International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
DR. B.R. PANDEY
FORMER
DIRECTOR (RESEARCH) SKY I NSTITUTE, KURSI ROAD, L UCKNOW, U.P, INDIA FORMER JOINT DIRECTOR, C OUNCIL OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, UP, LUCKNOW (DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, UP GOVERNMENT), I NDIA PROFESSOR, INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HERBAL MEDICINE (IIHM), LUCKNOW , U.P., INDIA E-MAIL ID : editorijsir02@gmail.com, MOBILE-: 9794849800
COMMITTEE FOR EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE Dr. B.C.Tripathi
Dr. Pankaj Verma
Shri Sanjay Pandey
Shri Ashish Tiwari
Shri Sanjay Dixit
Assistant Prof. Deptt. of Education, Rama P.G. College, Chinhat, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Senior Research Fellow,
Assistant Prof. National Institute of Fashion Technology, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh
Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, Jharkhand
Scientist, Sky Institute Lucknow Uttar Pradesh
Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
ADVISORY BOARD Prof.(Dr.)S. P. Ojha
Prof. (Dr.) S.P. Singh
Former Vice Chancellor, CCS Meerut University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh
Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Pharmacology, G. S. V. M. Medical College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.)V.K. Srivastava Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Community Medicine
Prof. (Dr.) R. L. Singh
King George Medical University, Lucknow. Former Director, Integral Institute of Medical Sciences & Research, Integral University, Lucknow Former Vice -Chancellor, Texila American University, Georgetown, Guyana, South America
Prof & Head, Department of Biochemistry & Coordinator Biotechnology Program , Dr. R. M. L. University Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Sarita Verma Head, Deptt. of Home Sci., Mahila P.G. College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. (Dr.) S.K.Agarwal
Prof.(Dr.) M.I. Khan
Pro. & Ex-Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, U.P.
Prof & Head, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg., Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Bharat Sah
Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Avasthi Former Director, H.B.T.I., Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Director, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) Amrika Singh
Prof.(Dr.)N.S. Verma
Prof & Head (Chemistry), Deptt. of Applied Sciences, Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof., Deptt. of Physiology, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) U.N. Dwivedi
Prof.(Dr.)A.K. Tripathi
Prof & Ex- Head, Deptt of Biochemistry, Former Pro- Vice Chancellor, Former Dean, Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P.
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Clinical Hematology & Medical Oncology, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) U.K. Misra
Prof.(Dr.)C.M. Pandey
Head, Deptt. of Neurology, Ex Dean, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, U.P.
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biostatistics & Health Informatics, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. A.K. Gupta Former Deputy Director General, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Ansari Nagar, New Delhi
Dr. Rupesh Chaturvedi
Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Chemistry, Ex- Dean Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Associate Prof., School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Former Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences , College of Pharmacy, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee, USA
Prof. (Dr.) Amod Kumar Tiwari,
Dr. S.Sinha
Prof.- Director, Bhabha Institute of Engg.& Technology, Kanpur, U.P.
Asstt. Prof. Deptt. of Internal Medicine, CD University, C. David Giffen School of Medi., University of California, Los Angeles, USA
Prof.(Dr.) V.K.Tondon
Prof.(Dr.) Chandra Dhar Dwivedi
Dr. K.Raman
Former Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, South Dakota State University, Borokings, South Dakota, USA
Prof.(Dr.) Vimal Kishore
Principal Scientist, Martek Biosciences Corporation, 6480 Dobbin Road, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xevier College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana, 7325, Palmetto Street New Orlens, Louisiana USA
Dr. P.K.Agarwal Editor –in – Chief, Natural Product Communication, Natural Product Inc 7963, Anderson Park Lane West Terville, OH, USA
Prof .(Dr.) M.C. Pant,
Dr. R.K.Singh,
Former Director, R. M. L. Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow and Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Radiotherapy, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Chief Scientist, Division of Toxicology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
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Dr. Mohd. Tarique Prof., Deptt of Physical Edu., Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
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EDITORIAL BOARD Prof.(Dr.) Y.B. Tripathi
Dr. Vinod Singh
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Medicinal Chemistry,Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Assoc. Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Microbiology, Baruktulla University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) R.K. Singh
Dr. K.K.Verma
Prof. & Head , Deptt. of Biochemistry, Shri Guru Ram RaiInstitute of Medical & Health Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand & Former Prof. & Head, Department of Biochemistry, K. G. Medical University , Lucknow, U.P.
Assoc. Prof., Deptt. of Physics & Electronics.Dr. R. M. L. Awadh University , Faizabad,Uttar Pradesh
Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Diwedi
Senior Scientist, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Atul Gupta
Former Director, National Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG) , ICAR, Junagarh, Gujarat & Former Principal Scientist – Head, Deptt. of Plant Physiology, Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Saudan Singh, Senior Principal Scientist,CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. (Dr.) Nuzhat Husain Prof. & Head , Deptt of Pathology & Acting Director, R. M. L. Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh
Dr. S.K.Tiwari
Prof. (Dr.) Amita Jain
Senior Principal Scientist ,CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. Deptt. of Microbiology, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.
Dr. Shivani Pandey,
Dr. Sudhir Mahrotra
Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry,K.G.Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.
Associate Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, U.P.
Dr. B.C. Yadav,
Prof. (Dr.) Vibha Singh
Lucknow Associate Prof. & Coordinator, Deptt. of Applied Physics, School for Physical Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, U.P.
Prof., Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Anchal Srivastava,
Prof. (Dr.) U.S. Pal
Prof., Deptt of Physics, Lucknow University,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Shalini Bariar
Prof. (Dr. ) K.K. Pant
Dr.A.K.Pandey
Asstt. Professor, Durga Devi Saraf Institute of Management, Mumbai, India
Prof. & Head , Deptt. of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Principal Scientist, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,Lucknow, U.P.
Dr.S.K.Pandey
Dr. C.M.K.Tripathi
G.M. LML Factory, Kanpur Uttar Pradesh
Former Deputy Director & Head, Division of Fermentation Technology, CSIRCentral Drug Research Institute , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Suneet Kumar Awasthi, Asst. Prof ,Deptt.of PhysicsJ.P. University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. R.D. Tripathi
Dr.G. N. Pandey
Chief Scientist & ProfessorPlant Ecology & Environmental Science Division, Uttar Pradesh CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, U.P.
Asst. Prof, Deptt. of Physics Amity University, Noida ,Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Mukesh Verma
Prof.(Dr.) Ashwani K. Srivastav
Asst. Prof., Deptt. of Physical Education, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biosciences, Integral University,Lucknow, Former Senior Scientist, Birbal Sbahani Institute Paleobotany, Lucknow, U.P.
Dr. Abhay Singh,
Prof.(Dr.) L. Pandey
Head, Physical Education, Delhi Public School, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh
Prof. & Head , Postgraduate Deptt . of Physics,Former Dean, Faculty of Science, Rani Durgawati University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
Dr. Santosh Gaur Asst. Prof. Deptt. of Physical Education, Jawahar Lal Nehru P.G. College, Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh
Prof .(Dr.) Bali Ram Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Dr.Sanjeev Kumar Jha
Prof.(Dr.) J.P.N.Rai
Senior Scientist, DEOACC Patna
Prof.& Head, Deptt. of Environmental Sciences, G.B. Pant University of Agr. & Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand
Dr. Shivlok Singh Scientist, DEOACC, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr. )R. S. Dubey
Dr. Anurag Tripathi,
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.
Asstt . Prof. , Deptt. of Electrical Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. (Dr.) Omkar Deptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. V.P.Sharma
Prof.(Dr.) Sudhir Kumar
Senior Principal Scientist, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof., Deptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) Naveen Khare
Dr. Krishna Gopal
Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Former Deputy Director & Head , Aquatic Toxicology Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) S. M. Natu Prof., Deptt. of Pathalogy,K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. S.P. Shukla
Dr. Kusum Lata Mishra,
Prof. , Deptt. of Civil Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
In-charge, Coagulation Laboratory, Deptt. of Pathology, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Ajay Mishra
Prof.(Dr.)V.K. Sharma,
Associate Prof. , Deptt. of Geology, Lucknow University, Lucknow , U. P.
Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Ashutosh Singh
Prof.(Dr.) R.K. Shukla
Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry,Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya,
Prof., Deptt. of Physics, Lucknow University, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.)Anil Gaur
Principal, Gita College of Education , Nimbari, Panipat, Haryana
Prof., Deptt. of Biotechnology & Genetic Engg., G.B. Pant University of Agr. & Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand
Shri Sudesh Bhat Advisor (Education), Sky Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Mahesh Pal
Dr. Krishna Gopal
Principal Scientist ,Phytochemistry Division, CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
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Faizabad, U. P.
Dr. S.K. Singh
Asst. Prof., Deptt. of English,Rama University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
ABOUT EDITOR-IN- CHIEF : DR. B. R. PANDEY Dr. B. R. Pandey is a well known academician and scientist with brilliant academic career and research accomplishments . He has done M.Sc. ( organic chemistry) from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India in the year 1972. He has done PhD in Medicinal Chemistry under the guidance of world renowned Biochemist & Medicinal Chemist, Professor S.S. Parmar , Professor of Medicinal Chemistry & Chemical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical College, Lucknow ( Presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India in the year 1976. Dr. Pandey has all throughout first class educational qualifications and his research interest covers medicinal chemistry, biochemical pharmacology, neurochemistry, neuro-toxicology, environmental chemistry, herbal medicine & natural products. He is having extensive research experience of more than 40 years and published several research papers in peer reviewed journals of international repute. His research particularly on the studies of central nervous system acting drugs and anti-inflammatory drugs and their biochemical mode of action using animal models and enzymes such as monoamine oxidase, acetylcholine esterase, purine catabolizing enzymes , proteolytic enzymes, membrane stabilizing enzymes, respiratory enzymes, microsomal enzymes etc. has been well recognized as evidenced by his research publications . Further, his research on developing herbal medicines has been found very useful in prevention and treatment of chronic diseases and other refractory diseases for which modern system of medicine have no permanent cure. He has worked on the position of Joint Director, Council of Science & Technology, U.P., Lucknow, Department of Science & Technology, Uttar Pradesh Government, India from the year 1979 to 2011, where he successfully executed several R & D projects in various disciplines of Science & Technology including chemical & pharmaceutical sciences, medical sciences, biological sciences, environmental sciences etc. During his tenure as Joint Director, he has been instrumental in launching and implementing important schemes: Young Scientists Scheme, Young Scientist Visiting Fellowship Scheme, Establishment of Centre of Excellence- Encephalitis Research Centre of Excellence in Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences ( SGPGIMS), Lucknow , U. P. India ; Centre of Excellence in Materials Science ( nano materials) in Z. H. College of Engg. & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. India, Establishment of Patent Information Centre in the premises of Council of Science & Technology , U.P. He has also worked on the post of Secretary ( as additional charge ) , Council of Science & Technology, U.P. several times and functioned as Administrative Head of the Organization. Prior to taking over the position of Joint Director, Council of Science & Technology, U.P. in the year 1979, he has worked as Junior Research Fellow/ Senior Research Fellow ( Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi ), Assistant Research Officer ( Jawaharlal Nehru Laboratory of Molecular Biology) at Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical College ( presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India from the year 1972 to 1979 and involved in multidisciplinary biomedical research leading to drug development . He has worked as Visiting Scientist / Faculty in the Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA and also visited scientific institutions in Sweden, U.K. and U.S.A. under Training Program on Capacity Building in Environmental Research Management (World Bank Funding Project). After his superannuation in the year 2011, he has been associated with International Institute of Herbal Medicine (IIHM), Lucknow, India as Professor and is presently associated with Sky Institute, Lucknow , India as Director ( Research) and involved in programs related to higher education and research of scientific & technological fields. He has organized several www.ijsir.co.in
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national and international conferences. He has actively participated in national and international conferences, symposia and workshops and presented research papers and chaired scientific / technical sessions. He is life member and fellow of many scientific societies such as National Academy of Sciences India , Society of Toxicology of India, Indian Academy of Neurosciences, Bioved Research Society India, International Society for Herbal Medicine (ISHM), Society of Biological Sciences and Rural Development, India. He has been member of several scientific expert committees/ advisory committees to evaluate scientific research proposals. Dr. Pandey has been actively associated with various universities and institutions in India as examiner for conducting graduate, post graduate and doctoral level examinations in disciplines like chemical sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, biochemical sciences, biotechnology and allied areas and member of Board of Studies for the academic development in the department. He has been approved research supervisor for guiding research in chemistry, biotechnology and related areas from various universities of India leading to PhD Degree. In view of his vast research and administrative experience and broad R & D vision, Dr. Pandey has been associated with International Journal of Scientific & Innovative Research (IJSIR) as Editor-in-Chief.
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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
FROM THE DESK OF CHAIRMAN, SKY INSTITUTE It is my privilege to state that I have great desire to contribute to the development of our country and to bring about social transformation through education, higher learning and research. This inner feeling prompted me to establish Sky Institute in Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh), the city known for its rich cultural heritage and vibrant academic institutions of higher learning. Sky Institute, since its inception in the year 2006, has been functioning to impart various educational and training courses with a vision to improving lives through education, research and innovation. The institute provides a professional learning environment that acts as a catalyst, for the exponential growth of student as well as extracurricular abilities. It conducts regular courses at the level of graduate and post graduate followed by research courses leading to M Phil and PhD in all subjects in association with universities . I feel great pleasure to highlight that Sky Institute has started to publish a bi-annual journal “International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research ( IJSIR ) which encourages to publish research articles in all branches of science, technology ,engineering, health, agriculture and management. Research articles in the field of education are also considered in order to improve educational standard in educational institutions with innovative technologies. First volume of the journal has been successfully published. The present issue of second volume of the journal contains useful and informative research articles which may be interesting to readers and educational and research organizations. The association of eminent faculty and scientists of reputed organizations with our journal is highly appreciable. I call upon all the students who are willing to join various programs/courses being run at Sky Institute in association with selected universities, to strive hard to gain knowledge, transform it into skills with right attitude and inculcate the habit of learning, which will drive them to self directed learning. My best wishes to all the aspiring students.
Mohit Bajpai Chairman
Sky Institute
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CONTENTS
PAGE
MICROBIAL CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES
1
AKANKSHA SRIVASTAVA, RAM NIWAS, VINEETA SINGH, AMREEN KHAN, C.K.M. TRIPATHI
VAJRADANTI -TRADITIONAL TO MODERN ERA
12
VIBHA SINGH
BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF HELIUM : AN OVERVIEW
17
B. R. PANDEY, SATENDRA SINGH, NIDHI SHARMA, SANJAY DIXIT
BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF EXIMER LASERS
27
B. R. PANDEY, SATENDRA SINGH, NIDHI SHARMA, SANJAY DIXIT
SUCCESSION AND LIFE CYCLE OF BEETLES ON THE EXPOSED CARCASS
46
REEMA SONKER, SUNITA RAWAT AND KALPANA SINGH
PUPAL DIAPAUSE IN THE FLESH FLY, SARCOPHAGA DUX
51
S. RAWAT, R.SONKER AND K.SINGH
A REVIEW OF CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER FOR HARMONICS COMPENSATION
55
SANJAY MATHUR, NIYAZ HASAN KAZMI, TALAHA CHISTI, ANURAG TRIPATHI
STUDY OF DOMAIN SIZE IN ORDER- DISORDER NANO-FERROELECTRIC POWDERS FROM NMR RESPONSE OF I=3/2 QUADRUPOLAR SPIN SYSTEMS
61
AHIRWAL P. K, CHAITANYA P., SHUKLA A. AND PANDEY L.
EVOLUTION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
72
NIAZ AHMED SIDDIQUI
RIGHT TO INFORMATION- A TOOL OF GOOD GOVERNACE
80
SUNIL KUMAR SINGH, RUPINDER KAUR GULATI, POOJA AWASTHI, OM PRAKASH
A COMPARISON OF SPORTS STRESS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS AMONG SPORTS COLLEGE, 88 SPORTS HOSTEL AND STADIUM BADMINTON PLAYERS TANUJ KUMAR, SATISH SINGH, MANJEET SINGH BHANDARI, RAKESH PRASAD SEMWAL, ABHAY SINGH
STUDIES ON THE BATCH ADSORPTION OF METHYLENE BLUE FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS ONTO RICE HUSK
91
R. SRIVASTAVA, D.C.RUPAINWAR
AIRBORN BACTERIA AND FUNGI LEVEL IN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR AREAS AASHISH TIWARI, DIVYA SAHNI, A.H. KHAN
108
IN SILICO PREDICTION OF EPITOPE-BASED PEPTIDES FROM PROTEOME OF NIPAH VIRUS B. R. PANDEY, SUGANDHA SINGH, SHIPRA SRIVASTAVA, NIDHI SHARMA
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A STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AMONG B.ED. STUDENTS OF DEHRADUN DISTRICT, UTTARAKHAND
125
SHAILJA ASTHANA AND D.K. DIVEDI
LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF IN-BUILD SECURITY
131
IMRAN FAROOQ, JYOTI AGARWAL, KAMLESH KUMAR SHUKLA
AIR QUALITY INDEX FOR UTTAR PRADESH WITH A FOCUS ON LUCKNOW
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SHUKLA S.P., SACHAN R., DWIVEDI L., SHARMA K. J., YADAV V.P., SINGH N.B.
VALUE BASED EDUCATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ANSHU TRIPATHI AND B.C. TRIPATHI
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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
MICROBIAL CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES AKANKSHA SRIVASTAVA 1, RAM NIWAS 1, VINEETA SINGH 1, AMREEN KHAN 2, *C.K.M. TRIPATHI 2 1 Microbiology Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India 2 Department of Biotechnology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow, India *Address for correspondence: Dr. C.K.M. Tripathi, Department of Biotechnology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow - Deva Road, Lucknow-225003, India, Email ID: ckm.tripathi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT Cholesterol oxidase, a bi-functional FAD-containing microbial enzyme belongs to the family oxidoreductases which catalyzes the oxidation of cholesterol into 4-cholesten-3-one. In recent time, cholesterol oxidase has received great attention due to its wider use in clinical (determination of serum cholesterol) laboratories practice and in the bio- catalysis for the production of a number of steroids. Cholesterol oxidase (COD) has been shown to possess potent insecticidal activity, besides its use to track cell cholesterol. Moreover, this enzyme is also implicated in the manifestation of some of the diseases of bacterial (tuberculosis), viral (HIV) and non-viral prion origin (Alzheimer’s). These applications and disease mechanisms have promoted the need of screening, isolation and characterization of newer microbes from diverse habitats as a source of COD to learn more about its structural and functional aspects. In this review, we discuss microbial sources of COD, its structure and important biochemical properties besides its broad range of biological functions and applications. Keywords: Cholesterol, Steroids, Bio-catalysis, Microorganisms, Biosensors INTRODUCTION The enzyme Cholesterol oxidase (COD) (cholesterol: oxygen oxidoreductase, EC 1.1.3.6) catalyzes the oxidation of cholesterol to 4cholesten-3-one in the presence of O2[1]. COD has wide applications in clinical, pharmaceuticals, food and agricultural industries which has considerably increased the demand of this enzyme. Various microorganisms are reported to produce COD with specific properties. Cholesterol oxidases are used to determine cholesterol concentration in food and blood serum by coupling of the enzyme with peroxidase [2,3] in the production of precursors for chemical synthesis of steroid hormones, degradation of dietary cholesterol in foods [4] and as biological control agent [5]. COD is a monomeric bi-functional flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) containing enzyme which belongs to the oxidoreductases family and acts on the CH-OH group of donor with oxygen as an acceptor. COD catalyzes the oxidation of 3 β -hydroxoysteroids and the isomerization of www.ijsir.co.in
5-6-ene- 3 β -ketosteroid (cholest-5-en-3-one) to produce 3-4-ene-3 β -ketosteroid (cholest4-en-3-one) (Figure 1)
Figure 1: Breakdown of cholesterol with the help of cholesterol oxidase
SOURCES OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE Cholesterol oxidase has been isolated and characterized from numerous microorganisms that are found in different environments (Figure 2). The first COD enzyme was isolated from Nocardia (later Rhodococcus) erythropolis and oxidant effect of cholesterol was explored [6]. Mycobacterium sp. and Streptomyces sp. are reported from soil for COD production. COD producing microorganisms have also been isolated from food stuffs like chicken fat, pork 1
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
fat, butter and bacon eg. Rhodococcus strain [7] .COD has also been reported in many other microorganisms such as Arthrobacter sp. [8,9] Corynebacterium sp. [10] Nocardia erythropolis [11], Rhodococcus erythropolis [12,13], Mycobacterium sp. [14] , Brevibacterium sterolicum, Streptoverticillium sp. [15], Streptomyces violascens [16] , Streptomyces sp. [17-19], and Enterobacter sp. [20] . COD has also been isolated from some gramnegative bacteria such as Pseudomonas sp. [21], Chromobacterium sp. [22]. COD from a eukaryotic microorganism Schizophyllum sp. (identified as basidiomycetes) has also been reported [23]. Table 2: Milestones of discoveries related to cholesterol oxidase enzyme
the enzyme. It belongs to the glucose-methanolcholine (GMC) oxidoreductase family and has been found mostly in actinomycetes such as Streptomyces sp. The structural and mutational analysis of Streptomyces sp. (class-I enzyme) has revealed that His447 and Glu361 residues are implicated in the activity for the oxidation and isomerization steps[34] and reported comparison of amino acid sequences from class-I enzymes eg. Streptomyces sp., Rhodococcus sp. and Mycobacterium sp. These sequences contain a consensus sequence for FAD binding, Gly-XGly-X-X-Gly, in the N-terminal region of the COD[35]. The class-I enzyme possesses the characteristic nucleotide-binding fold (Rossmann -pleated sheet fold) consisting of a -helices and the motif sandwiched between needed for binding the cofactor. The diphosphate group of the cofactor is positioned closely to the N terminus of the first -helix of the protein where the conserved GXGXG glycine residues are located [29]. Class-II cholesterol oxidase
STRUCTURE OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE There are two distinct types of COD that bind with FAD cofactor in two different ways: noncovalently and covalently. They also differ in terms of structure, folding, kinetic and thermodynamic properties. Two types of cholesterol oxidases are reported. Class-I cholesterol oxidase The class-I COD enzyme contains the FAD redox cofactor which is non-covalently bound to 2
In the class-II enzyme the FAD cofactor covalently linked to the enzyme [36]. The class-II enzyme belongs to the (VAO) vanillyl-alcoholoxidase family. This enzyme has been found in Brevibacterium sterolicum, Rhodococcus erythropolis and gram-negative bacteria such as Burkholderia sp., Chromobacterium sp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa showing similarity (43% to 99%) to one another. The structure of COD (class-II enzyme) from the Brevibacterium sterolicum has been determined by X-ray crystallography and refined to high resolution. The structure suggested that the FAD was covalently bound to an active-site histidine (His121) via the C8 group of the flavin isoalloxazine ring. This covalent bond is implicated in the redox potential and contributes to the stability of the enzyme [37]. In addition, Glu475 and Arg477, located at the active-site cavity, were suggested to constitute gate functioning in the control of oxygen access. In the covalent form of the enzyme, the diphosphate moiety is localized in the residues found between the third and fourth -pleated sheet. b-strands of a four-stranded www.ijsir.co.in
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
COD has been known in a number of microorganisms and these flavoenzymes exhibit different sequences that suggest structural differences between the proteins. The comparison of sequence alignments are performed using CLUSTALW2 (http:// www.expasy.ch.) for different types of CODs. Amino acids sequences are obtained using the protein search algorithm at The National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) [38]. MODE OF ACTION OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE The CODs enzymes are bi functional, catalyzing the oxidation of D5-ene-3bhydroxysteroids with a trans A±B ring junction to the D5-3- ketosteroid and also isomerization to the D4-3-ketosteroid [26]. The mode of action depends on the presence of molecular oxygen and NAD-dependent dehydrogenases e.g. the coupled enzyme 3b-hydroxysteroid: NAD (P) oxidoreductase-3-ketosteroid D4, D5-isomerase (3b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: D5isomerase) from the mitochondrial fraction of human placenta. COD catalyzes three chemical reactions (Figure 2).
In the first catalytic step, the dehydrogenation of the alcohol function at the 3-position of the steroid ring system occurs, resulting in two redox equivalents which are transferred to the (oxidized) flavin cofactor that becomes reduced in the process. In the second catalytic step, the reduced flavin reacts with dioxygen to regenerate the oxidized enzyme and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) (oxidative halfreaction). Finally in the third step, the oxidized steroid undergoes an isomerization of the double bond in the steroid ring system from D56 to D4-5 and formed the final product cholest4-en-3-one. In general, this isomerization reaction occurs faster than the release of the intermediate cholest-5-en-3-one [38]. PROPERTIES OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES Cholesterol oxidases are produced from several microorganisms and its properties have been extensively studied. Various properties of microbial cholesterol oxidases (molecular weight, pH and temperature optima, effect of metal ions and detergents) are summarized in Table 2b. COD molecular weights have been reported to be in the range of 47–61 kDa. Most of the CODs are produced extracellular into the growth medium. However some of the intracellular or membrane-bound CODs have been reported from Mycobacterium [39], Rhodococcus [40,41]. R. erythropolis produces both membrane-bound and extracellular cholesterol oxidases [41]. Effect of pH and temperature on the activity and stability of cholesterol oxidases
Figure 2: Mechanism of reaction catalyzed by cholesterol oxidase www.ijsir.co.in
Generally microbial CODs have neutral pH optima and possess stability over a wide range. The enzymes have temperature optima in the range of 37–60°C. The optimum temperature (70°C) of cholesterol oxidase from Streptomyces fradiae is the highest among the enzymes reported so far [42] . COD produced from Chromobacterium sp. strain DS-1 is highly thermo-stable [22]. The thermal stability of the DS1 enzyme was compared with commercially available cholesterol oxidases from various bacterial sources such as Streptomyces sp., Cellulomonas sp., Nocardia sp., Nocardia erythropolis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and B. cepacia ST-200 and it was found that all of these commercial enzymes lost most of their activities 3
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
after incubation at 60–80°C for 30 min [22] while enzyme from strain DS-1 had retained 80% of its original activity even at 85°C after 30 min. [43] and improved the thermal stability of Streptomyces COD by random mutagenesis. Effect of metal ions on the activity of cholesterol oxidases Generally CODs activity does not require metal ions but some COD activity was enhanced in the presence of metal ions. Chelating agents, including EDTA, o-phenanthroline, and 8hydroxyquinoline, did not show a significant inhibitory effect on the enzyme activity [44,45,22]. In many cases, cholesterol oxidase activity is remarkably inhibited by an SH inhibitor, Hg2+, or Ag+ represented in Table 2b. Exceptionally, Cu2+ increases COD activity approximately 2-3 fold in some strains as Streptomyces sp. Enterobacter sp. and Bordetella sp. [18,9,20]. By contrast Ag+ scarcely influenced the activity of the enzyme from strain DS-1 [22] . FeSO 4 remarkably inhibited the activity of the enzyme from S. violascens and Streptomyces sp. [44.18]. CuSO4 significantly inhibited the COD activity of Streptoverticillium cholesterolieum. In the addition of p-chloro-mercuric benzonate partially reduced the COD activity produced from A. simplex [8] and B. sterolicum [24]. The activities of the enzymes from Pseudomonas sp. COX629, -Proteobacterium and Streptomyces parvus were partially activated by the addition of Mn2+ [21,45,19] . SDS and β -Mercaptoethanol significantly inhibited the COD activity produced from Streptomyces sp. and Streptomyces parvus [19,18]. Effect of detergents and organic solvents on the activity of cholesterol oxidases Cholesterol is an insoluble compound so detergents are often added to the reaction solution to act as a solubilizer. For diagnosis of hyperlipidemia or atherosclerotic diseases the monitoring of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in serum is important. Therefore, several methods for the separation of HDL or LDL cholesterol with various detergents have been presumed [46,47,48] . Since detergents influence the COD activity [49,19] and often inactivate cholesterol oxidases as well as most enzymes [45,22,19,18] a COD with high activity and 4
stability in the presence of a wide range of detergents is expected to improve the differential assay method for HDL and LDL cholesterol in serum. A detergent-tolerant COD was reported from -Proteobacterium Y-134 and this enzyme retained more than 80% of its original activity in 0.5% Triton X-405 and sodium cholate after incubation for 1 h at 60°C. At this experimental condition commercially available enzymes from Nocardia, Brevibacterium and Streptomyces lost most of their activities. Commercially available CODs were completely inactivated by the addition of ionic detergents such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) or sodium lauryl benzene sulfonate (LBS) after incubation for 1 h at 30°C. By contrast, the COD produced from Chromobacterium sp. DS-1 was relatively tolerant to SDS and LBS. In addition, the treatment with sodium dodecyl sarcosinate or Emal 20CM completely inactivated all of the enzymes except the DS-1 enzyme after 1 h at 60°C. The DS-1 enzyme was relatively tolerant to these detergents even at 60°C. Organic solvents are also employed to solubilize the steroids. COD has been used for the optical resolution of non-steroidal compounds, allylic alcohols [50,5] and the bioconversion of 3 -hydroxysteroids in the presence of organic solvents [52]. Therefore, an organic solvent-tolerant COD would be useful for several applications. Organic solvents often influence the cholesterol oxidase activity [49]. Laane et al. [53] has reported that organic solvents with low log Pow values inactivate most enzymes. Pollegioni et al. [49] examined the stability of COD produced from Streptomyces hygroscopicus and B. sterolicum in the presence of various concentrations of isopropanol. The activity of the B. sterolicum COD is rapidly inactivated, whereas the S. hygroscopicus enzyme retained 70% of the initial activity after 5 h in the presence of 30% propan-2-ol at 25°C. Commercially available cholesterol oxidases including Streptomyces sp., Cellulomonas sp., Nocardia sp., N. erythropolis, and P. fluorescens, were inactivated by the addition of 50% volume of dimethylsulfoxide, methanol, ethanol, acetone isopropanol, ethyl acetate, or butanol after incubation at 37°C for 24 h. By contrast, Chromobacterium sp. DS-1, B. cepacia ST-200 and Streptomyces sp. enzymes were stable in the presence of all solvents except for acetone. www.ijsir.co.in
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SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY
There seems to be a tendency for sterols with the short side chain to be oxidized at a low rate. Although the oxidation rates of pregnenolone by most enzymes were slow and enzymes from Chromobacterium sp. DS-1, Streptomyces sp. SA-COO, and S. violascens oxidized pregnenolone at a high rate. Substrate specificity of CODs is briefly summarized in Table 2.
The oxidation rate affects length and structure of the 17-side chain the steroid ring D. Next to cholesterol most of the CODs oxidized -cholestanol at a high rate. The double bond between the positions of the 5 and 6 do not seem to be very important for this enzyme activity.
Table 2. Characterization COD produced from different microbial sources Sources
M.Wt.
Optimum
Optimum
(kDa)
pH
Temp (°C)
Arthrobacter simplex
57
7.5
50
Arthrobacter sp. IM79
63
7.5-8.5
40-50
Brevibacterium sterolicum
55
7.5
50
Bordetella sp.
55
7.0
50
Burkholderia cepaca ST-200
60
6.8-8.0
60
Corynebacterium cholesterolicum
57
7.0-7.5
40-42
Chromobacterium sp. DS-1
58
7.0-7.5
65
Enterobacter sp.
58
7.0
Nocardia rhodochrous Schizophyllum commune Streptomyces fradiae
7.0
Substrate Specificity
Cholesterol, Ergosterol and Č•-Stigmasterol. Cholesterol, Ergosterol and Č•-Stigmasterol. &KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, 3UHJQHQRORQH Č•-Sitosterol and Č•-Cholestanol. &KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, 3UHJQHQRORQH Č•-Sitosterol, Č•-Cholestanol and Epiandrosterone. &KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol, Pregnenolone and Č•-Sitosterol. &KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmasterol, 3UHJQHQRORQH Č•-Sitosterol, Č•-Cholestanol Epiandrosterone, Dehydroepiandrosterone and Ergosterol. -
5.0
-
60
7.0
70
Streptomyces sp. SACOO
58
6.5-7.0
45-50
Streptomyces sp.
55
7.0
Streptomyces sp.
62
7.5
37
CholesteroO Č•-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol, Pregnenolone, Č•-Sitosterol, and Č•-Cholestanol. &KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol, Pregnenolone, Č•-Sitosterol, and Č•-Cholestanol.
55
7.2
Streptoverticillium cholesterolieum
56
7.0-7.5
Č–-Proteobacterium
58
6.5
Pseudomonas sp.COX629
56
7.0
&KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmastero (UJRVWHURO DQG Č•-Cholestanol.
