Architecture Dissertation : Exposition structures

SHRADHA SOIN | GCAD17225 | EXPOSITION STRUCTURES

GATEWAY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN

SONIPAT 131001

DISSERTATION REPORT November, 2021

EXPOSITION STRUCTURES: LEARNING FROM PAST

SUBMITTED BY: Shradha Soin (GCAD/17/225)

GUIDED BY: Prof. Vipin Gupta

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SHRADHA SOIN | GCAD17225 | EXPOSITION STRUCTURES

GATEWAY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN

DECLARATION

I Shrdha Soin, GCAD/17/225, hereby declare that the dissertation titled EXPOSITION STRUCTURES submitted by me, in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the curriculum of Bachelor of Architecture as per the university norms, to Gateway College of Architecture and Design, is a record of my original work with credits given for information collected from any other source.

Shradha Soin

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GATEWAY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation titled Exposition Structures, submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the curriculum of Bachelor of Architecture is the work of Shradha soin, GCAD/17/225, who carried out research work under our supervision in Gateway College of Architecture and Design, Sonipat, Haryana.

We recommend that the dissertation report be placed before the examiners for their consideration.

Prof. Vipin Gupta Signature of the guide

Prof. Radhika Nagpal Signature of the coordinator

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ABSTRACT

World Expos are transformative and innovative mega-events that have a defining role in knowledge-sharing, cultural diplomacy and the promotion of progress for all. Gathering hundreds of countries from across the globe, World Expos are visited by millions, offering organizers and participants the opportunity to showcase their prowess, their ideas and their vision for the future. The structure of a building has its important role in shaping its architectural design. This role started with the first cave that the primitive man lived in. The World Expo is a gathering of nations from all over the world to showcase their products and craftsmanship, to share with pride information about their hometowns and motherlands. It is an epitome of the great achievements of human civilization, possessing unparalleled appeal.

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DEDICATION I dedicate my dissertation work to my family, friends and my teachers who have helped and supported me throughout the process. I really appreciate their efforts, thanking them for the precious time they spent on me and helped me through the various difficulties that I faced while working on my dissertation. Their help made it possible to complete my work efficiently. They all are the ultimate inspiration.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude for all those who, directly or indirectly helped me in this research. I am heartily thankful to my guide, Ar. Vipin Gupta, whose encouragement, supervision and support from the preliminary to the concluding level enabled me to develop an understanding of the document.

Thank you Prof. Radhika Nagpal for providing their valuable insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research.

I would also like to thank and acknowledge the institution, Gateway College of Architecture and Design for providing me with the opportunity to work on this document. I am thankful for my teachers, mentors and friends who have given their experience, ideas and invaluable time to keep moving forward and enable me to complete this document.

The Freedom in Dissertation at GCAD would not have been possible without the tangible & intangible support of the coordinator, namely Prof. Radhika Nagpal; the Principal, namely Prof. Anurag Roy.

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“Maybe I’m just asking you to pay closer attention to the land” - Maya Lin, Boundaries, 2006, Pg. 4:45

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Table of Contents Abstract

(4)

List of tables

(11)

List of figures

(11)

CHAPTERS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1

Introduction and background

1.2

The Definitions and Meaning of the important parameters

1.3

Significance of the project/topic

1.4

The Central Claim/ Hypothesis

1.5

The Research Question(s)

1.6

The Aim and Objectives of the Research

1.7

The Scope and Limitations of the Research

1.8

Research methodology

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1

Purpose of the Literature Review

2.2

Categorization of Literature

2.2.1

Research papers

2.2.2

Books

2.2.3

Unpublished documents

2.3

Collating the Literature Review learnings: The final understanding

2.4

Conclusion

CHAPTER 3: METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 3.1

Method(s) opted for Data/ case Selection and its Justification

3.2

Method(s) opted for Data Collection and its Justification

3.3

Method(s) opted for Data Analysis and its Justification

3.4

Advantages and Limitations of the method(s) adopted

(13)

(17)

(37)

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‘CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDY DATA PRESENTATION 4.1

Introduction

4.2

Case 1:

4.2.1

Presentation of data

4.2.2

Type of data: Qualitative/ Quantitative / Mix

4.2.3

Challenges in data collection

4.3

Case 2:

4.3.1

Presentation of data

4.3.2

Type of data: Qualitative/ Quantitative / Mix

4.3.3

Challenges in data collection

4.4

Case 3:

4.4.1

Presentation of data

4.4.2

Type of data: Qualitative/ Quantitative / Mix

4.4.3

Challenges in data collection

4.5

(40)

Conclusion

CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 5.1

Introduction

5.2

Strength and limitations of the collected Data

5.3

Visual Representation of the Data

5.4

Cause and Effect relationship

5.5

The Final Comments

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS 6.1

Summary

6.2

Research Inference and its Significance

(62)

(68)

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6.3

The future Research possibilities

6.4

The future Research projects

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(73)

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List of Tables: S.No. Table Name 1 2 3 4 5

Literature Survey Reckoner List of Case studies Case studies selected: outcome Analysis of case studies Division of visitor’s memories and experience in an exposition

Page No. 17 38 63 64 71

List of Figures: S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10.1 11.1 11.2 12 13 14 15

15.1 16 17 18 19 20-21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Figure Name Théâtre Français. Victor Louis. 1786. Arched deck with iron structure The Crystal Palace. London, England, 1851 Crystal Palace. Elevation / longitudinal section/cross-section Crystal Palace. Photograph of the outside Crystal Palace. Photograph of the barrel vault transept.

Exposition Universelle. Paris, France, 1900 Weltausstellung. Vienna, Austria, 1873 The Eiffel Tower. Koechlin’s diagram embellished by Sauvestre.

Japanese pavilion, Exposition Universelle, Paris, France, 1867 WORLD EXPOS STRUCTURES AND THEIR INFLUENCE PERIODS Pons Ferreus by Fausto Veranzio, published in his book Machinae Novae, Venice, Oval Pavilion. The All-Russia Exhibition held in Nizhny-Novgorod. Vladimir Shukhov. 1896 The Rotunda or Pavilion of Structural Techniques, under construction. The AllRussia Exhibition held in Nizhny Novgorod. Vladimir Shukhov. 1896.

The soap bubble as a natural pneumatic structure.

Pneumatic decks to protect radars installed in the U.S. after World War Two. Transportable exhibition pavilion of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Victor Lundy, Fred Severud and Birdair Structures. 1960.

Transportable exhibition pavilion of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Victor Lundy, Fred Severud and Birdair Structures. 1960. Plan and cross-section.

Classification of low-pressure pneumatic systems Gas tank in Berlin. Johann Wilhem Schweller. 1893.

Prototype of a space frame. Alexander Graham Bell. 1907 Kite made with a space frame. Alexander Graham Bell. 1907.

Patent for the geodesic dome. Richard Buckminster Fuller. 1954.

Baton Rouge Dome. Construction image.

Depiction of different forms of exposition structures.

Germany Pavilion in Expo ’67 in Montreal. Frei Otto Aerial view of the Federal Republic of Germany Pavilion in Expo ’67 in Montreal. Frei Otto Models made by Frei Otto with soapy surfaces of varying typologies classified by the support system.

Plan of the Federal Republic of Germany Pavilion in Expo ’67 The German Pavilion in Expo ’67 in Montreal. The inside during the Expo Expo 67, planning and positioning of different pavilions Prototype made at the University of Stuttgart. Peak typology

Page No. 20 21 22 23 23 24 25 26 28 28 29 30 30 31 31 32 32

33 34 34 34 35 36 40 40 41 42 43 44 44 45

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30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

Use of models made with high surface tension liquids in order to determine the equitensional surfaces.

Plan representation of the deck topography.

Elevation view with workers.

The German Pavilion at Expo ’67 in Montreal. Structure view Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki.

Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki. Roof plan Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki.Front view.

Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki. Detail of cable stayed vert Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki. Interior The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. David Geiger and Horst Berger. View The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. Arrangement of the cables, dimensions and mathematical formulation of the super ellipsis The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. View The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. Cross-section.

Cross-sectionVarious construction stages of the Pavilion and the beginning of the pressurisation process. .

Detail of the perimetral compression ring at its connection with the cables.

