefits to the urban population while minimizing the economic and environmental costs. Over the recent decades, urban growth studies have gained significant attention, especially because metropolitan areas are continuously and rapidly increasing all over the world. Securing a sustainable future for urban populations is becoming one of the 21st century's biggest issues. Due of this urban development studies have received a great deal of interest in relation to environmental change. Now since climate change is not looming over our heads. When it comes to heatwaves, it's challenging to live in Sydney for the million people who must deal with the effects of weather extremes on their sleep, schoolwork, and work schedules. Australian temperatures have risen by roughly 1.440 Celsius since records began. However, the heat is not felt equally: Sydney's western suburbs are suffering the most from the heat (Untouchable playgrounds: Urban heat and the future of Western Sydney, 2021). There is nothing natural about these conditions. A combination of climate change, negligent urban planning, and an increasing population has resulted in heat-intensifying infrastructure (roadways, buildings, carparks) encroaching on the Sydney City or CBD (Energy and climate change n.d.). The UHI has a negative impact on air quality, energy use, and public health, including mortality rates. Heat is recognized as a "deadly weather-related phenomenon" and is projected to get worse as the planet warms (Grimmond et al., 2010). More Australians have died in the last century because of extreme heat outbreaks than any other natural disaster (Heatwaves: Hotter, Longer, More Often n.d.). Heat-related mortality is expected to rise due to the cumulative effects of increased urban densities, exacerbating existing UHI impacts, and warmer circumstances brought on by climate change (Kalkstein et al. n.d.). However, city planners have a dilemma because the number of people who want to live in urban centers is rising. As a result, people intuitively or explicitly understand that there may be disadvantages, like heatrelated health effects, that must be assessed against the potential advantages. Cities are intricate networks of sociopolitical and ecological interaction. As cities increase in population and economy, consumption patterns, infrastructure delivery, and habitat degradation are all impacted (State of Australian Cities 2014-2015 Progress in Australian Regions n.d.). Since about 2017, 67 percent of Australians lived in capital cities, and that number is predicted to rise to between 69 and 70 percent by 2027 according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Since Australia is one of the world's most urbanized countries, urban policy research that is based in experience is especially important (Davidson & Arman,2014). Different studies have been conducted in Australia to help comprehend the urban heat island (UHI) and provide strategies to city planners for reducing heat stress. The Cooperative Research Centre for Low Carbon Living (CRCLCL) has recently financed a number of initiatives aimed at reducing heat in urban areas through cooperative research. An investigation of the effects of heat in urban environments at micro and
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macro climatic levels was performed by Urban Micro-Climates (CRCLCL 2019), and a toolbox of urban cooling techniques in Australian cities was produced by another project (Osmond and Sharifi, 2017). There is still an important science-policy link that must be resolved even though this research center and others have uncovered the causes and degree of city warming (Lalor & Hickey, 2014). Materials and structures in cities alter the contour of the surface as well as the manner the surface interacts with sunlight, affecting the amount of daylight reflected, absorbed, and re-emitted as heat. As a result of shading and evaporative cooling, vegetation can reduce temperatures. Vegetation destruction eliminates the benefits associated with it. As a result of climate change and urbanization, urban planning and development will have to be more flexible to mitigate the heat island effects. For example, the incorporation of green roofs with permeable surfaces that can be absorbed rainwater and reflected light and the conservation of existing vegetation provide benefits including shading, cooling, fresh air, reduced energy use. The other important aspect which should be consider reducing the access heat in the urban environment is urban fabrication, refer figure 2 for projected heat days for the Sydney CBD. The existing buildings can be proposed with new sustainable facades to mitigate the urban heat island. Thus, this study discusses the heat island impact and mitigation strategies in Sydney CBD with the scope of renewable energy for the future Sydney plan. The study involves the mitigation strategies to improving human health, urban vegetation which will be reflected to minimize violence and vandalism, as well as enhance cognitive functioning. In addition, this plan contributes to the Sustainable Sydney 2030 goal of reducing glasshouse gas emissions by 70% from 2006 amounts by 2030. City of Sydney LGA emissions, which account for 80 percent of the City of Sydney's LGA's emissions (mainly coal), have been targeted at 100 percent local generation by 2030 (Sustainable Sydney,2030). By 2030, renewable energy generation was planned to provide 30 percent of the city's local electricity demand, while trigeneration was expected to provide 70 percent of the city's local electricity needs.
Sydney Future Strategies – The 2050 Plan While the entire globe is suffering from the effects of COVID-19, Sydney is celebrating something special. Sydney simply cannot help but be pleased of its recent achievement: the city has become powered entirely by renewable energy and serves as a sustainable model for the rest of the world. The project is a component of a much larger initiative called Sustainable Sidney 2030. As a result of this plan, city CO2 emissions will be reduced by 70% by 2030, helping to improve the city's environmental effect. As a result, wind and solar farms in the vicinity provide Sydney with renewable energy. Sydney managed to accomplish this great achievement at precisely the right moment. In fact, the economic crisis brought on by COVID-19 may cause countries to refocus their emphasis on renewable energy. Ecological recovery may be dependent on the use of renewable energy sources. It's estimated that by 2050, renewable energy investments will add substantially to global GDP according to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Sustainability would therefore lead to the creation of millions of new employments as well as an increase in energy efficiency.