7
&KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol, Pregnenolone, Č•-6LWRVWHURO Č•-Cholestanol and Epicholesterol.
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HgCl2
[8]
-
[54]
HgCl2 and AgNO3
[24]
Hg2+and Ag+
[8]
-
[22]
HgCl2 and AgNO3
[55]
[22]
Hg2+andAg+
50
50
60
[20] [11]
Cholesterol, Dehydr epiandro sterone and Pregnenolone. &KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol,Pregnenolone, Č•-Sitosterol and Č•-Cholestanol. -
Streptomyces parvus
60
References
30
53
Pseudomonas sp. strain ST-200
Inhibitors
-
[23] [42]
Hg++ and Ag+
[21]
[56] Ba++, Mn++, Hg++
[18]
Pb++, Ag++, Hg++ and Zn++
[19]
Hg2+ and Ag+
[67]
&KROHVWHURO Č•-Stigmasterol and Č•-6LWRVWHURO Č•-Cholestanol
[45] Fe2+, Zn2+ and Hg2+
[21]
[58]
5
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
APPLICATIONS OXIDASES
OF
CHOLESTEROL
COD of microbial origin are the enzymes of great interest in the present era. COD is widely used in clinical diagnosis and determining lipid disorders. It is used as an insecticide also [59] and plays a role in lysis of macrophages and leukocytes as well. The important applications of COD have been discussed below under separate categories. Clinical applications COD is useful for the clinical determination of cholesterol levels in foods, serum (HDL and LDL) for the assessment of atherosclerotic diseases and other lipid disorders as well as the risk of thrombosis [60] . Analysis of serum cholesterol is generally accomplished by using a three enzyme assay [2,25]. Because most of the cholesterol present in serum samples is esterified, the incubation of serum with cholesterol esterase (EC 3.1.1.13) is necessary to release free cholesterol. After that peroxidase enzyme (EC 1.11.1.7) subsequently catalyzes the oxidative coupling reaction with hydrogen peroxide, 4-aminoantipyrine and phenol to form a red quinoneimine dye. This red dye is easy to measure by spectrophotometric determination. In recent years various electrochemical biosensors using the immobilized CODs have been reported for the determination of cholesterol in serum and food. Insecticidal activity Bacterial COD has potent insecticidal activity against the cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis). Purcell et al. [31] discovered a highly efficient protein that killed boll weevil (Anthonomusgrandis grandis Boheman) larvae from Streptomyces culture filtrates and identified the protein as cholesterol oxidase. The COD is involved in the lysis of the mid gut epithelial cells of the larvae. Cholesterol or the related sterol at the membrane of the boll weevil mid gut epithelium seemed to be accessible to the enzyme and it is oxidized by cholesterol oxidase causing lysis of the mid gut epithelial cells resulting in larval death. Purified COD was active against boll weevil larvae at a concentration (LC 50 of 20.9 ĂŹg/ml), which is 6
comparable to the bioactivity of Bacillus thuringiensis proteins against other insect pests. Corbin et al. [5] studied that enzyme also which exhibits insecticidal activity against lepidopteran cotton insect pests, tobacco budworm (Heliothisvirescens), corn earworm (Helicoverpazea) and pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella). Recently, it was reported that Chromobacterium subtsugae has insecticidal properties [61]. Cholesterol oxidase might be involved in this insecticidal activity because it was recently found that Chromobacterium strains produce cholesterol oxidase [22] and also shows insecticidal activity. Some insecticide proteins are vital for pest control strategies employing transgenic crops. Corbin et al. [5] expressed the Streptomyces COD gene in tobacco protoplasts and Cho et al. [62] also have succeeded in the expression of the COD gene in tobacco cells. Transformation of sterols and non-steroidal compounds and production of steroid hormones precursors Bioconversion of non-water-soluble compounds has been hindered because of their low solubility in an aqueous medium. Sterols including cholesterol are insoluble compounds so various reaction systems with COD have been developed. COD has been used for the transformation of cholesterol to cholest-4-en-3one in the presence of different organic solvents in reverse micelles system [63] and in supercritical carbon dioxide. COD has a broad range of substrate specificity and can be used for the bioconversion of a number of 3 -hydroxysteroids which can be used for the synthesis of steroid hormones and other pharmaceutical steroids in the presence of organic solvents and in aqueous medium containing modified cyclodextrin [64]. Also cholesterol oxidase can be used for the optical resolution of non-steroidal compounds allylic alcohols in the presence of organic solvents [50] . A wide range of microorganisms can metabolize cholesterol and use it as a sole carbon and energy source [65]. Cholesterol degradation is achieved through a complex metabolic pathway involving many enzymatic steps starting with the oxidation of the 3 β -hydroxyl group by COD followed by the oxidation of the 17- alkyl side chain and the www.ijsir.co.in
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
steroid ring system and ultimately degrading the entire molecule to CO2 and H2O. A number of Mycobacterium strains treated with mutagens have been reported to accumulate sterol biodegradation intermediates such as 4androstene-3, 17-dione and 1,4-androstadiene3,17-dione [66]. These intermediates may be used as precursors for the production of steroid drugs and hormones. A potential target for new antibiotics Some pathogenic bacteria which possess cholesterol oxidases are thought to contribute to their pathogenicity. Navas et al. [34] observed that the COD is a major membrane damaging factor of Rhodococcus equi which is a primary pathogen of horses and an opportunistic pathogen in humans. The disruption of the COD gene was associated with a loss of cooperative (CAMP-like) hemolysis with sphingomyelinase producing bacteria. However the gene disruption analysis of the choE gene in R. equi performed by another group showed no difference between the mutant and parent strain in cytotoxic activity for macrophages or in intra macrophage multiplication. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is also a principal bacterial pathogen of humans and has been found to possess cholesterol oxidase. [67] . It has been shown that the choD mutant of M. tuberculosis was attenuated in peritoneal macrophages. The mice infection experiments confirmed the significance of choD in the pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis. Thus, there seems to be opposite effects of the genes disruption in R. equi and in M. tuberculosis. S. natalensis cholesterol oxidase (PimE) has been described as a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of the polyene macrolide pimaricin [68]. Pimaricin is a macrolide antifungal antibiotic widely used in the food industry. The antifungal activity of pimaricin is involved in its interaction with membrane sterols, causing the alternation of membrane structure and leading to the leakage of cellular materials. The pimE gene is located in the center of the pimaricin biosynthetic cluster. The gene disruption completely blocked the pimaricin production, whereas gene complementation recovered the antibiotic production. The addition of purified PimE or commercial cholesterol oxidases to the gene disruptant culture triggered the pimaricin www.ijsir.co.in
production. These results suggested that cholesterol oxidases could act as signaling proteins for polyene biosynthesis. These new findings might be important for improving the productivity of the polyene from S. natalensis. Studies on membrane structure Cholesterol is the main constituent of eukaryotic cell membrane. Cholesterol is expected to promote and stabilize the local bilayer bending which is supposed to take place during membrane fusion, since the curvature stress is towards the negative side [69]. Many researchers have studied the role of cholesterol in membrane organization that has used COD as probe [68]. COD has been used as a probe to investigate the interaction of cholesterol with phospholipids [70] and the eukaryotic cell membrane structure i.e., lipid rafts. Pollegioni et al. [49] demonstrated the inaccessibility of COD for the outer-membrane surface of human erythrocytes and virus. The lipid rafts are the domains in which cholesterol and saturated lipids present in membrane, such as sphingolipids, promote the formation of a highly ordered membrane structure [71]. Lipid rafts participate in numerous cellular processes including signal transduction, protein and lipid sorting, cellular entry by toxins and viruses, and viral budding. Therefore, the investigation of the lipid raft is important with regard to the study of eukaryotic membrane function. Cholesterol oxidases biosensors Cholesterol detection is important for clinical investigation and food analysis. For cholesterol detection different electrochemical biosensors have been proposed. Cholesterol biosensors based on immobilized cholesterol esterase and cholesterol oxidase have been studied to determine the total cholesterol content in food stuffs and electrochemical measurements are performed in the cholesterol analysis of food samples. Different types of methods to use COD as biosensors, such as screen printed electrode [72] hydrogel membranes, polymeric membrane, self-assembled mono layers, composite sol-gel membrane , liquid crystal cubic phase matrices and films prepared by the layer-by-layer technique have been developed. Generally in electrochemical biosensor the detection was 7
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
monitored on the basis consumption of oxygen and H2O2. Novel amperometric biosensors have been formed by immobilizing COD in sol-gel layer on CNT-Pt modified electrodes. This biosensor was successfully used for serum cholesterol determination. A new electrochemical biosensor was introduced in 2010, for determination of cholesterol that combined with Fourier transformation continuous cycle voltmeter [FFTCCV] technique in a flow injection analysis [73] . A surface plasma resonance based biosensor for simple, label-free, highly selective and sensitive detection of cholesterol employing the flavo-enzyme COD as a sensing element has been proposed by Gehlot et al. [74]. A novel amperometric cholesterol biosensor immobilized with COD on electrochemically polymerized polypyrole-polyvinlyulphonate (PPy-PVS) film entrapped on platinum electrode was developed by [75]. Commonly cholesterol biosensors have been used in biochemical analysis owing to their good selectivity, low cost, small size, fast response and long term stability. The cited literature based on cholesterol biosensors have been mainly focused on diagnosing disorders [76] . Recently a novel COD biosensor has been fabricated by co-immobilizing three enzymes COD, cholesterol esterase and HRP on nanoporous gold network directly grown on titanium substrate [77]. This biosensor possessed a wide linear range up to 300 mg/dl in a physical condition (pH 7.4) for very effective clinical determination of cholesterol. The microchip capillary electrophoresis (MCE) was also used to demonstrate the rapid detection of cholesterol in serum, using (MCE) fabricated from poly (dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) microchip channel successfully applied to determine cholesterol levels. Also this developed method was used to measure cholesterol in a bovine serum standard solution. The developed polymer micro- fluid biochip has more advantages like, compact size, high sensitivity, and high selectivity, low cost and fast response that appeared to be beneficial to perform routine analysis in clinical laboratory. Investigations pertaining with the isolation of novel COD producing microbial strains having 8
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44. Tomioka H, Kagawa M, Nakamura S. Some enzymatic properties of 3â-hydroxysteroid oxidase produced by Streptomyces violascens. J Biochem 1976; 79: 903-915. 45.
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Pilone MS. Cholesterol oxidase from Streptomyces hygroscopicus and Brevibacterium sterolicum: effect of surfactants and organic solvents on activity. Biotechnol Appl Bioch 1999; 30: 27-33. 50.
Biellmann JF. Resolution of alcohols by cholesterol oxidase fromRrhodococcus erythropolis: lack of enantiospecificity for the steroids. Chirality 2001; 13: 34-39.
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Dieth S, Tritsch D, Biellmann JF. Resolution of allylic alcohols by cholesterol oxidase isolated from Rhodococcus erythropolis. Tetra Lett 1995; 36: 2243-2246.
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Doukyu N, Kobayashi H, Nakajima H, Aon R. Control with organic solvents of efiiciency of persolvent cholesterol fermentation by Pseudomonas sp. strain ST-200. Biosc Biochem Biotechnol 1996; 60: 1612-1616.
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Wilmanska D SL. The kinetics of biosynthesis and some properties of an extracellular cholesterol oxidase produced by Arthrobacter sp. IM 79. Acta Microbiol Polonica 1988; 37: 45–51.
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Shirokane Y NK, Mizusawa K Purification and some properties of an extracellular 3hydroxysteroid oxidase produced by Corynebacterium cholesterolicum. J Ferm Technol 1977; 55: 337–345
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Lartillot S, Kedziora P. Production, purification and some properties of cholesterol oxidase from a Streptomyces sp. Prep Biochem 1990; 20: 5162.
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Arya SK, Datta M, Malhotra BD. Recent advances in cholesterol biosensor. Biosen Bioelectron 2008; 23: 1083-1100.
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Ernst ND, Cleeman JI. National cholesterol education program keeps a priority on lifestyle modification to decrease cardiovascular disease risk. Curr Opin Lipidol 2002; 13: 69-73
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Bru R, Sánchez-Ferrer A, García-Carmona F. Characterization of cholesterol oxidase activity in AOT-isooctane reverse micelles and its dependence on micelle size. Biotechnol Lett 1989; 11: 237-242.
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VAJRADANTI -TRADITIONAL TO MODERN ERA *VIBHA SINGH Department of Oral and Maxillo Facial Surgery, K.G.Medical University, Lucknow,India *Address for correspondence: Dr. Vibha singh, Professor, Department of Oral and Maxillo Facial Surgery, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, India. Email ID: vibhasinghraghuvanshi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT There are approximately 500000 plant species occurring worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 4 billion people (80% of the World’s population) use herbal medicines for some aspect of primary healthcare. These evidences contribute to support and quantify the importance of screening natural plants. In India 2500 plants and 100 species of plants used as regular source of medicine .In developed countries 25% of the medical drugs are based on plants and their derivatives. In Indian traditional systems of medicine (Ayurveda) it is known as sahachara, baana, kurantaka, kuranta, koranda, korandaka, shairiya and pitasaireyaka. This is a plant of miraculous nature. It has wide range of medicinal properties which can be used for welfare of human being without any side effects. It has its traditional use and well documented to use in modern medicine too. Keywords: Vajradanti, Anti-inflammatory, Antidontalgic INTRODUCTION There are approximately 500000 plant species occurring worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 4 billion people (80% of the World’s population) use herbal medicines for some aspect of primary healthcare. These evidences contribute to support and quantify the importance of screening natural plants. In India 2500 plants and 100 species of plants used as regular source of medicine. In developed countries 25% of the medical drugs are based on plants and their derivatives. In Indian traditional systems of medicine (Ayurveda) vajradanti is known as sahachara, baana, kurantaka, kuranta, koranda, korandaka, shairiya and pita-saireyaka. In folk medicine it is known as piyaabaasaa, jhinti and katsaraiya. Vajradanti is plant of Ramayan Kal . It was found near Pampa lake . It is known as Kurant, and pita Saireyaka in Sanskrit and vajradanti in Hindi and Baleria prointis in English. It belongs to family Acanthaecae and occurs in hotter part of India . Barleria prionitis L. (Family Acanthaceae; commonly known as Vajradanti) is an annual shrub, 1–3 feet high, found throughout Africa, India, Sri Lanka and tropical Asia.
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The chemical constituents present in plants are a part of the physiological functions of living flora and hence they are believed to have better compatibility with the human body. They have stood the test of time for their safety, efficacy, cultural acceptability and lesser side effects. Plant derived medicines have been the first line of defense in maintaining health and combating diseases. The herbal products today symbolize safety in contrast to the synthetics that are regarded as unsafe to human and environment .These evidences contribute to support and quantify the importance of screening natural plants. The medicinal properties of Vajradanti are well reported in Ayurveda as anti-inflammatory and diuretic .Leaves are used for treating bleeding gums and tooth ache. It has a long history of healing and curative properties .It is al so known as Vajradanti which means strong teeth. Because of its antidontalgic property it is known as ‘Vajradanti’. It is al so known as Porcupine flower. Oral diseases are major health problems with dental caries . Oral health influences the general quality of life and poor oral health is linked with systemic diseases. The vast diversity www.ijsir.co.in
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of Indian forest provides several plants which are mentioned in Ayurveda for prevention and management of dental caries. [1] Numerous medicinal plants have been reported in ancient literature for the control of oral diseases. In one of studies , seven plant extracts of Anantmul, Lavang, Maiphal, Peelu, Trifala, Vajradanti and Vedang were found to be effective against Streptococcus mutans and four extracts viz .Lavang, Maiphal, Trifala and Vajradanti were found to be active against Candida albicans. [2] In traditional health practice bark and leaves of the plants are used for the management of various diseases. Vajradanti is an annual shrub 1-3 feet in height and its leaves are chewed to relieve tooth ache and the parts of the roots are applied to glandular swellings and disperse boil. It also has been reported as anti- arthritic, antiinflammatory and anti- fertility agent. Juice of the plant is used in cataract and fever. Its leaves are also used in some tribal communities for the treatment of piles and to control irritation .It is used in stiffness of limbs and enlargement of scrotum and sciatica .The leaves of this plant are used to provide healing of wound and relieve joint pain and bleeding gum. [3] In South India this plant is widely used in neurological disorder like paraplegia, sciatica and also in leprosy and other skin disease .The plant formulation is available for the treatment of dysurea ,rheumatic infections ,internal abscess ,nervine disorders and chronic sinusitis .The crude extract of this plant in oil is used in arresting graying of hair, arthritis and gout.
The natural occurring enzyme inhibitors play an important role in drug discovery program. . Ethanolic extract of B. prionitis yielded a new compound. Glutathione S- transferase (GSTs) are family of enzyme that catalyze the tripeptise .It has also anti- stress and immuno restorative properties . Because of its antidontalgic properties, it is known as Vajrdanti. It is also used in management of asthma , plant ash mixed with honey is given in bronchial asthma [4,5] . PHYTOCHEMISTRY Hydro methanolic extract of B. prionitis whole plant indicates the presence of glycosides, saponins, flavonoids, steroids and tannins. The leaves and flowering tops were reported to rich in potassium salt. Several phytochemicals like balarenone, pipataline, lupeol, prioniside. A, prioniside B and prinoside C have been isolated from the ethanolic extract of B. prionitis. Number of glycosides including barlerinoside ,verascoside shanzhiside methyl ester 6-O trans –p-coumaroyl 8-O acetylshanzhiside methyl ester, barlerin , acetylbarlerin ,7methoxydiderroside lupulinoside have also been isolated from the aerial parts. Two anthrax quinones derivatives have been also identified in the plant and their structures were characterized as 1,8 dihydroxy- 2,7dimethyl3,6dimethoxy anthraquinone and 1,3,6,8 tetra methoxy -2, 7-methoxyanthraquinone.The leaves were reported to contain scutellarein ,melilotic acid ,syringe acid , vanillic acid , phydroxyflavones Beside these phytochemicals luteolin -7-O beta D-glucoside 14.14 secostigmata -5 ,14-diene -3-a-ol were also reported in B.prionitis. Methanolic extract of whole plant indicates presence of glycosides ,saponins . Flowers are rich with potassium salt and several phytochemicals .The crude extract of this plant exhibited GST inhibitory activity with ICS50 value of 160muml and results in isolation of six natural products balarenone ,pipataline ,lupeol ,prioniside A prioniside B and prionide C compound. PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Picture of Vajradanti (Baleria prionitis) Plant www.ijsir.co.in
Antibacterial Properties : Ethanol extract of the plant yielded a new compound along with other compounds known as balarenone, which is effective against four bacteria and three fungi viz. 13
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Bacillus species, pseudomonas, staphylococcus aureus, and streptococcus mutans and candida albicans ,and saccarromyces cerevisiae. It has been seen that crude extract of B.prrionitis possessed good activity against dental caries causing oral pathogens where modern therapy has failed . The crude extract of the plant also showed antibacterial activity against staphareus and pseudomonas aeroginosa in initial antibacterial screening.The antibacterial potency of the plants are believed to be due to tannin,saponins, phenolic compounds ,essential oils and flavonoids present in them. The antimicrobial potency of B.prionitis may be due to presence of five iridoid glucoside esters, acetyl barlerin 6,8,di-o-acetyl shanzhisisde methyl ester ,shanzhiside methyl ester verbascoide. This study affirms that extract of B. prionits L can damage MDR E.coli cell membrane by exerting profound physiological changes that lead to bacterial death. Crude methanolic extract of B. prionits L revealed in vitro anti-oxidant, total phenol and flavonoid contents, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial potential. The results are comparable to the standard compounds such as Ascorbic acid, Gallic acid, Quercetin and Ibuprofen to clarify the in vivo potential of this plant in the management of UTI infections. Thus the multi-therapeutic characteristics of this plant extract serves as a source of plant derived natural products that modify antibiotic resistance of MDR E.coli. Further investigations are in progress to find active component of this plant extract and to confirm its mechanism of action in vivo. Leaf juice is used in stomach disorder and urinary infection. [6,7,11] Ant-inflammatory Properties : It is reported by various authors that methanolic extract shows anti-inflammatory activities and antimicrobial activities against staph and pseudomonas. The plant is having antiinflammatory properties and is used in ulcers and itching of leprosy ulcers. Leaves juice are used in stomach disorder, urinary afflictions, fever and catarrh, this plant is especially well known for treating bleeding gum and toothache.[8] Antihypertensive Properties : Methanolic extract of B.prionitis has profound antihypertensive activity without any side effects. Diuretic Activity : This plant is rich in potassium and said to contribute to its diuretic 14
action. Its leaves and young inflorescence are diuretic. Leaves juice are used in urinary afflictions. [9,10] The diuretic property of B. prionitis flower extract was performed . The oral administration of aqueous flower extract (200 mg kg-1) was significantly increased the urination and sodium elimination but not potassium in rats. The diuretic effect of flower extract (200 mg kg-1) was found comparable with the reference drug furosemide (20 mg kg-1 ) Antioxidant properties : The whole plant extract was reported to show potent antioxidant activity. It was observed that leaves showed higher degree of antioxidant potential and high phenolic content in comparison to flower and stem. The methanolic extracts of root ,stem and leaves show significant antioxidant properties. Enzyme inhibitory effect–The phytochemiclas are reported to inhibit the clinically significant enzymes Acetylchlolinesterase (AChE) and glutathione S- transferase (GST). It has been reported that the methanolic extract of leaf and stem of the plant exhibited AChE inhibitory activities and leaf and stem extract exhibited higher potency of exhibition in comparison to the root extract. All prionside A,B and C also showed GST inhibitory activity. B and C were more potent GST inhibitors. Anti- asthmatic Activity : Ash of the whole plant mixed with honey is used for asthma in traditional medicine. It also showed biological activity against respiratory syncyrial virus. Antidiabetic Activity: It was found the alcoholic extract of leaves was effective in reducing blood sugar in diabetic animals. Oral administration at the dose of 200mg/kg significantly reduced blood glucose glycosylated hemoglobin level and increased serum insulin and liver glycogen level in diabetic rats. It also arrested the weight loss due to diabetes.[12] Anti-arthritic Activity : It is reported that the methanolic extract of the whole plant showed dose dependent mast cells and erythrocytes membrane protection activity in response to the toxic chemicals. [13] It is also reported as antiwww.ijsir.co.in
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arthritic, anti-inflammatory and anti- fertility agent[14] Hepatoprotective Activity : Aerial part of leaves and stem are reported to possess hepatoprotective activity by various authors. The aqueous bioactive fractions have been shown to possess hepatoprotective activity. The irioid fraction significantly reduced the hepato toxin induced elevated level of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) aspartate transaminase (AST) , alkaline phosphatase ALP bilirubin and triglycerides in dose dependent manner .The fraction was also found to increase the hepatic glutathione content and reduce the hepatic lipid peroxidation in response to the hepatotoxicity in mice and rats. Antihelminthic Activity : Chavan et al [15] reported its anti-helminthic properties which was compared with albendazole and it was found that Pheretima posthuma worms were paralyzed at lower dose and caused death on the higher dose. Antifertility Activity: The plant was reported to possess anti- fertility activity. The oral administration of methanolic extract in male albino rats was found to reduce spermatogenesis in the albino rats. This effect of root extract may be due to presence of iridoid glycosides barlerin and acetyl barlerin via affecting the functions of testicular somatic cells. Verma et al [ 16 ] found methanolic extract of plant to produce anti- spermatogenic effect without affecting general body metabolism. Anti-diarrheal Activity : The antidiarrheal potential of butanol fraction of B.prionitis leaves has been reported . In vivo study showed that butanol fraction dose dependently inhibited the castor oil induced diarrhea. This also reduced the gastrointestinal motility in response to charcoal induced gut transit changes. Anti- nociceptive Activity : Jaiswal et al reported analgesic activity of B.prionitis flowers. In vivo study showed flower extract dose dependently provide a significant increase in analgesio -meter induced force and exhibited significant resistance against pain in mice. The flower extract also provided dose dependent significant reduction in acetic induced abdominal cramping . [14] [17]
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Antifungal Activity : Bark of the plant is reported in controlling candidacies and other fungal infections, it has both fungicidal and fungi static activity. Acetone methanol and ethanol extract of B. prionitis bark showed antifungal activity against oral pathogenic fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae and two strains of Candida albicans . It has been reported that the petroleum ether dicloro methane and ethanol extract of stem and root showed fungi static and fungicidal activities against C.albicans [7,14] Antiviral Activity : In India and Thailand the decoction of the leaves and flowers of B. Prionitis is used in the treatment of viral fever . The plant shows biological activity against respiratory syncytial virus.isolated two iridoid glycosides that is 6-O trans-p-coumaroyl -8-O acetylshanzhiside methyl ester and its cis isomer from B prionitis .In vitro study showed that these glycosides possess potent antiviral activity against Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)with EC50 and IC 50 values of 2.46 and 42.2 microgrammL -1 respectively [3,14] Toxicity : It was reported that extract of leaves and roots of the plant did not show any toxic effect on albino rats. No death was observed up to the oral administration of extract dose concentration 2.5 g/ kg body weight during the 14 days .Singh et al [18] reported that the iridoid gluco side rich aqueous fraction B. prionitis did not produce any abnormality or any mortality up the single oral administration of 3000mg kg -1 dose in mice during the 15days of study period .However the intraperitoneal LD50 was determined 25-30mgkg-1 for aqueous fraction in mice.[14] Cyto protective Mast cells play an important role in inflammatory responses and release histamine upon their degranulation to produce various allergic reactions and significant erythrocyte membrane protection against hypotonocity hemolysis and result was compared with reference standard indomethasone .[14] CONCLUSION Vajradanti is a plant of miraculous nature. It has wide range of medicinal properties which can be used for welfare of human being without 15
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any side effects. It has its traditional use and well documented to use in modern medicine too. A wide range of phytochemical constituents including balarenone ,pipataline ,prionisides ,barlerinoside ,verbascoside ,shanzhisde,methyl ester, barlerin, pipataline, acetylbarlerin, lupulinoside, scutellarein, have been isolated from different part of the plant. Extracts and phytochemicals isolated from the plant have been found to possess wide range of pharmacological activities without any side effects .It is common plant which is found in hotter part of India, but it needs identification and its proper use and standardization.
8.
Kuldeep Singh, Rupinder Kaur , Sarvjit Singh, B S Bajwa1 and D N Prasad,Antiinflammatory activity of Barleria prionotis Journal of Natural Remedies | ISSN: 2320-3358 www.jnronline.com | Vol 13 (1) | January 2013
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Bhavana B Mourya , S.B.Bothara Investigation of Antihypertensive activity of leaves of Barleria Prionitis in Doca salt induced Hypertensive rat Int J Pharma Sci Res 18(2)Jan –Feb 2013 n003-1719.
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Ghule B.V.Yeole P.G. in vitro and in vivo immunomodulatory activities of iridoids fractions from Barleria prionitis journal of Ethano Pharmacology Vol 141 ,issue 1 ,424-431.
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Manupati Prasanth Antimicrobial efficacy of different tooth paste and mouth rinse An in vitro study Dental Research Journal Vol 8 no 2 Spring 2011 85-94.
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Dheer Rana, Bhtanagar Prdeep A Study of antidiabetic activity of Barleria prionitis Indian Journal of Pharmacology Vol 42, Issue 2 page 70-72 .
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Dhaked Umesh Nama Gaurav Singnh Devendra Mishra Amit Kumar Nitin Pharmacognostical and pharmacological profile of B areleria prionitis root Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2011,Vol 3,Issue 3. Year : 2011, Volume : 3, Issue : 3
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D.Banerjee A.K.Maji et al Barleria prionitis Linn A Review of its traditional use ,phytochemistry pharmacology and Toxicity Research journal of phytochemistry 6:31-41.
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Chavan CB, Hogade MG, Bhinge SD, Kumbhar M and Tamboli A. In vitro anthelmintic activity of fruit extract of Barleria prionitis Linn. Against Pheretima posthuma. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2010; 2: 4950.
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Verma PK, Sharma A, Joshi SC, Gupta RS and Dixit VP. Effect of isolated fractions of Barleria prionitis root methanolic extract on reproductive function of male rats: Preliminary study. Fitoterapia. 2005; 76: 428-432.
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Jaiswal SK, Dubey MK, Verma AK, Das S, Vijaykumar M and Rao CV. Evaluation of iridoid glycosides from leave of Barleria prionitis as an anti- diarrhoeal activity: An Ethnopharmacological study. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. 2010; 2: 680-686.
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Singh B, Chandan BK, Prabhakar A, Taneja SC, Singh J, Qazi GN. Chemistry and hepatoprotective activity of an active fraction from Barleria prionitis Linn. In experimental animals. Phytother Res. 2005; 19(5): 391-404.
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Reenu Yadav and Dr S.K.Yadav et al. Dental diseases and its cure Asian J Pharm Clin Res, Vol 6, Suppl 2, 2013, 16-20 .
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Pachori, R. R.1, N.S. Kulkarni1*, M. G. Bodhankar2, and S.C. Aithal3. Antimicrobial Studies of Herbs and Shrubs Against Dental Pathogens Journal of Empirical Biology Vol 1(1) 10-16.
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P.D.Diwan and Y.A. Gadhikar Assessment of phytochemical composition and antibacterial activity of different extracts of Barleria prionitis leaves against oral micro flora to improve dental hygiene Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and clinical research Vol 5Suppl2 2012.
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Kalhari S,Kosmulalage Zahid et al GlutathioneSTransferase Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory and antibacterial activity of chemical constituents of Barleria prionitis. Z. Naturoforsch 2007. 62b-580586.
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Athar Ata, Stephaine A .Van Den Bosch,DrewJ.Harwank and Grant E. Pinwinski. Glutathione Stransferase and acetylcholinesterase inhibiting natural products from medicinally important plants. Pure.Appl.Chem.,Vol 79No 12 pp 2269-2276 .2007.
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Shukla P, Singh A, Gwari S et al invitro propogation of Barleria Prionitis and its antibacterial activity. International journal of Pharma Professional research Vol 2 Issue 1 Jan2011 .