Diagrams showing the wind force distribution on the deck Atomium. André Waterkeyn. Expo ’58 in Brussels.

Atomium. Placing the enclosure panels Atomium. Cross-section of the frame joints.

Atomium. Inside of one of the tubes.

André Waterkeyn. Expo. details André Waterkeyn. Expo. Exterior.

Under construction. Expo ’58 in Brussels.

TRY 2004 proposal. Shimizu Corporation. Habitable space frame.

TRY 2004 proposal. Shimizu Corporation. Habitable space frame sustaining residential buildings World’s first exhibition opening ceremony ,1851 List of some World Expos held recently The United States Pavilion at Expo '74, Spokane, Washington.

The proposed research model for visitor’s perspective.

45 46 47 47 48 49 49 50 51 51 52 52 53 54 54 55 56 57 57 58 58 59 60 61 61 66 67 69 70

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction and background An architectural system rooted in principles of transience, re-use and flexibility may lessen the costs of waterfront redevelopment failure. As cities transition to a new economic era, designers must resist the temptation to redefine the city through formal means.

The very nature of Expos creates unique opportunities for architects and engineers to design and create novel types of structure that shape modern and future architecture. Beyond the visual impact of Expo pavilions, their innovative structures have a lasting influence on the adoption of new architectural techniques, building designs and construction materials. This evolution in structural typologies, functionality and protagonism can all be traced through the history of World Expos.

World Expos are transformative and innovative mega-events that have a defining role in knowledge-sharing, cultural diplomacy and the promotion of progress for all. Gathering hundreds of countries from across the globe, World Expos are visited by millions, offering organizers and participants the opportunity to showcase their prowess, their ideas and their vision for the future.

Another aspect that is intrinsically linked to Expos is the transitoriness of its architecture.

While some of the edits associated with these events were built to stay, it is true that most of them were provisional. For this reason, exhibition architecture has usually been referred to as “ephemeral architecture”.

From the perspective of time, if we take the existence of a man as a point of reference, then little architecture is “ephemeral” since inert molecular structures tend to outlive us. On the other hand, if we take the last thousand years —an insignificant period of time in geological terms— as an example, then a considerable portion of architecture has been “ephemeral”.

In short, “ephemeral” is normally used as a metaphor for our own existence, as if the fate of our architecture was other than to dissolve into the earth.

1.1 Topic Description a. Expositions, like skyscrapers, dramatize architecture for the general public. Hence they have an influence upon architectural history far greater than their intrinsic importance.

Real innovations of structure or design seldom make their first appearance in expositions. b. Structure is columnar, planar, or a combination of these which a designer can intentionally use to reinforce or realize ideas. In this context, columns, walls and beams can be thought of in terms of concepts of frequency, pattern, simplicity, regularity, 13

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randomness and complexity. As such, structure can be used to define space, create units, articulate circulation, suggest movement, or develop composition and modulations.

1.2 The Definitions and Meaning of the Important Parameters Architecture - is used in this thesis as a collective term for both landscape architecture and “building” architecture.

Authority/institution - are used in this thesis to describe a municipality, department, city office or similar institution.

Exposition - A public show or exhibition Exhibition - A public showing (as of works of art, objects of manufacture, or athletic skill) a one-man exhibition; an exhibition game Exhibit - something that is shown to the public Structures- constructed or built from different interrelated parts with a fixed location on the ground.

Temporary structures - are structures which are erected to fill a temporary need, lasting for hours, days, weeks, and sometimes months instead of years.

1.3 Significance of the project/topic The Expositions have an influence upon architectural history far greater than their intrinsic importance. Their particular atmosphere of holiday and ballyhoo, their very transience, indeed, appeal to the imagination of a wide public which is otherwise rarely stirred by any ideas of architecture at all. They often embody radical ideas for new structural technologies and material applications, and demonstrate the potential of these ideas for relatively little investment.

Joseph Paxton, built on the experience gained on works such as the aforementioned Great Conservatory at Chatsworth to create a building on a monumental scale that was the Crystal Palace.

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1.4 The Research Question(s) a) b) c)

How World EXPOs contribute to the architecture growth of the country.

What were the various types of structures discovered by exposition?

Visitor’s behavior in exposition, their perspective towards structure.

1.5 The Central Claim/ Hypothesis EXPOs as city-scape, providing meeting points and exhibitions for the public, they are socially minded centers for activity, debate and celebration – challenging people to integrate, interact and approach. Exposition structures benefiting the host.

1.6 The Aim and Objectives of the Research This design-research synthesizes several topics. The outcomes of my research and two key investigations ultimately led to a stance on Exposition structures, which in turn led to the design of an exhibition center as part of a greater architecture design.

A. Aim- To study the background of exposition structures, role of them as cityscape.

B. Objectives – To study journeys along the history of architectural structures.

1.7 The Scope and Limitations of the Research i.

Scope- This design-research synthesizes several topics. The outcomes of my research and two key investigations ultimately led to a stance on temporary pavilions, which in turn led to the design of an original temporary pavilion as part of a greater architecture design.

ii.

Limitations of the researchExposition structures can be categorized in a variety of forms like by era, by material, by architect, etc. This research is limited to study the firsts structures of new exposition structures .Also there is a lack aimed at specifically investigating exhibition structure for a better understanding of museum message.

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1.8 Research methodology

● Aim and objectives ● Literature review ● Surveys and interviews - these include documentation of already existing buildings and study of the structure of buildings. ● Empirical data- this defines the analysis of the case studies in all aspects of buildings ● Research data- this includes the historical context and different theories related to the topic. ● Observation and analysis.

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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Purpose of the Literature Review

2.1

A Literature Review is a comprehensive review of the literature available for any research.

It is an analysis and summary of the literature which has already been done for the subject.

It gives an opportunity to show what research has already done. It discusses the theories and concepts of the already done research which will be useful in future studies. The literature review generally has articles, books, research papers and other sources related to the subject.

Review helps to gather information related to exposition structures and all nearby subjects and then conclude mutual information for each topic.

Categorization of Literature

2.2

Literature Survey Reckoner Sr. Literatu Name of No. re Literature ; category Author (s) / Editors(s)

Publish er (date)

Pag Interference es of inte rest

01

WORLD EXPOS WORLD EXPOS A HISTORY OF STRUCTURES

Isaac López César

Cha pter1,2, 5,6

Structure as Architecture

Andrew Charles on

02

Book

Book

2010

Likel y to help in argu ment

Browsed /Read thoroug hly / not Read yet

This book has travelled along a historical overview in which the structural contributions made

by World Expo buildings have been interlaced within the context of the general evolution of architectural structures.

Read

Comprehensive analysis of the indispensable role of structure in architecture. An exploration, as well as a celebration, of structure, the book draws on a series of design studies and case study examples

Read

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to illustrate how structure can be employed to realize a wide range of concepts in contemporary architecture.

03

Research The Exhibition paper Structure and Its Impact Towards Visitors’

Nur Afni Binti Halil1

Components of exhibition, spaces required for exhibition. What are the Focal points for visitors

Read

04

Research the Design of paper characteristic space in exhibition architecture

Siyu, Yang

Exhibition architectures have spatial organization order that is different from other buildings.. On the basis of understanding the characteristic space of existing exhibition buildings, this paper analyses the space design countermeasures of exhibition architectures.

Read

05

Research World Expos paper and architectonic structures. An intimate relationship

Isaac Lopez César

World Expos structure and their contribution to urban city-scape, reason for expos.

Read

06

Research Environmental paper impact analysis of temporary structures using genetic algorithm: case study of an ultralightweight pavilion

IASS Annual Sympos ium 2019 – Structur al Membra nes 2019

Ultra-lightweight structures are often built and used for short duration during temporary events, making easy (de)mountability the strength of this kind of projects to speed up construction.

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07

Research Development of paper Transformable Anticlastic Structures for Temporary Architecture Feray Maden1 , Patrick Teuffel

Feray Maden1 , Patrick Teuffel 2011

Transformable anticlastic structures based on the geometry of hyperbolic paraboloids (hypars) for temporary architecture. tetragonal joined frame structure.

08

article

Yizhang , Guo

Planning exhibition hall is a kind of comprehensive exhibition space, which undertakes many functions such as planning, exhibition and education. This paper studies the architectural design of the urban planning exhibition hall, and puts forward the design of the exhibition hall based on the four elements of the exhibition hall design.