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As a result, switching to renewable energy would not only solve economic problems, but it will also help us achieve our climate change goals by accelerating our society's decarbonization and promoting the use of clean energy (Stano,2020). A long-term strategic vision and strategy for Sydney's future was produced in 2007 called Sustainable Sydney 2030. As a result of the plan's success, the City of Sydney is working to create a vision for "Sydney 2050" that is community-driven and based on empirical research and technical guidance. Sydney 2050 planning will be based on the recently released Resilient Sydney report, which outlines the city's first strategic direction for strengthening its "capacity to survive, adapt and grow in the face of increased global uncertainty and local disruptions and pressures" (Resilient Sydney A strategy for city resilience 2018 n.d.). 'Living with our climate' is a major theme of both this study and the Sydney 2050 master plan. Extreme heat has been identified as one of Greater Sydney's major concerns and tackling it would necessitate coordinated effort and policy to minimize the health hazards and resource demands that go along with it. As a result, the study's goal is to give mitigation measures for urban overheating in support of Sydney 2050's strategic planning by the Cooperative Research Centre for Low Carbon Living (CRCLCL) and the University of New South Wales (UNSW). The well-known aspect of climate change is the urban heat island (UHI) effect, which is the rise in temperature in densely populated urban areas relative to the surrounding suburbs or rural areas. There are many factors that can affect the UHI phenomena, including the environment, geography, physical form, and short-term weather conditions. If it is not considered when cities are planned and designed, it can have a big impact on how much energy, water, and healthcare they use. Cities influence the surrounding environment and interact with climate processes to generate their own microclimates. The urban heat island (UHI) effect is the highly noticeable aspect of an urban environment (Taha, 1997). According to the UHI effect, air temperatures in urban regions are often higher than that of non-urban areas (Figure 1). During the summer months in Sydney, morning surface temperatures in treeless urban spaces are on typical 12.8°C higher than that in non-urban (Adams & Smith, 2014). Other from climate change, landuse changes could have an impact on temperatures. There will be an increase in average annual temperatures in areas that are transformed from grasslands or forests to urban, including from lower urban density to higher density areas. The increase in temperature is due to the addition of buildings and urban and Figure 1: Temperature profile for Urban Heat Island (Sustainable Sydney 2030: Community strategic plan n.d.) infrastructure materials, as well as the loss of existing vegetation. To combat climate change and meet the power needs of a city or a country with 100 percent non-intermittent renewable energy, no new sources or technologies need to be developed. It is now possible to obtain renewable energy resources, and the technologies to do it, in developed economies around the world. Australian renewable energy resources and technology can be implemented, but the existing narrow opinion and outlook that renewable energy is just grid-connected
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renewable energy needs to shift if Australia wants to develop a significant renewable energy exporter in the world (Sustainable Sydney 2030: Community strategic plan n.d.). Strategic plans are critical in the planning process. This vision is transformed into physical growth patterns by allowing regulations and construction codes, and it is mostly provided through economic forces. To develop fully livable neighborhoods, the planning process considers a wide range of community ambitions and concerns (Guyadeen & Seasons, 2016). There are usually two competing perspectives when it comes to developing a metropolitan plan. For beginning, take a top-down approach, in which the metropolitan interests come first and are backed by subordinate plans with falling geographic scales but increasing degrees of detail. With this strategy, a variety of social, economic, and environmental goals are being sought to be balanced. Parallel to the above, planning aims for a bottom-up strategy that includes input from the local community and formalizes its values and objectives as part of the legal strategic planning (Corfee-Morlot et al., 2010).
Australian Temperature Overview Urban overheating has become a significant issue in Australia, and city residents are frequently plagued by excessive heat and frequent heatwaves (Santamouris et al., 2017). As a result of the UHI (urban heat island) effect, which is generated by city characteristics (such as population density, structure, and use of land), construction materials and anthropogenic heat (such as emissions from vehicles and building energy use), urban overheating is a common problem (green areas, water) (Haddad et al., 2019). Nearly all Australian cities have data on the UHI effect (Santamouris et al., 2017). The self-amplifying process of continental weather conditions mixed with the heat island effect typically causes urban warming in Australia's cities (Yun et al., 2020). There is a strong correlation between urban overheating and the dual atmospheric systems that bring cool sea breezes from the ocean and warm desert winds from the inland. As a result, finding out how urban overheating behaves, and forms is difficult. Overheating in cities, as well as frequent, extreme, and long-lasting heatwaves, have serious consequences for the environment, health, and economics. The UHI impact and urban heat management have been made easier with the development of cutting-edge technologies and strategies. Sustainable urban development can be achieved using mitigation practices and methods such urban greening, rooftop gardens, vertical gardens, cool roofs, and pavements (Salata et al., 2017). If "a considerable difference in temperature may be noticed within a city, or between a city and its suburbs, and/or its surrounding rural areas, and the highest temperatures are expected to occur in the densest part of an urban area," it is typically observed. In Australia, data on the level of UHIs is provided for almost all the country's major cities (O’Malley et al., 2014).
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Figure 2: UHI intensity in Australian cities (Energy and climate change n.d.)