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BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF HELIUM : AN OVERVIEW 1
*B. R. PANDEY 1, SATENDRA SINGH 2, NIDHI SHARMA 2, SANJAY DIXIT 1 Sky Institute, Lucknow, India, 2 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. B. R. Pandey, Director (Research), Sky Institute, Lucknow, U. P., India, E mail ID : drbrpandey@gmail.com
ABSTRACT Helium has varied applications in biomedicine. The research studies with hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and xenon-129 (129Xe ) magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) have been found useful in developing non-radiation based and sensitive approaches for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ). The applications of atmospheric pressure plasmas ( APPs ) in biomedicine are becoming better treatment protocols for various chronic diseases as the research studies have shown their potential in bacterial sterilization, blood coagulation and wound healing, dermatology and cancer treatment. It is interesting to emphasize that the atmospheric pressure helium plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage has been utilized to treat human lung cancer cells in vitro. This plasma device may serve as a valuable tool for reactive oxygen species (ROS) – promoting cancer therapy, a boon for cancer patients. Helium based low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma has been found to break Amyloidfibrils into smaller units in vitro and can be used as plasma based therapy of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer and Parkinson’s. Attempts have been made to present the biomedical applications of helium and its utility in health and diseases. However, multidisciplinary scientific studies on the interaction of helium based low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma on the sub cellular and molecular levels in disease conditions could be useful in strengthening its application in biomedicine to address the health challenges for ailing humanity. Keywords : Helium, Hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and Xenon-129 (129Xe ) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Atmospheric Pressure Plasmas (AAPs), Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), Cancer, Alzheimer, Parkinson’s INTRODUCTION The unexpected prolonged exposure of human beings to large number toxic chemicals and xenobiotics present in the environment and unhealthy life styles have become the major cause of the complex diseases crippling the human subjects in the world. This has also resulted in multi -drug resistance problems in the society .In the present situation, clinicians and biomedical scientists throughout the world are in search of developing suitable diagnostic tool for the diseases .Radio- diagnosis has emerged as more accurate diagnostic technique for disease diagnosis at early stage and measuring the clinical conditions of the diseased people during treatment. X-ray and CT scan commonly employed by clinicians in diagnosing the diseases have been found to produce harmful effects on the patients as they produce radiations harming the body thereby making the www.ijsir.co.in
human system immunologically deficient. In this scenario, scientists are exploring the use of noble gases in developing non-radiation based sensitive approaches for the diagnosis and treatment of complex diseases. Naturally occurring noble gases are Helium ( He ), Neon (Ne ), Argon( Ar ), Krypton( Kr ), Xenon ( Xe) and radioactive Randon ( Rn) which are also known as rare gases. They were once also called as inert gases as they were said to be incapable in producing chemical reactions with other elements. They are a group of chemical elements with very similar properties. They are all colourless, odourless, monoatomic gases and have very low chemical reactivity. The very low boiling and melting points of these gases make them useful as cryogenic refrigerants. Among these noble gases, helium has been found varied applications in health care. Liquid helium, which boils at 4.2K (17
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268.95째C;-452.11째F) has been found useful for superconducting magnets which are needed in Nuclear Resonance Imaging and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. The use of liquid helium in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is continuously increasing in medical field because of the utility of MRI in diagnosis of complex diseases by medical profession. Helium is used as the carrier medium in gas chromatography, as a filler gas for thermometers and in devices for measuring radiation, such as the Geiger counter and the bubble chamber. Helium is sometimes used to improve the ease of breathing of asthma sufferers. The recent studies with hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and xenon-129 (129Xe ) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been found useful in developing nonradiation based and sensitive approaches for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). [1] Atmospheric pressure plasmas (APPs) based on helium have also been developed as new tools in the biomedicine and have proved their effectiveness in biomedical applications such as treatment of living cells, sterilization, blood coagulation, wound healing and air purification.[2] Attempts have been made to present the biomedical applications of helium and its utility in health and diseases. SOURCES Scientists have observed that helium is the most abundant element found in the universe and is extracted from natural gases. All natural gases have trace quantities of helium. Scientists have been able to detect the helium in abundance by spectroscopic method in hotter stars. Helium has been found to be an important component in proton-proton reaction and carbon cycle accounting for the energy of the sun and stars. It has been found that the helium content of the atmosphere is about 1 part in 200,000. Helium has been found to be present in radioactive minerals. The free world supply of this noble gas in bulk quantity is obtained from USA especially from wells in Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas while outside the United States, the only known helium extraction plants in 1984 were in Eastern Europe ( Poland ), the USSR, and a few in India
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CHEMISTRY OF HELIUM It has been found that helium is the second lightest and second most abundant gas in the universe (hydrogen being one). Since no helium compounds are known, this family of gases was once thought to be inert. In the year 1962, scientists could be able to prepare first noble gas compound with xenon. Helium occurs in un-combined form. It is believed that it must be extracted from the atmosphere by liquefaction of air or separated from deposits of natural gas. Research studies have predicted that some of the terrestrial helium is the product of the alpha decay of radioactive isotopes beneath the crust. Helium is said to be the only element which cannot be converted to a solid by cooling. Chemists have found that helium possess lowest melting point of any element. It is widely used in cryogenic research because its boiling point is close to absolute zero. Helium has been found to be a vital element in the study of super conductivity. Research studies have revealed that liquid helium can be used in obtaining temperatures of a few micro kelvins by the adiabatic demagnetization of copper nuclei.[ 3] Helium is known to be only liquid which could not be solidified by lowering the temperature and remains in liquid down to absolute zero at ordinary pressure. It has ability to solidify by increasing the pressure while solid 3He and 4 He can be changed in volume in volume (more than 30 percent) by applying pressure. The specific heat of helium gas is high sand the density of helium vapor at normal boiling point is also very high with vapour expanding greatly when heated at room temperature. Although helium has weak chemical reactivity to combine with other elements, scientific studies have been carried towards preparation of helium difluoride. [4] Further, scientists have also investigated on molecular ions of helium like He+ and He++. Seven isotopes of helium are known: Liquid helium (He-4) exists in two forms: He-4I and He-4II, with sharp transition point at 2.174K. He-4I (above this temperature) is a normal liquid, but He-4II (below it) is unlike any other known substance. It expands on cooling, its conductivity for heat is enormous, and neither its heat conduction nor viscosity obeys normal www.ijsir.co.in
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rules.[5,6] BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS The very low boiling and melting points of noble gases make them useful as cryogenic refrigerants. Among these noble gases, helium has been found varied applications in health care. Liquid helium, which boils at 4.2K (268.95°C; -452.11°F) has been found useful for supercond-ucting magnets which are needed in Nuclear Resonance Imaging and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. The use of liquid helium in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is continuously increasing in medical field because of the utility of MRI in diagnosis of complex diseases by medical profession. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI) or magnetic resonance tomography (MRT), is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to investigate the anatomy and physiology of the body in both health and disease . MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to form images of the body. The technique is used in hospitals for medical diagnosis, staging of disease and for follow- up without exposure to ionizing radiation. Atmospheric pressure plasmas (APPs) based on helium have been developed as new tools in the biomedicine and have proved their effectiveness in biomedical applications such as treatment of living cells, sterilization, blood coagulation, wound healing and air purification[2]. Low temperature plasmas have potential to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) having diverse biological implications such as ROS effects on cell membrane : per oxidation of lipids, oxidation of proteins, DNA strands and RNS effects on biological cells : cell signalling. The applications of helium based MRI and low temperature atmospheric pressure plasmas in chronic complex diseases such as chronic obstructive disease (COPD), cancer, neurodegenerative diseases etc. are discussed in this review article. Pulmonary Diseases Complex respiratory disorders like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) characterized by persistent airflow limitation that www.ijsir.co.in
is usually progressive and associated with an enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the airways and lung to noxious particles or gases present in the environment. [7] COPD has emerged as the 4 th leading cause of death worldwide.[8,9] Several research studies have shown the efficacy of nuclear medicine , computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in evaluating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and developing imaging biomarkers for assessment of disease progression and treatment response. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) inhaled hyperpolarized noble gases helium-3 (3He)[10-23] and xenon-129 (129Xe)[24, 25] have been shown to provide structural and functional measurements in healthy volunteers as well as subjects with a range of respiratory conditions. These strategies are based on the research studies conducted by Albert and colleagues [24] showing the effectiveness of inhaled hyperpolarized or magnetized noble gas for pulmonary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It is interesting to emphasize that hyperpolarized gas MR imaging helps the clinicians in quantifying important structural and functional components of the lung such as Ventilation Defect Measurements and Apparent Diffusion Coefficient as biomarkers[2630 ] which play vital role in diagnosis and treatment of complex respiratory disorders like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The need for sensitive regional and surrogate measurements of lung structure and function in COPD continues to motivate the development of non-radiation based and sensitive imaging approaches, such as hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and xenon-129 (129Xe) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). 3He ventilation defect measurements in COPD have been found to correlate with spirometric measurements of airflow limitation. [27, 31] Studies on 3He MRI in COPD cases revealed heterogeneous signal intensity and ventilation abnormalities or “defects’’, representing local hypoventilation of the lung. [10] Hyperpolarized 3He MRI with xenon-133 scintigraphy has been found to produce encouraging response in evaluating ventilation abnormalities in COPD cases. [32] Studies have shown that 3He ADC can serve as a good imaging biomarker to measure lung 19
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tissue destruction in early disease.[31,33-38] Further, hyperpolarized gas MR diffusion-weighted imaging has been found useful in COPD.[39-44] Extensive studies have been conducted to evaluate the potential of hyperpolarized 3He MRI in diagnosis and treatment of COPD using various imaging biomarkers and significant results have been achieved thereby suggesting that hyperpolarized gas MRI can be used in assessing the lung structural and functional changes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD ). [45-53] In addition to above mentioned studies, the experimental and clinical applications of functional MR imaging of pulmonary ventilation using hyperpolarized noble gases have been studied and it has been found that 3- helium (3 He) and 129- xenon (129 Xe) can be hyperpolarized by optical techniques such as spin exchange or metastability exchange in sufficient amounts and can be used for assessment of ventilation- distribution , structural changes of lung parenchyma, such as emphysema and fibrosis.[54] Cancer Atmospheric pressure plasmas (APPs) have been found to be of great potential in diverse biomedical applications. Their applications in bacterial sterilization, blood coagulation, and wound healing, dermatology and cancer treatment have been explored.[55-61] Atmospheric pressure plasmas have also been found to produce effects on living cells. [62-66] The interactions of plasma with cancer cells have been demonstrated to induce cell death in different cancer cell types which might be due to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as super oxide (O2-2 ), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), oxygen atom (O), and hydroxyl radical (OH) .[61, 67-75] Plasma-induced ROS in the gas phase could result in intracellular ROS generation and apoptotic cell death. Atmospheric pressure plasmas based on helium with only small fractions of oxygen (less than 5%) have been studied in order to increase concentrations of ROS and prevent plasma instability simultaneously [76] thereby indicating the potential of He/O2 plasmas as a good source of reactive oxygen species. Admixture of helium and oxygen has been used to produce more 20
radicals in atmospheric pressure plasma jets.[7779] Recently the atmospheric pressure helium plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage has been utilized to treat human lung cancer cells in vitro. The studies have shown effects of additive oxygen on the plasma state including helium and oxygen – related radicals and considerable correlation between the concentration of intracellular and extracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and also increase in expression levels of p 53 and the phospho-53 in the presence of additive oxygen flow compared with those from pure helium plasma treatment thereby representing this plasma device a valuable tool for ROS-promoting cancer therapy. [80]
In another study, air, argon (Ar) and helium (He) plasma sources driven by AC or micro wave power has been found useful in the treatment of cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening and blood coagulation. Various types of non-thermal APPs operated in low frequency (20kHz) and microwave frequency (900MHz and 2.45GHz) power feeding argon, helium, and even in the ambient air have been shown to possess biomedicine applications such as treatment of cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening, and blood coagulation. It has been demonstrated that the antibody – conjugated GNPs have ability to enhance to kill cancer cells exposed to plasmas.[81] Non-thermal atmospheric plasma jets using helium have been extensively studied in various kinds of cancer and antitumor effect has been observed in vitro on carcinogenic cell lines related to cancer of skin (melanoma), brain ( glioblastoma), colon, liver, lungs, breast, cervix, bladder and in oral and ovarian carcinoma or in leukemia.[82, 83, 84, 85] It is important to mention that PG helium NTP used in this research study [87] has capability to produce reactive species and to generate transient electric field. The results of the study provide a novel NTP- based adjuvant therapy for cancer treatment. [86] Besides these studies, several studies on the role of low temperature atmospheric air plasma on various types cancer on animal models and human subjects have also been conducted and encouraging response have been achieved.[8892] The study has been carried out to find out the www.ijsir.co.in
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effect of low-level helium-neon (He-Ne) laser in the prevention and treatment of radiation induced mucositis in head and neck cancer patients and beneficial results have been obtained. [93] Neurodegenerative Diseases Studies have been conducted to evaluate the potential of helium based low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma in treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer and Parkinson’s which are associated with Amyloidfibrils. It has been found that low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma can break Amyloidfibrils into smaller units in vitro. The study has been able to provide the plasma based therapy of these progressive and debilitating diseases. [94] Application of Helium- Oxygen Mixtures in Cough, Asthma, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD), Anaesthesia Helium-oxygen mixtures have been found very effective in various disease conditions. It is very interesting to mention that Heliox (a mixture of 21% O2 and 79% He) has been used medically since the early 1930s and it was used in the treatment in acute asthma before the advent of bronchodialators. [95-99] Heliox has been found effective in conditions of large airway narrowing such as upper airway obstruction from tumors or foreign bodies and vocal cord dysfunction. Heliox is also used in conditions of the medium airways like croup, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Patients with these conditions suffer a range of symptoms like dyspnea, hypoxemia and weakening of respiratory muscles due to exhaustion leading to respiratory failure. Heliox has been found very effective in reducing these effects thereby making the patients capable to breathe easily. [100] It is also useful in weaning of patients off mechanical ventilation and in the mobilization of inhalable drugs, particularly for elderly. [101] Helium- oxygen mixtures have also been found useful in delivery of anaesthesia. [102] DISCUSSION At early stage scientists thought that noble gases helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon also called as inert gases or rare gases www.ijsir.co.in
could not have any application in daily life as these gases are incapable to produce chemical reactions with other elements because of their stable electronic configurations with no unpaired electrons to share. Later chemists found that krypton, xenon and radon with outer electrons held less firmly, can form compounds mainly with fluorine. Rare though they are, these gases are now a part of everyday life, as evidenced by the helium in balloons, the neon in signs and the harmful radon in some American homes. Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points which make them useful as cryogenic refrigerants. Among these noble gases, helium has been found varied applications in health care. Liquid helium, which boils at 4.2K (268.95°C; -452.11°F) has been found useful for superconducting magnets which are needed in Nuclear Resonance Imaging and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. The use of liquid helium in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is continuously increasing in medical field because of the utility of MRI in diagnosis of complex diseases by medical profession. Medical professionals are using medical imaging technique such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI) or magnetic resonance tomography (MRT) to investigate the anatomy and physiology of the body in both health and disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to form images of the body. This technique is widely used in hospitals and clinics for medical diagnosis, staging of disease and for follow- up without exposure to ionizing radiation and has become very successful in diagnosis and treatment of chronic complex diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) which has emerged as the 4th leading cause of death worldwide and is characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is usually progressive and associated with an enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the airways and lung to noxious particles or gases present in the environment . The recent studies with hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and xenon129 (129Xe) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been found successful in developing nonradiation based and sensitive approaches for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The applications of atmospheric pressure 21
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plasmas (APPs) in biomedicine are becoming better treatment protocols for various chronic diseases as the research studies have shown their potential in bacterial sterilization, blood coagulation, and wound healing, dermatology and cancer treatment. It is interesting to emphasize that the atmospheric pressure helium plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage has been utilized to treat human lung cancer cells in vitro. This plasma device may serve as a valuable tool for reactive oxygen species (ROS) – promoting cancer therapy, a boon for cancer patients. Various types of non-thermal APPs operated in low frequency (20kHz) and microwave frequency (900MHz and 2.45GHz) power feeding argon, helium, and even in the ambient air have shown potential in treatment of cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening, and blood coagulation. The antibody – conjugated GNPs have ability to enhance to kill cancer cells exposed to plasmas. Furthermore , helium based non-thermal atmospheric plasma jets have been found useful in different kinds of cancer such as skin cancer ( melanoma ), brain cancer ( glioblastoma) ,colon, liver, lungs, breast , cervix, bladder and in oral and ovarian carcinoma or in leukemia and may be an effective NTP- based adjuvant therapy for cancer treatment. Low-level helium-neon (HeNe) laser has been found useful in the prevention and treatment of radiation induced mucositis in head and neck cancer patients. Helium based low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma has been found to break Amyloidfibrils into smaller units in vitro and can be used as plasma based therapy of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer and Parkinson which are progressive and debilitating diseases . Additionally, the applications of simple helium – oxygen mixtures in various chronic conditions like cough, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease etc. have enhanced the potential of helium in biomedicine. Although helium in various modes has been found useful in disease conditions ranging from simple cough to dreadful diseases like cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Alzheimer and Parkinson’s , multidisciplinary scientific studies on the interaction of helium based low temperature atmospheric pressure
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plasma on the sub cellular and molecular levels in disease conditions may enhance its application in biomedicine to address the health challenges for ailing humanity. REFERENCES 1.
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BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF EXIMER LASERS *B. R. PANDEY 1 , SATENDRA SINGH 2, NIDHI SHARMA 2 , SANJAY DIXIT 1 1 Sky Institute,Lucknow,India ,2 Research Scholar,Sai Nath University,Ranchi,India *Address for correspondence: Dr. B.R. Pandey, Director (Research), Sky Institute, Lucknow, U.P., India, E mail ID: drbrpandey@gmail.com
ABSTRACT The use of lasers in medicine and biology has demonstrated its interest through innovative advanced technologies such as laser microdissection and /or photoablation which at different levels of expression enable understanding of the physiological mechanisms in the evolution of a disease. Lasers have achieved a prominent position in medical application and offer unique advantages for medical diagnosis, therapeutic treatments and internal surgeries in most medical disciplines including dermatology, dentistry, neurosurgery, eye surgery, cancer surgery, urology, gastroenterology etc. because of their ability to deliver high precision treatments, whilst remaining minimally invasive. Thus Laser- based therapies and diagnostic methods represent an area of huge future potential.Research efforts andcontinuous improvements over recent years have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the tool of choice for many applications in medical sciences.Excimer lasers, which are pulsed gas lasers operating with a special mixture of noble gases and halogens, emit laser radiation in the UV and VUV spectra, at discrete wavelengths between 351 nm and 157 nm, have shown promise in dermatology, angioplasty, bilary laser lithotripsy, ophthalmology and orthopedics. The principal advantage of excimer lasers is that they are capable of producing a very small, precise spot at a very low (UV) wavelength. Excimer lasers are excellent for removing excess material through laser ablation due to the fact that they are able to precisely destroy material with little to no thermal buildup.In the present review, applications of excimer lasers in biomedical sciences particularly in dermatology,ophthalmology, angioplasty, orthopaedics, lithotripsy,dentistry, medical implants have been presented and recent studies carried out have been reviewed.Laser-associated micro dissection offers a rapid, precise method of isolating and removing targeted cells or groups of cells from complex biological tissues which may be helpful in understanding physiological mechanisms on the level of a specific cell population and even on the level of the single cell in disease conditions. Multidisciplinary research studies on the interaction of laser with biological tissue at molecular level using biotechnological tools will enhace the therapeutic potential of laser technology in diagnosis and treatment of chronic complex diseases especially cancer , genetic disorders, neurogegenerative disorders , multidrugresistence tuberculosis , autoimmune diseases , HIV etc. and it may also be useful in designing new and innovative strategies in drug delivery and image-guided surgery. Keywords: Excimer Lasers, Laser-tissue Interaction, Bio-medical Applications: Dermatology, Ophthamology, Angioplasty, Lithotripsy, Orthopaedics, Dentistry, Biomedical Implants/ Materials/ Devices INTRODUCTION Laser : Light Amplified Stimulated Emission Radiation, unlike a standard light beam, is a source of monochromatic, coherent and unidirectional light. Over the past 50 years, scientific research and innovations made revolution in laser and led to the development www.ijsir.co.in
of many new varieties of laser becoming an integral part of human life with multiple numerous applications from medicine to manufacturing, from communication to measurement and from research and analysis to entertainment. The first working laser was demonstrated on 16 May 1960 by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratory. Since 27
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then the laser was being applied in medical procedure. In December1961, a ruby laser was used to destroy an eye tumour at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital. Today lasers have achieved a prominent position in medical application and offer unique advantages for medical diagnosis, therapeutic treatments and internal surgeries in most medical disciplines including dermatology, dentistry, neurosurgery, eye surgery, cancer surgery , urology, gastroenterology etc. because of their ability to deliver high precision treatments, whilst remaining minimally invasive. Thus Laser- based therapies and diagnostic methods represent an area of huge future potential. Different types of laser like Nd:YAG laser,CO2 laser, KTP laser, Ho: YAG laser , diode lasers, excimer lasers etc. are currently being used for various medical applications. In the present review, different applications of excimer lasers in various disciplines of medical sciences have been addressed.The main medical application is the use of excimer lasers at 193 nm in ophthalmology for vision-correction systems. A total of about 10,000 lasers are currently operating worldwide. The theoretical basis for the laser was established in 1917, when Einstein postulated the theoretical concept of stimulated emission.[1] The first excimer laser was built in 1971 by Basow, 54 years later.[2] Excimer lasers are pulsed gas lasers operating with a special mixture of noble gases and Halogens. They emit laser radiation in the UV and VUV spectra, at discrete wavelengths between 351 nm and 157 nm.The most commonly used excimer lasers are krypton fluoride ( KrF , 248 nm), argon fluoride ( ArF, 193 nm), xenon chloride (XeCl, 308 nm), xenon fluoride (XeF, 351 nm). Research efforts andcontinuous improvements over recent years have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the tool of choice for many applications in medical sciences. Excimer lasers have shown promise in angioplasty, bilary laser lithotripsy, ophthalmology and orthopedics. It is heartening to emphasize that the first laser eye surgery using an excimer laser was performed in 1987, by ophthalmologist Steven Trokel. Today millions undergo eye surgery every year which is a path breaking achievement in eye surgery. Another medical application where excimer 28
lasers are being used is dermatology for treating a variety of dermatological conditions including psoriasis, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, alopecia areata and leukoderma. EXCIMER LASER AND LASER – TISSUE INTERACTION The term “excimer” is a shortened form of “excited dimer”, which describes a molecule formed from two identical noble gas atoms.These atoms will only bond with each other in an excited state. The term “excimer” was later expanded to include all combinations of rare gases and halides. Therefore, in laser physics, all raregas halides and similar molecules are excimers, which are not really dimers. Nowadays excimer lasers are the dominant UV source in many applications. Using an excimer laser is the easiest way to generate photons in the deep ultraviolet. Although it is possible to generate radiation below 350 nm with solid-state lasers using non-linear optical effects, tremendous effort is involved in this process. A frequency-tripled Nd-YAG laser, for example, emits at 355 nm, but to generate photons in the deeper UV the processes become more and more inefficient. If output power is needed, solid-state lasers are definitely no match for excimer lasers.Due to their complex technology, the first excimer lasers were very sensitive devices. However, this has changed dramatically. As a result of effective improvement over the last 15 years, excimer lasers have now become fully competitive with other commercially used laser systems. Excimer lasers are pulsed gas lasers operating with a special mixture of noble gases and halogens. They emit laser radiation in the UV and VUV spectra, at discrete wavelengths between 351 nm and 157 nm. Continuous improvements over recent years have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the tool of choice for many applications. The excimer lasers produce ultraviolet light which due to its short wavelength allows for highprecision imaging. Different excimer laser transitions have been used to generate light pulses at various wavelengths between 126 nm and about 660 nm. The most commonly used excimer lasers are krypton fluoride ( KrF , 248 nm), argon fluoride ( ArF, 193 nm), xenon chloride ( XeCl, 308 nm ), xenon fluoride ( XeF, 351 nm ). Laser action in an excimer molecule www.ijsir.co.in
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occurs because it has a bound excited state, but a repulsive ground state which is due to the fact that noble gases like xenon (Xe) and krypton (Kr) do not usually form compound. These noble gases in excited state can form temporarily bound molecules with themselves or with halogens like fluorine and chlorine. This bound state is the upper laser level in the case of excimer laser level. The excited compound can give up its excess energy by undergoing spontaneous or stimulated emission, resulting in a strongly repulsive ground state molecule which very quickly dissociates back into two unbound atoms.Since the excimer molecule returns to the unexcited ground state and separates into atoms, the population inversion condition is achieved the moment excited state is created, since the population of ground level is nil. Excimer lasers are powerful ultraviolet lasers which use a mixture of noble gases and halogens as a gain medium.All lasers consist of three components: a pump (energy source), a gain (or laser) medium, and an optical resonator. The pump provides energy which is amplified by the gain medium. This energy is eventually converted into light and is reflected through the optical resonator which then emits the final output beam. Like most gas lasers, excimer laser power is provided by an electrical current source. The laser medium is a tube filled with three different types of gases: -
A noble gas (argon, krypton, or xenon)
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A halogen gas (fluorine, chlorine, or bromine)
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A buffer gas (typically neon or helium)
Excimer lasers rely on the interaction between the noble gas and the halogen gas to produce a high-powered beam. The current source pumps the gas medium using very short, high voltage pulses transmitted through metal electrodes; the pulse excites the gas atoms and causes them to fuse together into atomic pairs called dimers. For example, pumping an argon fluoride (ArF) laser causes asymmetric molecules of ArF to form. Excimers only remain bound in an excited state, so that following the pulsed electrical discharge the atoms separate once www.ijsir.co.in
again. While active, though, the excimers emit a burst of electromagnetic radiation before quickly dissociating into separate gases. This rapid dissociation prevents molecular reabsorption of the emitted radiation, making it possible to achieve high gain using a relatively small concentration of excimers. The radiation is then reflected by mirrors placed at both ends of the gas tube (representing the optical resonator) until the beam is emitted via the front mirror. Laser actions are governed according to the discovery of Einstein that light does not consist of continuous waves or small particles but it exists as bundles of wave energy called photons.[3] The type of interaction of laser with tissue that occurs depends on various factors such as the properties of laser system (wavelength, energy pulsed / continuous mode of emission), local blood circulation, the optical properties of the tissues, and the immune response of the patient. [4,5] Further such type of interaction involves different effects like photo thermal effect, mechanical effect, photo chemical effect , tissue-welding effect. The understanding of interaction of laser with tissue involving different components viz protein, water, fat, melanin, hemoglobin etc. has led to numerous medical applications. Laser-tissue interaction involves scattering, absorption, heat generation and such properties could be harnessed for different applications. Time of interaction of the laser beam and intensity of the beam play critical role in defining the application of laser in humans subjects. These parameters need to be selected accordingly for a given purpose. The scattering properties of tissue could themselves be of diagnostic interest. Many spectrometric techniques like Laser Dopler Perfusion , Optical Coherence Tomography, Raman Scattering Spectroscopy etc. are based on scattering and haves played significant role in designing the laser of diagnostic purpose. In excimer laser ablation, which involves ultraviolet laser action based on a medium of noble gas halides,the mechanism of tissue cutting by the 193 nm eximer laser is non-thermal and involves direct breakage of covalent bonds.Another characteristics of ultraviolet radiation is its high tissue absorption coefficient leading to shallow 29
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penetration independent of water content. The combination of pulsed delivery, limited tissue penetration and non-thermal mechanism of tissue interaction seems to be ideally suited to extremely precise layer by layer ablation and make eximer lasers with diverse medical applications. BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS The effective utilization of lasers in medical sciences arises in many situations due to the unique aspects of laser light. The advantageous characteristic of lasers is due the ability to deliver high energy at precise wavelengths to minimize invasive damage. The technology of optical fibers facilitates precise delivery of very high energy to small regions of the tissues. Absorption of light by the target tissue and the depth of penetration are both wavelength dependant and thus several kinds of lasers have been developed for medical and therapeutic applications. The various kinds of lasers commonly used in many medical applications are CO2 lasers, Argon ion lasers, Nd: YAG lasers, KTP-532 lasers, Pulse-dye lasers, Alexanderite lasers, Ho: YAG lasers, Er. YAG lasers, Diode lasers, Excimer lasers.The largest application of Excimer lasers for medical use is in refractive laser surgery. As an ophthalmological tool ,excimer laser has been widely used for photoablation process. The precision of excimer laser and, more important, the lack of damage to surrounding tissue, are instrumental for correction of refractive errors or optical problems of the eye, including nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism. Excimer laser light is typically absorbed in less than a nanometer of tissue. By means of intense excimer pulses, the surface of the human cornea is reshaped to change its refractive power and thus to correct for short or long sightedness. Another medical application where excimer lasers are being used is dermatology for treating a variety of dermatological conditions including psoriasis, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, alopecia areata and leukoderma. The biomedical applications of excimer lasers in various disease conditions are discussed below.