Architectural analysis and design of urban planning exhibition hall based on four design elements

Read

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2.3Collating the Literature Review learnings: The final understanding 2.3.1 Background study ● ● ●

Exhibition in the age of industrialization Urban reconstruction and nation building The Socio-politics and cultural exchange

2.3.1.1 Exhibition in the age of industrialization The Industrial Revolution began in England in the mid-1800s and spread to other countries during the 1900s. The Industrial Revolution would imply an unprecedented technological breakthrough and a radical change in the production system, the economy and society.

Changes in architecture were a result of scientific progress, with the large-scale use of iron and glass and the appearance of new typologies deriving from the needs of a new society.

Being as it is a result of the social, cultural, economic and technological reality of any given period, architecture was not immune to the changes taking place in this revolutionary period.

The principal factors in the Industrial Revolution that were to have an impact on the historical development of architecture would be the scientific advances on the one hand, and the largescale application of new materials (such as iron and glass) and the arrival of new building typologies on the other. These new typologies were the result of industry’s emergent needs and the development of means of transport which called for bigger and bigger spaces. Thus, railway stations, factories, warehouses, bridges, storage tanks, etc. would be built.

The new materials were mainly iron and glass; while their use goes back to ancient times, it was in this period when they became widely used in construction. Iron was traditionally used for secondary purposes such as the connection between ashlars, ties, etc. It had also been occasionally used as a complete structural solution for certain decks, such as that of the Théâtre Français by Victor Louis (1786).

Fig 1. Théâtre Français. Victor Louis. 1786. Arched deck with iron structure. [Source: Ref (97) Blanc, Alan]

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2.3.1.1.1 Crystal palace Both social and material, these cycles took form as renewed urban design, civic amenities, transport and landscaping.30 these shifts could be viewed by the hosting nation with pride, as a physical manifestation of their own nation’s wealth, political influence or industrial vigor.

While the Great Exhibition of 1851 was able to set precedence, this would all too soon be surpassed by the Great London Exposition of 1862. The magnification of the expositions typically took form in the increased display of products or exhibits. The Great Exhibition, which boasted 14,000 exhibits, enclosed both spectator and exhibitor within an unprecedented glistening volume of immense scale. Its Crystal Palace measured 563m x 138m creating a void large enough to house an entire grove of exotic trees. However, eleven years later, the Great London Exhibition more than doubled its predecessor, preparing a twin domed enclosure to house over 28,000 exhibits.

Fig 2. The Crystal Palace. London, England, 1851

Joseph Paxton presented his project to Prince Albert and Robert Stephenson, one of the committee members, and published it in the “Illustrated London News”.

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Fig 3. (Above) Crystal Palace. Elevation / longitudinal section. [Source: Ref (233) Mallet, Robert] . (Below) Crystal Palace. Elevation / cross-section. [Source: Ref (233) Mallet, Robert]

The Crystal Palace is the first architectural synthesis of the Industrial Revolution for various reasons: In the first place, it was the first large metal building structure erected since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the building with the biggest surface area in the world that inaugurated the era of architectural giants that was typical of the World Expos in the 19th century.

While it was not the first prefabricated building, it certainly was the first to use large scale prefabrication and to adopt a three-dimensional additive module. Furthermore, it standardized components, a characteristic of the new mechanized, industrial production system.

It used materials on a large scale: glass and iron in its two forms, cast and wrought.

It synthesized the experience gained from previous constructions, namely glasshouses and winter gardens with a metallic structure; a good example is the Great Conservatory at Chatsworth which combines structure and drainage, as does the Crystal Palace.

Furthermore, the influence of the Crystal Palace would cross European borders and be an inspiration for dozens of buildings erected in Europe and America during the second half of the 19th century. Among the numerous examples we could give, it is worth mentioning the building for the Industrial Expo in Munich erected in 1853, also known as the Munich Kristallpalast, or the main building of the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876.

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Fig 4. Crystal Palace. Photograph of the outside. [Source: Ref (243) McKean, John]

“The anticipated amount of expansion and contraction was provided for in the longitudinal direction of the building, by using wooden keys, for fastening the girders into the snugs, whilst transversely, where great rigidity was essential for resisting pressure against the extended surface, and no injurious effect of expansion or contraction was anticipated, iron keys, driven quite home, were invariably employed.”

[Ref (311) Wyatt, Matthew Digby].

Fig 5.Crystal Palace. Photograph of the barrel vault transept. [Source: Ref (243) McKean, John]

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2.3.1.2 Urban reconstruction and nation building Urban history implies physical history: we define our subject by the existence of a gigantic artefact of the city itself. Yet the questions that occupy the fore of our literature steer away from much of the physical city; they derive either from social and political history or from polite urban design.

While the expositions operated as a means to communicate the pending changes in society, they were also devices to construct a notion of progress. They focused on the building of a better world through invention and development, however, expositions were also regularly recruited as mechanisms to change the built environment. Reformation would take place through the physical alteration of a city or the development of unused tracts of land. These manipulations operated to refine or renovate the hosting city, constructing a tangible barometer for general society to locate and identify the progress of their city, nation, or continent.

As noted in the previous section, the urban dwellers of cities such as Paris and London historically have been highly critical about the form their city should take. The exposition buildings for both the 1855 Exposition Universelle and the 1862 Great London Exposition received much criticism, however, in addition to the construction of buildings, the exposition invariably made much larger changes to the built fabric of each city via urban design.

The entrance of Austria to the exposition race in 1873 marked a significant addition to the previously English-French competition. The Viennese Weltausstellung posed two interesting shifts to the format and scope of world expositions. Initially this exposition was historically significant because it was the first to have a theme, the title being Kultur und Erziehung.

Fig 6.Exposition Universelle. Paris, France, 1900

Two main constructions were erected for this Expo in the Champs de Mars: the building known as the Galerie des Machines, named at the time the “Palais des Machines”, and the 300-metre Tower designed by Gustave Eiffel.

The main building for the Expo was the Palais de l’Industrie, a construction with a metal inner structure and an ashlar enclosure that intended to align with French tastes of that time.

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Created by the architect M.M. Viel and the engineers Alexis Barrault and G. Bridel, the building would be located between the Champs Élisées and the Seine. The exposition buildings for both the 1855 Exposition Universelle and the 1862 Great London Exposition received much criticism, however, in addition to the construction of buildings, the exposition invariably made much larger changes to the built fabric of each city via urban design.

Fig 7.Weltausstellung. Vienna, Austria, 1873

The world’s fair managed to transform the Austrian capital from a rather underdeveloped medieval city into a cosmopolitan national capital. The preparations for the world’s fair initiated important modernization in the infrastructure such as bridges and public transportation.

While this exposition provided a chance to effect a set of tangible benefits or changes to Viennese society, the Weltausstellung also initiated the possibility for the construction of exhibition pavilions. This new practice allowed the Austrian authorities to test, on a smaller scale, the effects of urban planning. The Weltausstellung developed scaled down boulevards, gardens, piers and a civic center. Through the staging and housing of the world expositions, capital cities such as Vienna developed not only a cultural center for the city themselves, but manufactured a cultural center for the entire nation.

2.3.1.2.1 THE EIFFEL TOWER The historical precedents of the Eiffel Tower can be classified into three groups: - Projects that were never made. This includes those projects for towers which aimed to beat records for height but which were never built. In spite of this, they contributed to the interest generated in the subject of great height.

-Real achievements. These are svelte constructions made with iron structures. They had a similar effect to those projects which never came to fruition, as well as encouraging competition to make the highest building.

-The experience of Gustave Eiffel and his collaborators themselves, which crystallised in some of his works in particular, through which they were to gain enough experience and use the technological resources which would later enable the design and 25

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construction of the tower.

Fig 6 . Some explanatory sketches on the Tower’s structural shape. [Source: Eiffel, Gustavee, Bertrand] Explanatory diagram of the Tower’s structural principal described by Eiffel. [Source: López César,

Isaac]

Fig 8 . The Eiffel Tower. Koechlin’s diagram embellished by Sauvestre. [Source: Ref (223) Lemoine, Bertrand]

For 42 years, the Eiffel Tower was the tallest building on the planet, until the erection of two North American skyscrapers that were completed in 1930 and 1931 respectively: the 319metre high Chrysler Building by the architect William Van Allen, and the Empire State 26

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Building, designed by William F. Band with a height of 381 meters. In terms of those buildings which were affected more directly, it should be noted that the Eiffel Tower continued to feed architectural fantasy after its erection.