According to a parametric analysis, the Sydney city region sees substantial temperature variations within its bounds, with a maximum variation of 6 °C (Energy and climate change n.d.). Sydney's local climate has a significant effect on cooling energy consumption for constructions, with a 3:1 ratio among cooling degree days for hotter and colder places in the Sydney CBD area. Hence, the aim of this study is to propose the mitigation strategies for Urban Heat Island impact in Sydney CBD, Australia which will incorporate photovoltaic panels to figure out what kind of influence or impact implementing policy like solar panels at the city level will have on the local climate.
UHI Challenges in the city of Sydney 1. Climate Conditions The City of Sydney's summer temperature continues to rise and poses a higher health risk to its residents despite efforts to reduce urban overheating in Western Sydney. By 2070, the Sydney City LGA can expect a rise in the number of days with temperatures over 35°C of 15 percent (Adapting for climate change n.d.).
Figure 3: Expected heatwaves for Sydney, Australia (Adapting for climate change n.d.)
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2. Increasing population & density Urban overheating is expected to become more of a problem in Sydney as the city's population and density rise (Livada et al., 2019). As the number of densely built-up urban areas grows, the potential cooling effects of sea breezes will diminish (He, 2018). As a result, the City of Sydney's future reconstruction will face the problem of increasing density through mid- and high-rise structures without compromising the city's potential to counteract and adapt to urban heat.
Figure 4: Waterloo redevelopment in Sydney (Adapting for climate change n.d.)
3. Surface Temperature Distribution Due to urban fabric and land cover (paved vs. vegetated or water), temperatures vary widely around the City of Sydney LGA (the physical urban environment, such as the scale and density of buildings, materials used, etc.). For diverse urban growth situations, Figure 5 depicts a surface temperature distribution over City of Sydney LGA in Sydney's 2018/19 season (Adapting for climate change n.d.).
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Figure 5: Overview of Sydney CBD streets (Adapting for climate change n.d.)
The reduced cooling effect of ocean breezes, unshaded asphaltic concrete sidewalks and roads, and dark colors roof materials all contribute to greater surface temperatures. The City of Sydney's green open spaces, including the Royal Botanic Gardens, have lower average surface temperatures because of the vegetative land cover and substantial tree canopy coverage. This presents a challenge to local governments, urban planners, and decision-makers in the City of Sydney LGA, as they must identify the most efficient strategy for mitigating the effects of the UHI phenomenon through changes in urban fabric and land cover and understanding how these affect localized temperatures.
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Investigation Plan
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Investigation Plan
Project Investigation Objective Mitigation of UHI can offer more living urban environment through improved thermal comfort and lesser energy requirements. Existing UHI mitigation approaches offer cooling fabrics, urban landscaping, water, and shade as potential temperature-moderation options and boost the adaptability to increasing climate in the cities. The efficiency of any UHI mitigation strategy varies by location, city (density, scale) and local climate. The thermal properties of building materials provide an important contribution to this thermal storage. Application of materials with increased reflexibility, reduced heat capacity and improved damp ability or absorption in the context of paving materials can therefore be a rational means of reducing UHI. Such cool materials as urban pavement, building roofing and facades can be implemented. A cool fabric has a low thermal conductivity, low thermal efficiency and low thermal volume, maximum thermal reflectance, high incarnated humidity for evaporation or infiltration into the soil. The existing modern urban region in Australia majorly reflects the modern materials to beautify the buildings. In this case glass façade is majorly uptake by these modern urban regions. Completely glazed façades, especially reflecting, are quite like mirrors, and so during peak hours of hot days the most solar energy will be diverted downhill towards other buildings or roads normally built of concrete mix and absorb 90-95% of solar radiation (thermal radiation). The building will have some solar heat, but the remaining is disrupted towards neighboring buildings via the glass panels. In addition, heat could efficiently be trapped on a street level depending on elements like the façades of surrounding buildings as well as the size of the street. Not simply glass facades, there's the same impact for every kind of solid metallic material. It is desired to reduce the UHI effect for the reasons described in the discussion. The urban planner may help integrate these into urban design with urban models and simulation tools to predict the impact of mitigating measures. The studies have found that urban planners employ empirical models more than numerical models. The project implies the model of the Australian urban region and outcome for the simulation results in context to urban heat island. Further strategies to mitigate the excessive heat will be discussed and proposed to reduce the UHI effect. Climate change is not just a forecasting issue, it is happening today and measures to mitigate change can only reduce its intensity. Climate change adaptation is thus a key growing priority for Australian cities. Analysis of historical climate data from Australia showed that close to surface temperatures in 2030 were predicted to rise by 0.7 C by 2090, and 1.3 C by 2090 compared with 1910 baseline. In this statistical analysis, the fundamental assumption is that climate pattern. The Australian average surface temperatures in 2014 reveal a shift in temperatures of 0.5 C to -1 C compared to 1910 throughout most of the continent — including the Sydney, Adelaide, and Melbourne. For future research into Urban Heat Island the recommendations are given, such as the classification of the Local Climate Zone (LCZ) are easy to recognize. The LCZ classification does not, though, provide an adequately integrated description of land use characteristics. However, it is to be highlighted that it should be utilized at the city level and that when regions are too heterogeneous, it cannot be used. Without the use of very big data sets, empirical models will probably not help explain the cooling effects of any
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measures of mitigation (Stewart & Oke, 2012). The empirical models will explain most of the UHI variation, although measures which only have a limited cool effect (such as green surfaces and walls) will not be relevant in a small sample size, mitigation measures that have a substantial cooling effect (such as open water and city parks).