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Dermatology The use of eximer laser in dermatology has been considered more effective as compared to conventional phototherapy and photochemotherapy because of the lower cumulative UV-dose involved, the shorter time frame required for treatment and the option of targeting individual lesions without affecting the surrounding healthy skin.Grema and Raulin have reviewed the application of eximer laser in various skin diseases such as psoriasis vulgaris, vitiligo and atopic eczema and it has been found very useful in these skin diseases. The eximer laser has also been found effective in case studies ranging from post-operative hypopigmentation to acne vulgaris and from alopecia areata to parapsoriasis en plaque.[6]UVB phototherapy has been found effective for the treatment of psoriasis. It has been observed that for patients with localized plaque-type lesions, 308-nm excimer laser phototherapy offers rapidly delivered, targeted, high UVB doses, while sparing adjacent healthy skin.Studies have been conducted to compare the advantages and disadvantages of the 308-nm xenon chloride (XeCI)UVB excimer laser with non targeted broadband UVB (BB-UVB), narrowband UVB (NBUVB), and psoralen plus UVA (PUVA) phototherapies and it has been proposed that excimer laser exclusively treats diseased skin with better response rates, split-body trials revealed no differences.[7] Narrowband UVB (311 nm) phototherapy is a well-established, widely used and highly efficient treatment for psoriasis which is a chronic, genetically determined inflammatory disease, characterized by an immunomediated pathogenesis, but a big disadvantage of this therapy is that large areas of unaffected skin are also irradiated along with the psoriatic lesions. Keeping in view of this disadvantage studies have been conducted to evaluate a 308-nm excimer laser and a 308-nm excimer lamp in comparison with 311-nm narrowband UVB in the treatment of patch psoriasis by using two different dose-increase schemes and the results of the study revealed that both 308-nm light sources can clear patch psoriasis in a similar manner to standard phototherapy, with the advantage of the ability to treat exclusively the affected skin and with a reduced cumulative dose, thus perhaps www.ijsir.co.in
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reducing the long-term risk of carcinogenicity.[8] Recently Mehraban and Feily have reviewed the efficacy of 308nm xenon-chloride excimer laser in treatment of dermatological disorders and found that 308-nm excimer laser has currently a verified efficacy in treating skin conditions such as vitiligo, psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, alopecia areata, allergic rhinitis, folliculitis, granuloma annulare, lichen planus, mycosis fungoides, palmoplantar pustulosis, pityriasis alba, CD30+ lympho proliferative disorder, leukoderma, prurigo nodularis, localized scleroderma and genital lichen sclerosus.[9] Park et al has reviewed the application of monochromatic excimer light (MEL) in dermatology which has been found effective for the treatment of vitiligo. The specific 308-nm radiation wavelength is delivered in a targeted form by the xenon-chloride excimer laser and is also available in an incoherent form that is commonly referred to as the excimer lamp. MEL administered by both laser and lamp has shown efficacy superior to NB-UVB for the treatment of vitiligo and induces more changes at the cellular level than conventional UVB modalities. The excimer laser has been found effective in adults and children with vitiligo in all skin types as monotherapy or in combination with other established vitiligo therapeutics.[10]Studies have been conducted to analyze the efficacy of the 308 nm excimer light in psoriasis, palmoplantar pustulosis, vitiligo, mycosis fungoides and alopecia areata and to examine potential new indications in patients and the results of the study confirm the use of monochromatic excimer light as a valid choice for the treatment of psoriasis, vitiligo, and mycosis fungoides and it has also been observed that monochromatic excimer light produces a therapeutic response in prurigo nodularis, localized scleroderma, genital lichen sclerosus, and granuloma annulare on the assessment of clinical response using photos, biopsies and specific clinical scores.[11]John et al studied the response of 308nm Excimer Laser to facial Vitiligo and the results of the study revealed encouraging response in the treatment of male patients with Fitzpatrick skin types IV to VI undergoing combination treatment utilizing excimer laser with www.ijsir.co.in
calcipotriene.[12] It is interesting to note that the 308nm excimer laser is a newer treatment option that can yield impressive results in an abbreviated time frame. [10] Nicolaidou et al [10] reviewed the use of excimer laser and demonstrated that 15 to 50 percent of patients achieved greater than 75-percent repigmentation. Notably, excimer laser treatment periods were 15 weeks or less in the overwhelming majority of the studies analyzed.[10] Additionally, there has been some evidence that excimer laser treatment causes faster, more complete repigmentation in patients with higher Fitzpatrick skin types. [13,14,15] Passeron et al has conducted the studies to compare the efficacy of combined tacrolimus and 308-nm excimer laser therapy vs 308-nm excimer laser monotherapy in treating vitiligo and the studies revealed that the combination treatment of 0.1% tacrolimus ointment plus the 308-nm excimer laser is superior to 308-nm excimer laser monotherapy for the treatment of UV-resistant vitiliginous lesions. Further the results of the study also confirm the efficacy and the good tolerance of the 308-nm excimer laser in monotherapy for treating localized vitiligo but this treatment regimen should be proposed only for UVsensitive areas.[16] A prospective clinical study has been conducted in patients with vitiliginous patches to investigate the clinical efficacy, safety, and psychosocial impact after treating vitiligo with the 308-nm excimer laser and the results of the study indicate that the treatment of vitiligo using the 308-nm excimer laser is effective and safe and improves psychosocial quality of life. It has also been observed that lesion location, duration of disease, and treatment duration are factors affecting the clinical and psychological outcome.[17] Hofer et al has conducted the study to determine the optimal frequency of 308nm excimer laser therapy for vitiligo and observed that 308-nm excimer laser therapy is effective against vitiligo. Although repigmentation occurs fastest with 3x weekly treatment, the ultimate repigmentation initiation seems to depend entirely on the total number of treatments, not their frequency. On the basis of the results of the study it has also been argued that treatment periods of more than 12 weeks may be necessary to obtain a satisfactory clinical repigmentation, particularly when vitiligo lesions 31
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are treated only 1x or 2x compared with 3x weekly. [18] Alhowaish et al has reviewed the effectiveness of 380-nm excimer laser in the treatment of vitiligo based on the available studies and case series and found that the excimer laser most likely constitutes the treatment of choice for localized vitiligo as compared to other treatment modalities and its efficacy can be further improved in combination with other therapies such as corticosteroids, pimecrolimus, or tacrolimus.[19]Bronfenbrener et al has studied the efficacy of 308nm excimer laser in treatment of Granuloma Annulare Granuloma annulare (GA) which is a relatively common disorder with a female predominance that usually presents as 1 to 5cm skin-colored or erythematous annular plaques with peripheral papules and a 73-year-old woman with a longstanding history of GA presented to the dermatology clinic complaining of gradual worsening of her condition was treated with the excimer lesser and this case of generalized GA treated with the excimer laser resulted in resolution of lesions that had been refractory to other therapies.[20] Goldinger et al in their study indicated that monochromatic phototherapies such as 311-nm narrowband ultraviolet B therapy and 308-nm xenon chloride excimer laser have been found an effective and safe therapeutic option in children and adult patients with vitiligo and the addition of topically applied calcipotriol to phototherapy may increase its effectiveness. The results of the study showed that the addition of calcipotriol ointment to 308-nm xenon chloride excimer laser phototherapy does not significantly enhance its efficacy and small additive effects must be investigated in a larger trial.[21]Low dose excimer 308 nm laser has been studied for its effectiveness in treatment of lichen planopilaris (LPP) which is a difficult to treat, chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disease targeting the hair follicle that eventually leads to permanent irreversible scarring alopecia and commonly affects adult women on the central scalp with multifocal patches, perifollicular erythema, hyperkeratosis, and subjective complaints like pruritus or pain. The results of the study have shown that for chronic inflammation UV-B excimer laser treatment might also be effective in LPP, since it has proven 32
beneficial for certain inflammatory skin disorders that are mediated by lymphocytes and are responsive to psoralen plus UV-A therapy.[22]Tejaswi et al reviewed the studies describing excimer laser treatment protocol with particular attention to dosage determination, dose adjustment, dose fluency, number of treatments, and maintenance with an aim to characterize treatment parameters for 308 nm excimer laser phototherapy and found that the 308 nm excimer laser is an effective therapy for psoriasis regardless of the method used to determine initial dosage, dose fluency, or number of treatments. As its usage as a targeted monotherapy increases, future trials should consider evaluating and modifying these parameters to determine the most optimal management of localized psoriasis. They have observed that there is no consensus for a single excimer laser therapy protocol and as a result, patient preferences should continue to be an important consideration for phototherapy regimen planning.[23] Besides above studies, several other studies have been conducted to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of 308 nm excimer laser in treatment of alopecia areata (AA ) and psoriasis and it has been effective in the treatment of these skin disorders .[24-32]It has been shown that 193 nm excimer laser irradiation has potential to cleanly and effectively ablate a vascular tissue with minimal thermal damage to surrounding adjacent structures and the 193 nm excimer laser has been used to remove guinea pig epidermis in vivo. The results of the study indicate that the epidermis can be totally ablated with thermal damage extending only superficially into the dermis and this technique may be applicable to the removal of benign epidermal lesions.[33,97]Gattu et al has reviewed the studies of the 308-nm excimer laser in the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris, palmoplantar psoriasis, and psoriasis of the scalp. The XeCl excimer emits a 308-nm wavelength beam of light that is monochromatic and coherent which allow selectivity when used as phototherapy against a psoriatic lesion while sparing healthy surrounding tissue.[34]Clinical studies have been conducted to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy and safety of a 308-nm excimer laser for the treatment of scalp and palmoplantar psoriasis and the results of the study revealed that the www.ijsir.co.in
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308-nm excimer laser is an effective, safe, easy, and relatively quicker method for the treatment of psoriasis at difficult to treat sites, with good results in a somewhat short time.[35] An open level pilot study has been conducted to assess the efficacy of combination therapy using 308-nm excimer laser, clobetasol propionate spray and calcitriol ointment for the treatment of moderate to severe generalized psoriasis and the results of the study revealed that excimer laser therapy combined with an optimized topical regimen that includes clobetasol spray followed by calictriol ointment appears to be an effective treatment for moderate to severe generalized psoriasis that avoids the risk of serious internal side effects associated with many systemic agents.[36]Han et al conducted studies to evaluate the efficacy and safety of 308-nm monochromatic excimer light (MEL) in the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris and palmoplantar psoriasis and found that the MEL therapy is well tolerated with a low incidence of side effects, which included pruritus, erythema and blister formation. The results of the study revealed that the 308-nm MEL can be utilized as an effective and safe treatment modality for patients with mild-to-moderate psoriasis vulgaris and palmoplantar psoriasis. [37]Kawada has reviewed the efficacy of light sources targeted phototherapy which include broad-band UVB, narrow-band UVB, 308-nm excimer laser and light, 307-nm excimer light and 312-nm flat-type fluorescent lamp for the treatment of psosriasis.[38]308 nm excimer laser has been found effective for the treatment of Atopic dermatitis (AD) which is a chronic, inflammatory skin disease affecting 3% of adults and 20% of children .[39] Ophthalmology Argon fluoride excimer lasers operating at a wavelength of 193 nm are being used extensively throughout the world for both photorefractive (PRK) and phototherapeutic (PTK) keratectomies.Study has been conducted to assess the visual outcome of excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy ( LPK ) and laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) for the correction of moderate and high myopiain where the LASIK technique included a nasally based, 150 microns thick, 8.0 x 9.0 mm diameter, truncated, disc-shaped corneal flap created with www.ijsir.co.in
a microkeratome and the ablation of the stroma with a 193-nanometer ArF excimer laser and the photorefractive keratectomy technique included mechanical removal of the epithelium and ablation of the stroma with a 193-nanometer ArF excimer laser. The results of the study revealed that LASIK was more effective than photorefractive keratectomy in higher myopes.It was also observed that LASIK created less corneal haze and the refraction was more stable with LASIK in the correction of high myopia and its predictability was found three times that of PRK.[40] The argon fluoride excimer laser emits radiation in the far ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum (193 nm). Each photon has high individual energy. Research studies have shown that exposure of tissues with peak absorption around 193 nm results in removal of surface layers (photoablation) with extremely high precision and minimal damage to non-irradiated areas and this precision is confirmed in a series of experiments on cadaver eyes and the treatment of eyes with anterior corneal disease and found that multiple zone excimer laser superficial keratectomy is considered the treatment of choice for rough, painful corneal surfaces. Where good visual potential exists, ablation of a single axial zone is recommended and results in improved visual acuity and reduction of glare. [41] In addition to above studies, several studies have been conducted to assess the effectiveness of excimer laser in surgery of cornia and correction of astigmatism and excimer laser has been found useful. [42-51]Studies have been conducted to evaluate epithelial wound healing and visual outcome of excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) performed on high myopic eyes with contact lens intolerance due to dry eye and the results of the study have revealed that PRK is effective for patients with high myopia and contact lense intolerance due to dry eye.[52] Taylor et al conducted the studies to assess the safety and efficacy of excimer laser treatment of myopic astigmatism and to compare this with the excimer laser treatment of myopia where A VISX Twenty/Twenty excimer laser was used to perform either photo astigmatic refractive keratectomy or photorefractive keratectomy and the results of the study revealed that excimer laser surgery offers an 33
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effective option in the treatment of myopic astigmatism.[53]In an another study a series of 122 eyes with band keratopathy was treated by excimer laser phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK), with a mean follow up of over 12.3 months (range 3 to 60 months) which revealed that excimer laser PTK is a safe and effective outpatient treatment for band keratopathy.[54]Laser intrastromal keratomileusis (LASIK) has been found an evolving technique enabling high degrees of myopia and myopic astigmatism to be corrected. Clinical studies have shown that for the correction of high myopia and myopic astigmatism, LASIK results in less postoperative pain and relatively little subepithelial haze compared with high myopic photorefractive keratectomy. Furthermore, a stable refraction and reasonably predictable outcome occurs much earlier and high myopia up to -37.0 D can also be corrected. [55] In a comparative study of excimer laser ablation of the cornea and crystalline lens using 193 nm and 248 nm radiation, it has been found that threshold fluence for corneal and lens ablation was higher at 248 nm than at 193 nm. conforming that the excimer laser is effective in producing well controlled ablation of the crystalline lens in vitro, with effects parallel to those seen in the cornea. [56] The 193 nm excimer laser has generated much interest as a rapidly developing new technology for the correction of refractive errors.Previously published reports have demonstrated the efficacy of excimer laser photorefractive and phototherapeutic keratectomy in the treatment of low myopia, high myopia, and comeal scars.Photorefractive keratectomy using the 193-nm excimer laser appears to be a safe, effective treatment for the reduction of low, moderate, and high myopia. The results are more predictable in low and moderate myopia, than in higher degrees of myopia. [57-64] Angioplasty Excimer Laser Angioplasty has become now a days a powerful tool for treating heart disease. It has been found that other laser types are too hot for delicate coronary surgery and could damage tissue, cause blood vessel spasms, or create blood clots. The excimer is a ‘cool‘ laser that uses ultraviolet light energy to operate at 34
65° C, a temperature human tissue can tolerate.Laser angioplasty is a procedure where a thin fiber-optic catheter is inserted into an artery in the leg and threaded to a blockage in a coronary artery. A tiny optical assembly diffuses the laser strand into a small cone-shaped laser beam as it is emitted from the catheter. The nonthermal laser vaporizes blockages in the artery without damaging delicate tissue. The procedure can be performed in a non-surgical setting using a local anesthetic. The hospital stay is minimal, and there is less post-operative pain, discomfort, and risk to the patient. Developed by Advanced Interventional Systems, Inc., the Dymer 200+ excimer laser angioplasty system vaporizes the buildup of fatty deposits - called plaque - in the arteries. It is safer than coronary bypass operations and offers wider utility than balloon angioplasty. In clinical trials the success rate in opening blocked coronary arteries was shown to be 85 percent, with fewer complications than in balloon angioplasty. In January 1992, the system received Food and Drug Administration approval for treatment of coronary disease. Excimer laser–facilitated coronary angioplasty has been found clinically beficial in treating heart disease as reported by many research workers. This technology has great use in tubular, diffuse, calcified, total, subtotal, and ostial lesions. In addition to these advantages , the photoablative properties of excimer lasers result in precise atheroablation, including calcium, without harmful thermal injury. [65-71]The studies conducted on the feasibility and safety of excimer laser angioplasty in selective patients with complicated acute myocardial infarction have revealed that application of excimer laser coronary angioplasty is feasible and safe in patients with acute myocardial infarction who either fail to respond to thrombolytics or have contraindications to these agents and intracoronary thrombus at the target lesion can be successfully dissolved with this wavelength laser energy without adverse effect on the procedure results.[72]In a clinical multicentric trial study conducted to evaluate safety and efficacy of excimer laser angioplasty in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) with thrombus-laden lesions,95% device success,97% angiographic success, and 91% overall procedural success rate were www.ijsir.co.in
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recorded.[73]Mintz et al studied the mechanisms of excimer laser coronary angioplasty (ELCA) in human coronary arteries in vivo selecting to treat 202 lesions in 190 patients and it was found that ELCA increased lumen CSA by both atheroablation and vessel expansion without calcium ablation and superficial fibrocalcific deposits developed a characteristic fragmented appearance which support both photoablation and forced vessel expansion as mechanisms of lumen enlargement and plaque dissection after ELCA.[74]In a clinical study conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of percutaneous coronary excimer laser angioplasty in patients with coronary artery disease it has been observed that coronary excimer laser angioplasty for ablation of obstructive lesions is feasible and safe in patients with stable angina.[75] Lithotripsy Weiqiang et al studied the use ofa XeCl (308 nm) excimer laser in fragmentation of biliary stones and found that sixty biliary calculipigment (n=40) and cholesterol (n=20) were fragmented in vitro. The results of the study indicate that the 308 nm excimer laser may be effective as a laser lithotriptor with low threshold and good efficiency for biliary stone fragmentation.[76] A study has been conducted where a long pulse XeCl excimer laser (200 ns) has been used to induce fragmentation of human urinary stone and artificial model during in vitro experiments and it has been found that total fragmentation was always successfully achieved, requiring a variable number of pulses (10-100) depending on the pulse energy and the hardness of the sample.[77] Gundlach et al. conducted an in vitro study to evaluate the application of a laser beam for the fragmentation of salivary stones where optimal fragmentation was achieved using a pulsed excimer laser with a pulse width of 60 ns and a wave-length of 308 or 351 nm and a new “sialoendoscope� technique was developed. Laser lithotripsy of salivary stones with endoscopic monitoring represents a novel method that permits treatment on an outpatient basis under local anaesthesia.[78] Orthopaedics Landsman etal has reviewed the applications of various kinds of lasers including www.ijsir.co.in
excimer lasers in podiatric and orthopedic csurgery. [79] The excimer lasers have been found very useful in orthopaedic surgery. It has been shown useful to provide forth edenudingof cartilage from bone due to its having an irradiation range approximately the same as cartilage’s absorption pattern.This would allow fortheablation of cartilage with minute amounts of peripheral necrosis or structural change of the adjacent bone. The excimer laser has been found to be of great benefit compared with with the CO2 and Nd-YAG lasers for fibrocartilageablation.[80-84] Glossop et al has reviewed clinical and laboratory experience with the 308 nm XeCl excimer laser in arthroscopy and found that this ultra violet laser is extremely proficient for debridement of degenerate articular cartilage and meniscus. Preliminary in vitro and in vivo studies were performed to investigate the character of laser-irradiated articular cartilage and to search for evidence of regeneration and the results of autoradiographic and histologic studies showed no evidence of cartilage regeneration.[85]Beke et al has conducted studies to demonstrate high-resolution photocrosslinking of biodegradable poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and diethyl fumarate (DEF) using UV excimer laser photocuring at 308 nm in a human osteosarcoma (HOS) cell line where cell adhesion and viability have been demonstrated showing that the produced scaffolds are suitable for assisting bone cell attachment and proliferation.Preliminary cell tests have proved that PPF : DEF scaffolds produced by excimer laser photocuring are biocompatible and are promising candidates to be applied in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.[86]An in vivo study has been conducted to see the effect of excimer laser (xenon chloride ultraviolet, 308-nm) irradiation on degenerate rabbit articular cartilage where adult rabbits with mechanically induced degenerative arthritis of one knee were used as experimental model and the results of the study revealed that in the laser-irradiated group initially there was macroscopic and microscopic smoothing of the fibrillated surface while in the control group there was no improvement in the macroscopic or microscopic appearance of the articular surface and by 6 weeks the surface had begun to show the 35
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reappearance of fibrillation. [87] Andreas has studied the application of various lasers including excimer lasers in orthopaedic surgery and found them clinically useful for meniscal cutting and ablation, lateral retinacular release, release of posttraumatic fibrosis, chondroplasty, synovectomy, debridement, labral tear ablation in a shoulder, subacromial decompression, rotator cuff debridement, tissue tightening (collagen shrinking), ankle impingement decompression and debridement, and percutaneous nucleotomy. The results of the study with laser tissue-photoagglutination and tissue welding may make it possible to repair torn meniscus by tissue welding with laser energy. [88] Dentistry One of the milestones in technological advancements in dentistry is the use of lasers which have been found to provide more efficient, more comfortable and more predictable outcomes for the patient.Cutting in soft tissue, hard dental material ablation, caries removal and root canal therapy are only a few examples of dental laser uses.Excimer Lasers in dentistry are normally used for hard tissue ablation/ dental caries removal. Argon fluoride / Xenon fluoride lasers are used. They have a wave length from193nm to308nm.It has been shown that all the excimer lasers and especially the argon fluoride excimer laser at 193 nm are characterized by its nonthermal photoablation interaction with polymers[89,90].Pini et al studied the application of excimer lasers in dentistry for the treatment of dental root canals and the results of the study revealed that high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted by an XeCl excimer laser (308 nm) and delivered through suitable optical fibers can be used to remove residual organic tissue from the canals. [91]A study has been conducted to see the effect of ArF excimer laser on human enamel where human enamel surface was irradiated with ArF excimer laser and examined under light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the influence of the laser irradiation was confined to the irradiated area only with no visible heat damage to the surroundings. The results of the study revealed that excimer laser may be applied in a controlled and defined manner for tooth enamel treatments in dentistry. [92]Joseph et al 36
has studied the use of short pulse ArF excimer laser to ablation of dentin and enamel with emphasis on the effect of laser pulse repetition rates (PRR) and fluence levels on the efficiency of the ablation process and on the average thermal response of ablated surfaces. The results of the study showed that ablation of dentin was found to be considerably more efficient than the ablation of enamel and depends exponentially on the laser fluence and also tissue ablation rates were found to be comparable to or better than other nanosecond lasers and left smooth surfaces, free of thermal damage. With the application of short pulse ArF excimer laser the ablated surfaces appear to be very smooth, highly polished and glossy looking as if they were subjected to thermal melting.[93] Biomedical Implants/Materials / Devices Laser surface texturing can be used to produce well defined micro-grooves on biomedical materials such asTi-6Al-4V. Such micro-grooves can be optimized to improve the integration with surrounding tissue. Research studies have demonstrated that excimer lasers or large area masking techniques, grooves produced with Nd:YVO4 has potential to exhibit improved roughness parameters and to reduce heat-affected zones. Further, processing parameters have also been established for the fabrication of micro-groove geometries on flat geometries having relavence to biomedical implants and devices. [94]Studies conducted by Waugh and Lawrence to see the wettability and osteoblast cell response modulation through UV laser processing of nylon 6,6 have revealed that the laser-induced modifications have given rise to modulated osteoblast cell response in terms of cell proliferation and differentiation and laser surface treatment holds a large potential to be widely employed within regenerative medicine as laser surface treatment offers a unique means of varying biomimetic properties to determine generic parameters to predict cell responses.[95] Segmented polyurethane (SPU) films with round micropores have been prepared and a quantitative assay method of endothelial cell (EC) migration through micropores of and growth on microprocessed SPU films as an in vitro model of transmural endothelialization in www.ijsir.co.in
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open-cell-structured small-diameter vascular grafts has been developed using excimer laser which have great relevance in medicine and biology. [96] A micropatterned microporous segmented polyurethane film (20×12 mm in size, 30 Ïm thick) with four regions was prepared by excimer laser microprocessing to provide an in vivo model of transmural tissue ingrowth in an open cell–structured scaffold specially designed for cardiovascular tissue engineering which has great clinical relevance in medicine.[98] Pyrenedecanoic acid and pyrene lecithin are optical probes well suited to investigate lipid bilayer membranes. The method is based on the determination of the formation of excited dimers or excimers. Applications of the excimer-forming probes have been reviewed and they have great relevance in biomedical research particularly in understanding phase separation phenomena and lipid-protein interactions in biological system.[99] A microprocessing method has been developed to prepare microporous polymer films by an excimer laser ablation technique, which may enable the fabrication of functional biomedical devices such as advanced artificial organs having relavence in medicine.[100]The sheltered transfer and immobilization of rabbit anti-human antiserum immunoglobulin G (IgG) by matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) have been studied and it has been found that IgG transfer and immobilization onto substrates are improved by addition of lipid to MAPLE solutions.[101]Simulated body fluid (SBF) has been used as a screening method in determining the bioactivity of numerous biomaterials. Owed to insufficient surface properties of polymers it has been seen to be of great advantage to modify the surfaces of these materials to allow the polymer to become more biomimetic.Waugh and Lawrence has conducted the studies on the enhancement of biomimetic apatite coatings by means of KrF excimer laser surface treatment of nylon 6,6 and the results of the study suggest that through excimer laser surface treatment osteoblast cell adhesion and proliferation can be enhanced.[102] DISCUSSION Lasers are concentrated beams of www.ijsir.co.in
electromagnetic radiation (light) travelling in a particular direction. The defining properties of laser light are that the light waves are coherent (all travelling in harmony with one another) and that they are usually of one wavelength, or colour.By harnessing these properties in a device that reflects light back and forth through a special material, it is possible to generate an amplified light source, or laser.Such light can be concentrated in time and space to create truly extreme conditions, or be used to provide exquisite imaging and analysis capability across a wide range of applications.The type of interaction of laser with tissue that occurs depends on various factors such as the properties of laser system (wavelength, energy pulsed / continuous mode of emission), local blood circulation, the optical properties of the tissues, and the immune response of the patient. [4,5] Further such type of interaction involves different effects like photo thermal effect, mechanical effect, photo chemical effect, tissuewelding effect . The understanding of interaction of laser with tissue involving different components viz protein, water, fat, melanin, hemoglobin etc. has led to numerous medical applications. Laser-tissue interaction involves scattering, absorption, heat generation and such properties could be harnessed for different applications. Time of interaction of the laser beam and intensity of the beam play critical role in defining the application of laser in biomedical field. In the medical field, lasers are diagnostic and therapeutic instruments that offer a whole range of solutions. The laser which enables for greater surgical precision is less invasive and promotes healing time or cure. This technique is generally much less traumatic than traditional surgical techniques. The first use of lasers in medicine was to damage the retina to understand ocular injury due to accidental exposure. [103] Since the first ruby laser, several devices have been improved placing ophthalmology at the forefront of medical specialties using this technology. The laser has also many applications in the field of biology. Researchers take the technology to its limits by playing on two main parameters, the short laser pulses-to the femtosecond, and energy beams. Since then, pulsed lasers have become increasingly popular for their ability to ablate 37
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biological tissue. For patient diagnosis and experimental studies, biological tissue can be either analyzed under a microscope after immuno-histostaining or crushed for further molecular analysis. Laser-Assisted microdissection (LAM) provides a valuable link between these two approaches. It gives new insights into cellular mechanisms, genetic disorders, tumor biomarker identification patient-tailored therapy. The development of light-absorbing nanoparticles that are nontoxic to biological tissue has provided further potential for a more targeted delivery of heat with minimal damage to healthy tissue. At an appropriate wavelength, exposure of a nanoparticle to a laser can trigger a photothermal effect in the particle whereby electronic oscillations at the particle surface are converted to heat.[104] The applications of laser technology in biology and medicine have been found great therapeutic potential in treatment of variety of disease conditions such as angiomas in children and infants; spider naevi, treatment of rosacea, psoriasis,aesthetic treatment of superficial veins of the skin, acne, rosacea, warts, birthmarks; ablation of hard dental tissues without the risk of micro- and macro-fractures , ablation of the epithelium on the non-pigmented skin of the eyelid in preparation for melanocyte transplantation in the treatment of segmental eyelid vitiligo, in the treatment of superficial pigmented lesions, pregnancy mask (melasma), dermatitis ocher, some pigmentation related to drugs, certain types of scarring or ulcers etc.[105]The advantages of laser in ophthalmology have been well demonstrated particularly in the treatment of myopia and cataract where they enable patients with visual impairment to regain a clear vision and forget the stress of wearing glasses or contact lenses.[106]In the field of dermatology, it has great potential in treatment of vascular lesions such as angiomas, telangiectasias, spider naevi, treatment of pigmented lesions (brown spots, naevus of ota, freckles) and tattoo or hair removal targeting the melanin stored in the hair follicles in order to destroy the hair matrix to enable permanent hair removal .[107]Furthure,laser surgery has the advantage of reducing the risk of infection and it promotes healing. It is used in cosmetic surgery to erase cellulite and superficial wrinkles. Often less 38
invasive than conventional surgery, laser surgery is however not without risks. [108] Lasers can also be used in dentistry (gum care and treatment of tooth decay) and phlebology (treatment of Varicose veins)). [109,110] Lasers have achieved a prominent position in medical application and offer unique advantages for medical diagnosis, therapeutic treatments and internal surgeries in most medical disciplines including dermatology, dentistry, neurosurgery, eye surgery, cancer surgery, urology, gastroenterology etc. because of their ability to deliver high precision treatments, whilst remaining minimally invasive. Thus Laser- based therapies and diagnostic methods represent an area of huge future potential. Different types of laser like Nd : YAG laser,CO2 laser, KTP laser, Ho : YAG laser, diode lasers, excimer lasers etc. are currently being used for various medical applications. Excimer lasers, which are pulsed gas lasers operating with a special mixture of noble gases and halogens, emit laser radiation in the UV and VUV spectra, at discrete wavelengths between 351 nm and 157 nm. The most commonly used excimer lasers are krypton fluoride ( KrF, 248 nm), argon fluoride ( ArF, 193 nm), xenon chloride ( XeCl, 308 nm ), xenon fluoride ( XeF, 351 nm ). The principal advantage of excimer lasers is that they are capable of producing a very small, precise spot at a very low (UV) wavelength. Excimer lasers are excellent for removing excess material through laser ablation due to the fact that they are able to precisely destroy material with little to no thermal buildup. This contrasts with carbon dioxide lasers, which rely heavily on thermal buildup to “boil off� material during ablation. Research efforts over recent years have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the tool of choice for many applications in medical sciences. Excimer lasers have shown promise in angioplasty, bilary laser lithotripsy, ophthalmology and orthopedics. Another medical application where excimer lasers are being used is dermatology for treating a variety of dermatological conditions including psoriasis, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, alopecia areata and leukoderma.In the present review, applications of excimer lasers in biomedical sciences particularly in dermatology, ophthalmology, angioplasty, orthopaedics, lithotripsy, dentistry, medical implants have been www.ijsir.co.in
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presented and recent studies carried out have been reviewed.The largest application of excimer lasers for medical use is in refractive laser surgery. As an ophthalmological tool, excimer laser has been widely used for photoablation process. The precision of excimer laser and, more important, the lack of damage to surrounding tissue, are instrumental for correction of refractive errors or optical problems of the eye, including nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism. Excimer laser light is typically absorbed in less than a nanometer of tissue. By means of intense excimer pulses, the surface of the human cornea is reshaped to change its refractive power and thus to correct for short or long sightedness.Another medical application where excimer lasers are being used is dermatology for treating a variety of dermatological conditions including psoriasis, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, alopecia areata and leukoderma.Excimer lasers are very powerful UV sources. [111 ]and they can also emit nanosecond pulses, with average output powers between a few watts and hundreds of watts. Typical wavelengths of excimer lasers are between 157 and 351 nm. The 308-nm excimer laser and a related 308-nm excimer lamp have been approved to treat psoriasis and vitiligo. [112]Recently Gupta et al has reviewed the effects of UV radiation on wound healing which is a very complex process involving multiple tissue types influenced by local as well as systemic components [113] where the effects of UV irradiation on skin cells in vitro, UV-induced damage and its repair, potential effects of UV irradiation for treatment of microbial infected wounds, especially those caused by antibioticresistant pathogens, effects of UV irradiation on wound healing, UV phototherapy for dermatological and other disorders, novel UV light sources to improve selective penetration and reduce the side effects have been discussed with an aim to provide nontoxic, minimally invasive and economically feasible technology for improving wound healing.[114] Laser interaction with biological system is a very complexphenomena involving various factors having multiple therapeutic potencial in disease conditions. These are photochemical , biostimulation - stimulatory effects of laser on biochemical and molecular processes that www.ijsir.co.in
normally occur in tissues such as healing and repair, photodynamic therapy inducing reactions in tissues for the treatment of pathologic conditions, tissue fluorescence useful as a diagnostic method to detect light reactive substance in tissue, photo thermal interactions useful for photoablation to remove tissue by vaporization and super heating of tissue fluids , coagulation, and hemostasis ; photopyrolysis ;photo disruption - breaking apart of structures by laser light; photoaccoustic interactioninvolving removal of tissue with shock wave generation, photoelectrical interaction including photoplasmolysis which describes how tissue is removed through the formation of electrically charged ions and particles that exist in a semi gaseous high energy state; photocoagulation : laser heats the tissues to 600 C for a limited time leading to coagulation of the tissues with minimal alteration in the appearance of tissue structure. As a result of these proteins enzymes cytokines and other bioactive molecules get denatured. It has been demonstrated that high power lasersare used for surgical purposes and low power lasers are used to promote tissue regeneration. UV irradiation may cause both beneficial and damaging effects, which depend on wavelength, radiant exposure, and UV sources.Laser is a device producing a very intense and very narrow (collimated) beam of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range 180 nm to 1 mm and its important properties are monochromaticity (narrow wavelength range), directionality(high collimation) and coherence (propagation in same phase) and laser light isnot an ionizing type of radiation.Interaction of laser with the body is generally at the surface.The eye and the skin are critical organs for laser radiation exposure, and the resultant effects vary depending on the type of laser (frequency or wavelength of the radiation) and beam energy output. Laser radiation of the proper wavelength and energy may be focused by the lens of the eye onto the retina causing severe damage. If laser radiation is of high enough energy, skin burns may also result if extremities or other body parts are placed in the laser beam. Thereforejudicious application of laser technology may be beneficial in disease conditions.It should be used in a manner such 39
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that the side effects would be minimized. Althoughlaser technology including excimer laser has made great progress in diagnosis and treatment of variety of complex diseases and its usehas now been well-demonstrated in ophthalmologic and dermatologic treatments, and surgery, this technology has enormous scope in medicine and biology and could be explored towards the development of targeted therapy for complex chronic diseases.In the field of medicine, the energy delivered by the laser, whose intensity can be modulated, can cut, destroy or alter the cellular or extracellular structure of biological tissue. This unique property of laser opens a vast scope in the field of medicine. Further the ability of laser applications in reducing the risk of infection and promoting healing may delever better therapeutic protocol in treatment of chronic diseases such aslocalized infectious diseases, especially those caused by antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Recent research studies have shown the potential of laser in destroying cancer cells which opens apath breaking approach in the treatment of dreadful disease cancer. However, high power lasers have been found to act indiscriminately and thus destroy cancer cells but also the surrounding tissue.Laser-associated micro dissection offers a rapid, precise method of isolating and removing targeted cells or groups of cells from complex biological tissues which may be helpful in understanding physiological mechanisms on the level of a specific cell population and even on the level of the single cell in disease conditions.Multidisciplinary research studies on the interaction of laser with biological tissue at molecular level using biotechnological tools will enhace the therapeutic potential of laser technology in diagnosis and treatment of chronic complex diseases especially cancer , genetic disorders, neurogegenerative disorders , multidrugresistence tuberculosis , autoimmune diseases , HIV etc.and it may also be useful in designing new and innovative strategies in drug delivery and image-guided surgery. REFERENCES 1.