Thus, on the occasion of the following Expo, the World’s Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893, various proposals for towers that would be higher than the Eiffel Tower were put forward, with heights of over 300 meters. They are peculiar proposals, some of them of dubious stability.

Thus, it should be noted that in the end, the Eiffel Tower is a gigantic bridge column which was erected exclusively to beat a world record, to be a symbol, in short, a modern menhir.

The structure of the tower was made with puddled iron. Originally developed in 1783 and 1784 by Peter Onions and Henry Cort at the same time, puddling was a refining process for iron in which the carbon and especially the sulphur content were reduced to very low levels, resulting in a very pure metal with better mechanical properties.

2.3.1.3 The Socio-politics and cultural exchange The expositions and the changes they affected to a site were regular mechanisms of societal reform. The expositions were a significant cultural phenomenon during the latter half of the 19th century CE, when the cultural identity of European society underwent significant change as the urban centers flourished during the industrial revolution. Colonial ties to distant lands played an important role during these times. Feeding the machines of industry, raw materials were sourced from the far reaches of the globe, and returned to Europe to be processed, manufactured and developed into goods for domestic consumption or export to other industrialized nations.

They were exhibited as exotic barbarians, or objects of sheer curiosity. Zayne Çelik notes that people from non-European backgrounds were presented as "contemporary versions of primitive civilizations", as if they "did not exert any influence on the general advance of humanity". In contrast to this, a number of countries would be able to make the shift from being the exhibited, to the exhibitors. This shift was made visible by the building of the Japanese Pavilion in the 1867 Exposition Universelle. The Japanese, who had previously been presented as ethnographic curiosities, entered the exposition with an architectural reconstruction of Japanese antiquity, and participated in the world fair on a number of levels.

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Fig 9. Japanese pavilion, Exposition Universelle, Paris, France, 1867

The Japanese Pavilion performed as an equal peer with the European pavilions, raising significant interest and allowing many visitors to gain their first contact with the people, customs, arts, materials and manufacturing techniques of Japan. It also provided an opportunity for the Japanese themselves to engage with non-Japanese, as under the rule of the Tokugawa Bakufua, the Japanese were prohibited to have any contact with outside nations under the Sakokub policy.

Coinciding with the opening up of trade, and of Japanese society to the world in general, participation in the world expositions affected how Japanese society viewed itself as a member within the rapidly expanding global community. For Japan, the world expositions presented a very tangible entry into the Western political and financial stage.

THE FIRST PERIOD: GIGANTISM

THE SECOND PERIOD: THE SILENCE

THE THIRD PERIOD: THE STRUCTURA L REBIRTH

THE FOURTH PERIOD: THE AWAKENING OF THE SUSTAINABLE AWARENESS

THE FIFTH PERIOD: THE TECHNOLOGICA L REVOLUTION

Fig10 WORLD EXPOS STRUCTURES AND THEIR INFLUENCE PERIODS

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2.3.2 Evolutionary Structures 2.3.2.1 Tensile Structures 2.3.2.2 Pneumatic Structures 2.3.2.3 Space frames 2.3.2.1 Tensile Structures Structures whose mechanical principle is based on tension have been built since ancient times. The structural airiness achieved through this modus operandi was fundamentally exploited for building provisional or mobile structures, or those that could be dismantled.

Such is the case of the tents of nomadic groups, made with wooden masts, fibers, ropes and animal skins or fabrics.

Fig10 Pons Ferreus by Fausto Veranzio, published in his book Machinae Novae, Venice, 1615. Cable-stayed bridge with iron chains and wooden deck. [Source: Ref (249) Nardi, Guido]

Bridges with iron chains were known to have been built in China from the 14th century onwards, although they are not believed to have reached the modern solution of hanging a horizontal deck from vertical cables attached to a parabolic cable.

On the occasion of the All-Russia Exhibition held in Nizhny-Novgorod in 1896, Shukhov would put this new structural typology into practice for the first time by erecting four exhibition buildings. The Rotunda or Pavilion of Structural Techniques stands out. It was a building with a diameter of 68.3 m and a height of 15 m, made up of two metal rings, an inner one with a diameter of 25 m supported by 16 columns, and another perimetral one at a distance of 21.5 meters from the first. Between the two rings there was a network made up of 640 plates that were crossed over and riveted at their meeting points. The central area was designed with an inverted spherical cap made of riveted sheets 1.5 mm thick.

The Oval Pavilion was built according to similar principles. In this case, the mesh was held up by two central truss supports with sheet metal capitals and a fish belly beam. The dimensions were surprisingly large, with a length of 98 meters and a width of 51 meters.

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Fig11. Oval Pavilion. The All-Russia Exhibition held in Nizhny-Novgorod. Vladimir Shukhov. 1896.

In this case, the mesh had double curvature in the area of the two semi-circular ends, and simple curvature in the area of the two straight sides. Additionally, it can be seen how Shukhov varied the opening in the plate mesh, making it denser in the whole perimetral area.

Two other rectangular pavilions were built following the same technique, both 35 meters wide and 50 meters long. In this case, a central row of trussed columns was used.

Fig11. The Rotunda or Pavilion of Structural Techniques, under construction. The All-Russia Exhibition held in Nizhny Novgorod. Vladimir Shukhov. 1896.

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2.3.2.2 Pneumatic Structures Pneumatic structures belong to the group of structural typologies whose mechanical principle is based on tension. Their specificity is primarily based on the fact that they are membrane structures that are prestressed via the differential pressure between an internal and external fluid, thus generally needing a permanent electricity supply in order to maintain their shape.

ORIGIN From bubbles made of liquid to membranes with pressurized fluids inside them, there are many examples of pneumatic structures in nature that have inspired mankind. However, the beginnings of the history of artificial pneumatic structures are linked to that of aeronautics.

Thus, the hot-air balloon could be considered as the first artificial precedent of pneumatic structures for construction. Invented in 1783 by Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier, its main link to construction typologies resides in the fact that it is a membrane that keeps its structural shape due to a difference in pressure between external and internal air.

Fig12. The soap bubble as a natural pneumatic structure. [Source: Ref (195) Herzog, Thomas].

Once World War Two had broken out, these characteristics would contribute to the design of various pneumatic elements such as pneumatic boats; thus, at the beginning of the ‘50s and in the context of the Cold War, the United States would begin construction of several radar antennas to protect their borders. Often located in inhospitable areas, these antennae needed a protective cover that would not interfere with the signals. The conclusion he reached through these tests was that structures with a diameter of 15 meters would be stable in winds of up to 240 Km/h . He also tested various synthetic fabrics such as nylon coated in neoprene, vinyl or hypalon.

Fig13. Pneumatic decks to protect radars installed in the U.S. after World War Two. [Source: Ref (195) Herzog, Thomas]

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Atomic Energy Commission, built in 1960 by Victor Lundy, Fred Severud and Birdair Structures. In this case, it was a pneumatic structure with a novel design, a maximum span of 38 meters and a length of 90 m. The building was designed to withstand winds of 150 Km/h. The air cushion had a maximum thickness of 1.20 meters and was compartmentalized into various chambers to avoid damage to any one of them causing the whole structure to collapse.

Fig14. Transportable exhibition pavilion of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Victor Lundy, Fred Severud and Birdair Structures.

1960. [Source: Ref (267) Picon, Antoine]

Fig 15. Transportable exhibition pavilion of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Victor Lundy, Fred Severud and Birdair Structures.

1960. Plan and cross-section. [Source: Ref (195) Herzog, Thomas

In general, for the same internal pressure, the greater the radius of curvature, the greater the stress developed by the membrane. For this reason, high-pressure systems are developed with elements with a short radius of curvature, while large radii of curvature are possible with low-pressure systems.