Existing Site Conditions An eclectic mix of heritage buildings and offices, restaurants, high-density housing constructions, and old structures adapted to residential or commercial uses characterize the region. In the southern CBD, the streets follow a slightly warped grid pattern, however in the older northern CBD the lanes make multiple intersecting grids, reflecting its arrangement in accordance with the prevailing wind and orientation to Circular Quay in early settlement. South and west limits of the region are marked by two heavy traffic roads: King Street on the south side, and York Street on the west side; east and north boundaries are marked by a heavy traffic route, Western distributor road, which divides the neighborhood from the surroundings. The existing urban fabrication of the Sydney’s CBD is generally of glass. The architecture at the site truly reflects the essence of modernization. The buildings selected for the simulation will be considered with existing façade material. The results are determined based on the existing materials of these selected buildings and surroundings. The results are compared with the existing materials of the selected buildings and surroundings with the proposed Solar panels façade buildings and surroundings. Other mitigation strategies are also be implicated with the new proposed material simulation model to maximally reduce the UHI effect. To frame the solar panels on the existing buildings, the positioning is calculated by the area of the façade which receives the most heat. The surrounding building levels are also be considered to see the shade and shadow on the selected buildings to experience and select the most appropriate level of the buildings to receive most of the daylight. The positioning of the solar panels depends on the shadows from the surrounding buildings and existing vegetation and upon the maximum ability of to receive the sunlight. To cool down the effect of heat at the rooftop of the selected area, cool roofing materials are also proposed to lower the impact of heat. In the summer, energy-efficient roofing systems can dramatically reduce roof temperatures, hence reducing the need for air-conditioning electricity. The objective of the Cool Roofing Materials is to reflect or reject the sun's radiant energy before it enters the interior of the building (Cool Roofing Materials Database | HEATISLAND n.d.). Vertical greenery systems can be used in high-density urban environments when space is limited. Building facades and other vertical structures can be enhanced by vertical greenery systems, commonly known as green/ living walls. Reduced surface temperatures and solar and heat protection (shade) are some of the benefits that can be gained from using these solutions. They can also improve indoor thermal comfort and contribute to energy conservation.
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Methodology Sydney's central business district (CBD) is chosen as a case study (33°52′5″S 151°12′44″E, 58 meters above sea level). The figure 6 depicts the urban region that is considered in the analysis.
Figure 6: Maps showing the selected site for the study
The simulations discussed in the following section are the result of the different proposals for the mitigation strategies for Sydney CBD area. The goal of the project is to minimize the impact of UHI with incorporating solar power generation in Central Business District of Sydney during extended heat periods. Due to global warming such summerly heat waves are expected to occur more often and be longer lasting in the future (Jacob et al., 2008). The study focused on the selected area in Sydney City, that is known for its relatively warm climate. ENVI-met has been utilized and evaluated to see how different urban design alternatives affect the outdoors' thermal environment. With a common grid resolution ranging from 0.5 to 10 meters, it's a three-dimensional non-hydrostatic local meteorological system used to simulate weather parameters in urban environments. There is a complete radiation budget considered by the model (i.e., reflected and diffused solar radiation, direct radiation, and long-wave radiation). It uses flow behavior and thermodynamics to simulate how meteorological variables change during the day. Vegetation, Buildings, surface properties, soils, and meteorological contour conditions all play a role in the ENVI-met model's
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simulation of the atmosphere's current state (Bruse and Fleer,1998). The thermal inertia of the walls and roof is also accounted for by the building module. There are several different parameters which go into ENVI-met calculations which include meteorological data as well as soil surface and temperature profiles. Wind and cloudiness remain constant, which has an impact on the model's ability to produce findings that are representative when compared to hourly measurements. The simulations performed with ENVI-met within the scope of this project with the goal to identify the influence of certain typical urban structures on the urban microclimate and to develop possible strategies to mitigate heat stress within these structures. As ENVI-met is not capable of simulating a whole city but rather single urban quarter, such urban quarter is selected for the simulation. This quarter represent different types of urban commercial areas, heritage buildings and offices, restaurants, high-density housing constructions, and old structures adapted to residential or commercial uses characterize the regions that are thought to be typical for central Australian cities. The microclimate of the model areas is then simulated with the boundary conditions of an extreme heat scenario which will consequently be referred to as worst case scenario: a summer day at the end of a longer lasting heat period with a maximum air temperature of over 35◦C and a maximum solar irradiation. Simulation is performed for the month of January by considering the average extreme heat temperature, date, and time, i.e., 15 January 2020 (2 PM). Layout plans, satellite photos, and other information found on the internet are used to make the model areas. Building shapes and heights are defined by the layout blueprints (Google Maps n.d.). The layout blueprints for these buildings were largely old, thus newer ones are developed only from aerial views and photos available using current information. These images were also employed in the modelling of the area's ground surface and vegetation. As a result of the relatively inaccuracy of this digitalization approach, the errors made are estimated to be less than two meters in length. The model grid's vertical and horizontal resolutions are determined by the constraint on the model's size. The selected area's 3D model in ENVI-met (a portion of the district) is shown in the figure 7. With frequent and average wind flow, the buildings are positioned at various levels of height. The spacing between the structures varies from 10 meters to more than 10 meters. The measurements of air temperature taken during Sydney's January Figure 7: Site selected for the study at Central Business District of Sydney, NSW, 2020 heat wave, which was Australia