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SUCCESSION AND LIFE CYCLE OF BEETLES ON THE EXPOSED CARCASS *REEMA SONKER, SUNITA RAWAT AND KALPANA SINGH Biocontrol and Forensic Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
*Address for correspondence: Reema Sonker , Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow,India, Email ID: reemasonker15@gmail.com ABSTRACT Various species of insects attract on the dead and decomposing body in a sequential manner, thisprocess is termed as succession. Necrophagous insects mainly Coleopterans are attracted to carcasses at specific stages of decomposition. Many types of beetles arrive on carcasses mainly belong to family Histeridae, Dermestidae, and Cleridae. Dermestid beetles feed on various things like animal’s decomposing remains and skin etc. Dermestid beetles are elongate broadly oval, covered with hairs or scales, with short, clubbed antennae fitted in grooves and of black or brownish colour. Beetle specimens were collected from exposed animal carcasses in Kanpur city and prepared for farther taxonomic study. The investigation started from February2012 to January2013. Most of the specimens collected were found in abundance during spring and summer season. In this investigation, succession and life history of the species Dermestes maculates (family: Dermestidae) is elaborated. As the PMI is based on the lifecycle and behaviour of necrophagous insects, this study may help as an important tool for estimation of the post-mortem interval (PMI) in forensic science. Keywords: Forensic entomology, Post-mortem interval, Carcass, Succession, Decomposition, Dermestidae, Dermestes maculates INTRODUCTION Forensic entomology is a branch of forensic science in which insects occurring over and around a corpse can be used for the determination of post mortem interval both on in land and in water [1, 2]. Forensic entomology is not a new concept, in 13th century a case of murder was solved with the help of forensic entomology [3]. Arthropods are the largest and most important group of animals found everywhere [4] and some species actively participate in decomposition of dead animals [5] .These are primary colonizers over a dead body [6] .The different species of insects invade on the different stages of decomposition and present on the carcass from the very beginning till the last stage of decomposition. On the basis of physical appearance of carcass internal temperature and characteristic insects’ population the process of decomposition can be divided into different sub stages as fresh, bloated, active decay, advance decay and dry 46
remain stage [7]. These arthropod species invade the corpse for breeding, feeding and shelter purposes. Their arrival preference on carcass depends upon the particular stage of decomposition [8. The entomofaunal succession of carrion insects is key factor for the process of decomposition [9]. The two most important factors which regulate the process of decomposition and invasion of insects on carcass are temperature and relative humidity [10].Rainfall also reduces the abundance and richness of insects on carrion [11] .The insects are attracted over different stages of decomposition [12, 13] and are categorised on the basis of their ecological role during decomposition [14] .This succession pattern of insects is usually a source of valuable information in suspicious death cases [15]. Carrion entomofauna also provide very useful information in drugs treated death [16] . The succession pattern of insects on dead body, their life cycle and development period provide useful information regarding manner and cause of death, place of death, transfer of dead body from www.ijsir.co.in
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one place to another and in determination of postmortem interval [17,16,18].Out of all the insects invading a dead body members of Diptera and Coleoptera constitute the major portion of carrion entomofauna [19].The primary colonizers on carrion are adults and larvae of flesh flies and blowflies[ 20] .These larvae consume most of the soft tissues of carrion [21] ,so a huge mass of larvae can be observed on the carcass. The presence of larvae and adults of flies represent the fresh stage of decomposition .Beetles are next to arriving on scene. Larvae of blow flies and flesh flies are stimulating factor for the arrival of large number of predatory beetles. Many types of beetles arriving on carcasses mainly belong to family Histeridae, Dermestidae, and Cleridae of order Coleoptera. Beetles belonging to the family Dermestidae feed on various things like animals’decomposing remains and skin etc. Dermestid beetles are elongated broadly oval, covered with hairs or scales, with short, clubbed antennae fitted in grooves and of black or brownish colour. The post bloated stage of decomposition is preferred stage of theses beetles [22]. Arrival of beetles on cadaver depends upon speed of decomposition which in turn is influenced by environmental conditions [23, 24]. Both adults and larvae of Dermestes species occur on carrion. The hairy segmented larvae of Dermestes species are indication of dry stage of decomposition. The objective of this study is to determine the succession and life cycle of beetles on pig carrion. This entomological information may be useful for the forensic investigation in this region. MATERIAL AND METHODS The studies were carried out in forest area of Forest Research Institute, Kanpur (260280S, 800250E).The investigation started from February 2012 to January 2013. The flora of investigation area mainly consists of xerophytic herbs and big trees of various plant species. Two piglet of approximately 10 kg weight were used in experiment. An iron cage of 82cmx79cmx64cm dimension was used in the experiment to avoid scavenging activity of vertebrate predators. The pigs were killed by a veterinary expert employed at Municipal Corporation. Study site was visited daily three times to observe the activity of insects and condition of carcass. The adults and larvae www.ijsir.co.in
of insects were collected daily with forceps. Some larvae were killed by dipping in boiling water and preserved in 70 percent alcohol and some were taken to laboratory for rearing and identification purposes. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Dermestes maculates is dominating insect species associated with later stages of decomposition [25]. Adult beetles of Dermestes species are observed on the carrion when large maggot masses of flies are present, but the highest infestation of Dermestes species resulted in reducing the population of flies’ maggots. These insects are attracted toward the carrion by the specific odour of decomposing remains. This odour of specific volatile compound is characteristic of particular stage of decomposition [26]. The combined odour of post bloated cadaver and male pheromones of Dermestes species act as attractant for virgin females [26]. The arrival of males on cadaver before the females is supported by the fact that males of Dermestes maculates were seen on the cadaver after 9-10 days of pig sacrifice but larvae infestation occurred after15 to 21 days, as reported by Early and Goff [25].The adult males and females copulated multiple times and females lay eggs after 24 hours of first mating in conformation with an earlier study [27]. The female laid eggs in batches and segmented worm like larvae of Dermestes were seen below the carrion after one day. Initially the larvae were creamy white in colour but after few hours they got darken to light grey colour. The cannibalism of eggs by larvae has been observed in the experiment. Similar cannibalism was also reported by other workers. [28] During the larval development, 5 to 11 instars had been observed but the number of instars can be different in unfavourable conditions[29]. During the development of larvae, no physical and morphological changes has been observed except the change in size. The full grown larvae can pupate either in feeding site or on some other substrate. Delay in pupation due to non-availability of pupation site was also observed. The pre -pupation stage of the species was C- shaped, thickened and reduced in length as also seen in earlier studies [30,31], 47
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pupa were oval in shape but smaller than larvae. It did not have hair like projections as also reported in other studies [32], after elusion the adult beetles migrated to other food sources as also observed in earlier studies [29]. The life cycle of Dermestes maculates takes approximately five to seven weeks under optimal conditions in and around Kanpur area. The dry stage of decomposition was characteristic of presence of Dermestes species [33] . Normally the duration period of their life cycle is 21 to 51 days but the rate of development was influenced by the temperature of habitat. The short duration larval stages were recorded in high lipid content diet [30]. The fully grown larvae migrated to pupation site to avoid cannibalism. A delay in pupation up to 20 days was also observed if they were unable to find a suitable place for pupation [34] .These beetles were able to tolerate a range of temperature and relative humidity [32]. The duration period of life cycle increased with lower temperature [35]. Under laboratory conditions at 250C-300C the duration period of average life cycle of Dermestes beetle recorded is 35.1-43.9 days [36], while it has been reported that at 180C the life cycle is completed in 96 days. [37] At 300C the life cycle period is 38 day [38]. The adult beetles have shown negative response towards high temperature. In morning they had been observed above the surface of carcass but at afternoon they migrated towards the inner side of carcass [39]. Duration of larval period were also affected by the population size of beetles on carcass.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors are highly grateful to the Head, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow , India and officials of Forest Research Institute, Kanpur for providing necessary space for experiment. REFERENCES 1.
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Smith K. G. V. A Manual of Forensic Entomology. London, Ithaca, British Museum of Natural History, Cornell Univ. Press. 1986; 1205.
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Peschke K. Krapf D. Fuldner D. Ecological separation, functional relationships, and limiting resources in a carrion insect community. ZoolJbSyst 1987; 114, 241–265.
CONCLUSION The different life stages and even the shed cuticle of larvae of Dermestes species are important tools in estimation of post-mortem interval [40]. This species of beetle is dominant from mid to late decay stages of decomposition and is forensically important [38]. The succession pattern of insects was stage specific so in medico legal cases the post-mortem interval is possible even in badly decomposed body [ 41]. As the PMI is based on the lifecycle and behaviour of necrophagous insects, this study may help as an important tool for estimation of the postmortem interval (PMI) in forensic science.
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10. Monteiro-Filho ELA. Penereiro JL. Estudo de decomposição e sucessãosobreumacarcaça animal numaárea do Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Rev Bras Biol. 1987; 47, 289–95. 11.
Easton A. M. and Smith. K. G. V. The entomology of the cadaver. Medicine, Science and the Law. 1970; 10, 208-215.
12. Horenstein M. B. & Linhares A. X. Seasonal composition and temporal succession of
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necrophagous and predator beetles on pig carrion in central Argentina. Med. Vet. Entomol. 2011; 25, 395-401. 13. Lord W. D. Case histories of the use of insects in investigations. In Entomology and Death: A procedural guide. E. P. Catts and N. H. Haskell, Eds. Forensic entomology specialties. Clemson, SC. 1990; 9-37. 14. Galal L. A. A.. El-Hameed S. Y., Attia R. A. H. & Uonis D. A. An initial study on arthropod succession on exposed human tissues in Assýut, Egypt.Mansoura J. Forensic Med. Clin.Toxicol., 2009; 17 (1), 55-74. 15. Horenstein, M. B., Linhares, A. X., De Ferradas B. R. & Garcia D. Decomposition and dipteran succession in pig carrion n central Argentina: ecological aspects and their importance in forensic science. Med. Vet. Entomol. 2010; 24, 16-25. 16. Bonacci T., Vercillo V., Brandmayr P., Fonti A., Tersaruolo C., Zetto T. & Brandmayr A. Case of CalliphoravicinaRobineau-Desvoidy, 1830 (Diptera, Calliphoridae) breeding in a human corpse in Calabria (southern Italy). 2009. 17. Pai C. Y., Jien, M. C., Li L. H., Cheng Y. Y. & Yang Ch. Application of Forensic Entomology to Postmortem Interval Determination of a Burned Human Corpse: A Homicide Case Report from Southern Taiwan. J. Formos. Med. Assoc., 2007; 106 (9), 792-798. 18. Eberhardt T. L. & Eliot D. A. 2008; A preliminary investigation of insect colonisation and succession on remains in New Zealand. Forensic Sci. Int., 2008; 176, 217-223. 19. Greenberg, B. Flies as forensic indicators. Journal of Medical Entomology. 1991; 28(5), 565-577. 20. Goff ML: Early post-mortem changes and stages of decomposition in exposed cadavers. ExpApplAcarol 2009; 49, 21–36. 21. Introna F, Campobasso CP. Forensic dipterology. In Contributions to a manual of palaearcticdiptera. Volume 1. General and applied dipterology. Edited by Papp L, Darvas B. Budapest: Science Herald. 2000; 793–846. 22. Payne J. A. A Summer Carrion Study of the Baby Pig Sus scrofa Linnaeus. Ecology1965; 46,592-602. 23. VanLaerhoven S. L. and Anderson G. S. Forensic entomology. Determining time of death in buried homicide victims using insect succession. Technical Report TR 0296, Canadian Police Research Centre, Ottawa, www.ijsir.co.in
Ontario. 1996; 24. Vanlaerhoven, S. L., and Anderson G. S. Insect succession on buried carrion in two biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 1999; 44, 3141. 25. Early M. and Goff M.L. Arthropod succession patterns in exposed carrion on the island of O’ ahu, Hawaiian Islands, USA. J.Med. Entomol., 1986; 23, 520-531. 26. Hoermann C., Ruther J.,Reibe S.,Madea B.,Ayasse M.,The importance of carcass volatiles as attractants for the hide beetle Dermestes maculatus forensic science international 2011;212,173-179. 27. Jones T.M., McNamara K. B., Colvin PGR, Featherston R, Elgar MA. Mating frequency, fecundity and fertilization success in the hide beetle, Dermestesmaculatus. Journal of Insect Behavior2006; 19, 357-371. 28. Taylor, T.A. Observation on the biology and habits of dermestes maculates De Geer-a dried fish pest in Nigeria.Nigerian Agric. J. 1964;1, 12-17. 29. Haines CP, Rees DP. Dermestes spp. A Field Guide to the Types of Insects and Mites Infesting Cured Fish (1989);.http://www.fao.org/docrep/ 003/t0146e/T0146E04.htm (28 September 2009. 30. Osuji, F.N. Some aspects of the biology of dermestesmaculatusDe Geer (Coleoptera:dermestidae) in dried fish.J.Stored prod. Res. 1975; 11, 25-31. 31. Cloud JA, Collison CH. Comparison of various poultry house litter components for hide beetle (Dermestesmaculatus DeGeer) larval development in the laboratory. Poultry Science 1986; 65, 1911-1914. 32. Kulshrestha P, Satpathy DK. Use of beetles in forensic entomology. Forensic Science International2001; 120, 15-17. 33. Carvalho, L.M.L., Thyssen P.J., Linhares, A.X. and Palhares F.A.B. A checklist of arthropods associated with pig carrion and human corpses in southeastern Brazil. Memorias do InstitutoOswaldo Cruz. 2000; 95, 135-138. 34. Archer MS. Elgar MA. Cannibalism and delayed pupation in hide beetles, Dermestesmaculatus DeGeer
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(Coleoptera: Dermestidae). Australian Journal of Entomology1998; 37, 158-161. 35. Hinton HE. A Monograph of the Beetles Associated with Stored Products, Volume I. British Museum (Natural History), England. pp. 1998; 261-268. 36. Raspi A. & Antonelli R. Influence of constant temperature on the development of Dermestes maculates Deg. (Coleoptera, Dermestidae). Frustula Entomologica1995; 18, 169-176. 37. Arnaldos MI., Sanchez F., Alvarez P., Garcia MD. A forensic entomology case from the south eastern Iberian Peninsula. Aggrawal’s internet journal of forensic medicine and toxicology 2004; 5, 22-25
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38. Richardson MS. Goff ML. Effects of temperature and intraspecific interaction on the development of Dermestesmaculatus (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). Journal of Medical Entomology2001; 38, 347-351. 39. Toye A. S. Studies on the humidity and temperature reactions of Dermestes maculatus Deg. (Coleoptera,Dermestidae), with reference to infestation in dried fish in Nigeria. Bulletin of the Entomological Research1970; 60, 23-31. 40. Goff M.L. A Fly for the Prosecution: How Insect Evidence Helps Solve Crimes. Harvard University, USA. 2000; 41. Amendt J., Krettek R., Zehner R. Forensic entomology. Naturwiss. 2004; 91, 51–65.
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PUPAL DIAPAUSE IN THE FLESH FLY, SARCOPHAGA DUX *S. RAWAT, R.SONKER and K.SINGH Biocontrol and Forensic Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India *Address for correspondence: S. Rawat , Department of Zoology,University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India, Email ID: sunitamahi4@gmail.com
ABSTRACT Blow flies (family-Calliphoridae) and flesh flies (family-Sarcophagidae) are amongst the first wave of insects which arrive on a corpse for feeding and breeding purposes. Development rates of these flies are frequently used to determine post-mortem interval (PMI) in forensic entomological investigations. The rate of larval growth is directly affected by environmental conditions such as photoperiod and ambient temperature. In the flesh fly, Sarcophaga dux, short-day photoperiods and low temperature induce pupal diapause. Diapause is a form of dormancy in insects which confer survival during unfavourable environmental conditions. Distinct genetic traits and endocrinological factors are found responsible for the induction and regulation of diapauses in different insect species. The life stage at which the insect exhibits diapause is also species specific. Present study investigates the incidence of diapause in the laboratory reared populations of S. dux and define further the factors responsible for induction and termination of pupal diapause in flesh flies. Keywords: Forensic entomology, Post-mortem interval, Flesh fly, S. dux, Diapause INTRODUCTION Adverse winter conditions in the temperate regions have channelled the evolution of a pupal diapause in flesh flies of the genus Sarcophaga. Diapause in Sarcophaga is generally found in the young phanerocephalic pupa, it is the pupal stage in which adult development has not been initiated [1]. Various studies have been conducted on the incidence of diapause in the genus Sarcophaga [1-8]. Effect of cold temperature and short photoperiod on pupal diapause induction in S. argyrostoma was studied by many workers [3,7] , whereas in S. bullata larval photoperiod was not shown to influence diapause. Denlinger revealed the importance of photoperiod received by developing embryos within the uterus of the ovoviviparous females in the S.crassipalpis. [5, 6] If the larvae are exposed to a short photophase at 250 C, the pupae will not enter diapauses [5,6]. In various groups of S.crassipalpis males enter diapause at a higher rate than females, experiments revealed a similar pattern in the other species of Sarcophaga [1]. In the Pieris napi, Pararge aegeria and P. c-album a higher tendency of males to enter diapause is also found[9]. www.ijsir.co.in
Quality and quantity of the food provided may also be a factor in diapause influence in some insects. The role of water in diapause termination has been well studied.[10]Addition of 10% water to larval medium increases diapause incidence10% [5], however opposite effect of moisture content in Lucilia sericata has been observed, incidence of larval diapause was increased when the larvae were fed dry meat.[11,12] Mature third instar larvae are inhibited to become pupae by contact with a little water.[13] The adults of S. argyrostoma are capable of producing viable eggs without an adult protein diet, the incidence of diapause in this species is not affected due to presence or absence of protein diet.[14] Ecdysone is found to act as an accelerator for diapause termination in Sarcophaga.[4] If the flesh flies S. bullata having history of pupal diapause are mated and their larvae reared in a strongly diapause-inducing environment, the offspring do not enter pupal diapauses. It is due to maternal effect transmitted by the female parent prior to ovulation and therefore directly affects the germ line.[15] In S. bullata probably gamma amminobutyric acid (GABA) and octopamine are involved in the 51
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transfer of information from mother to next generation. Other experiments on flesh flies, S. crassipalpis and S. bullata also confirm the influence of maternal effect in the induction of diapauses. [5, 16] The progeny of silkmoth B. mori will enter embryonic diapause or not is determined by the photoperiod received by the female silkmoth during her embryonic and larval development. [17, 18] A neurohormone from the suboesophageal ganglion of the female silkmoth mediates the maternal effect. [19] At the hormonal level pupal diapause is characterized by failure of the brain to stimulate the prothoracic gland to secrete ecdysone [2023] .Juvenile hormone (JH) profile is also associated with the incidence of pupal diapause in flesh flies. Flies destined for direct development lack JH activity while flies programmed for pupal diapause show major pulses of JH activity [23]. MATERIALS AND METHOD Stocks were maintained in an insectary at room temperature in normal day night conditions. Environmental cabinets were used to maintain a temperature of 20±0.5°C, 17±0.5°C, 15±0.5°C. Groups of about 100 adult flesh flies were kept in cages. Sugar and water were provided ad libitum throughout adult life and chicken liver was provided as a source of protein. The species S. dux are ovoviviparous, embryonic development occurs within a sac-like uterus. Larvae were reared on fresh chicken liver, when the third instar larvae cease feeding they crawl out and pupariate in the vermiculite. Pupae were examined every day to record the time required for diapause termination. RESULT S AND DISCUSSION Table 1: Influence of Larval Photoperiod and Temperature on Incidence of Pupal Diapause in S. Dux. Photoperiod Temp.
No. of pupae % Diapause
12 : 12
25°C
540
0
12 : 12
20°C
240
0
16 : 8
17°C
225
100
16 : 8
15°C
192
100
52
Under an LD 12:12 h photoperiod, no pupae enters diapause when the temperature is above 20°C, whereas all the pupae enter diapause below 20°C. The duration of diapause is longer than 90 days. Under experimental conditions the incidence of diapause increases with a decrease in temperature. Thus, the combination of short days and low temperature (17 0C and 15 0C) caused maximum diapause response. The temperature influences the effect of photoperiod. These results indicate that S. dux is sensitive to the direction of change in photoperiod. Different diapause characteristics were observed among different species of Sarcophaga, S. argyrostoma, S. crassipalpis, and three strains of S. bullata [1]. A comparatively high incidence of pupal diapause was observed in S. argyrostoma at 17°C and 12 hour photoperiod. Significant differences were observed among wild strains and lab strain of S. bullata [1]. Pupariation is observed to be delayed in the larvae destined to diapause and occurs over a period of many days, this was also supported by Denlinger and Beck [1,10]. Post feeding or wandering stage is found prolonged. Delay of pupariation is strongly correlated with induction of pupal diapause, as this delay may provide the larvae some more time to find a suitable place to pupariate. This may be a preparative phase and involves in the deposition of additional fat reserves, extra hydrocarbons for water proofing the cuticle and some storage proteins present in the hemolymph may also be synthesized during this phase[24-26]. These reserves may help in survival during dormancy and in the metamorphosis at the termination of diapauses [27]. Larval injections of juvenile hormone [28] and exposure to the moisture can cause the delay in pupariation in Sarcophaga [29-31]. By reducing the rearing temperature pupariation is delayed, and incidence of diapause increases [7]. Termination of diapause is temperature dependent. The duration of diapause decreases with an increase in temperature and is terminated at the temperature around 25° C. Since the pupae of Sarcophaga are buried under the soil surface, soil temperature rather than photoperiod could provide appropriate information of the favourable season. Ecdysone www.ijsir.co.in
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can terminate pupal diapause in H. cecropia [32] and Sarcophaga [4]. Immediate termination of diapause can be brought by giving topical treatment of hexane [33]. The phenomenon of diapause can be regulated by many factors; these may be environmental regulators, hormonal regulators as well as molecular regulators. At the molecular level, expression of some genes is silenced, and some others are expressed during diapause. Some upregulated genes are expressed throughout diapause, and others are expressed in early diapause, some in late diapause whereas some genes expressed intermittently. The termination of diapause is brought about by expression of many down regulated genes, while decline in expression of the diapauseupregulated genes is observed during diapause termination [27]. Moribayashi et al have studied the physiology of flesh flies, Boettcherisca peregrina and Parasarcophaga similis, and of blow flies, Aldrichina grahami and Calliphora nigribarbis [13]. At 20°C larvae of the flesh fly enter pupal diapause on exposure to short photoperiod but do not enter diapause in long photoperiod, at this temperature larvae destined non-diapause develop adults in 4 weeks [13]. Future diapause research may be helpful to have a better understanding of seasonality in insects and applicable in the field of medical and forensic entomology. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors are thankful to Head, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow India for providing necessary laboratory facilities. REFERENCES 1-
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Denlinger D. L. Seasonal phenology of diapause in the flesh fly Sarcophaga bullata. Ann. Ento,nol. Soc. Amer. 1972; in press. Roubaud E. Etudes sur le sommeil d’hiver preimaginal des Muscides. Bull. Biol. Fr. Beig. 1922; 56, 455-544. Fraenkel G.and C. Hsiao, Manifestations of a pupal diapause in two species of flies, Sarcophaga argyrostotna and S. bullata. J. Insect Phsiol. 1968a; 14, 689-705. Fraenkel G. and C. Hsiao. Morphological and
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12- Mellanby K. Diapause and metamorphosis of the blowfly Lucilia sericata Mg. Parasitology. 1938; 30, 392-402. 13- Moribayashi A., H. Kurahashi., T. Hayashi., Y. Tsuda and M. Kobayashi. Physiological studies of four forensically important flies found in different seasons in Japan, 6th international congress of dipterology 23-28 September 2006; Fukuoka, JAPAN. 14- Denlinger D. L. Autogeny in the flesh fly Sarcophaga argyrostoma. Attn. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 1971a; 64, 961-962. 15- Henrich V.C. and D.L. Denlinger. A maternal effect that eliminates pupal diapause in progeny of the flesh fly, Sarcophaga bullata. J. Insect Physiol. 1982; 28, 881-884. 16- Webb M-L.Z., Denlinger D. L. GABA and picrotoxin alter expression of a maternal effect that influences pupal diapause in the flesh fly, Sarcophaga bullata. Physiol. Entomol. 1998; 23,184- 91. 17- Webb M-L.Z., Denlinger D. L. GABA and picrotoxin alter expression of a maternal effect that influences pupal diapause in the flesh fly, Sarcophaga bullata. Physiol. Entomol. 1998; 23,184- 91. 18- Hasegawa K. Studies on the voltinism in the silk worm, Bombyx mori L., with special reference to the organs concerning determination of voltinism. 53
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Ohtaki T. and Takahashi M. Induction and termination of pupal diapause in relation to the change of ecdysone titer in the fleshfly, Sarcophaga peregrina. Jap. J. med. Sri. Biol. 1972; 25, 369-376. Zdarek J. and Denlinger D. L. Action of ecdysoids, juvenoids, and non-hormonal agents on termination of pupal diapause in the flesh fly. J. Insect Physiol. 1975; 21, 1193-1202. Walker G. P. and Denlinger D. L. Juvenile hormone and moulting hormone titres in diapause and nondiapause destined flesh flies. J. Insect Physiol. 1980; 26, 661-664. Chippendale G. M. Role of proteins in insect diapauses. In Endocrinological Frontiers in Physiological ecology, ed. F Sehnal, A Zazba, D L Denlinger. 1988; pp. 331-46. Wroclaw Tech. Univ. Press Adedokun T. A., Denlinger D. L. Metabolic reserves associated with pupal diapauses in the flesh fly, Sarcophaga crassipalpis. J. Insect physiol. 1985; 31, 229-33.
26- Yoder J. A., Denlinger D. L., Dennis M. W., Kolattukudy P. E. Enhancement of diapausing flesh fly puparia with additional hydrocarbons and evidence for alkane biosynthesis by a decarbonylation mechanism. Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 1992; 22, 237-43. 27- Denlinger D. L. Regulation of diapause. Annu Rev Entomol. 2002; 47, 93-122. 28- Srivastava U. S. and L. I. Gilbert. The influence of juvenile hormone on the metamorphosis of Sarcophaga bullata. J. Insect Physiol. 1969; 15, 177-190. 29- Evans A. C. Studies on the influence of the environment on the sheep blow-fly, Lucilia sericata Meig. II. The influence of humidity and temperature on prepupae and pupae. Parasitology. 1935; 27, 291-298. 30- Ohtakt T., R. D. Milkman and C. M. Williams. Dynamics of ecdysone secretion and action in the fleshfly Sarcophaga peregrina. Biol Bull. 1968; 135, 322-334. 31- Zdarek J. and G. Fraenkel, Overt and covert effects of endogenous and exogenous ecdysone in puparium formation of flies. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 1970; 67, 331-337. 32- Williams C. M. Physiology of insect diapause. X. And endocrine mechanism for the influence of temperature on the diapausing pupa of the cecropia silkworm. Biol. Bull. 1956; 110, 201-218. 33- Denlinger D. L., Campbell J. J., Bradfield J. Y. Stimulatory effect of organic solvents on initiating development in diapausing pupae of the flesh fly Sarcophaga crassipalpis and the tobacco horn worm Manduca sexta. Physiol. 1980; Ent. 5, 7-15.
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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 55-60, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
A REVIEW OF CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER FOR HARMONICS COMPENSATION 1
SANJAY MATHUR1, NIYAZ HASAN KAZMI1, TALAHA CHISTI1, *ANURAG TRIPATHI2 Research Scholar Sai Nath University, Ranchi, 2 Department of Electrical Engineering Institute of Engineering. & Technology, Lucknow, India. *Address for correspondence: Dr .Anurag Tripathi, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Engineering. & Technology, Lucknow, India, Email ID: Anurag.tripathi.aparna@gmail.com
ABSTRACT This paper proposes two different current control based controllers for a shunt active power filter system. A shunt active power filter system has been designed, built to work under balanced; unbalanced and distorted supply conditions to meet IEEE 519 recommended harmonic standards. The shunt active filter is mainly controlled by two different control schemes i.e. constant instantaneous power and sinusoidal current control based controller to act as a harmonic isolator between the supply and load. This paper discusses about both the current controllers. Keywords: Active power filter (APF), Constant instantaneous power control strategy, Sinusoidal current control strategy, Harmonic compensation, IEEE 519. INTRODUCTION Nonlinear loads produce the harmonics into the power system and these harmonics create a lot of disadvantages in the system. Supply gets distorted and unbalanced when application of unbalanced and nonlinear loads increases. These currents pollute the supply point of the utility. Therefore, it is very important to compensate unbalance, harmonic and reactive component of the load currents. Whereas when supply is unbalanced and distorted, these problems worsen the system. [13] By the application of shunt active power filters can eliminate harmonic, reactive and unbalanced currents, improve the power supply performance and the stability of system. Today, the soft computing techniques are used broadly for optimization of the system applied or in control system. Some of them are such as adaptive tabu search[48] used for finding the optimized values of the controllers variables,[412] optimization of active power filter using GA, [912] power loss minimization using particle swarm optimization,[13] neural network control [1418] applied in both machinery and filter devices. In this paper, two different control techniques i.e. constant instantaneous power www.ijsir.co.in
control strategy (CIPC) and Sinusoidal current control strategy (SCC) have been discussed which are used for reduction of harmonics and others problem created into the supply system due to the nonlinear loads.[1] The paper has been organized in the following manner. The APF configuration is discussed in Section I. Section II presents constant instantaneous power control strategy and the Section III discusses about Sinusoidal current control strategy. Section IV concludes the paper. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION The supply system is a threephase system with source frequency of 50 Hz. Figure 1 shows the APF applied for improvement of the power quality under all supply conditions. Shunt APF compensates the harmonic currents in the system [22,24,25,27,28,30] and thus improves the power quality. The shunt APF is realized by using one voltage source inverters (VSIs) connected at point of common coupling (PCC) with a common DC link voltage [2023].The loads generally used are three types of nonlinear loads i.e. 6pulse current source Converter Bridge, three phase diode bridge rectifier with inductance of 300mH and three phase diode bridge rectifier with capacitance of 1000uF. 55
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 55-60, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Figure 1: Shunt Active Power filter
Constant Instantaneous Power Control Strategy Figure 2 presents the control diagram of the shunt active filter using constant instantaneous power control strategy. We can observed that
four low pass filters have been shown in the control block; in which, three with cut off of 800 Hz has been applied to filter the voltages and one for the power p0. Direct application of the phase voltages cannot be used in the control due to instability problem. There may be resonance between source impedance and the small passive filter. Low pass filters have been applied to the system to attenuate the voltage harmonics at the resonance frequency which are higher than 800 Hz. p, q ,p0 ,va and vb are obtained after the calculation from ab0 transformation and send to the ab current reference block, which calculates i’ ca and i’ cb . Finally, ab0 inverse transformation block calculates the current references and applied to the PWM current control i.e. hysteresis band controller.
Figure 2: Control block diagram of the shunt active filter using constant instantaneous power control strategy
In a real realization, these lowpass filers may be removed, depending on system parameters such as a switching frequency of the PWM converter and a frequency response of the electronic circuit for voltage measurement. With this approach, the active filter supplies the whole i0 to the load. If no zerosequence voltage is present, the zerosequence power p0 is zero. In this case, the zerosequence current i0 of the load is completely compensated without the need for energy balance inside the active filter, since p0 = 0. This operation takes place only under the supposition that the threephase system is balanced and that the voltage 56
waveforms are purely sinusoidal. If, on the other hand, this technique is applied to contaminated supplies, the resulting performance is proven to be poor. The above compensa-tion principle that provides constant source instantaneous power is an extended version of the original control strategy. The control technique does not use any RMS value calculation, even though it uses a low and a highpass filer to separate the powers p0 and , which in-fluence the dynamic response of the active filer. Figure 3 presents the MATLAB/ Simulink Model of Constant Instantaneous Power control strategy. www.ijsir.co.in
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 55-60, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Figure 3: Shunt active filter model using constant instantaneous power control strategy
SINUSOIDAL CURRENT CONTROL STRATEGY With some modification in constant instantaneous power control strategy, the new strategy can be used under unbalanced conditions too. The new strategy has been named as Sinusoidal current control strategy. Figure 4 shows the control diagram of shunt active filter using sinusoidal current control strategy which is modified version of constant instantaneous power control strategy and able to compensate load currents under unbalanced conditions too. The modification includes a positive sequence detector which replaced the 800 Hz cutoff frequency lowpass filters and correctly finds the phase angle and frequency of the fundamental positive sequence voltage component and thus shunt active power filter compensates the reactive power of the load. While designing this detector, utmost care should be taken so that shunt active filter produces ac currents orthogonal to the voltage component, otherwise it will produce active power. i ,i , p’ and q’ are obtained after the calculation from 0 transformation block and send to the voltage reference block, which calculates v ’ and v ’. Finally, 0 inverse transformation block calculates the , , and www.ijsir.co.in
. In place of the filtered voltages used previously, and, are considered as input to the main control circuit of figure 4 Now fundamental negative sequence power, harmonic power, and the fundamental reactive power, are also included in the compensating powers. It should be noted that the controller for supply systems can be treated as a simplification, just considering v0 =i0 =p0 = 0 and the elimination of signal. The sinusoidal current control strategy makes the active filer to compensate the current of a nonlinear load to guarantee balanced, sinusoidal current drawn from the network, even under an unbalanced and/or distorted system voltage. We know that neural current is a big problem for aircraft system and this strategy compensates also the neutral current of the load. At this point, it is important to remark that the voltage regulator of Fig.5 that generates the signal p loss has received an additional task besides those listed in the last sections: to correct errors in power compensation. This occurs because the feed forward control circuit is now unable to supervise the zerosequence power. Since the active filer compensates the whole neural current of the load in the presence 57
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Figure 4: Control diagram of the shunt active filter controller using sinusoidal current control strategy
of zerosequence voltages, the shunt active filter eventually supplies. ∆p is replaced simply by ploss . Therefore, if the active filer supplies p0 to the load, this causes dc voltage variations, which are sensed by the PI controller of the dc voltage regulator. Hence, an additional amount of
average real power, numerically equal p0 , is automatically added to the signal plot that is mainly used to provide energy to cover for losses in the power circuit of the shunt active filter. Figure 5 presents the MATLAB/Simulink model of Sinusoidal current control strategy.
Figure 5: Shunt active filter model using Sinusoidal current control strategy
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
This paper presented an innovative technology management by criticaly analyzing about power quality improvement using different control strategies applied in supply system. CIPC and SCC control techniques are discussed in detail, which can be remedy for power quality problems generated in different equipment. This paper will help research workers, users and suppliers of electrical power to gain a guideline about the power quality.