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Fig15. Classification of low-pressure pneumatic systems according to Thomas Herzog. 1976. [Source: Ref (195) Herzog, Thomas]

2.3.2.3 Space frames The evidence that any structure is created in a three-dimensional space indicates that all built structures can be defined as spatial. When using the term space structure we are normally referring to those made of bars with axial rigidity with a principal characteristic: an absence of any structural hierarchy in terms of the transmission of loads (from the slab to the joists, and from these to the girders, then to the columns and finally to the foundations). External forces are therefore not transmitted from one structural-hierarchical order to another in these typologies, but rather the stresses generated by the external loads are distributed spatially between the various bars that make up the structure. Within what we call space structures, a typology called space frame in modern times stands out in particular.

Its singularity with respect to previous typologies resides in the fact that it comprises a group of independent bars, generally short in length when compared to the total size of the structure, arranged in what is called a bar and joint system; alternatively, they are prefabricated in polyhedral modules making modular systems. The bars or members are connected between them with joints or nodes that are generally standardized and designed to allow bars to be connected in different directions within the space.

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Fig 16. . Gas tank in Berlin. Johann Wilhem Schweller. 1893. [Source: Ref (181) Gössel, Peter / Leuthäuser, Gabriele]

In this sense, Alexander Graham Bell is considered to be the great forefather of the modern space frame. During the first years of the 20th century, and coinciding with the development by the Wright brothers of the first aero plane in the world, the Flyer III (1905), Bell experimented with space frames made of tetrahedral and octahedral.

While it would appear that the invention was linked to aeronautics, Graham Bell published an article in 1903 in National Geographic Magazine titled “The tetrahedral principle in kite structure”, in which he claimed: “The use of the tetrahedral cell is not limited to the construction of structures for aero planes. It is applicable to any type of structure in which we wish to combine lightness and strength.” [Ref (185) Graham Bell, Alexander]

Fig 17. Prototype of a space frame. Alexander Graham Bell. 1907. [Source: Ref (79) Appelbaum, Stanley]

Fig 18. Kite made with a space frame. Alexander Graham Bell. 1907. [Source: Ref (230) Makowski, Z.S.]

Another element that acted as a catalyst for the development of space frames can be found in geometric research; in particular, the significant work carried out by Richard Buckminster Fuller on the geodesic division of the spherical surface. Along these lines, he would patent 34

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the geodesic dome in 1954, as a polyhedron created by projecting the vertices of an icosahedron or a dodecahedron onto a sphere. The edges of the dodecahedron or icosahedron can equally be subdivided, thus creating new vertices that in turn are projected onto the sphere. The number of times the edges are subdivided is referred to as the frequency of the geodesic dome.

Fig 19. Patent for the geodesic dome. Richard Buckminster Fuller. 1954. [Source: Ref (219) Klotz, Heinrich]

When the structure was dome-shaped the frame could also be built by starting at the perimeter and adding cantilevered bars or modules, an example of this being the Baton Rouge Dome.

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Fig 20-21Baton Rouge Dome. Construction image. [Source: Ref (267) Picon, Antoine]

2.3

Conclusion

From an architectural perspective, the structural contributions of the Expos have had enormous relevance and historical significance, intrinsically and permanently linking Expos to the history of architectural structures. The role of Expos as exponents of cutting-edge structural development came about for various reasons. In the first place, the chronological interval in which Expos develop constitutes a period of huge structural productiveness. From the first that was held in 1851 to the present day, Expos have witnessed significant developments in the field of structures: the development of iron engineering in the 19th century, the invention of reinforced concrete, the appearance of glued laminated timber, the development and far-reaching spread of space frames, the birth of cable networks and textile membranes, the development of pneumatic structures, as well as the revolution in the field of applied computer science. Consequently, we can find buildings that are bona fide paradigms of the history of structural systems.

World Expos are transformative and innovative mega-events that have a defining role in knowledge-sharing, cultural diplomacy and the promotion of progress for all. Gathering hundreds of countries from across the globe, World Expos are visited by millions, offering organizers and participants the opportunity to showcase their prowess, their ideas and their vision for the future.

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CHAPTER 3. METHODS AND METHODOLOGY An efficient methodology will ensure the conclusion is reliable. To ensure the research is useful, is it essential to be done with the existing context and questions in context.

The methods which are opted for the data selection are in the form of different styles such as the research papers which are selected to consist mainly of the timeline of exposition structures. Secondly the method of choosing research papers and case studies is totally the basics and provides relevant information needed for the study.

3.1 Method(s) opted for Data/case selection and its justification 3.1.1 Topic Selection Two topics were shortlisted considering factors such as: ●

·

Research data availability

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·

Contribution to knowledge

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Clarity of Issues

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Scale of control

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Personal field of interest

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·

Need for issue information

3.1.2 Case Study selection Case studies which are chosen are a great example for the study for the study proven as they consist of the practical part of the study. The case studies will provide a user experience towards the topic.

In the selection of multiple case studies it is important to study the practicality of the topic and how it is connected to architectural spaces to make it better. National and western case studies are selected to broaden the perspective of understanding. Multiple case studies are selected to understand as many points of view of the topic as possible.

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SERIAL

CASE STUDY

LOCATION

ARCHITECT

NO.

01

German Pavilion for Expo ’67

Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Frei Otto

02

Daidarasaurus Station, Expo ’70

Osaka, Japan

Taneo Oki

03

The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70

Osaka, Japan

David Geiger and Horst Berger

04

Atomium, Expo ’58, Brussels, Belgium

Brussels, Belgium

André Waterkeyn

3.2 Method(s) opted for Data collection and its Justification Research papers, journals, published thesis, Books and webinars were selected on the basis of the objective of the study to support the Research questions. The data is collected and presented according to the sequence of approaches to understand the topic.

Data collection will throw some light on the topic, and way of process forwarding the study in stepwise formation from the basis to deep end. The whole process includes introduction to the topic, definition, examples, case studies , technical approach, user experience , and conclusion.

There are basically two methods● Secondary method- Optional information is a kind of information that has just been distributed in books, papers, magazines, diaries, online entries,etc.. Secondary Data collection methods were adopted, which increases the reliability of the study. ● Primary method- The primary objective of Data collection was to develop an understanding of the background and existing research of the Topic selected.

Information is collected can be classified into 1. Qualitative 2.

Quantitative 38

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3.3 Method(s) opted for Data Analysis and its Justification The purpose of Analysis is to understand ➔ Need of public gathering through exposition centers. Need of utilizing new materials and experimentation of structural material. ➔ Identification and comparison between the Literature Review and Case studies. ➔ Understand evolution of expo structures with time and need . ➔ How World EXPOs contribute to architecture development. ➔ World EXPOs and structures ➔ Collected data according to topic and need of research and analyzed and selected on the basis of the research questions.

3.4 Advantages and Limitations of the method(s) adopted Advantages: ●

Secondary data give the reliability and credibility of the study.

●

Published research and official sources collected the data and analyzed are given better surveys.

Limitations: ● Information collected through published research and official sources and not first hand basis. ● Online data found is not according to the research needs.

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CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDIES 4.1 STRUCTURES SELECTED FOR CASE STUDIES

● Tensile Structures ● Pneumatic Structures ● Space frames

Fig 22. Depiction of different forms of exposition structures.

4.1.1 German Pavilion for Expo ’67, Montreal, Quebec, Canada Frei Otto and Rolf Gutbrod

Fig 23. Germany Pavilion in Expo ’67 in Montreal. Frei Otto

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Introduction: The Federal Republic of Germany Pavilion in Expo ’67 held in Montreal is undoubtedly one of the most relevant works of both the history of structural systems and the history of architecture itself. It was a building with a structure made of a prestressed cable net. In this case, however, it has a free shape with several masts defining the high and low points, thus bringing to life a formal freedom that distances it from the other examples mentioned above that were almost always framed by rigid elements and generally geometrically defined by well-known shapes such as the hyperbolic paraboloid or the conoid. While Frei Otto had already built significantly smaller structures with both prestressed nets and prestressed membranes, this was the first time that a “free form”, prestressed cable net was to be applied to such a large structure.