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unusually severe and long lasting, were used to construct the boundary conditions for the simulation. A cloudless January 15 with a medium wind speed (0.5m/s in 8m above ground) was chosen as the worstcase scenario date for the simulation. With this set-up, the simulated day's irradiation is at its highest, and the amount of cooling provided by wind is minimal. The simulation began at 9 a.m. and ended at 10 p.m. Just the average extreme heat hour results, i.e., 2 PM, are considered in the discussion that follows. The scale of the plan changes depending on how many pixels are used in the program. For the selected area to fit in the model of 180 X 200, each pixel represents 4 meters in the plan. The true condition file was created, and four different scenarios were proposed around it. The true condition file is the one that is the closest to the current situation, while the other scenarios use mitigation strategies that promote the use of renewable energy. Simulator settings were applied once the models had been created in the map area and transferred into the simulation settings. Pavement and asphalt are included in the map region along with a variety of building types and heights. The 3D model is being created at the same time as the 2D plan in the case. Because the buildings' heights vary, a scale factor has been used to the 3D to provide a lighter model. Using the ENVI-Area met's Input file editor, the model was rotated by -20° clockwise to match the main development direction of the roadways. A thicker grid towards the ground allows for higher precision in identifying edge effects since the grid has a fixed spacing on the x and y - axis but is telescopic on the z axis (1.20 m is the mean value). As a result, the model's maximum height is 36 m (1.20 30 m). For the model to be numerically stable, the height of the highest building must be at least twice as high as this value. With three types of façade materials (Appendix) and a mix of good and moderate insulation at heights ranging from 18 meters to 36 meters, buildings in the model are taken into consideration for the study. Different plant varieties have been used to model the vegetation. For the most part, the area has been paved with typical soil, with the significant exception of the main road, which is paved with asphalt. All the models use the same basic inputs for their simulations. However, because of the proposed complexity, the values for each case model differ. Each model had a total 6-hour profile set for the same period, and the simulations predicted 48 hours of downtime. Due to the large size of each model, the simulation took on average 50 hours to finish.
Software Limitations ENVI-met is continually being developed, and it is getting new features all the time. Although it comes close to accurately simulating reality, ENVI-met does have certain (significant) drawbacks. The following is a brief list of ENVI-met's most significant limitations: • •
Precipitation in model: ENVI-met is unable to simulate precipitation or temperatures below zero degrees Radiation: In the model area, the radiative fluxes have been neglected. - The above and down diffuse radiation scattering is termed isotropic.
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plants have little impact on diffuse short-wave radiation. To put it differently: When light travels through vegetation, it is not absorbed and is not converted to diffuse light (i.e., no scattering of direct short-wave radiation). the soil and vegetation scattering short wave radiation upwards are not considered. However, it is determined by taking an average temperature of all the leaves and surfaces within a given field of view, not just those that are directly exposed to incoming long wave radiation. In locations with colder surfaces (such as a small inner courtyard), the high frequency radiation budget is overstated, while near warmer surfaces, it is undervalued.
Soil model: The irrigation of soil/plants cannot be replicated at this time. Turbulence (k): There is evidence to suggest that the typical ENVI-met k-closure overestimates turbulence generation when applied to flows around buildings, when acceleration and deceleration are high. ENVI-met simulations frequently exhibit this behavior. Several k closing adjustments have been proposed to address or at least reduce this issue. The Kato Launder modification (Kato and Launder, 1993) appears to be the most often utilized and gives the best outcomes (Huttner n.d.). This change was also tested in ENVI-met, but it was not adopted because it only marginally reduced the value of k near stagnation points, but it also increased the likelihood of numerical instabilities in the simulations (Huttner n.d.). A complete reprogramming of ENVI-met would be required for other ways of closing turbulent kinetic energy, such as Large Eddy Simulation or Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS), and these approaches will not be applicable to ENVI-met for the near future.
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Materials: When trying to use a wide range of materials on different surfaces, the model ran into several issues. For the program to be more effective, the materials must be improved (in this scenario, the facade materials & the solar panel implementation to improve the heat fluxes) (Appendix)
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Poly crystalline photovoltaic (PV) solar roof panels: Properties of photovoltaic solar panel module components are taken into consideration for the model simulation. These components are horizontally installed in an open system above a roof surface and vertically installed on the facade of the building. These components' input parameters are entered manually because the software does not provide the Solar Panel materials or a default configuration for them. Thus the input for the PV panels is details in the Appendix.
The impact of these inadequacies on the simulations' outcomes is highly dependent on the model's design. However, the user must be aware of the limits of ENVI-met and have at least a basic understanding of atmospheric physics to evaluate the quality of a simulation.
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The Proposals & Discussion
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The Proposals and Discussions Four possible configurations of the model have been evaluated for analyzing the impact of the key tools to reduce the effects of urban microclimate: • • • •
Total Site area – 26.61 Acres (10.7 Hectares) Total four proposals are taken in consideration With each alternative case and their results, the best is recommended – Solar Panels on Façade + Green Roof Simulation is done for the warmest month in Sydney by selecting extreme heat day and time as per City of Sydney 2020 records
Figure 8: Plans showing the 2D plans for actual condition (left) of the site and proposed site (right)
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The Cases I.