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Saifullah Khalid, Bharti Dwivedi, “Application of AI techniques in implementing Shunt APF in Aircraft Supply System,” SOCROPROS Conference (Springer Lecture Notes), IITRoorkee, Dec 2628, 2013, Volume 1, pp. 333341, 2013.
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STUDY OF DOMAIN SIZE IN ORDER- DISORDER NANO-FERROELECTRIC POWDERS FROM NMR RESPONSE OF I=3/2 QUADRUPOLAR SPIN SYSTEMS AHIRWAL P. K.1, CHAITANYA P.2, SHUKLA A.3 AND *PANDEY L.1 Department of Physics & Electronics, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur-482001, India 2 Department of Physics, St. Aloysius College (Autonomous with Potential for Excellence), Jabalpur-482001, India 3 Department of Physics, National Institute of Technology, Mizoram, Aizawl-796012, India 1
*Address for correspondence: Dr .L .Pandey, Professor, Department of Physics & Electronics, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur-482001, India, Email ID: pandeyl@hotmail.com ABSTRACT The effect of domain walls on the NMR response of center line transition in I=3/2 quadrupolar spin system has been studied and a method is proposed for the measurement of domain width in order-disorder nano-ferroelectrics. A ferroelectric domain is represented by a one dimensional chain of equidistant nuclear spins having dipolar coupling. Spin populations as function of position, time and ratio of quadrupolar to dipolar transition probabilities are obtained by forming rate equations and solving them for a sample subjected to selective rf pulses by using Laplace Transform. Based on the fact that the electric polarization in an order-disorder ferroelectric undergoes a spiral orientation as one moves from one domain to the adjacent one making the flipping motion of electric dipoles near the domain walls easier due to low activation barrier, it is assumed that at low temperatures the spins near domain walls still undergo relaxation while such a relaxation in the main body of the domain would have almost ceased. The spins present inside the domain undergo relaxation through transfer of magnetization to the domain walls through a spin diffusion process by nearest neighbor interaction. The change produced in central line population by such a process is studied. This is further used to calculate the magnitude of the NMR signal from a powdered sample by summing the contributions from crystallites oriented in all the directions. It is found that the domain width can be estimated by noting the relative amplitude of the pulsed NMR signal at low temperatures provided that relative amplitude of such a signal from a sample of same material with known domain width is also known. The method illustrated by making calculations for ferroelectric NaNO2,is quite general and can be applied to any order disorder ferroelectric with nano sized domains and having spin I=3/2 quadrupolar nuclei. Keywords: Spin-lattice relaxation, Spin diffusion, Order-disorder ferroelectrics, Domain width, Nano-ferroelectrics, Spin I=3/2 quadrupolar system. INTRODUCTION Ferroelectrics are a very important class of materials having wide variety of applications in various technological devices such as electro– optic materials, infrared sensors, ultrasonic systems, actuators, electric field and strain sensors, nonvolatile memory devices etc. [10, 25, 28, 29, 35, 36, 38,46] . A material is said to be ferroelectric when it has two or more orientational states of electric polarization and can be reoriented from one state to another by an electric field. If the www.ijsir.co.in
spontaneous polarization arises due to the ordering of ions or some group of ions, then the ferroelectric is said to be order–disorder ferroelectric. [10, 25, 29]. The thermal motions tend to destroy the ferroelectric order and ferroelectricity usually disappears beyond a certain temperature T c, called the transition temperature. Below Tc, a ferroelectric material comprises regions of uniform polarization, called domains. Within each domain, the polarization is in the same direction, but in the adjacent 61
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domain it is in different direction. The region joining two adjacent domains is called domain– wall. If the spontaneous polarizations in the adjacent domains are in opposite directions, the o domains are called 180 domains and the region o o joining two 180 domains are called 180 domainwalls. The technological applications of a ferroelectric greatly depend upon its domain structure and behavior and shape of hysteresis loop (polarization vs electric field plot) that in turn is governed by how fast the domains can be switched from one direction to the other. The switching process involves building up of the favorable domains at the expense of the unfavorable ones starting from nucleation and growth at the domain-walls.[29] Also the properties of a ferroelectric tend to change over period of time due to gradual buildup of inhibiting structure at domain walls reducing their mobility.[25,29] Due to miniaturization trend in device size, many recent research efforts have been focused on the size dependent evolution of ferroelectricity in nano crystalline and thin films samples. [6,11,26,31,38,40, 48,52,53] Single crystalline ferroelectric nano wires and nano tubes having retention time for the induced polarization exceeding several days have been produced.[52] Nano sized nonvolatile polarization domains can be induced on these nanowires indicating that ferroelectric nano wires may be used to fabricate nonvolatile memory devices with an integration density approaching 1 terrabit/cm2. The potential for application as nonvolatile random access memory has stimulated great interest in the integration of ferroelectric thin films and nano structures .[13,27,39,51] For ultra-high density integration of ferroelectric memories the investigation of size effect and the estimation of domain width has become extremely important.[27] The ferroelectric properties of thin films samples are studied by using ultra high vacuum Scanned Probe Microscope (SPM). The written polarization is read by using electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) [52] by measuring the shift in the resonance frequency of a SPM cantilever while scanning it with a small tip voltage. The shift is directly proportional to the electrostatic force experienced by the tip and thus to the magnitude of the electric polarization of the nano wire. A plot of the shift as a function of tip position 62
provides a spatial map of electric polarization direction on the nano wire. It has been shown that measured domain size as observed through the EFM is limited by the tip-sample distance (~ few tens of nm) due to long ranged nature of electrostatic interaction. Similarly it has been demonstrated that induced ferroelectric domains as applied through the AFM tip formed information bits with size of 60 nm diameter in PZT. The formed bits were recorded back with high spatial resolution of ~10 nm. Also the polarization retention time is dependent on size of domains.[41] Thus the determination of the size of domains is very crucial for a strategy to achieve maximum integration density. Study of ferroelectric domains and domain walls including the local dynamics has been drawing considerable attention of research workers in the past as well as in recent years. [12,15,16,17,32,37,38,42,46,50,54] For this various techniques[25] such as optical birefringence, second harmonic generation, electron microscopy, chemical etching, X-ray topography, U.V. photoemission, electrostatic force microscopy, atomic force microscopy etc. have been used for different materials. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has been a very powerful tool for studying the local environment. [1,8,25,45] Nuclei with spin I > 1 possess magnetic dipole moment as well as electric quadrupole moment. Such nuclei respond to the local environment through the interaction of the dipole moments with the local magnetic fields and of the electric quadrupole moments with the electric field gradients. As a result these nuclei can sense subtle changes taking place in the local environment and these changes are recorded through the NMR amplitudes, line widths and relaxation times. The NMR studies of nuclei with I > 1 have therefore proved to be a very powerful tool for the study of local structure and dynamics including phase transitions. A large number of reports are available on successful use of NMR for such investigations in ferroelectrics; a few illustrative ones are given in the reference. [5, 7, 8, 14, 18, 33] Not much work on the study of effect of domain walls on the spin relaxation is available in literature except those by Kotecha and Pandey [19] and few others [3, 34, 43] for spin I=3/2 systems. In their study the www.ijsir.co.in
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contribution of the domain walls to the spin lattice relaxation time related to satellite lines and the central line transitions in the NMR spectrum in an order-disorder ferroelectric crystal has been theoretically studied and a method has been proposed for the determination of domain size in nano ferroelectrics. In this paper we present an extension of the work cited above. The NMR signal arising due to population differences in the central line transitions is calculated keeping in mind the nuclear spin relaxation of spin I=3/2 quadrupolar system due to domain walls in order disorder ferroelectrics. The possible application for the determination of domain size in nano ferroelectrics powders possessing spin I=3/2 nuclei is discussed. Wherever necessary the
equations and their solutions are reproduced from our earlier paper [43] for completeness. The necessary rate equations for the change of population of various levels in I=3/2 spin system are written as earlier [3, 20, 43] and solved in the next section followed by results and discussions. CALCULATION OF POPULATION DIFFERENCES FOR SPIN I=3/2 SYSTEM IN AN ORDERDISORDER NANO FERROEELCTRIC Let us consider a ferroelectric material of order disorder type having 180 0 domains possessing I=3/2 nuclei. The 180 0 domain– domain wall structure is schematically shown in Fig 1.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of 180° domain (d) domain-wall (dw) structure. The arrows indicate the electric polarization. The electric polarization has a spiral orientation as one move from one domain to the adjacent domain.
In order to make the calculations tractable we assume that a 180 0 domain can be represented by a one-dimensional array of
equidistant nuclei situated at …x-2a, x-a, x, x+a, x+2a ... as shown in Fig 2. The I=3/2 spins would have four Zeeman levels [1,45] with populations
1
0
-1
Figure 2: Schematic energy level diagrams of spins (I= 3/2) in a one - dimensional chain. W0 , W0 , W0 are the → ½, ½ ← →-½, -½ ← →-3/2 levels respectively for the case where one spin transition probabilities of 3/2 ← undergoing an upward transition while the other spin undergoes downward transition (usually called flip-flop 1 0 -1 1 0 -1 term). W2 , W2 , W2 represent simultaneous upward (or down ward) flip of the pair of spins. W1 , W1 , W1 represent the single spin transition probability for the spin pairs and counted twice for each pair of spins.
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n 3/2, n 1/2, n -1/2 and n -3/2 corresponding to the quantum numbers m=3/2, 1/2, -1/2, -3/2 in an external magnetic field. We further assume that each nucleus interacts with its nearest neighbours only. The rate of change of deviations of populations from thermal equilibrium values can be written as [1, 4, 19, 23, 24, 43,44] ∂n3/ 2 ( x , t ) 1 n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01 = − 2n3/ 2 ( x , t )W11 + 2n1/ 2 ( x, t ) W11 − ∂t N 3/ 2 1 N 1 + N 1 + N 1 + N
∂n1/ 2 ( x , t ) = ∂t
1 n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W01 N 3/ 2 1 n ( x, t ) n3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21 − N 3/ 2 1 − n ( x , t ) n3/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W21 N 3/ 2
n1/ 2 ( x, t ) n3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
+
−
n1/ 2 ( x, t ) n3/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W01 n1/ 2 ( x, t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
Defining the polulation differences as
n1/ 2 ( x, t ) n1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W21
2n3/2 ( x , t )W11 − 2n1/ 2 ( x , t ) W11 − 2n1/ 2 ( x , t )W10 + 2n−1/ 2 ( x , t ) W10 − + + + + + − −
∂n−1/ 2 ( x , t ) = ∂t
1 N 1 N 1 N 1 N 1 N 1 N 1 N 1 N
n3/ 2 ( x − a , t ) n1/ 2 ( x , t ) W01
−
n3/2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W01
+
n −1/ 2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W00 − n −1/ 2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W00 − n3/ 2 ( x , t ) n3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
−
n3/ 2 ( x , t ) n3/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W21
−
n1/ 2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W20 + n1/ 2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W20 +
1 n ( x , t ) n3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01 N 3/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W00 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W00 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W21 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W20 N −1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W20 N −1/ 2
2n1/ 2 ( x , t )W10 − 2n −1/ 2 ( x , t ) W10 − 2n−1/ 2 ( x , t )W1−1 + 2n− 3/ 2 ( x , t ) W1−1
− + + + + + + − −
∂n− 3/ 2 ( x , t ) = ∂t + + + +
1 n ( x − a , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x , t ) W00 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n −1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W00 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W0−1 N − 3/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W0−1 N − 3/ 2 1 n ( x , t )n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W20 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W20 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W20 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W2−1 N −1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n −1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W2−1 N −1/ 2
− + − − − − − + +
1 n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W00 N −1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W00 N 1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n − 3/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W0−1 N −1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n− 3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W0−1 N −1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n −1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W20 N −1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W20 N −1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n−1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W20 N −1/ 2 1 n ( x , t ) n − 3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W2−1 N − 3/ 2 1 n ( x, t ) n− 3/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W2−1 N − 3/ 2
2n−1/ 2 ( x , t ) W1−1 − 2n− 3/ 2 ( x , t ) W1−1 1 N 1 N 1 N 1 N
1 n ( x , t )n−1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W0−1 N − 3/ 2 1 − n ( x , t )n −1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W0−1 N − 3/ 2 1 n ( x , t )n − 3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W2−1 − N − 3/ 2 1 n ( x , t )n− 3/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W2−1 − N − 3/ 2
n−1/ 2 ( x , t )n − 3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W0−1 − n −1/ 2 ( x , t )n− 3/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W0−1 n −1/ 2 ( x , t )n−1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W2−1 n −1/ 2 ( x , t )n−1/ 2 ( x − a , t ) W2−1
N+1 =
n3/2- – n1/2
N0 =
n+1/2 – n-1/2
N-1 =
n-1/2 – n-3/2
And assuming that i
a)
i
W 0º W 0 (x, x+a) (for i = 1, 0, -1) i
W 2º
i
W 2 (x, x+a)
i
º
W 0(x , x-
º
W 2 (x, x-
i
a) As adjacent neighbors have identical interactions, we can rewrite Eq. (1) as ∂N +1 ( x, t ) = ∂t
− 2 ρ N +1 ( x , t ) − 2σ N +1 ( x + a , t ) − 2σ N +1 ( x − a , t ) + ρ' N 0 ( x, t ) + σ ' N 0 ( x + a, t )
+ σ ' N 0 (x − a, t )
∂N 0 ( x, t ) = ρ N +1 ( x , t ) + σ N +1 ( x + a , t ) + σ N +1 ( x − a , t ) ∂t − 2 ρ' N 0 ( x, t ) − 2σ ' N 0 ( x + a , t ) − 2σ ' N 0 ( x − a , t ) + ρ" N −1 ( x , t ) + σ " N −1 ( x + a , t ) + σ " N −1 ( x − a , t )
∂N −1 ( x , t ) = ρ' N 0 ( x , t ) + σ ' N 0 ( x + a , t ) + σ ' N 0 ( x − a , t ) ∂t - 2 ρ" N −1 ( x , t ) − 2σ " N − 1 ( x + a , t ) - 2σ " N −1 ( x − a , t )
Eq. (2) where
Eq. (1) 64
Where N = n3/2 + n1/2 + n-1/2 + n-3/2, and W10, W00, W-10 are the transition probabilities of 3/2 ←→ 1/2, 1/2 ←→ -1/2, -1/2 ←→ -3/2 levels respectively for the case where one spin is undergoing an upward transitions while the other spin undergoes downward transition (usually called flip-flop term).[1,45] The probabilities W12, W 02, W-12 represent simultaneous upward (or down ward) flip of the pair of spins. Similarly W11, W01, W -1 1 represent the single spin transition probability for the spin-pairs and counted twice for each pair of spins. Here we have used the same symbols and notations as used earlier in Ref. [20, 43]
W1 W1 ρ = 2W11 + 0 + 2 , 2 2 W0 W0 ρ ' = 2W10 + 0 + 2 , 2 2 W −1 W −1 ρ " = 2W1− 1 + 0 + 2 , 2 2
W21 − W01 4 W 0 − W00 σ '= 2 4 W − 1 − W0− 1 σ"= 2 4
σ =
After Taylor series expansion of the terms N+1 (x+a, t), N-1 (x+a, t), N0 (x+a, t), N0 (x-a,t), N-1 (x-a, t), N+1 (x-a, t) about x and retaining the terms up www.ijsir.co.in
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to the second order the set of Eq. (2) reduces to
For the given I = 3/2 system, the value of the probabilities can be written as [43, 45]
Eq. (3) Where
a1 = ρ + 2σ
a2 = ρ '+2σ '
a3 = ρ ' '+2σ ' '
D1 = −σ a 2
D2 = −σ ' a 2
D3 = −σ ' ' a 2
Now these coupled simultaneous partial differential equations representing spin diffusion are solved by using Laplace Transform. [22, 2, 21, 43] Taking the Laplace Transform of Eq. (3) over the variable t and denoting the transforms as Z+1 = Λ { N+1(x, t)}, Z0 =
{ N0(x, t)}, Z-1 =
{ N-1(x, t)},
Λ
Eq. (3) yields
Eq. (4) With k1 = 3 N+1(x, 0) + N-1(x, 0) +2N0(x, 0) k2 = N+1(x, 0) + N-1(x, 0) +2 N0(x, 0) k3 = N+1(x, 0) + 3N-1(x, 0) +2N0(x, 0)
where
, q is the polar angle
of the radius vector joining two nuclei with respect is the to the external magnetic field and correlation time. The internuclear spacing is denoted by r and is the gyromagnetic ratio. The Eq. (4) are coupled partial differential equations and were difficult to solve analytically for the general case. So we made a simplifying assumption that only those transitions where
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65
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one spin is undergoing an upward transitions while the other spin undergoes downward transition (the so-called flip-flop terms) [1, 43, 45] are important. We therefore set C1, C3 and C5 in Eq. (4) equal to zero. The Eq. (4) can then be written as The Eq. (4) can then be written as " Z +1 =-
1 9b
[k
Z 0" = -
1 8b
[k
1
− 3s Z +1 − 2 sZ 0 − sZ −1
2
− s Z +1 − 2 sZ 0 − sZ −1
]
]
2 A02 a 2W00 0 , W00 = W0 = 2 (1 − 3 cos2 θ ) b= 16 h Z -1" = -
1 9b
[k
3
− s Z +1 − 2 sZ 0 − 3sZ −1
]
Eq. (5) Where
2 A02 a 2W00 0 , W00 = W0 = 2 (1 − 3 cos2 θ ) b= 16 h ‘s’ being the Laplace variable. The set of Eq. (5) can be solved for different initial and boundary conditions. For an easy comparison of the results with the generally performed pulsed NMR relaxation measurements or devising new experiments and also to study the domain-wall effects, we consider the following situations. An intense radio frequency pulse is applied to the sample at a frequency that would be equal to the central line frequency in a crystal of same material. We make a crude assumption to begin with that it causes a fraction a of spins flip from the lower state I = 1/2 to the higher state I = -1/2 and the population differences become N0(x, 0) = -2 ,
N-1 (x, 0) = ,
N+1 (x, 0) = Eq. (6)
The time t = 0 corresponds to the end of the pulse. To demonstrate the procedure of is chosen to be 0.5 calculations the value of which corresponds to a /2 pulse for crystals. A single 180o domain with the domain-wall at its end is considered. The origin of the coordinates, 66
x = 0, is taken at the domain-wall and the wall is taken to be thin. Quadrupolar nuclei such as 23Na in NaNO2 possess both magnetic moment and electric field gradient. It is known that spin lattice relaxation of quadrupolar nuclei in ferroelectrics usually occurs predominantly through interaction of quadrupole moment with the fluctuating electric field gradients that are created by local motions of ions or group of ions. For example, it has been shown that 23Na nuclei in NaNO2, which is an order-disorder ferroelectric, undergo spin-lattice relaxation due to flipping motions of NO2 [33]. Also it was shown by Hughes and Pandey[14,33] that in order-disorder ferroelectrics the electric polarization undergoes a spiral orientation as one move from one domain to the other. If we visualize the whole sample to be made up of thin slices, then it means that the polarization in adjacent slices in the larger body of the domains are almost parallel to each other, whereas the polarization in the slices close to the domain wall have progressive relative tilts so that it gets completely reversed in the adjacent domain. As a result, the activation barrier Ea for the flipping motion of group of ions in the regions close to the domain-wall would most likely be lower as compared to that for the regions deep inside the domain. As the flip probability at any temperature T would vary as exp(-Ea/kT),it is implied that at lower temperatures, when the flips in the interior body of domain would have almost ceased the groups near or inside the wall may still be executing some flipping motions. This in turn, implies that nuclei near the walls would be still experiencing relaxation whereas those deep inside the domain would not be relaxing. Further, it has been recently found by Blinc and coworkers [49] that 23Na spin-lattice relaxation rate in micro confined NaNO2 in the ferroelectric is similar to that in the bulk. Therefore, we liberally assume that the nature of quadrupolar relaxation for nuclei at the domain-wall is similar to that for those deep inside the domain for order-disorder ferroelectrics in general. Therefore we further assume that the populations at the domain-wall follow the time dependence [4, 30, 43] N±1(0, t)=
e-2W1t
N0(0, t) =
[e-2W1t + e-2W2t] Eq. (7) www.ijsir.co.in
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Where W 1 and W 2 are the quadrupolar relaxation probabilities corresponding to the →±1/2 and m = ± 3/2 ← → transition m = ±3/2 ← +1/2 respectively. It should be noted in deciding the location of the origin, i.e. x = 0, that the NMR of nuclei lying inside the wall would not be usually observable due to structural disorders. So, x = 0 would correspond to the region near the wall. At present we are assuming that the wall thickness is negligible. Using the above boundary conditions, Eq. (5) were solved to yield
Eq. (8) the values of N±1(x, t) and N0(x, t) can be written as N+1(x, t)
= C11 φ1(x, t) + C12φ2(x, t) + C13φ3(x, t) + C14φ4(x, t) + C15φ5(x, t) + C16φ6(x, t) + C17φ7(x, t) + C18
N-1(x, t)
= C21 φ1(x, t) + C22φ2(x, t) + C23φ3(x, t) + C24φ4(x, t) + C25φ5(x, t) + C26φ6(x, t) + C27φ7(x, t) + C28
N0(x, t)
= C31φ1(x, t) + C32φ2(x, t) + C33φ3(x, t) + C34φ4(x, t) + C35φ5(x, t) + C36φ6(x, t) + C38
Eq. (9) Where ϕ2 C11 = C21 = − 1 − 1 C31 18 18 4 ( k1 − 2 k 2 + k 3 ) ϕ12 18 1 + × − ϕ ϕ 22 − ϕ12 ϕ 22 − ϕ12 18 = − 1− 18 ( k1 − 4 k 2 + k 3 ) + ( k 1 − 4 k 2 + k 3 ) 4 4 2 1
ϕ2 ϕ2 ϕ2 C12 = C22 = − 1 − 1 C32 = 1 − 1 2 2 2 18 18 ϕ 2 − ϕ1 ϕ12 C = C13 = C23 = − 1 − 18 33
ϕ 2 ϕ 2 18 1 − 1 1 − 1 2 + 1 18 18 ϕ 2 − ϕ12
ϕ22 C C14 = C24 = − 1 − 18 34
Eq. (8) Where
− ϕ22 = − 1− 18
18 (k − 2k2 + k3 ) 18 4 1 − 2 2 2 2 × ϕ 2 − ϕ1 ϕ 2 − ϕ1 2 ϕ1 ( k1 − 4 k 2 + k 3 ) − 1 4 18
ϕ 22 ϕ2 ϕ2 C35 = 1 − 2 2 1 2 C15 = C25 = − 1 − 18 18 ϕ2 − ϕ1 ϕ2 ϕ 2 ϕ 2 18 C16 = C26 = − 1 − 2 C36 = 1 − 2 1 − 1 2 18 18 18 ϕ 2 − ϕ22 k1 − k 3 k − k3 k − k2 k − k2 , C27 = 1 , C18 = 1 , C28 = 3 , 4 4 4 4 k − 4k 2 + k 3 C38 = − 1 4 C17 = −
k1 − 2k 2 + k 3 ϕ12 − − 1 − s 4 18 18 a3 = − 2 2 ϕ22 − ϕ12 ϕ1 ϕ1 α + 18 s + 2W + 18 − 1 1 k − 4k2 + k 3 α α + 1 − − s + 2W1 s + 2W2 4s
a4 =
18
ϕ 22 − ϕ12
k1 − 4 k 2 + k 3 4s α s + 2W2
k1 − 4 k 2 + k 3 k 1 − 2 k 2 + k 3 ϕ12 − − 1 − 4s 4s 18 2 2 ϕ1 ϕ1 α α + + − 1 18 s + 2W1 18 s + 2W2
By taking the inverse Laplace Transform [2] of www.ijsir.co.in
And f1(x, t), f2(x, t) etc. are complicated functions involving error functions as given below
xϕ1
1 72 b 2 t
φ1 ( x , t ) = erfc
φ2 ( x , t ) =
α 2
e − 2W1t
- -2W1 xϕ1 xϕ1 1 72 b e erfc − − 2W1t + 72 b 2 t xϕ 1 -2W1 xϕ1 1 72 b erfc − 2W1t + + e 72 b 2 t
67
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- -2W2 xϕ1 72 b e erfc − − 2W2 t + α φ3 ( x, t ) = e − 2W2t xϕ1 2 -2W2 72 b − 2W2 t + + e erfc xϕ 2 1 φ4 ( x , t ) = erfc 72 b 2 t
φ5 ( x , t ) =
φ6 ( x , t ) =
α 2
α 2
xϕ1 1 72 b 2 t xϕ1 1 72 b 2 t
- -2W1 xϕ 2 xϕ 2 1 72 b e erfc − − 2W1t + 72 b 2 t xϕ 2 -2W1 xϕ 2 1 72 b erfc − 2W1t + + e 72 b 2 t
e − 2W1t
e − 2W2t
- -2W2 xϕ 2 xϕ 2 1 72 b e erfc − − 2W2 t + 72 b 2 t xϕ 2 -2W2 xϕ 2 1 72 b erfc − 2W2 t + +e 72 b 2 t
φ7 ( x , t ) = erfc x
2 1 9b 2 t
Eq. (11)
The functions 2(x, t), 3(x, t), 5(x, t) and (x, t) can be simplified using the numerical 6 expansion of complex error function. The average values of the population differences for the entire domain would then be given by
Eq. (10) Where i =1, 0 or –1 and L is the thickness of the domain. In our treatment domain-wall thickness has been ignored. For clarity and ready reference the symbols and useful expressions have been kept same as taken in the Ref.[19, 43] RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The time dependence of the population differences N+1(t), N-1(t) and N0(t) as given by Eq.(9) and (10) were evaluated numerically using 32 point Gaussian quadrature [Abramowitz 1972] for different values of the ratios W1/W00 taking W2/W1 = 1 and various values of L/a by Shukla et al. [43] and Pandey et al. [34] .The necessary computer programs were developed 68
in BASIC language. Wherever needed relevant data for ferroelectric NaNO2 were used just to see the behavior. It was found that N±1(t) and N0(t) are in general non exponential. Treating the quantity (W00a2)1/2 as the diffusion coefficient D, the function (W00a2t)1/2 becomes the diffusion length and provides an estimate of the distance up to which the magnetization would have diffused from the domain-walls (x = 0) into the domain in time t. The quantity ( W00a2t)/L then gives an estimate of the portion of the domain of length L getting affected in time t due to relaxation occurring in the domain wall. Values of the population differences N±1(t) and N0 (t) were calculated for various values of L/a and were plotted (L ranging approximately from 1 nm to 20 nm, a = 3.56 A0 for NaNO2). These plots can be found in references [34, 43]. It was further found that N±1,0(t) follow a power law dependence on ‘t’ given by
The values of C1 and p would depend upon the ratios W2/W1 and W1/W00. Relaxation time was chosen to be equal to the duration in which N±1, (t) has decayed to e-1 of some initial value [43]. 0 Based on the theoretical studies it was proposed that, if the spin lattice relaxation time for a ferroelectric of usual domain size is known, then the domain width of an unknown sample of the same ferroelectric having nano-sized domains can be estimated by measuring the value of relaxation time for that sample at low temperatures. This was further proposed that these results were quite general and can be o applied to any ferroelectric system having 180 domains. For applying these results to powders an averaging over various orientations has to be carried out. A crystalline powder is an assembly of single crystals randomly oriented in different directions. The satellite signals would not be clearly visible in the spectrum. However a calculation can be done to get an approximate behavior of the time dependence of the NMR signal arising due to domain wall effects after radiating the sample by a radio frequency pulse applied close to the centre line frequency of spin I=3/2 system and www.ijsir.co.in
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calculating N 0 (t). The calculations can be simplified by treating the powder as made up of single crystals possessing domains of length L having one dimensional array of spin I=3/2 nuclei as shown in Fig 2. And obtaining the sum over all orientations (0 to 1800) and (0 to 0 360 ). The signal is approximated by the population difference N0(t) as given by Eq (9). However, Eq (10) is modified to
Eq. (12) The numerical calculations were performed by utilizing trapezoidal rule for integration over the angles ( 0 to 1800 ) and (0 to 3600 ) and using the 32 - point Gaussian Quadrature program employed for single crystal calculations described in the previous section as a subroutine. The computer program was developed in house in BASIC. It was observed that the time dependence of N0(t) is non-exponential. An attempt was made to get an empirical relation representing this time
dependence. Since, now we are treating the powder as an assembly of one dimensional arrays oriented in various directions, the quantity (4 /3)( W00a2t)/L)3,which is nothing but the volume fraction, would then give an estimate of the portion getting affected in time t due to relaxation occurring in the domain wall.The variation of N0(t) as function of(4 /3)( W00a2t)/ L)3, is shown in Fig. 3 in logarithmic plots for various values of the ratio of domain width to internuclear spacing a denoted by L/a . For plotting value of W00 is chosen as 0.005[47] and the values of N0 at various times (denoted by N0 (T) (II) where T= W00 (t) have been normalized by dividing by the value, N0 (T) (1), just after the pulse. It is noted that the plots in Fig 3 are almost linear and N0 (t) can be empirically represented as
Eq. (13)
Figure 3. Variation of Log( Abs (N0(T)(II)/N0(T)(1)) as function of (4 /3)[ (W00t)/(L/a)]3 for various values of the ratio of domain width to inter nuclear spacing , L/a (ie L= 1.068 nm to 20.648 nm ) using a= 3.56 A0 for NaNO2. T=0.005 t. www.ijsir.co.in
69
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Where C is a constant and m is the slope that depend upon the domain width. N0(1) is the value of N0(t) just after the pulse and has been used to normalize the values for easy comparison. It is clear from Eq. (13) that it can be used to compare the domain widths in samples of same material since values of W00 and the interatomic spacing ‘a’ would be the same. Also, using this equation domain width in a sample of unknown domain width can be estimated by noting the signal amplitude after the NMR pulse provided that corresponding signal amplitude in a sample of known domain width is available. It may be mentioned that these results are quite general and can be applied to any o ferroelectric system having 180 domains. It is worth mentioning here that spin lattice relaxation for I=3/2 system in a ferroelectric would get contributions from various mechanisms. However as mentioned earlier, in most of the ferroelectrics the relaxation is usually quadrupolar and proceeds through the interaction between nuclear electric quadrupole moment and the fluctuating electric field gradient which generally arises due to flipping/tumbling motions of ionic groups (for example NO2 group in NaNO2 ). As these flipping/tumbling motions almost cease at low temperatures the relaxation rate becomes very small at low temperatures in a quadrupolar system. Thus the method that we propose here involves two steps: first the pulsed NMR signal amplitude of I=3/2 nuclei in the ferroelectric material of known domain width should be measured at low temperatures, second the corresponding value is measured again at same temperature for the same nuclei but in the sample with unknown nano sized domains. Then the width of the nano domains is obtained from the Fig. 3 just by comparison and Eq. (13). The values of constants appearing in eq. (13) would be constant for a given material and would in general be different for different materials. Therefore we would have specific graph such as fig.3 for different materials. These results are general and are expected to prompt experimentalists to verify them. CONCLUSIONS The pulsed NMR signal of I=3/2 quadrupolar spin system due to domain-walls in order70
disorder ferroelectric was theoretically studied by representing the 1800 domain by a chain of equidistant I=3/2 spins. The electric polarization undergoes spiral orientation as one moves from one domain to the adjacent one. This implies that if we treat the domain to be made up of thin slices, then the polarization in the slices deep inside the domain would be almost parallel to each other whereas the polarization in slices near the domain-wall would undergo larger relative tilts. Therefore owing to the lower activation barrier near the walls the probability of activated reorientational flipping motions of group of ions near the wall would be more. As a result at a given temperature, the nuclei near the walls would be experiencing quadrupolar relaxation whereas those inside the domain would not do so. This would lead to spin diffusion from the domain-walls. Rate equations are formed for the population difference for I=3/2 quadrupolar nuclei and are solved analytically using Laplace Transform. Expression for signal amplitude taking into account relaxation due to domainwalls is derived in terms of domain width. A general method is proposed for estimation of domain width of a nano-ferroelectric powder by measuring the NMR signal at low temperatures and using the corresponding value for the same ferroelectric having domains of known width. This may also be used for estimating the extent of poling of a powder sample of order-disorder nano-ferroelectrics. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3.