Fig 24. Aerial view of the Federal Republic of Germany Pavilion in Expo ’67 in Montreal. Frei Otto

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The origin of Otto’s fascination with tensile structures and minimally resource-intensive design dates to his experiences during the Second World War. Drafted into the Luftwaffe as a pilot, Otto was captured and imprisoned in a POW camp near Chartres, France, where he worked constructing tent-like shelters for other prisoners using the limited material means at his disposal. After the war ended, he translated these efforts into a full-time architectural pursuit, investigating their potential application on an industrial scale. His radically simple design premise—creating an architecture guided by resource conservation, structural intelligence, and construction efficiency—found warm reception in the optimistic intellectual culture of the 1950s and 60s. Like Fuller’s contemporaneous geodesic spheres, Otto believed that his tensile canopies promised an architectural solution that was cheap, durable, and highly versatile.

Fig 25. Models made by Frei Otto with soapy surfaces of varying typologies classified by the support system.

The design for the large deck of the German Pavilion in Expo ’67 in Montreal was based on models made with liquids with a high surface tension or soapy liquids. By submerging an edge skeleton in a soapy liquid, an equitensional surface is created; that is, the tension between its molecules is equal at all points and in all directions. Furthermore, the soapy surface covers the smallest possible area defined by those edges, in other words, a minimum surface. Thanks to the autonomous, natural process of creating these surfaces, we can call them “natural autoshape”.

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Specification:

Fig 26. Plan of the Federal Republic of Germany Pavilion in Expo ’67

The cable net in the German Pavilion had a regular mesh width of 50 cm, with 12-mmdiameter cables made of steel wires. Its plan was completely irregular and sustained by eight steel, tubular masts of varying heights, the tallest measuring 37 metres. The ridge and edge cables had a diameter of 54 mm. The latter were anchored at 34 foundation points. The mesh was connected to the mast heads with crest cables and eye- or tear-shaped elements which channelled the forces along the lines and acted as skylights. These tears also had meshes with their own order. The whole net was prefabricated in Germany and later assembled in Canada.

Once assembled, the enclosure material was installed; this consisted of polyester fabric in the translucent areas and PVC sheets in the transparent ones.

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Fig 27. . The German Pavilion in Expo ’67 in Montreal. The inside during the Expo

Given that a structure of these characteristics had never before been made to such a large scale, a trial would be carried out at the University of Stuttgart, involving a prototype with a floor plan of 460 m2 and a cable net with an eye-shaped element and a sole inner mast 17 metres high.

Fig 28. Expo 67, planning and positioning of different pavilions.

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“We were dealing with a system of internally statically indeterminate exchange, in which the deformations would have a fundamental influence on the stresses in the structural members.”

[Ref (254) Otto, Fr]

Fig 29. Prototype made at the University of Stuttgart. Peak typology. The loads are transmitted to the mast head along cables in the shape of an eye or tear and containing a different mesh on the inside.

Fig 30.Use of models made with high surface tension liquids in order to determine the equitensional surfaces. Prototype model for the German Pavilion carried out at the University of Stuttgart.

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This building’s most important contribution essentially resides in the fact that it is the largest example of a “free form” prestressed cable net built at that time, in which the laws of physics governing the structure are directly responsible for its complex formalisation. The apparent randomness is just an illusion, since the basis of its design lies in the theory of minimum surfaces created from high-surface tension liquids.

Fig 31. The German Pavilion at Expo ’67 in Montreal. Plan representation of the deck topography.

The time period for the design and realization of the pavilion was strictly limited to only fourteen months, after the definitive decision of the second stage of the competition. So, it was a formidable undertaking in such a short time to develop the form , to clarify the structural details, to fabricate the building parts of the structure and the interior in Germany, to ship everything to Canada and to assemble it on site , to erect the structure and to complete the pavilion with allits internal fittings and equipment.

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Fig 32. The German Pavilion at Expo ’67 in Montreal. Elevation view with workers.

Fig 33. The German Pavilion at Expo ’67 in Montreal. Structure view.

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4.1.2 Daidarasaurus Station built for Expo ’70 in Osaka Taneo Oki and the engineer Shigeru Aoki Expo '70 was a world's fair held in Suita, Osaka Prefecture, Japan between March 15 and September 13, 1970. Its theme was "Progress and Harmony for Mankind." The Expo was designed by Japanese architect Kenzo Tange, assisted by 12 other Japanese architects.

Bridging the site along a north-south axis was the Symbol Zone. The Expo attracted international attention for the extent to which unusual artworks and designs by Japanese avant-garde artists were incorporated into the overall plan and individual national and corporate pavilions. The most famous of these artworks is artist Tarō Okamoto's iconic Tower of the Sun, which still remains on the site today.

Daidarasaurus Station was made up of a series of columns and cable-stayed high points, between which a prestressed PVC and vinyl fiber membrane was stretched. The structure covered 3,800 m2 and the height of the masts was 22 meters. The cable-stayed high points were arranged asymmetrically with respect to the longitudinal axis.

Fig 34. Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki.

This structure’s most interesting technical characteristic is the resources used to provide greater resistance to the strong winds. As the wind pressure tends to focus tension in the 48

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membrane vertices, a thinner membrane was used in this area so that it would break when faced with strong winds; consequently, the open hole would redistribute the tensions caused by the wind.

Fig 35. Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki. Roof plan & Elevation.

Fig 36. Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki.Front view.

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Fig 37. Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki. Detail of cablestayed vertex.

Fig 38. Daidarasaurus Station. Expo ’70 in Osaka. Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki. Interior.

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4.1.3 The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka.

David Geiger and Horst Berger There are various aspects of Expo ’70 in Osaka that should be highlighted in terms of the historical development of those structures whose stability is based on pneumatic principles.

In the first place, emphasis should be placed on the individual value of certain pavilions, both due to the structural-typological innovation they reflect and the large spans they achieved.

Two pavilions stand out in this sense; the U.S. Pavilion and the Fuji Group Pavilion. The U.S. Pavilion was a creation at the hands of David Geiger and Horst Berger. Its main historical contribution resides in the fact that it is the first example of a series of low-profile vaults built and patented by Geiger and Berger; furthermore, it had the largest span for a lowpressure pneumatic structure at that time

Fig 39. The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. David Geiger and Horst Berger. View.

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“The U.S. Pavilion is an air-supported structure with the largest span ever built, as well as being the lightest for its span; it is also the first deck ever made of any material with a super-elliptical floor plan.” [Ref (173) Geiger, David]

The U.S. Pavilion was made up of a low-pressure pneumatic vault reinforced with cables covering a space with a super-elliptical shape of exponent 2.5 measuring 83.5 x 142 m.The low-profile vault was only raised 6.5 m above the ground and was encircled by a reinforced concrete compression ring, while the exhibition space remained half-buried. The superelliptical shape was chosen for aesthetic reasons.

Fig 40. . The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. Arrangement of the cables, dimensions and mathematical formulation of the super ellipsis.

Fig 41. The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. View.

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While it is true that this low-profile, cable-reinforced typology was ground-breaking, we should not forget that the largest cable-reinforced pneumatic vault to date was erected in 1967 ; the silo built by the Schjeldahl Company in Northfield, Minnesota with a diameter of 60 meters.

Low-profile pneumatic membranes offer certain advantages and drawbacks, an example of the latter being its low curvature which implies significant stress on the membrane. These membranes need to be reinforced with cables for three main reasons: the cables increase the elastic modulus of the whole, thus limiting deformation; they increase the resistance, and they make local bubbles with a greater curvature, thus diminishing stress in the textile membrane.

Fig 42. (Above, left) The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. The local bubbles increase the curvature and thus decrease the membrane stress. (Above, right) The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. The local bubbles increase the curvature and thus decrease the membrane stress.

Fig 43 .The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. Cross-section.

Advantages include the fact that this typology allows for very low levels of differential 53

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pressure and enables large spans with limited height: this implies lower wind loads; a smaller internal air volume to be climatized, and advantages in terms of construction and safety, since the membrane can be hung and later pressurised for inflation, while it would also remain in place without invading the inhabitable space in case of accidental deflation.

Fig 44 .The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka. Cross-sectionVarious construction stages of the Pavilion and the beginning of the pressurisation process. .

Fig 45. Detail of the perimetral compression ring at its connection with the cables.

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The origin of this new structural typology, primarily developed because of the strong winds at this location. The cables were not arranged radially to avoid a concentration of cables at one point. In the same way, a central tension ring was not used, as its weight could create a hollow where water could accumulate.