Current Site Scenario (Case 1: Actual Site)
Figure 9: 3-D view for the current site scenario
The basic model has been started up and is using conventional values of the urban environment, particularly in terms of the radiative properties of buildings. As per the actual conditions the building’s façade are mix of double, heat protected and single glass façade with moderate insulation applied to all the buildings. The roof albedo is set as per the assumed roofing for all the buildings, i.e., roofing tile [0100R1].
Materials Used - Moderate Insulation, double/single/heat protected façade, roofing tile Vegetation – Existing Vegetation with approximate height Roads – Asphalt Road Climate Condition – 33.8688° S, 151.2093° E
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Figure 10: Simulated results for Current Site Scenario
The graph 10 above depicts the findings obtained under the present situation. As a result, the designated sector of Sydney's CBD had a maximum temperature of 43°C and a minimum temperature of 40°C. The results compared favorably with Bureau of Metrology records (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019).
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II.
Solar Panels on Façade (top three floor of each building) Scenario (Case 2: Proposal 1)
Figure 11: 3-D view for the Solar Panels on Façade
This model (Figure 11) considered the solar panels on the buildings' last three floors on all four sides (majorly North). This model includes the effects of solar panels on East and West orientations as well. In this scenario, the roof is made of Terracotta tiles, which have a high albedo value and surroundings are covered with more native vegetation for better heat retention. There is a mix of high and medium insulation selected. Also, the roads are simulated with cooling paints (lighter in actual road color). Other than that, the scenario is identical to the actual model.
Materials Used - Moderate/High Insulation, Plexiglass façade, double/single/heat protected façade + PV panels + terracotta tiles Vegetation – Existing Vegetation with approximate height + increased native vegetation Roads – Asphalt Road with cooling paint Climate Condition – 33.8688° S, 151.2093° E
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Figure 12: Simulated results for the Solar Panels on Façade
According to the findings of the first proposed model, the maximum temperature 41.46 degrees Celsius, and the minimum temperature 37.64 degrees Celsius. This shows the drops in the temperature to the actual scenario temperature.
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III.
Mixed – Solar Panels on Façade + Roof + Green Roof (top three floor of each building) Scenario (Case 3: Proposal 2)
Figure 13: 3-D view for the Mixed – Solar Panels on Façade + Roof + Green Roof
The solar panels on the building's façade facing all directions are taken into consideration for the last three stories of the building in this model scenario (Figure 13). A combination of green vegetated cover and solar roofing is also utilized in combination with the solar panels on the façade. As with the preceding roof, terracotta tiles are used as the roofing base since they have a high albedo value and surroundings covered with the same quantity of native vegetation to improve heat retention. In this case, high and medium insulation levels have been chosen. Aside from that, the scenario is like the actual model.
Materials Used - Moderate/High Insulation, Plexiglass façade, double/single/heat protected façade + Green +mixed substrate + PV panels + terracotta tiles Vegetation – Existing Vegetation with approximate height + increased native vegetation Roads – Asphalt Road with cooling paint Climate Condition – 33.8688° S, 151.2093° E
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Figure 14: Simulated results for the Mixed – Solar Panels on Façade + Roof + Green Roof
The results shown that the maximum temperature for this scenario resulted in minimum temperature 38.67 °C and maximum temperature 41.35 °C.
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IV.
Solar Panels on Façade + Roof (top three floor of each building) Scenario (Case 4: Proposal 3)
Figure 15: 3-D view for the Solar Panels on Façade + Roof
This is an example of solar panels being installed on the roofs and façades of a building (for the last three levels) in combination with enhanced vegetation in the surrounding area (Figure 15). Additionally, the roads are painted in a lighter shade of paint like in the previous proposals. The materials used in the construction of the structures are a combination of a variety of types as per actual conditions, as well as high-reflective materials. In this scenario, the usage of a combination of insulation is also employed. The scenario is identical to what is present in the real model.
Materials Used - Moderate/High Insulation, Plexiglass façade, double/single/heat protected façade + PV panels +terracotta tiles Vegetation – Existing Vegetation with approximate height + increased native vegetation Roads – Asphalt Road with cooling paint Climate Condition – 33.8688° S, 151.2093° E
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Figure 16: Simulated results for the Solar Panels on Façade + Roof
The results for the performed simulation presented the temperature ranges maximum 41.90 °C and minimum 38.67 °C.
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V.
Solar Panels on Façade + Green Roof (top three floor of each building) Scenario (Case 5: Proposal 4)
Figure 17: 3-D view for the Solar Panels on Facade + Green Roof
The solar façade (for the last three levels) and green vegetated roof proposed in the plan are implemented in the model which is being shown in figure 17. All other aspects, such as insulation, materials, and vegetation, are left unchanged from the previous proposals.
Materials Used - Moderate/High Insulation, Plexiglass façade, double/single/heat protected façade + Green +mixed substrate + PV panels + terracotta tiles Vegetation – Existing Vegetation with approximate height + increased native vegetation Roads – Asphalt Road with cooling paint Climate Condition – 33.8688° S, 151.2093° E
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Figure 18: Simulated results for the Solar Panels on Facade + Green Roof
The results for this proposal shown the most efficient drop in the temperature, where the maximum temperature resulted as 40.29 °C and minimum is 36.74 °C.