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Pandey Lakshman and Hughes D G, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter, 4, 6889 (1992). Pandey Lakshman, Ahirwal Pradeep Kumar, Chaitanya Pramod and Shukla Alok “Study of Domain Size in OrderDisorder Nano-ferroelectrics From NMR T1 Measurement of I=3/2 Quadrupolar Systems”, ‘Vishlesana Research Journal’ ISSN: 2393-9931 (Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur-482001 (M.P.) India 11(1), 149 (2014). Park B H, Kang B S, Bu S D, Noh T W, Lee J, and Jo W, Nature 401, 682 (1999). Polking Mark J. Han Myung-Geun, Yourdkhani Amin, PetkovValeri , Kisielowski Christian F.,V. Volkov Vyacheslav, Zhu Yimei , Caruntu Gabriel, Alivisatos A. Paul and Ramesh Ramamoorthy “Ferroelectric order in individual nanometrescale crystals” nature materials: advance online publication, doi:10.1038 /nmat 3371 (2012). Ramesh R, JOM 56(11) 102 (2004). Scott J F, Ferroelectric Rev 1, 1 (1998). Scott J F, Ferroelectrics, 314, 207 (2005). Shih W Y, Shih W-H, Aksay A, Phys. Rev. B, 50, 15575 (1994). Shin H, Hong S, Moon J and JeonJ U, Ultra microscopy 91, 103 (2002). Shin H, Woo J, Hong S, Jeon J -K, Pak Y E and No K, Integrated Ferroelectrics 31 (14), (2000). Shukla Alok, Kotecha Mrignayani and Pandey Lakshman, Integrated Ferroelectrics, 113,109 (2009). Shukla Alok, Thesis on “Studies on NMR Rf Pulse Response of Materials And Spin Lattice Relaxation”, Deptt. of Physics, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur (M.P.) , (2006). Slichter C P, “Principles of Magnetic Resonance”, Springer-Verlag, New York (1990). Smolenskii G A, Ferroelectric and related materials, Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, (1984). Towta S and Hughes D G, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter, 2, 2021(1990). Tsunekawa S, Ito S, Mori T, Ishikawa K, Li Z Q, and Kawazoe Y, Phys. Rev. B, 62, 3065 (2000). Vahhrushev S B, Kumzerov Yu A, Fokin A, Nuberezhnov A, Zalar B, Lebar A and Blinc R, Phys. Rev. B: Condesed Matter and Material Physics, 70(13), 1321021(1-3), (2004). Volk T, Isakov D, Ivanov N, Ivleva L, Betzler K, Tunyagi A, Wohlecke M, J. Appl. Phys. 97 (7), 1 (2005). Wang M. C., Hsiao F. Y., His C. S. and Wu N. C., J Cryst. Growth 246, 78 (2002) Yun W S, Urban J J, Gu Q and Park H, Nano letters ASAP Article 10, 1021 (2002). Zhang J, Yin Z, Zhang M -S, Scott J F, Solid State Commun. 118, 241 (2001) Zhao X, Dai J Y, Tang X G, Wang J, Chan H L W, Choy C L, Appl. Phy. A: Materials Science and Processing, 81(5), 997 (2005).
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EVOLUTION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM *NIAZ AHMED SIDDIQUI Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India *Address for communication: Niaz Ahmed Siddiqui, Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, email ID:niazsiddiqui@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT Water distribution system is an integral part of present society. It includes the features like Collection and Storage, Transportation, Treatment, Distribution .Water distribution systems can be classified according to the source of water that they use, like – Surface Water Distribution Systems, Groundwater Distribution Systems, Regional Rural Water Distribution Systems, and Purchased Water Distribution Systems. There are many piping systems through which water is distributed. Few main piping systems are listed as Transmission Lines, In-plant Piping Systems, Distribution Mains, and Service Lines. There are various types of layouts for water distribution network, suiting to different types of populations, communities and terrains. They can be classified as Serial Network, Branched Network, and Looped Network. The design aspect of water distribution system is an important area to tackle with. The designer decides about a particular type of design depending upon the various controlling factors, the various options are listed as System-Wide Master Planning, Transmission – Main Design, Sub-division Design, Rehabilitation and Strengthening .There are many methods for optimization of water distribution networks. All methods of optimization are not fully successful but have some drawbacks too. The designer must take into notice the various limitations/drawbacks before deciding a particular type of optimization method. There are certain myths about the optimization methods which are listed as Optimization models do not provide solutions to practical problems, Solutions obtained by optimization approaches do not give better solution that those obtained using traditional approaches, Optimization approaches are too difficult to use in practice, Practicing engineers are not comfortable with optimization approaches Optimization methods are not well suited for strengthening and expansion of existing looped water distribution network .Even though mankind has known transportation of water through rivers, canals, streams etc. for many centuries, the transportation of water through pipelines and its distribution through networks is of recent origin. Even though developed nations have piped water supply, developing nations also have started providing water through pipe networks. Even consumers in remote villages have started getting water, if not in their residences, at least near to it. Thus, water distribution networks have been a part of modern living. Keywords: Water, Distribution, Network, Optimization, Loop, Method, Solution, Pipe, Series, Link, Rural, Urban, Flow, Reliability, Design, Flexibility, Cost, Performance. INTRODUCTION Water distribution system is an integral part of present society and civilization. The system supplies water for different uses such as domestic, public, commercial, industrial and fire fighting purposes. Presently,water distribution system includes the following features – 1. Collection and Storage:Collection and storage include construction of dams, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, wells, bawlis etc. 72
2. Transportation: Transportation means transporting of water from source to consumer centre by some means, like - canals, aqueducts, pumping mains etc. 3. Pumping:Pumping includes pumps and other ancillary units for pumping water. 4.Treatment: Treatment includes screening,filtration,sedimentation,disinfection, softening and aeration. 5. Distribution: Distribution means distribution www.ijsir.co.in
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pipes, valves, fire hydrants, equalizing reservoirs and other accessories. HISTORY The systems for collection, transportation and distribution of water existed in ancient civilization also. Modern distribution systems supplying water to consumers for domestic and other uses are of recent developments. British Parliament passed an act in 1544 ‘. . . . . to provide for clear water for residents’ and started issuing directives to public and private water works companies. In USA, the earliest water supply dates back to 1652 for the cities, like Boston and Massachusetts. In 1746, the first piped supply for an entire population was built in Schaeffer city of Pennsylvania, USA. In both these systems of Britain and USA, water moved from higher elevation by gravity and was stored in wooden tanks from where people filled buckets. Steam operated pumps were first used in 1764 to raise water in the city of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA. Winston-Salem of North Carolina, USA, had the first complete water distribution system by 1776. However, the earlier systems were originally built for ‘fire protection’ and ‘dust suppression’ with little consideration for domestic services. Provision of water distribution system for urban population started in India in the nineteenth century i.e. 1800 onwards. However, it was the latter half of the twentieth century, i.e. 1950 onwards, that water distribution systems became a necessity in urban areas and was also being provided for semi-urban and selected rural areas. The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, 1981-1990, gave thrust to water distribution systems in the developing countries like India and many more. About 250 crores of people in the developing countries were provided piped water during this decade and an additional 200 crores were provided piped water in the last decade of the twentieth century i.e. 1990-2000. The water distribution networks in USA used wooden mains even up to 1940s. Even though a cast iron main was laid in Versailles, France in 1664. The first cast iron main was laid in USA in www.ijsir.co.in
Philadelphia in 1817. Modern water distribution networks throughout the world now use pipes of iron, steel, asbestos, cement, concrete and plastics. Of the total expenditure incurred on different facilities of a water distribution system, the expenditure incurred on transportation and distribution of water is quite large and may even exceed 70% of the cost of total water distribution system. It is, therefore, necessary to design new systems as well as expand and strengthen old ones to cut the cost drastically, as far as possible. TYPES OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Water distribution systems can be classified according to the source of water that they use, like1. Surface Water Distribution Systems When water is available in sufficient quantity from a natural stream, river, canal or a reservoir, like pond, lake, dam etc, the system has surface water as source of distribution (Fig. 1) [1].
Fig. 1
SW: Surface Water T: Treatment plant P: Pump R: Reservoir D: Distribution network The quality of water is average, hence it requires conventional treatment to remove mud and other impurities. The treatment plant is usually located on one end of the distribution network and large transmission mains and several service reservoirs are required if the population is large and spread in wide area.Since, the water tariff is reasonable, the consumers tend to use large quantities of water if the usage is not controlled. Therefore, in almost all areas the timings of water distribution is restricted. It is not a 24 hours supply any more. The surface water distribution system can also meet the needs of industries that require large quantities of 73
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processed water. 2. Ground Water Distribution Systems Water distribution systems for small population can use ground water as source, if sufficient quantity of ground water of good quality is available (Fig.2). [1]
R: Reservoir D: Distribution network If the system is large and the terrain is uneven, the services of booster pumps are, generally, availed to tackle the problem. Although, the consumers within a community are close to one another, the communities themselves are spread wide apart and the source is also far away. It is usually not possible to provide mains of enough capacity to provide fire requirements. 3.Purchased Water Distribution Systems
Fig. 2
W: Well D: Distribution network WF: Well Field However, as the population grows and water consumption exceeds, additional source of water becomes a necessity. Sometimes, water can be used directly without any treatment but treatment is necessary to remove hardness and other impurities. If the ground water is available at several locations, wells can be spaced around to avoid the need of large transmission mains. However, if large quantity of water is available in one area, water from all wells in this area, termed as ‘well field’, is collected and treated at one location. This reduces operating costs and allows a better control on water quality but requires large transmission mains. 2. Regional Rural Water Distribution Systems When ground water is scarce or of poor quality, several rural communities in a region are grouped together and are served through a system that is termed a ‘Regional Rural Water Distribution System’ (Fig. 3). [1]
Sometimes, when a water system finds that its distribution has become inadequate or has become contaminated, it purchases water from another system (Fig. 4). [1]
Fig. 4
PW: Purchased Water M: Meter D: Distribution network For such a purchased water distribution system, little or no treatment is required. However, disinfection and re-pumping to boost the pressure up is necessary. Since all water leakages and wastages have to be paid for, strict water accountability is necessary. TYPES OF PIPING SYSTEMS Piping systems used in water distribution systems can be classified in four categories1. Transmission Lines: Transmission lines are pipes that carry raw water from source to treatment plants and treated water from treatment plants to pumping stations, service reservoirs and distribution networks as shown in Fig.5. [1]
Fig. 3
SW: Surface Water T: Treatment plant P: Pump 74
Fig. 5 www.ijsir.co.in
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S: Source T: Treatment plant P: Pump R: Reservoir D: Distribution network RW: Raw Water TW: Treated Water They are usually long, large in diameter (>400 mm) and carry large quantities of water. They carry water from one point to another; have few side connections except when they supply water to bulk consumers or service reservoirs.
node and the last link ends on a sink. All intermediate nodes are connected by two links, a supply link on the upstream and a distribution link on the downstream. The direction of flow in all links is fixed and is along the direction from the source node to the sink. 2.Branched Networks A branched or a dead-end network is a tree like network and has no loops (Fig. 7) [1].
2. In-plant Piping Systems In-plant piping systems usually consists of pipes in treatment plants and pumping stations. They are larger in diameter but small in length and contain several outlets, valves, meters and bends. 3. Distributions Mains Distributions mains are pipes that carry water from transmission mains or service reservoirs and distribute it to the consumers. They are laid along the roads, have several side connections for consumer services. They are 100 or 150 mm and larger in diameter. 4. Service Lines Service Lines are small diameter pipes and carry water from distribution mains to consumer premises. TYPES OF WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
Fig. 7
It consists of several serial networks. Usually it has one source node, one or more intermediate nodes, and has more than one sink. Each intermediate node is connected on the upstream by one supply link and on the downstream by one more distribution links. The direction of flow in all links is fixed and is along the direction from the source node to the sink. Since serial and branched networks are similar from design purposes. The term branched networks is often used to denote both – serial and branched networks. 3. Looped Networks A looped network contains loops (Fig. 8) [1].
Water distribution networks are classified according to their layout, like1. Serial Networks A serial network has no branches and loops (Fig. 6) [1].
Fig. 8
Fig. 6
It is the simplest of all types of water distribution networks. Generally, it has one source node, one sink and one or more intermediate nodes. First link starts at a source www.ijsir.co.in
S: Source A, B, C, E, F: Nodes D: Sink G: Node/Sink 75
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It has one source node in a single source network, but has several source nodes in a multiple source network. A looped network must have at least one sink. The node that behaves as a sink depends on the nodal demands. For example, node D in Fig. 8 behaves as sink. However, if demand at node G increases, the flow direction in link DG is reversed and node G behaves as a sink. For a particular demand pattern, the direction of flow in a link is fixed, however, it may change for another demand pattern. Thus, for a node, a link that behaves as a supply link for one demand pattern may behave as a distribution link for another demand pattern. Similarly, when the direction of flow changes in a link, the upstream node becomes a downstream node and vice versa. Looped water distribution network in practice seldom consist of loops only. In addition to loops, they contain branched and serial networks. NETWORK COMPONENTS Water distribution networks contain several components. Each network is unique in source, layout, topography, pipe material, valves, meters and consumer connections. A small water distribution network[3] may have a single source node, such as an elevated service reservoir or a pumping arrangement directly supplying water from the treatment plant to the network. A large network, however, may have several nodes, service and balancing reservoirs and pumping stations. Layout of a distribution network depends on the existing pattern of streets and highways, existing and planned sub-division of the service area, possible sites for ground and elevated service reservoirs and locations and density of demand centers. Topography of the service area may be even or uneven. In an uneven terrain, booster pumps are necessary for pumping water to high level areas. Similarly, it may be necessary to provide pressure reducing valves for areas with lower elevation to reduce pressure. Check valves may also be necessary to maintain flow in the 76
selected direction. Pipes in distribution networks may be of cast iron, steel, concrete, asbestos, cement or PVC. Pipes may be un-lined or lined with cement mortar. Valves are provided in water distribution networks to – (a) Control flow. (b) Shut off pipelines during repairs or replacements. (c) Drain
pipelines during cleaning.
(d) Reduce (e) Maintain (f)
pressure for low lying areas. flow
in
selected direction.
Suppress water hammer effects.
(g) Allow air to enter pipelines while emptying. (h) Release points. (i)
air
from
pipelines
at higher
During filling.
Meters are provided to measure flow of water from a source, transfer of water between different zones and the supply of water to consumers. Water distribution to the tapping points of the consumers may be direct or indirect. For direct supply, sufficient pressure is required in the network so that the tapping points at different elevations get water. For highrise buildings, however, the supply is indirect. The distribution system supplies water to sumps at the ground level, while lifting of water from these sumps to the individual tapping points and overhead tanks is left to the consumers. NETWORK MODEL A factual water distribution network is extremely complex involving a large number of different components. It is extremely difficult to consider all such Components in the optimal design of a water distribution network. Therefore, a designer prepares a mathematical model of the network and designs it. The mathematical model of a water distribution network is a network consisting of nodes and links. The network include all services, reservoirs, pumping stations, links in the main www.ijsir.co.in
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direction of flow and loop forming links. Bulk consumptions are considered individually while small demands such as domestic consumption are put together and are assumed to occur at demand nodes. Depending on the topography, booster pumps and pressure reducing valves are included in the model. Check valves, if necessary, are also included. While preparing a mathematical model of a water distribution network, it must be seen that the model is neither too elaborate to pose problems working on it, nor too sketchy to distort the behavior to unacceptable limits. The model should rather include important elements so that the results obtained from it can describe the behavior of the real-life water distribution network. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS The design of a water distribution system for a small community is rather simple since this primarily involves deciding sizes of different pipes in the system. The design of water distribution system [2, 3] for a large community is rather complex. In addition to the usual pipe sizing, the design involves decision regarding – (a) Location of sources of water. (b) Division of community in different zones. (c) Location and capacity of distribution reservoirs. (d) Locations, types, capacity and operating schedule of pumps. (e) Locations, types and settings of different valves. There are many requirements for properly designing a complete water distribution network. The network should be able to: (a) Determine optimal pipe layout and sizes. (b) Design both – new networks and extension of existing ones. (c) Select existing pipes for cleaning and relining as part of an optimal solution. (d) Analyse the network under several demand patterns, including fire-flow requirements. (e) Handle all types of networks and network complexities. www.ijsir.co.in
(f)
Determine the location, size and heights of reservoirs and their operations.
(g) Assist in the selection of pumps and pump stations. (h) Determine the optimal settings of all types of valves in the operation of the network. (i)
Determine optimal designs and operations of networks containing a large number of pipes, pumps, valves and reservoirs.
DESIGN PROBLEMS The design of water distribution system is classified into four types of design problems – 1. System – Wide Master Planning Master planning of system to determine the general layout of water distribution system, like locations, sizing and construction schedule of major elements over a period that may be as long as 10 years. The pipe diameters are large (>400 mm) and are mainly controlled by future demand of domestic and industrial nature. Since the construction will be in stages, modification in pipe sizes is permitted at the time of installation, taking into consideration the latest data regarding water demands. 2. Transmission – Main Design Using the master plan as a guideline, the design of transmission mains is finalized. The design has better idea of the temporary demands, routes along which the pipes will be laid, and the field data regarding different lengths and levels. Since the pipe sizes are large, fire flows are usually satisfied. However, the behavior of an element during peak flows must be considered. 3. Sub - division Design Considering different sub-divisions, such as residential, industrial and commercial and the corresponding demands, the sizes of pipes within the sub-division are decided. The ‘transmission main’ network should be studied deeply and the pressure obtained at junction points, connecting a sub-division to the ‘transmission main’ system, should be used in the design of pipes in the subdivision. Pipe sizes are controlled by simultaneous peak flow without any interruption 77
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of an element. Minimum pipe diameter is 100 or 150 mm.
3. Optimization approaches are too difficult to use in practice –
4. Rehabilitation and Strengthening
This is true. Optimization approaches are mainly confined to research work, the algorithms are developed and used for research purposes. Computers programs are not easily available for practical applications.
Loss of carrying capacity because of pipes may need rehabilitation and strengthening of an existing network. Such pipes may be completely replaced by new pipes, cleaned, lined or strengthened by parallel piping. In such a design, calibration of existing network is essential. The design is governed by simultaneous peak and fire flows. OPTIMIZATION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORK AND ITS LIMITATIONS Several methods have been developed, since 1960s, for the optimal design of water distribution networks. However, optimization approaches have not been widely used in practice. Some genuine reasons for not supporting the optimization approaches has already been elaborated. [5] The details are discussed below: 1. Optimization models do not provide solutions to practical problems It is true that no optimization model neither presently exist nor would be available in near future that would give optimal solution to all the types of design problems discussed in [2] and also for all the design requirements proposed in.[4] However, as observed in [5] optimization models can give reasonably good solutions to practical problems, if the solution is not desired for the water supply system as a whole but for a single type of design problems. 2. Solutions obtained by optimization approaches do not give better solution than those obtained using traditional approaches This is not quite true. An experienced designer may obtain by traditional method, a design that maybe cheaper in cost to that obtained through optimization techniques. However, as has been observed in practice, Lauria 1993, designs through optimization approaches can result in savings, sometimes as high as 20 to 30%, over traditional designs, for the desired level of performance. 78
4. Practicing engineers are not comfortable with optimization approaches – This is true. Unless system analysis, operations research and optimization processes applicable to water distribution networks are introduced in engineering studies, practicing engineers would not be comfortable with optimization approaches and would be reluctant to use them. 5. Optimization methods are not well suited for strengthening and expansion of existing looped water distribution net work – As stated in earlier study [2], this is to be one of the main reasons for not adopting optimization processes by practicing engineers. This is not wholly true, optimization methods can be successful when used for strengthening and expansion of existing water distribution networks. [6]
6. Clients do not insist on competitive designsThis is partly true. In developing countries wherein cost is of primary concern, the planning agencies, mostly the state water supply and sewerage boards have started insisting on competitive designs obtained through optimization approaches. CONCLUSION Even though mankind has known transportation of water through rivers, canals, streams etc. for many centuries, the transportation of water through pipelines and its distribution through networks is of recent origin. Even though developed nations have piped water supply, developing nations also have started providing water through pipe networks. Even consumers in remote villages have started getting water, if not in their residences, at least near to it. Thus, water distribution networks have www.ijsir.co.in
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been a part of modern living.
REFERENCES
It is seen that it is matter of time before optimal design of water distribution networks becomes common in practice. It is, therefore, preferable if engineers concerned with water distribution networks, in general, and those concerned with their design, in particular, have good knowledge of optimization approaches and their application to water distribution networks. Several publications as detailed in ‘References’ are available on this topic, which may help and guide the practicing engineers to design successfully the optimization approach of water distribution network.
1.
Bhave, PR, Optimal Design of Water Distribution, Published by Narosa Publishing House, India, ISBN 81-7319-505-6, (2003), 1-15.
2.
Chase, D. V., and Ormsbee, L. E. 1993. “Computer generated pumping schedules for satisfying operation objectives.” Journal American Water Works Association,857, 54–61.
3.
Jowitt, P. W., and Germanopoulos, G. 1992. “Optimal pump scheduling in water supply networks.” Journal Water Resource Planning Management,1184, 406–422.
4.
Lansey, K. E., and Awumah, K. 1994. “Optimal pump operations considering pump switches.” Journal Water Resource Planning Management, 1201, 17–35.
5.
López-Ibáñez, M., Prasad, T. D., and Paechter, B. 2005. “Optimal pump scheduling: Representation and multiple objectives.” Proc., 8th Int. Conf. on Computing and Control for the Water Industry, D. A. Savic,
6.
Walters, G.A., King, R. and Khu,S.T. ,eds., University of Exeter Press, Exeter, U.K., 117–122.
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RIGHT TO INFORMATION- A TOOL OF GOOD GOVERNACE *SUNIL KUMAR SINGH1, RUPINDER KAUR GULATI2, POOJA AWASTHI3, OM PRAKASH4 1 Geeta College of Education, Panipat ,Haryana, India, 2Research Scholar, F.M. University, 3 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 4 Research Scholar, Dakashin Bharat Hindi Pracharini Sabha University,Chennai, India *Address for Correspondence : Prof. Sunil Kumar Singh, Principal, Geeta College of Education, Panipat, Haryana, India, E mail ID: sksingh.ms@gmail.com
ABSTRACT Corruption today is the greatest enemy of good governance and causing harm to democracy and development. People in India must bow their heads in shame as they are living in a country where every organ, activity and functions are conducted with corrupt practices. Whatever the number of institutions we create, they themselves become other dens of corruption. It seems that good governance and corruption cannot co-exist. If it cannot which is that element supporting such corrupt practices? The Answer is SECRECY. Secrecy in Government is the most important cause of corruption, inefficiency and irresponsiveness and an enemy to good governance. The purpose of this study to create the awareness in people about RTI. RTI has enabled people to participate in the process of development which has resulted in education of corruption and established an open and participatory governance system. Hence, in effect, RTI Reflects and promotes the social income interest of every citizen, particularly the poor, who are receiving the benefits of development as per their entitlements. RTI is potential tool which indicated with a view to expediting the process of human development. Keywords: Right to information, Good governance INTRODUCTION Right to information (RTI) is harnessed as a tool for promoting participatory development, strengthening democratic governance and facilitating effective delivery of socio-economic services. In the knowledge society, in which we live today, acquisition of information and new knowledge and its application have intense and pervasive impact on processes of taking informed decisions, resulting in overall productivity gains. The Constitution of India has guaranteed (u/s 19) the freedom of expression and speech. Even then, a citizen had no legal right to know about the details of public policies and expenditures. And, therefore, it was not possible for a common man to observe and scrutinize the public actions with a view to developing an understanding about the outcome of public activities and/or providing feedback for rectifying the deficiencies in policy planning and the execution of programs.Despite planned efforts of six decades, over one-third of the total population is illiterate, poor and un-healthy. In order to rectify the deficiencies in the 80
mechanisms for ensuring the reach of entitlements, particularly the basic human needs, the people in general and NGOs, in particular, demanded for a greater access to the information held by the public bodies, which was acceded to by the Government in 2005. In this backdrop, the Right to Information Act 2005, the RTI hereinafter, was passed by the National Parliament to dismantle the culture of secrecy and to change the mindset of the bureaucrats and political leaders and to create conditions for taking informed decisions.The major concern of the Act is to allow for greater probity in the functioning of the government departments so as to promote transparency and accountability in the working of the public bodies and contain the scourge of corruption, which are critical for ensuring good governance and development. In view of the foregoing, the major objective of this paper is two folds: one is to assess the impact of RTI on the elements of good governance; and the other is to examine the extent to which RTI induced governance has strengthened the indicators of developments. www.ijsir.co.in
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Finally, measures for utilizing the potential tool of right to know are indicated with a view to expediting the process of human development. In inaugural address to the newly constituted Parliament on June 4, 2009, the Hon’ble President of India, Smt Pratibha Patil, underscored the commitment of the new government to governance reforms as one of the top ten priorities of the new government in Delhi.
the RTI on good governance and development is indeed a daunting task, since data are lacking to permit methodological rigor of analysis. However, reliance is made on n
The Eleventh Plan presents six benchmarks of such democratic governance: n n
n
n
n
n
Free and fair and timely elections of all spheres of political authority.
Efficient and effective delivery of socioeconomic public services. Effective devolution of authority, resources and capabilities to PRIs and municipalities. Rule of law, where legal rights are clear and understood, and legal compliance and enforcements of those rights is time-bound and swift needs and interests of hitherto excluded sections of society are privileged and included, with dignity.
It is clear that the Government of India is following a set of standards for reforming governance in the country, which are essentially citizen-centric—transparency, accountability and efficiency of all institutions, agencies and actors of the government, with particular attention to those citizens who have been largely excluded so far. RTI AND GOVERNANCE
ELEMENTS
OF
GOOD
The RTI Act was implemented in October 2005. Though a period of three years is too a short period to assess the success of this Act, it may be worthwhile to analyze some evidences for developing an understanding on how it works and what it does or does not do. We, therefore, propose to find an answer to the question: whether the objectives of the Act are being realized? n
n
Transparency and accountability of all institutions of the state to citizens.
It must be admitted that the assessment of
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The responses of the RTI requesters and the activists, particularly during the course of hearings conducted by the Author in the cases listed before the commission to resolve the disputes between information seekers and providers; Media reports on the issues pertaining to RTI matters; and Preliminary research studies and publications of results, mainly those relating to corruption and accountability of public bodies. the major objectives of the Act are: Greater Transparency in functioning of public authorities; Informed citizenry for promotion of partnership between citizens and the Government in decision making process; Improvement in accountability and performance of the Government; and Reduction in corruption in the Government departments. All these parameters are critical elements of good governance.
LINKS BETWEEN RTI AND THE ELEMENTS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE RTI Promotes Accountability: With empowered citizens and free flow of information, there is significant quantitative and qualitative improvement in the delivery of services. For instance, disclosure of information relating to: n
n
n
n
attendance of staff in schools has helped in checking teachers’ absenteeism and students’ drop out; attendance of doctors and nurses at primary health centers has led to improvement in health care facilities in rural areas; the details of supplies and distribution of food grains through ration shops has assured the reach of entitlements to the beneficiaries; the supply and demand for petroleum 81
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products, such as, domestic gas has reduced black marketing; muster rolls and beneficiary of employment guarantee schemes has exposed corruption and ensured effective delivery of services to the poor who are entitled for wage employment on demand for at least 100 days in a year @ Rs.60 – 80 per day, which means additional income of Rs.6000 – 8000 per year; and
n
Allotment of retail outlets (petrol pumps) and agencies for distribution of LPG gas, including the registered beneficiaries has ensured fair play and objective decisions, as reflected from substantial reduction in litigation cases in the matter.
n
As a result of increased Government’s accountability in delivery of services, rural to urban migration has, of late, decelerated, as widely reported in the media. This is also corroborated by the findings of a national level survey conducted by the Transparency International and the Centre for Media Studies. The survey has revealed that in the opinions of 40 per cent of respondent (all below the poverty line), corruption and mal-practices in implementation of poverty alleviation programs have declined due to RTI induced accountability of the Government and its functionaries at various levels. RTI Promotes Transparency: Due to perceived benefits of transparency and accountability, RTI applications have annually increased by 8 to 10 times. There is thus massive use of the right to know. Of the millions of applications for information, less than 5 percent have been denied information under various exemption categories, u/s 8(1) of the Act, on the grounds of national interest, personal or third party information or those pertaining to commercial confidence, the disclosure of which would affect competitiveness of public authorities.
recruitment, selection and promotion of staff, documents pertaining to tender processes and procurement procedure, the lists of beneficiaries of the Government’s subsidized schemes, such as, food grains supplied through ration shops, water and electricity, domestic gas, educational and health facilities, shelter for poor, muster rolls under employment guarantee schemes, health insurance scheme for poor, old age pension, food security for destitute, etc. The disclosure of vital information, such as above, has thus resulted in checking corrupt practices in delivery of services and ensuring the reach of entitlements to the poor. RTI V/S CORRUPTION: Under the RTI regime, there is unprecedented transparency in the working of public departments. There is thus better understanding of the decision making process and greater accountability of government. This has led to reduction in corruption in the country as evident from the following: · The Transparency International (TI) has reported that perceived corruption in India has declined, due mainly to the implementation of the RTI Act. This is evident from corruption reduction score of 3.4 (out of 10) in 2008, after an initial rise of 3.5 in 2007, compared to 2.99 in 2006, which indicate a decline in corruption to the extent of 15%. n
n
The TI-CMS has recently accomplished an all India survey study of the poor below the poverty line. The views of the poor have been elicited in respect of all the flagship programs that have been implemented for alleviation of poverty. At least 40 per cent of the respondents have reported that corruption has declined. It has also been observed that wherever NGOs are actively involved in the development activities, the perceived corruption is abysmally low.