“Originally it was planned to array the cables parallel to the major and minor axes of the superellipse. However, it was found that the diagonal grid selected led to the savings of 33 percent in cable weight.”

The wind tunnel tests carried out during the design of this pavilion revealed another advantage of low-profile vaults: under laminar wind conditions, pressure would only be generated on the perimetral ramp with the whole membrane being subject to suction forces, thus avoiding the need to increase the internal pressure.

Fig 46. Diagrams showing the wind force distribution on the deck, blowing in the direction corresponding to the short axis of the super ellipsis. Note that the area corresponding to the membrane is always subject to suction forces..

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4.1.4 Atomium, Expo ’58, Brussels, Belgium André Waterkeyn

Introduction: It is clear that the ability of space frames to cover large spans sparked considerable technological enthusiasm. This optimism had a significant impact on certain architectural movements hovering on the edge of utopia. It was precisely the World Expos that provided an opportunity to build some of these mega structures, and to greater or lesser extent to make an approximation to previous theoretical approaches; thus, the capacity of space frames for building giant structures was evidenced.

Designed by the engineer André Waterkeyn, the building had the shape of a frame with a geometry based on pyramid-shaped modules with a square base, representing an iron molecule magnified 165 billion times. The shape of the building itself connects with the theme of the Expo developed inside; promoting the pacific use of atomic energy, following the catastrophic consequences of its military use during World War Two.

.

Fig 47. Atomium. André Waterkeyn. Expo ’58 in Brussels.

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Specifications: The structure of these spheres was basically made of meridians connected by parallels, with other substructures in place to support the enclosure sheets.

Fig 48. Atomium. Placing the enclosure panels. Fig 49. Atomium. Cross-section of the frame joints.

Still standing today, the building is 102 metres high and made up of nine spheres connected by tubes, only six of which offered public access. A lift started from the lower sphere and rose to the upper one, fully occupying the central tube. The length of these tubes varied between 23 and 29 metres, and had a diameter of between 3 and 3.3 metres. The spheres that 57

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were accessible to the public had two or three floors and another, lower floor for services and installations.

Fig 50 Atomium. Inside of one of the tubes.

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Fig 51.Atomium. André Waterkeyn. Expo

From a historical point of view, the structural worth of the building resides in the fact that it is a true space megastructure, with the distinguishing feature of the joints and bars themselves being the habitable elements; that is, the space frame is inhabited.

The structure of these spheres was basically made of meridians connected by parallels, with other substructures in place to support the enclosure sheets .

Fig 52.Atomium. André Waterkeyn. Expo. Exterior.

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Fig 53.Atomium. Under construction. Expo ’58 in Brussels.

New Proposals with the help of this project: A more recent proposal is that by the Japanese group Shimizu Corporation called TRY 2004, which consists of a multilayer space frame developed over water; residential and commercial buildings and office buildings over a hundred stores high could be inserted between its nodes.

The space frame itself would make up the structure and urban communications network, with the nodes with 50-metre diameters being the network transfer points. This urban space mega structure would take on the global shape of a pyramid.

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Fig 54. TRY 2004 proposal. Shimizu Corporation. Habitable space frame.

Fig 55. TRY 2004 proposal.

Shimizu Corporation. Habitable space frame sustaining residential buildings.

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CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS 5.1 Introduction On the basis of literature review the cases studies are analyzed to understand the practical application of the Exposition structures. It is essential to sum up the extent of comprehension of the central claim, i.e. to understand the process of designing a structure according to the need to be rationalized with respect to the challenges faced in its execution.

Emphasis is laid on the significance of the topic, as to the requirement of research on the same and the consequences.

Comparison of various cases keeping in mind the literature review, has been done to analyses the extent of application of the concept. They are compared on the basis of parameters, listed in order to understand exposition patterns around the globe with different timelines. The comparison will also highlight the efficiency of each structure that will further help understand which one is the most successful.

5.2 Strength and limitations of the collected Data The data collected through literature review and cases studies have helped in comprehension of the exposition structures yet they have some limitations: Literature Review: Strength: The data being collected from secondary resources increased the reliability of the data, preventing possible discrepancies, in the case of primary resources. The literature review helped build a base, on the basis of which the case studies are analyzed. It provided an overview of the concept on both national and global level.

Limitation: The definition and the framework for expositions vary across the globe, making it difficult to arrive on a globally defined standard. The pattern of the concept does not define any particular rulebook for making of the structures , yet the most vastly new ideas were induced. The data being collected from secondary resources is not self-experienced.

5.3 Visual Representation of the Data Data Analysis and representation The parameters such as type of structure ,usage of the structure ,idology behind the structure design are taken as the basis of comparison for the cases, further the cases are analyzed on the basis of their energy performance, renewable resource and challenges faced.

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Case Studies selected:

Case Study 1

Case Study 2

Case Study 3

Case Study 4

German Pavilion

Daidarasaurs Station

The U.S. Pavilion

Atomium, Expo

Locatio n

Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Osaka, Japan

Osaka, Japan

Brussels, Belgium

Archite ct

Frei Otto and Rolf Gutbrod

Taneo Oki and the engineer Shigeru Aoki

David Geiger and Horst Berger

André Waterkeyn

Exposition

Expo ’67

Expo ’70

Expo ’70

Expo ’58

Type of structu re induce d

Tensile structure

Tensile structure

Pneumatic structure

Space frame

Name

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Analysis of Case Studies

S. No .

CRITERIA

German Pavilion for Expo ’67, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Daidarasaurs Station, Expo ’70, Osaka, Japan

The U.S. Pavilion in Expo ’70, Osaka, Japan

Atomium, Expo ’58, Brussels, Belgium

1.

Idology behind new structure

It was a building with a structure made of a prestressed cable net.

The design for the large deck of the German Pavilion in Expo ’67 in Montreal was based on models made with liquids with a high surface tension.

It has a free shape with several masts defining the high and low points, thus bringing to life a formal freedom.

This structure’s most interesting technical characteristic is the resources used to provide greater resistance to the strong winds.

The origin of this new structural typology, primarily developed because of the strong winds at this location. The cables were not arranged radially to avoid a concentration of cables at one point. In the same way, a central tension ring was not used, as its weight could create a hollow where water could accumulate.

The building had the shape of a frame with a geometry based on pyramidshaped modules with a square base, representing an iron molecule magnified 165 billion times. The shape of the building itself connects with the theme of the Expo developed inside; promoting the pacific use of atomic energy.

2.

Usage/ Inspiration

The Federal Republic of Germany Pavilion in Expo ’67 held in Montreal was a building with a structure made of a prestressed cable net.

It has a free shape with several masts defining the high and low points, thus bringing to life a formal freedom

Daidarasaurus Station was made to attract international attention for the extent to which unusual artworks and designs by Japanese avant-garde

The U.S. Pavilion was a creation at the hands of David Geiger and Horst Berger. Its main historical contribution resides in the fact that it is

The structural worth of the building resides in the fact that it is a true space megastructur e, with the distinguishing feature of the joints and bars 64

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3.

Specification

that distances it from the other examples mentioned above that were almost always framed by rigid elements and generally geometrically defined by well-known shapes such as the hyperbolic paraboloid or the conoid

artists were incorporated into the overall plan and individual national and corporate pavilions.

the first example of a series of lowprofile vaults built and patented by Geiger and Berger; furthermore, it had the largest span for a lowpressure pneumatic structure at that time

themselves being the habitable elements; that is, the space frame is inhabited.

The cable net in the German Pavilion had a regular mesh width of 50 cm, with 12-mmdiameter cables made of steel wires. Its plan was completely irregular and sustained by eight steel, tubular masts of varying heights, the tallest measuring 37 metres.

The ridge and edge cables had a diameter of 54 mm. The latter were anchored at 34 foundation points. The mesh was connected to the mast heads with crest cables and eyeor tear-shaped elements which channelled the forces along the lines and acted as skylights.

The project was made up of a series of columns and cable-stayed high points, between which a prestressed PVC and vinyl fibre membrane was stretched.

The structure covered 3,800 m2 and the height of the masts was 22 metres. The cable-stayed high points were arranged asymmetrically with respect to the longitudinal axis.