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Summary of the Results According to the results obtained from all the proposed simulations carried out under the actual site conditions, it is noted that proposal 4 (Case 5) is efficient and has managed to keep reduce the overheating of the selected quarter most while encouraging positive renewable energy generation (Solar Energy) for the future strategic plans for the City of Sydney (Figure 19).
Figure 19: Table showing the comparison for the actual design results and the proposals results
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Contribution towards Future
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Contribution towards Future
Photovoltaic increases UHI – The Myth A major effect of urbanization on local weather is something called an Urban Heat Island (UHI). A health crisis during a heat wave might occur because cities are warmer than its surrounding rural countryside, like in 2003 in Paris when 15,000 premature deaths occurred (Fouillet et al.,2006) or in 2010 when 11,000 premature deaths occurred (Moscow, 2010) (Porfiriev, 2014). It's also important to keep in mind that as the climate warms, the impacts of urban heat islands will only get worse (Lemonsu et al., 2012). Multiple techniques are being investigated as a result to help minimize the UHI throughout the summer months. It was found that various studies have examined measures to reduce UHI, including modifications in green space, tree cover and albedo as well as pavement surfaces, vegetation and type of construction and materials (Gago et al, 2013). Many innovative cool materials solutions have been studied by Santamouris, Synnefa & Karlessi (2011) for reducing the UHI. In order to reflect more energy back to the atmosphere (high albedo, high emissivity), these materials could be used on roofs. They could also be used to delay the transmission of heat into buildings (phase change materials). As a result, it's critical to determine whether the two main goals of combating global climate change while also reducing urban heat island effects are mutually compatible. Adding solar panels to a roof impacts the quality of the surface, which can have an impact on how much energy is transferred to the atmosphere and, in effect, how much UHI results. The purpose of this research is to assess the local climate, particularly the UHI, influence of solar panels, which are known to be excellent for global warming mitigation. As stated by Elliott (2000): "With issues about Changing Climate increasing, the swift development of renewable technologies looks highly significant," renewable energy can be seen as a vital step forward into sustainable energy development, reduction of fossil fuel use, and mitigation of climate change. But, a new study by Nugent and Sovacool (2014) found that renewable energy sources are not currently CO2 emitters when considering at their entire life cycle. Considering this, their per-unit-of-energy greenhouse gas rate is lower than that of fossil fuel-based energy sources and slightly higher than that of nuclear power. In addition, they "discover best practices in wind and solar design and implementation that might better guide the energy sector's climate change mitigation efforts." Renewable energy implementation demands a paradigm shift towards distributed power generation and local production systems, as Elliott (2000) points out in his book of the same title. Even if the technology for these systems already exists, social and institutional reforms are required for their deployment while still needing improvements and further research (Gross, Leach & Bauen, 2003). In order to accelerate the development of renewable energy, more funding, incentive strategies, and regulatory duties for energy providers may be required. According to Lund (2007), Denmark can make the switch to 100 percent renewable energy production. To summaries, Sovacool & Lakshmi Ratan (2012) found nine regulatory, social, and market elements that either encourage or hinder the growth of wind power and solar energy. These findings help explain why renewables is increasing rapidly in Australia and Denmark when compared to United States of America and India.
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According to Sims, Rogner & Gregory 2003 (2003), except for solar electricity, which remains expensive, many renewable energy sources can reduce expenses and CO2 emissions under certain conditions. Utilityscale solar energy (solar farms) are often installed in rural locations and have modest environmental impacts compared to other energy sources, including other renewables. In addition, solar power is among the few alternative energy sources which can be used on a significant scale within cities itself. Individual rooftop solar panels or building’s facade, as contrasted to solar farms, are a particularly cost-effective way to increase renewable energy production and reduce glasshouse gas emissions, according to Arnette (2013). As a result, they conclude that installing solar panels on roofs/facade should be included of a wellbalanced energy production strategy.
About the proposed Solar Panels A polycrystalline (PV) solar panel has 50 or 60 150x150 mm PV-cells layered between a glass plate on the front and plastic foil on the back, depending on the manufacturer. There are numerous layers to the plastic foil. Plastic foil layers are most often made of polyester or tedlar, two synthetic polymers. The electrical isolation is handled by the polyester layer. The Tedlar layer protects the polyester layer from the elements by acting as a barrier between it and the environment. Tedlar is the brand name of a polyvinyl fluoride under which it is manufactured (PVF). Before being laminated between a glass plate and aluminum foil, the PV cells are submerged in ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA). Under high pressure and temperature, a laminate of glass, EVA, PV cells, and plastic foil is formed into a single unit. PV-laminate is the name of the main component. Since the PV-laminate will be installed in an aluminum frame due of the weather and since the PV solar panel must remain as light as possible (Amerongen & Al,2012).