The U.S. Pavilion was made up of a low-pressure pneumatic vault reinforced with cables covering a space with a superelliptical shape of exponent 2.5 measuring 83.5 x 142 m.The lowprofile vault was only raised 6.5 m above the ground and was encircled by a reinforced concrete compression ring, while the exhibition space remained half-buried.

The building is 102 metres high and made up of nine spheres connected by tubes, only six of which offered public access. A lift started from the lower sphere and rose to the upper one, fully occupying the central tube.

The length of these tubes varied between 23 and 29 metres, and had a diameter of between 3 and 3.3 metres

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4.

Similarities

5.4 The Final Comments The World Expo is a gathering of nations from all over the world to showcase their products and craftsmanship, to share with pride information about their hometowns and motherlands.

It is an epitome of the great achievements of human civilization, possessing unparalleled appeal.

Fig 56. World’s first exhibition opening ceremony ,1851

In 1851, the first World Expo in its truest sense was held in London. The British government, through diplomatic means, invited various countries to participate. More than ten countries accepted the invitation to participate in the event. Over 18,000 merchants 66

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exhibited about 100,000 products, including machinery, new materials, and so on.

The great charm of the World Expo transformed it into a global stage on which countries from all over the world scrambled to display their latest technological achievements. This was the reason why inventions like trains, aircrafts, air conditioners, television, nylon, the gramophone, and the elevator were first exhibited and presented to the world at the World Expo. It is not an exaggeration to say that the World Expo is the incubator and inspiration of global invention.

In the modern era, World Expos are unrivalled among international events in their size, scale, duration and visitor numbers. They are large-scale platforms for education and progress that serve as a bridge between governments, companies, international organizations, and citizens.

Fig 57. List of some World Expos held recently.

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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS 6.1 Summary The aim of the research was to rationalize and understand the importance of Expositions and invention of new structures. The term "world's fair" is typically used in the United States. In French the term Exposition universelle ('universal exhibition’) is used; in other Romance languages such as Spanish, Italian, and Romanian, the translation of the French term is used.

In the non-Romance languages of Europe, and in Asia and the Middle East, World Expo or Specialized Expo are commonly used. The short term Expo has been applied to both types of Expos in various locations since 1967.

6.1.1 Brief The World Expo is a gathering of nations from all over the world to showcase their products and craftsmanship, to share with pride information about their hometowns and motherlands.

It is an epitome of the great achievements of human civilization, possessing unparalleled appeal. This kind of assembly can be traced back to ancient times.

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the French began hosting industrial exhibitions.

These came under the authority of the national government, whose aim was to assist French manufacturers in competing against the British in the international marketplace. The British, confident that their products were superior, never emulated this idea. Instead, the mechanics’ institutes in Great Britain began sponsoring exhibitions in the 1830s. These institutes were created to bring scientific education to craftsmen and factory workers, and their exhibitions displayed tools and other labor-saving mechanical devices that were based on the latest scientific inventions. The exhibitions of the mechanics’ institutes also featured entertainment and exotic displays, such as so-called “genuine historical relics” of sometimes dubious authenticity, as well as fine arts shows that mingled works by local and national artists.

6.1.2 Recapitulation of the Research Hypothesis and its Significance The great charm of the World Expo transformed it into a global stage on which countries from all over the world scrambled to display their latest technological achievements. This was the reason why inventions like trains, aircrafts, air conditioners, television, nylon, the gramophone, and the elevator were first exhibited and presented to the world at the World Expo. It is not an exaggeration to say that the World Expo is the incubator and inspiration of global invention.

The World Expo played a role in promoting globalization of the exhibition economy as well as cultural globalization. For example, during the 1855 Paris World Expo, a special Arts Hall was set up for the first time, exhibiting about 5,000 paintings and sculptures, providing a wonderful venue for artists from all over the world to exchange ideas and learn from one another. This was indeed a rare opportunity. During the 1876 Philadelphia World Expo, a 68

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special hall was set up for women to display their creations, inventions, arts, and craftworks.

The handicrafts of Queen Victoria were also exhibited. In the early days, this became the symbol of gender equality and women's liberation. The fight for equality between men and women probably began with this initiative. During the 1893 Chicago World Expo, the First World Conference on Women was held and attended by a total of 3,000 women. This heralded all subsequent women-related campaigns. As a show of respect for women, a hall for women was specially set up at the expo.

Answering the Research question A) How World EXPOs contribute to the architecture growth of the country. ➔ The architecture was more varied and frequently less ennobling than the rhetoric used to describe the expositions, but the most memorable and commented on structures provided dimensions commensurate with the exposition's general purposes. In form or engineering technique they suggested human mastery of the physical environment and, by extension, the creation of a reasonable and ordered universe. ➔ The expo dramatically promoted the building effort put into transportation facilities, high-grade housing, commercial and tourist infrastructure, as well as places for cultural exchange. Example in Osaka, it stimulated the formation of city agglomerates in the Kansei area, which has Osaka as its center. This was of great significance to Japan's economic development and overall layout. ➔ Expositions have far-reaching impacts on not only the built environment, but also the economic and cultural life of their host cities.

Fig 58.The United States Pavilion at Expo '74, Spokane, Washington.

B) What were the various types of structures discovered by exposition.

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The innovative role of World Expos in discovering new structures were recorded with change in time. Expos were the event of choice to showcase new inventions in the era of industrialization. The very nature of Expos creates unique opportunities for architects and engineers to design and create novel types of structure that shape modern and future architecture. Beyond the visual impact of Expo pavilions, their innovative structures have a lasting influence on the adoption of new architectural techniques, building designs and construction materials. This evolution in structural typologies, functionality and protagonism can all be traced through the history of World Expos. Some of the structures studied are listed below; ➔ Iron structures ➔ Tension structures ➔ Pneumatic structures ➔ Space frames C) Visitor’s behavior in exposition ,their perspective towards structure. ➔ Hosting a special event, such as expositions and festivals, has been recognized as an important strategy not only for a short-term rise in tourist volume and revenue but also for improving the destination's image and building brands for sustainable development. ➔ Expositions give exposure to 100 or more different countries at a single site. They are planned places to learn about the world’s cultures, governments, economies, issues and travel opportunities. National pavilions are nations in microcosm. An Expo makes a great base camp for further exploration in the host city or country. ➔ Satisfaction is always a predictor of visitor loyalty to the exhibition and the host country. However, previous studies have not measured the effect of the venue image on developing the image and the intentional visiting behavior to the exhibitor’s country, which this study fulfils. In addition, this study looks at the impact of venue image perceived by visitors on thententional behavior of visitors towards the exhibitor’s country.

Fig 59.The proposed research model for visitor’s perspective.

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-

Division of Visitor’s memories and experience in an exposition

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6.2 Research Inference and its significance ➔ The cases are compared on the basis of the factors of the research hypothesis made in the initial stage in order to conclude the answers to the research questions after analysis is collected. ➔ Comparison of various cases keeping in mind the literature review, has been done to analyses the extent of application of the concept. They are compared on the basis of parameters, listed in order to understand exposition patterns around the globe with different timelines. The comparison will also highlight the efficiency of each structure that will further help understand which one is the most successful. ➔ Collecting data from visitors in different international exhibitions would help improve the generalization of findings. Future research venues may address this limitation, and comparative studies among more than one venue in the Expo are encouraged in addition to expanding the studies to include various international exhibitions and comparing various exhibitors from different countries.

6.3 The future Research possibilities ➔ To inspire mindfulness through an examination of exposition structures. In particular. To address the birth and origin of new structures with developing needs. ➔ To make architectural structures welcoming for visitors of the space for lifetime experience rather than a temporary forceful architecture. ➔ Role of architect, to translate country’s culture and diversity through the build (pavilion) . ➔ Need of new structures and their correlation with host country growth w.r.t expositions.

6.4 The future Research projects ➔ World Exposition pavilion design ➔ Recreational hub ➔ Kalagram ➔ Convention centers ➔ Cultural complex ➔ Community center

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New York World’s Fair 1964/1965. Offcial Souvenir Book. Norton Wood, New York 1964.

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“PA&B profle: Paul Thiry”, Pacifc Architect & Builder, February 1961, pp. 12-24.

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“Fiera de New York”, Edilizia moderna, no. 84, 1964, pp. 67- 79.

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Otto, Frei. Frei Otto complete works. Birkhäuser, Boston 2005 73

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