Figure 20: Layering of the proposed Polycrystalline Solar Panels (Ma et al. 2017)
Proposed material innovation CSEM presented a white or colored module technology in October 2014. To generate wealth for a sustainable future, CSEN is a private non-profit Swiss technology and research organization. To meet the architects' continual need for innovative methods for customizing the appearance of PV panels, this technology is being developed. Various factors are needed to make the developed technology work, as
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illustrated in the figure. Colored film scattering filters, for example, scatter visible light while transferring infrared energy. It has been shown that poly crystalline silicon solar cells absorb the transmitted infrared light the best. The technology's conversion efficiency is estimated at 11.4%, compared to a 19.1% conversion efficiency for the traditionally proven reference technology (Ma et al., 2017). To manufacture and commercialize CSEM's colored PV technology, a start-up firm called Solaxess was formed in January of 2015. The difficulties are proving the new technology's durability and increasing the manufacturing scale of scatter filter fabrication at a solar panel market-acceptable cost. The new technology has the potential to reduce heat both inside and outside the building, with a beneficial effect that is most likely comparable to the mitigating effect of a cool roof during the daytime hours (Escarré et al. n.d.).
Figure 21: White PV module schematic principle illustration (left); PV modules fabricated (right)
Figure 22: PV panels standard dimensions
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Towards the better future – Sydney 2030 plan To facilitate the future planning of Sydney 2050, this study tailors the research findings to the City of Sydney's urban environment. The City of Sydney Local Government Area (LGA) will be able to endure, adapt, and thrive despite the rising severity and intensity of heatwaves in Sydney because of the urban heat island challenges. Overheating in urban centers is expected to become more of a problem in Sydney as the city's population and density increase (Livada et al., 2019). It is projected that the potential advantages of cooling sea breezes will diminish as urban density increases (He, 2018). It will therefore be challenging for the City of Sydney to increase existing density across mid- and high-rise buildings without compromising its ability to manage and adapt to urban heat. Decades of development and refinement have invested into developing mitigation measures and technology that will help our cities deal with the effects of growing overheating in cities. These mitigation techniques can reduce peak ambient temperatures by 2-3°C, as well as cooling energy consumption and heat related morbidity and mortality, if implemented correctly (Santamouris et al., 2017). It is noted that because of their (sub) tropical temperatures most cities' negative UHI consequences surpass their positive UHI impacts during winter (e.g., reduced heating costs and cold-related mortality), although this is not the case for all cities (ed Fernando, 2012). The dense urban environment of Sydney's Central Business District presents a substantial challenge for enhancing the city's capacity to diminish and adapt to excessive temperature by 2050. Contested urban area limits the ability to introduce further flora, streetscapes, and green areas. However, proposing photovoltaic panels on a facade or green or cool roofs can help to reduce a building's power usage, they are unlikely to influence the air temperature at street level. Due to the presence of hard surfaces on the selected site, it is recommended that the use of extremely reflecting pavements and façade materials be minimized, since they might cause glare and health hazards due to increased sun radiation.
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Conclusion & References
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Conclusions Conclusions Cities occupy around 2% of the land surface area, use 60–85% of its energy, and emit 70% of the world's CO2 emissions. In the following decades, countries will become even more urbanized, with a global population of 70% expected to live in cities. In response to these patterns, the City of Sydney emphasized the significance of cities in climate change mitigation. Our cities are warmed by human-caused emissions of glasshouse gases, but the nature of urban form influences the surface energy balance, which is defined by a higher proportion of available energy being exchanged as sensible heat, adding to localized warming. Other than that, a large amount of remote-produced energy is imported directly to deliver energy services in the form of electricity and gas for domestic, industrial, and commercial consumers. This generates heat that contributes even more locally to the overall global warming trend. To lessen cities' and people's exposure to heat, a variety of approaches have been proposed, including surface geo-engineering, which involves painting surfaces with lighter colors to reflect more sunlight back into space, and vegetated roofs. These technologies have a high up-front cost and ongoing maintenance requirement, but the advantages to the environment can more than compensate for those drawbacks. Solar photovoltaic (PV) system deployment on a wide scale could be a geo-engineering solution for cooling cities. Solar power systems (mainly photovoltaic, although concentrating solar plants are also a possibility at the utility scale) are commonly investigated for their ability to generate electricity, with the related direct economic benefits and indirect impacts on CO2 emissions and climate16. Examples include the widespread use of solar panels in the desert, which can both decrease localized temperatures while also having minimal effects on global temperatures. According to estimations, there is a huge amount of solar energy that can be harvested. Large-scale urban PV installations can increase the heat absorption due to the low albedo of PV panels. This could enhance a city's solar energy load and thus the UHI effect. There is no need for energy to be generated remotely and subsequently imported if a city can produce enough power to meet its local needs using solar energy, including any higher energy demands because of the reduced albedo associated with solar panels. Because the solar panel does not effectively warm an urban surface, avoiding energy imports limits the overall amount of energy added to the system. An alternative would be to use the energy to generate electricity, which would be exported as heat over time and reduce the requirement for imported energy. When used in combination with white roofs, vegetated roofs, green facades, high albedo paints on the roads, solar panels can reduce daytime temperatures in a similar way as enhancing albedo, but they also generate useful electricity. The reduction or even removal of imported energy reduces the city's overall energy footprint, provides a financial return to PV system owners, and may cool a city to provide a free benefit to the environment and even a financial saving to individuals who do not have solar panels. This cooling can reduce construction and human health risks while also improving quality of life. The magnitude of these advantages and the value of the reduction in temperature and the generating of electricity are estimated independently.
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Appendix
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