In effect, thus, there is greater transparency than ever before in the working of the public bodies. In a large number of cases, the Commission has ordered for providing the details of the decision-making processes, which include ‘file noting, cabinet papers, records of 82
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flow of information and good governance, the RTI Act exempts the poor from payment of fees of Rs.10/- for seeking information. And, the information is to be furnished within the stipulated period of thirty days, failing which penalty may be imposed. An estimate reveals that at least 20 per cent of the information seekers are those who belong to BPL category. In rural areas, this share is as high as 37% of the total applicants. They have, in general, sought to know the details of services assured to them and the reasons as to why the services meant for them are not reaching them. In the RTI regime, the poor persons armed with information through the exercise of right to know, are getting increasingly involved in designing and implementation of poverty alleviation programmes, as discussed below. (a)Guarantee of Income and Food Security
(Conceptual Diagram of Good Governance) RTI AND ITS IMPACT ON MAJOR INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT The challenge of development is to improve the quality of life, which calls for increasing people’s options for higher earnings, better education and health care, a cleaner environment and a richer cultural life. The record of long-term performance show that while there has been steady progress in improvement of the major indicators of development, the achievements fall far short of our expectations. The feedback obtained from the appellants, PIOs and the activists has been of immense value in providing desirable inputs and perspectives on RTI and its linkages with the factors that affect the welfare of people. POVERTY ALLEVIATION RTI is used as a tool for facilitating effective delivery of socio-economic services. RTI empowers people to seek details about their entitlements and, accordingly, to take informed decisions in all matters affecting them so as to secure equity and justice. Recognizing the significance of right to know for ensuring free www.ijsir.co.in
The Governments – the Centre and States – have launched from time to time a number of schemes for providing wage employment to the poor, the benefits of which have hardly reached them due to ineffective implementation of programmes, including rampant corruption. In the absence of right to information, it was not possible to create conditions for accountability of public servants or authorities, which resulted in both perpetuation of poverty and unproductive use of resources that were allocated for eradication of poverty. In this backdrop, the adoption of rights-based approach is significant to weed out corruption and to guarantee the reach of entitlements of poor persons. Accordingly, almost all the poverty alleviation programmes are designed such that a citizen can observe and scrutinize the public activities with a view to providing critical feedback for shaping the policies and programmes that would assure optimum gains to society, particularly the poor. In this context, a mention may be made of the following schemes: (b)Implementation of NREGA: With a view to providing work opportunity on demand for at least 100 days in a year and to secure livelihood of people in rural areas, NREGA has been implemented. The right to work has thus been legally guaranteed and the manner in which entitlement for employment is 83
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to be claimed has been clearly articulated. Rural poor have been effectively participating in the programme for not only just to secure income security but also to build rural infrastructure, which is critical for raising productivity in the future. In effect, annual income of a rural job card holder has thus risen by Rs.6,000 - 8000 (100 days x Rs.60 – 80 per day wages), which is in addition to other incomes. The development of rural infrastructure under the scheme would surely enhance productivity of various activities and augment further opportunities for employment and income. In view of the above gains, the rural community in cooperation with the Panchayats (Village Councils) has been effectively participating in changing the landscape of poverty scenario in the country. The outcome is encouraging as the affected persons are able to get their grievances redressed under the provisions of the RTI Act. Taking advantage of the transparency norms, which are duly built in both the NREGA, and the right to information, people have sought to know the details of schemes and its relevance to the rural community, utilization of funds, payment of wages to the target beneficiaries, etc. The disclosure of relevant details, such as muster rolls, has helped in containing corruption, ensuring the reach of benefits to the target groups and identification of officials responsible for creating obstruction in effective implementation of programs. The RTI has thus proved very effective in providing grounds for initiating remedial actions with a view to realizing the objectives of public policies. For urban poor, Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) has been launched to provide basic services, namely, water supply and sanitation, transport, education, health care, etc. Through RTI, citizens ensure effective delivery of services in a time bound manner, which has desirable impact on poverty reduction and quality of life in urban areas. Mid-Day Meals to School Children: As a measure of food security, all the school children are provided with mid-day meals in schools, which not only helps in reducing nutritional deficiency among the poverty stricken children but also enhances their learning attainments due to adequate intake of balanced 84
diets. All the stakeholders, mainly the students, teachers and parents, are able to observe and monitor the service delivery system. Since there has to be almost total openness in operationalization of the scheme, people have access to relevant information, which they utilize for improving effectiveness of the scheme. This, in turn, assists in reducing both food poverty as well as dropouts, which have been rampant among the children from poor families. In effect, the scheme improves physical health and learning abilities of children. Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS): One of the components of this scheme is to provide nutritional support to children from poor families. The use of RTI by the target group, including the NGOs, has ensured effective implementation of the scheme to the advantage of the poor children. Grant of Food Security and Pension for the Poor Senior Citizens: With a view to providing income and human security to the poor and destitute, financial assistance to families with low means of subsistence is provided to all poor persons, above 60 years. The grant of pension of Rs.500/ - per month has been universalized. Moreover, the destitute are entitled for 10 Kgs of food grains per month free of cost. Those who could not claim for their entitlements of pensions or free food grains, for different reasons, are able to do so through the use of RTI. There are umpteen numbers of instances which demonstrate that the people are accessing the above benefits that have been assured by the Government. The issue of livelihood being important as it affects life and liberty of people, information is furnished within 48 hrs as per the provisions of the Act. Since these schemes, namely, ICDS, MidDay Meals, NREGS and old age pension cover the entire target population, and the Government is committed to implement these schemes and is actually doing so, there is no reason why the food poverty cannot be annihilated over night. The RTI encourages everyone to ask the Government to explain as to why assured benefits are not reaching them. And, by asking this, grievances are redressed under the auspices of the Information Commission. www.ijsir.co.in
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a) Delivery of Services under Subsidized Schemes The Governments have launched a number of schemes which make essential services available to the poor at low rates. Under the schemes, such items as food grains, kerosene, sugar, etc, are provided to the poor in order to alleviate costs burden on them. Besides, subsidy is provided for housing, education and health services. b) Public Distribution System (PDS): The implementation of schemes like Public Distribution System (PDS) has, till recently, been adversely affected by unacceptably poor quality of governance at all levels of execution of the scheme, resulting, the services meant for the poor are reaching them since the beneficiaries are using RTI to seek such details as the stock of supplies and distribution, rate lists, list of beneficiaries - the disclosure of which ensures weeding out of fictitious names. It has thus been possible to curb corruption and plug loopholes in the PDS, which, in effect, has improved the delivery of services and, thus, reduced incidence of poverty al c) Shelter for the Poor: Housing is recognized as one of the human rights since a shelter is essential asset that improves physical and mental well-being of people. Accordingly, under Indira Awaas Yojna (IAY), financial support is provided to the rural poor for construction of houses as per their choice of design and requirement. The scheme is fully participatory between the Government and beneficiaries as per the guidelines which are in public domain. The identified beneficiaries, having known of their entitlements, are able to create effective demand for release of funds, for construction of houses. The instrument of RTI has helped in maintaining total transparency in operationalization of the scheme, which, in effect, minimize corruption and improve satisfaction level of target groups. HUMAN CAPITAL: EDUCATION AND HEALTH CARE Education and health care are critical services for empowerment of people, in general, and the poor, in particular. In the knowledge www.ijsir.co.in
economy, which is driven by new ideas and technologies, it is not possible to function and expedite the process of national development without enhancing the technical and professional competence of the entire manpower. The share of educated and vocationally trained labor force in the total manpower is one of the lowest, below 5% for the country, as compared to other countries, having a corresponding share of 60 to 80%, with which India has to compete in the global market. i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Under this scheme, the Governments have committed to provide minimum school infrastructure for universalization of elementary education. In the absence of any question asked by the major stakeholders, mainly students or parents, quality of education was compromised and there was no check on drop-out or teachers’ absenteeism. But under the provisions of the RTI, the citizens have raised issues pertaining to management of the schools, mainly the availability of infrastructure support, teachers’ attendance, students’ enrolment and performance, implementation of mid-day schemes, utilization of funds and process of recruitment of teachers. The Government has been providing financial assistance, including scholarships to the students from deprived groups, mainly women, SC/ST, minorities and physically challenged persons. Through the use of RTI, the target groups are able to claim for their entitlements, which was, however, not possible before the implementation of the Act. The participation of deprived groups in the educational processes has thus been encouraged. In effect, thus, there are signs of improvement in the schools’ performance since the parents and the civil society have asked the school authorities to provide explanations in respect of all those activities, which are contrary to the accepted policies, norms and guidelines and people’s expectations. In the areas of technical and vocational education, including higher education, the governments have articulated plans for expansion of facilities and improvement of quality of teaching and research. Through the use of RTI, the progresses made are monitored by the information seekers, who have raised issues and sought for details relating to the expenditures on various educational activities, namely, 85
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admissions and recruitment processes, conduct of examinations including disclosure of answer sheets. The involvement of students and teachers have thus exposed the extent to which relevant policies, norms and guidelines are followed, which, in effect, have been helpful in improving both internal and external efficiency of education system. ii) National Rural Health Mission: Healthcare services have largely remained on paper due to lack of accountability of staff. Using the tool of RTI, the citizens have sought for details of primary health services. The disclosure of such details as stock of medicines and its distribution, procedure for procurement of medicines, attendance of medical staff and number of patients treated, etc., has resulted in better management of primary health centers. Thus, in pursuance of the goal of the Mission, access to primary health care has significantly improved, which is due to the use of RTI by the poor, who are ultimate beneficiaries of the rural health policy. The RTI has thus created effective demand for improvement in quality of services provided by the hospitals. iii) Aam Admi Insurance Scheme: Under the insurance scheme and family benefit scheme, the Government provides financial support to the specified groups of the poor families. Whenever there is perceived laxity or delay in extending the benefits to the beneficiaries, the implementation agencies have been called upon to explain the reason for delay or denial of assistance to the poor, failing which penal action are initiated against the responsible persons. BASIC ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE It is expected that the partnership between citizen and the Government would help create solid infrastructure, which, in turn, would create conducive conditions for improving quality of life. An informed and enlightened citizenry has been able to create conditions for good governance through openness in functioning of public enterprises. In this regard, the following specific nature of cases may be mentioned: ♦
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Manipulations in tendering processes or outsourcing of various services have been major source of corruption or diversion of funds for private purposes. Scrutiny of the
decision making processes have discouraged the Government companies from their indulgence in corrupt practices; ♦
The process of selection and award of retail outlets and domestic gas agencies, having been, of late, in public domain has not only checked malpractices in the selection process but also controlled blackmarketing of subsidized services, namely, petrol, kerosene and cooking gas; and
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People have sought to know the adherence of environmental norms by the manufacturing companies for checking water and air pollutions, maintenance of ecological balance, etc., resulting in desirable impact on sustainability of environment.
A large number of public enterprises under the States’ sector have similarly been called upon to improve their performance and show results in terms of their accepted corporate social responsibilities. EMPOWERMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS The development initiatives have duly laid emphasis on protection of vulnerable sections of the society, mainly women, SC/ST, minorities and disabled persons. In almost every policy and scheme for promotion of welfare and empowerment of deprived groups, there are relevant components that assure the reach of specified benefits through the policy of preferential treatments and positive discrimination. Having known the entitlements for reservations in employment and admissions in educational institutions, scholarships, old age pensions, health insurance, etc., the citizens have begun to effectively realize the entitlements through the use of RTI. The deficiencies in implementation of policies, if any, have also been raised, which provide necessary feedback for formulating sound policies for empowerment of weaker sections. There are umpteen numbers of cases pertaining to human rights issues that have been raised by the affected persons and groups, who seek accountability of service providers and the concerned departments. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION A clean environment is closely associated www.ijsir.co.in
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with issues of human rights. In carrying out their obligations, all the public and private enterprises are required to adhere to specific norms and standards so as to ensure sustainability of environment. The citizens, armed with information, have questioned the polluting units, particularly the regulatory bodies, and sought to know whether the prescribed standards for protection of environment are adhered to. RTI induced people’s pressure on the public authorities has led to: (a) closure of certain polluting units; (b) stoppage of projects having adverse impact on environment; (c) adherence to the norms and standards prescribed by the regulatory bodies; and (d) exposure and identification of officials who are responsible of violation of environmental norms. The NGOs and affected persons have made use of RTI as a tool to monitor the standards for environmental protection. In effect, thus, RTI has empowered people to take charge of development of the areas where they live in. And, thus, effectively realize their entitlements through the exercise of their legal rights for access to essential services including protection of human rights that are critical for maintaining a decent standard of life.
for setting up information regime, therefore, augurs well for strengthening the knowledge society as well as for increasing the accountability of public bodies. The trend in improvement in delivery of services, due to the perceived good governance, provides sufficient indication for alleviation of poverty, good health and liquidation of illiteracy in a much shorter duration than envisaged for the realization of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). RTI has enabled people to participate in the process of development, which has resulted in reduction of corruption and establishing an open and participatory governance system. In effect, RTI protects and promotes the socio-economic interests of every citizen, particularly the poor, who are receiving the benefits of development as per their entitlements and it’s also proves that, RTI- as a tool of good governance. REFERENCES 1.
CARC. (2008). Refurbishing of Personnel Administration: Scaling New Heights. Tenth Report of ARC. New Delhi. Govt. of India.
2.
ARC. (2009). Citizen Centric Governance: The Heart of Governance. Twelfth Report of ARC. New Delhi. Govt. of India.
3.
ARC. (2008). Promoting E-governance: Smart Way Forward. Eleventh Report of ARC. New Delhi. Govt. of India.
4.
Debroy, B. (ed.) (2004). Agenda for Improving Governance. New Delhi Academic Foundation.
5.
Levy, Brian. (2007) Governance Reform: Bridging Monitoring and Action. Washington DC. The World Bank.
6.
Planning Commission (Government of India) (2008). Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012, Vol. I Inclusive Growth. New Delhi, Oxford University Press. pp. 223-224
7.
PRIA (2008), Implementation of RTI Act in 12 States
8.
Saini.P.K., Gupta R.K. Right to Information Act 2005: Implementation and challenges, New Delhi, mayor Interprises, Print, 2009.
9.
Tandon, Rajesh and Ranjita Mohanti (2002). Civil Society and Governance. New Delhi. Samskriti.
10.
UNDP (2007). Governance Indicators: A Users’ Guide. UNDP.
11.
Yashda. Right to Information Act 2005: A Primer, Tata Mcgraw, Hill Publishing Co., 2008.
12.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right to Information Act
13.
http://www.iitbbs.ac.in/pdf/RTI-ACT.pdf
CONCLUSION Right to know, as a tool to access public held information, has significant bearing on good governance, development and the implementation of flagship programs for alleviation of poverty. India’s economy in the last three years has grown at unprecedented high rate of about 8 per cent per annum, which also coincides with RTI induced good governance. This is unprecedented in India’s history of development. A common man, like an elected Member of Parliament (MP), is empowered to seek accountability of the Government in terms accepted policies and approved budgetary expenditures. The Central and the State Information Commissions have played a critical role in enforcing the provisions of the Act as well as educating the information seekers and providers. Without their statutory interventions, including use of penal provisions against the public authorities, the benefits of RTI could not have been reaped by the citizens and the society. The implementation of the law on right to know www.ijsir.co.in
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A COMPARISON OF SPORTS STRESS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS AMONG SPORTS COLLEGE, SPORTS HOSTEL AND STADIUM BADMINTON PLAYERS TANUJ KUMAR,1 SATISH SINGH1, MANJEET SINGH BHANDARI1, RAKESH PRASAD SEMWAL1, *ABHAY SINGH2 1 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 2Department of Physical Education, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India *Address For correspondence: Dr. Abhay Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India, Email ID: abhay_coach@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT Badminton is still an amateur game, but the level of commitment shows in terms in number of hours of training by the subjects. The study suggests a professional attitude to the game at this level. The information obtained from this study provides a platform for further research. The pressure and personality rate in the term of competitive exposure time and training time should be determined. Despite the limitations of this study the results provide a useful insight into the nature, site and variables. It was an intensive attempt to excessively examine such variables. Keywords: Stress, Personality, Traits, Sports INTRODUCTION In modern era, games and sports hold a prominent place in life. Millions of people participate in sporting activities and spend billions of rupees or dollars annually on sports related activities and equipment. The impact of sports on modem society has made it clear that sports are a very legitimate field of academic study. Modem thinkers in education now a days emphasize that the best individual is one, who is physically fit, mentally sound and sharp, emotionally balanced and socially well adjusted. In modern time, competition in sports needs psychological preparation of term or individual players. It is important as teaching the different skills of a game on scientific lines. It is said that modern warfare is not fought and won with psychological strategies, similar is the case with modern sports. Sport’s psychology suggests that teams prepared not to play the game but also to win the game. Most of the coaches agree that physical characteristics, skills and training of the players are extremely important but they also indicate that good mental preparation for competition is a necessary component for success. 88
Sport is one of the avenues of man’s never ceasing strive for excellence. Its uniqueness lies in the intimacy between the physical happenings of human bodies and their repercussions on their minds; as well as in the general reconcilability of the social and aesthetic values which sport engenders. Sport evokes experiences that are exclusively human and independent of the changing forms, patterns and customs of a civilization which involves profoundly modifying concepts of our environment. Sports involve extremely complex behavioral issues. As a consequence of intense competition sportsman’s behavior may also undergo important changes. So physical education scientists and coaches have not to be expert only in the matter of skill training but also to be engineers who understand the mechanism of human behavior on the playfields, under extremely diverse situations. Although badminton is one of the most played sports in the world, in India it has also been taken as one of the important individual sport. India has produced high level of skilled players. In this problem we want to see that among the various players who can handle the problems easily and they can become good www.ijsir.co.in
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players. Psychological variables are the most important contributing factors for better performance in all sports and games, including Badminton. The game of Badminton requires considerable amount of mental alertness and mastery of skill. Badminton is one of the most sports in the world. It is an enjoyable, social sport that can be played from childhood to old age, either at a recreational level or as a competitive sport. Badminton is an individual non contact sport requiring jump, lunges quick changes in direction and rapid movements from wide variety of postural position. At high level its demands quick reactions speed coordination and a relative good physical condition. While basic techniques are easy to learn, a lot of skill and training is demanded to reach high level of play. In tournament there is typically more than one game a day-often, a player may participate in singles, doubles and mixed doubles competitions, which can result in many hours of badminton concentrated on only a few days. Extended play sometimes results in mental tiredness, which are relatively common in badminton. Badminton is one of the fastest and most strenuous games that can be played. Singles is particularly exhausting not only because of the amount of court space that has to be covered in a split second but shots have to be taken low and high at full stretch. It is this never-ending use of stomach muscle. The running directly backwards twice is as hard as running forward and the constantly needed change in direction of movement that causes the body to serge for a rest. The aim of present study was to compare stress and personality traits between boys of sports college, sports hostel and stadium trainees Badminton players. The Badminton player must be stress free. The team which is persistent usually comes out on top. There is no substitute for practice. It takes all players working together to become successful. Personality of a player in other words how a player reacts to a given situation is very important in a competitive situation. Development of good personality helps the www.ijsir.co.in
player’s in their regard. In general we can say that sports college players are being selected at the age of 16 years and they have to stay in the college for four years. They have to practice for their game twice a day and have to study in the afternoon. They play various types of matches in huge number which makes them more mentally fit or mature than other players. Sports hostel players stay in hostel provided by the government and can practice for the game whole day but the get less number of matches than sports college players. Less exposure to the tournaments makes them little weak in their mental ability. General players or stadium going players get very less time for the practice and few matches to play, so they are very less mentally fit. The data was collected by researcher personally and through the assistants met to the entire subject. The total of two questionnaires was administered to the Sport College, sports hostel and stadium going players and questionnaire was returned. To determine the significant difference of sports stress and personality characteristics among the Sport College, sports hostel and stadium going players, the level of significance chosen was 0.05.It was seen that all the three groups were having differences among them in both the variables. AIM OF THE STUDY The aim of the present study was to compare stress and personality traits between boys of Sports College, sports hostel and stadium trainees Badminton players. DELEMETATION The study was delimited to the selected psychological variables that are Sports Stress and Personality. The study was again delimited to the 50 sports college Badminton Players, 50 sports hostel Badminton Players and 50 stadium going Badminton Players, making total of 150 players all from the state of Gujarat. The study was again delimited to the boy Badminton players of 14-18 years of age group who were playing from 2012 onwards. 89
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LIMITATIONS Questionnaire research has its limitations. As such bias if any pertaining to the subject be considered as a limitation of the study. The tests were administered at different points considering the availability of the subjects, their mood states which might have had influenced their response pattern on a particular scale/instrument. This was another limitation imposed on the investigation inadvertently. Certain factors like diet, rest, sleep etc. were beyond the control of the investigation and were considered as limitations of the study. As the subjects come from different socioeconomic groups, their dietary habits, life style, routine of study and play were different which were considered as limitations of the study. No special motivation technique was used during the test, therefore the difference that may have occurred in performance due to lack of motivation was recorded as the limitation of the study.
Badminton players at different level. The study may also help to assess the differences in the selected psychological parameters among sportspersons of the sport discipline chosen in the study. The results of the study may provide useful information and guidance to coaches, physical education teachers and athletes regarding the behavioral characteristics of sportspersons and may thus be instrumental in effective psychological parameters of athletes. The study is useful information in the field of sports psychology and may help trace the psychological profiles of different level sportspersons. The study may throw new light on the field of sports psychology highlighting need and direction of further research. The study may motivate other athletic lovers and scholars to take-up similar studies so that the sports may become more scientific in India too. REFERENCES 1. 2.
Graves M James, The effect of boys club program of the self-concept and selected physical attributes of 12 and 13 years old Boy.s Micro card Doctoral Dissertation, University of Oregon.
3.
Sandhu, S. Gurbakhsh(2002) Psychology in Sports A Contemporary Approach Friends Publications [India] Delhi
4.
Hartwig TB, Naughton G and Seral J (2009 Aug.) Load, stress, and recovery in adolescent rugby union players during a competitive season. School of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, NSW, Australia. J Sports Sci. 2009 Aug;27(10):1087-94.
5.
Nicholls AR, Jones CR, Polman RC and Borkoles E (2009 Feb.) Acute sport-related stressors, coping, and emotion among professional rugby union players during training and matches. Department of Psychology, University of Hull, Hull, UK. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009 Feb;19(1):11320. Epub 2008 Feb 16
6.
Nicholls AR, Jones CR, Polman RC and Borkoles E (2009 Feb.) Stressors and affective states among professional rugby union players.. Department of Psychology, University of Hull, Hull, UK. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009 Feb;19(1): 1218. Epub 2008 Feb 1.
7.
Singh Ajit A comperative study of intelligence extraversion and Neuroticism differences between and within Hockey and Volleyball players. (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, , Punjabi University, Patiala).
HYPOTHESIS It was hypothesized that there will be significant difference between college and university men and women cricket players on all the seven selected psychological variables using total sample. FINDINGS The ultimate goal of research in physical education will help coaches and physical educators to train their athletes and player based on new concept to improve their performance in competitions. A unique aspect of the work is that it includes recommendations for the practical use of research findings. Sports psychology is one of the very important factors to improve performance in competitions. The present study will provide the following significant contribution on the above concept to the field of physical education and sports:The study may determine the effect of personality and stress on performance of Badminton Players. The results of the study may reveal the Psychological status of Sports College, sports hostel and stadium trainees’ 90
Crisfield, P., and Cotti, L.J. (1976) Physical Education. 4:6.
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STUDIES ON THE BATCH ADSORPTION OF METHYLENE BLUE FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS ONTO RICE HUSK 1
*R. SRIVASTAVA1, D.C.RUPAINWAR2 Department of Chemistry, Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow, India, 2 Department of Applied Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University , Varanasi, India
*Address
for
Correspondence : Dr. R. Srivastava, MS-124, Sector- D, Aligang, Lucknow, India, E-mail ID: abhiruchi124@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT In this study, adsorption of methylene blue (MB) dye onto clean rice husks (CRH) and acidmodified CRH was investigated with respect to the contact time, MB concentrations, acid concentrations and acid types used in the acid modification processes. The results indicate that the acid modification process reduces the MB sorption efficiency from 98% for CRH to 67% for NRH (nitric acid treated rice husk), 59% for HRH (hydrochloric acid treated rice husk) and 55% for SRH (sulfuric acid treated rice husk). In order to investigate the adsorption mechanisms, four kinetic models, i.e., pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, Elovich and intra-particle diffusion models were fit to the experimental results. The characteristic parameters and correlation coefficients for each kinetic model were determined. The fits of the kinetic results from the kinetic equations were compared with the experimental data. The results indicate that the acid modification process changes the MB adsorption mechanism. Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Redlich-Peterson (RP), and Langmuir-Freundlich (LF) isotherm models were also employed to analyze the equilibrium data, and the correlations of the experimental data to the isotherms was examined. The LF isotherm was found to best represent the data for MB adsorption onto CRH. The separation factor revealed the favorable nature of the isotherm to the MB-CRH system. Keywords: Methylene Blue , Rice Husks, Waste Water, Isotherm Models, Kinetics INTRODUCTION Many industries, such as the cosmetics, leather, carpet, dye manufacturing and textile finishing industries, use dyes to color their products. They also consume a lot of clean water, which becomes colored wastewater, poured into the environment where trade wastewater measures are not in place [1,2] . The effluents of these industries can cause local environmental problems by significantly affecting photosynthetic activity in aquatic life because of the reduced light penetration. The effluents may also be toxic to some forms of aquatic life because of the presence of metals, chlorides, etc., in them [3,4] In addition, introducing dye compounds into the aquatic environment is aesthetically displeasing. Because of these negative impacts, there is a need to develop decolorization methods that are effective and suitable for industrial use. Currently, the major methods for dye and color removal involve www.ijsir.co.in
microbial, physical and/or chemical processes, such as microbial degradation, chemical oxidation, and membrane separation process have been proposed from time to time [5–10] . However, all of the current methods suffer from one limitation or another, and none have been successful in removing color from wastewater completely. Adsorption is probably the simplest process for dye removal. Currently, activated carbon is believed to be the most effective adsorbent and is the most popular. Physicochemical treatment for the removal of dissolved dyes from wastewaters [4]; however, its manufacturing and regeneration costs are high [11] .In order to reduce the cost of an adsorption system, some attempts have been made to find low cost alternative adsorbents. A wide variety of materials such as Aspergillus niger, biomass, algal biomass, Spirogyra rhizopus biomass, rice husk, bark, wheat shell, citric acid esterifying wheat straw, dehydrated 91
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wheat bran, carbonized press mud, tree fern, apple pomace and wheat straw, coir pith, cotton, mango seed kernel, shell of bittim, banana stalk waste, dolomitic sorbents, chitosan, wood sawdust, palm kernel fiber, jute fiber, waste of sugarcane, perlite, raw kaolin, pure kaolin, NaOH treated raw kaolin, palygorskite, zeolite, and surfactant-modified activated carbon have been investigated with varying degrees of success [1,2,4,12-34] . In the present study, rice husks (an agroresidue) have been investigated as an adsorbent for the removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions. Rice husks, a by-product of the rice milling industry, account for about 20% of rice as a whole [35]. With an estimated annual rice production of 500 million metric tons in developing countries, approximately 100 million tons of rice husks are available annually for utilization in these countries alone. In fact, the amount of rice husks available is far in excess of any local uses and, thus, has posed disposal problems. Rice husks were chosen for investigation as a precursor material due to their granular structure, insolubility in water, chemical stability, high mechanical strength and local availability at almost no cost [35] . The advantage in the use of these adsorbents is that there is no need to regenerate them because of their low production costs. In the present study, the effects of the contact time,the acid concentration in the acid modification process, the type of acid used in the acid modification process, and the initial methylene blue (MB) concentration on the amount of color removed have been investigated. In order to investigate the mechanism of adsorption, experimental data was modeled using the pseudo-first-order, pseudo-secondorder, Elovich and intra-particle diffusion models. Equilibrium isotherms were analyzed according to the Langmuir isotherm; the Freundlich, Temkin, Redlich–Peterson and Langmuir– Freundlich isotherms were only analyzed for the adsorbent exhibiting the highest MB removal efficiency. The characteristic parameters for each model were determined. MATERIALS AND METHODS 1. Preparation of adsorbent
investigation was obtained from local rice mills. The whole rice husk was used; the integrity and the size of rice husk were not modified. The collected materials were washed with water several times to remove dust and fines, the washing process continued until the wash water contained no color. It was subsequently rinsed several times with reverse osmosis (RO) water and dried overnight in an oven at 85°C. The sorbent thus obtained was termed clean rice husk (CRH). The CRH was then stored in plastic bottles and used for bio-sorption studies, the individual husks still in their original sizes. Preliminary studies using CRH treated with various types of acid were carried out in order to evaluate the possibility of optimizing the sorption of dyes. The CRH was soaked in 0.75 M nitric acid at a ratio of 1:10 (CRH: nitric acid, w/v) for four hours at room temperature. The nitric acid-treated CRH (termed NRH) was washed thoroughly with water to remove residual acid and then dried overnight in an oven at 85°C. Similar acid treatments were also performed with hydrochloric acid (making HRH) and sulfuric acid (making SRH). The yields of the three pretreated rice husks were essentially the same (97–98% w/w of the original dry material). Different sulfuric acid concentrations (0 M, 0.75 M, and 3 M) were used in the acid modification process to evaluate the effect of the acid concentration on the amount of color removal. The yields of the pretreated rice husks were approximately equal (94–97% w/w of the original dry material) under the three sulfuric acid concentrations. 2. Dye solution preparation The cationic dye ‘methylene blue’ was chosen in this study as a model molecule for basic dyes. Stock solutions of MB were prepared by dissolving accurately weighed samples of dye in distilled water to give a concentration of 1000 mg/l. The experimental solutions were prepared by diluting, where necessary, the dye stock solution (1000 ppm) with RO water to the required concentrations. All the experiments were conducted at a natural pH (6.8–7.1) without any pH adjustment.
The rice husk used in the present 92
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3. Batch adsorption experiments Sorption tests on the acid-modified and natural rice husks were performed in order to determine the time needed to reach equilibrium and the pattern of the kinetics. For this purpose, samples of 2 g of natural or acid-modified rice husks were transferred into bottles containing 100 ml of 50 mg/l MB solution. The bottles were placed at 25°C using a temperature controlled shaker operating at 125 rpm. The samples were taken from the shaker at predetermined time intervals. The residual concentration of MB at any time, t, was determined from absorbency as measured with a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Hitachi, U–1800) at a 660 nm wavelength, at which the maximum absorbency occurred. The effect of the initial dye concentrations on the amount of MB adsorbed was examined by contacting 2 g samples of CRH with 100 ml quantities of MB solution of different initial dye concentrations, varying from 10 to 100 mg/l. All experiments were conducted at 25°C using a temperature controlled shaker operating at 125 rpm. The samples were taken from the shaker at predetermined time intervals. The amount of dye adsorbed at time t and the amount of dye adsorbed at equilibrium time, are calculated by Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) [36]: Amount of methylene blue adsorbed at time t (qt) (Ci,- Ct) V/ M
(1)
Amount of methylene blue adsorbed at equilibrium (Ci,- Ce) V/ M (2) where Ci, Ct and Ce (mg/l) are the liquid phase concentrations of dyes initially, at time t and at equilibrium time, respectively, V is the volume of dye solution (l), and M is the weight of adsorbent used (g). 4. Kinetics of adsorption The kinetics of adsorption is one of the most important characteristics in defining the efficiency of adsorption, hence the examination of the kinetics of MB adsorption in this study. Four kinds of kinetic models, the pseudo firstorder kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic, www.ijsir.co.in
Elovich and intraparticle diffusion models have been tested to analyze the experimental data. All the model parameters were evaluated by nonlinear regression. 4.1. The pseudo-first-order kinetic model The pseudo-first-order equation is the most popular kinetic equation. The form is expressed as follows [37]: d qt/dt= k1(qe-qt)
(3)
After definite integration by applying the boundary conditions t = 0 to t = t and qt = 0 to qt = qt, the integrated form of Eq. (3) becomes the following [38] : qt=qe(1-exp (-k1 t)
(4)
where qt (mg/g) is the amount of adsorption time t (min); K1, the rate constant of the pseudofirst-order equation (min–1) and qe is the amount of adsorption equilibrium (mg/g). 4.2. The pseudo- second-order kinetic model The second order is based on the adsorption capacity: it can predict the adsorption behavior only over a certain range determined by prior study, but is in agreement with previous studies which suggest chemisorption controls the adsorption rate [39,40]. The pseudo-second-order adsorption kinetic rate equation of Ho and McKay is expressed as [41,42] : d qt/dt = K (qe - qt )2
(5)
where qt (mg/g) is the amount of adsorption time t (min); K2, the rate constant of the pseudosecond-order equation (min –1 ) and q e is the amount of adsorption equilibrium (mg/g). Integrating Eq. (5) for the boundary conditions t = 0 to t = t and qt = 0 to qt = qt gives [43]: 1/qe-qt= 1/qe + k2t
(6)
which is the integrated rate law for a pseudo-second order reaction. For non-linear, the equation can be written as [38]: qt= k2qe2t/1+ k2qet
(7)
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4.3. The Elovich model In reactions involving chemisorption of adsorbate onto a solid surface without desorption of products, the adsorption rate decreases with time due to an increased surface coverage. One of the most useful models for describing such ‘activated’ chemisorption is the Elovich equation [38] . The Elovich equation assumes that the active sites of the biosorbent are heterogeneous and therefore exhibit different activation energies for chemisorption. The Elovich model equation is generally expressed as [44,45] : Dq/dt=
exp (-
qt)
(8)
where qt is the sorption capacity at time t (mg/g); α is the initial adsorption rate (mg/g min) because dqt/dt approaches when qt approaches zero; and is the desorption constant (g/mg) during any one experiment Given that qt = 0 at t = 0, the integrated form of Eq. (8) becomes: qt=1/
ln( t + to) – 1/
(ln to)
(9)
. If t is much larger than t0, where t0 =1/ Eq. (9) can be simplified to: qt=1/
ln (
)+1/
ln t
(10)
4.4. The intra-particle diffusion model In a solid–liquid adsorption process, the adsorption dynamics generally consist of three main consecutive transport steps: (i) transport of dye molecules from the bulk solution to the external surface of the adsorbent by diffusion through the liquid boundary layer (film diffusion); (ii) diffusion of the dye from the external surface and into the pores of the adsorbent (intra-particle diffusion); and (iii) adsorption of the dye onto the active sites of the internal surface of the pores (pore diffusion) [46] . Among the three steps, the last step is considered to have a negligible effect on kinetics, as it is assumed to be rapid. The rate of absorption is controlled by either film diffusion or pore diffusion, depending on which step is slower [47] . Accordingly, the overall rate of adsorption is controlled by either film or intra-particle diffusion, or a combination of both. Many studies have shown that boundary layer diffusion is dominant during the initial
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adsorbate uptake, after which the adsorption rate gradually becomes controlled by intra-particle diffusion as the adsorbent’s external surface is loaded with the adsorbate [46,47] . The intra-particle diffusion model is expressed as [48,49] qt= Kidt ½+C
(11)
where qt is the sorption capacity at time t (mg/g); C is the intercept; and Kid is the intraparticle diffusion rate constant (mg/g min”1/2). Thus, the intra-particle diffusion constant Kid, can be obtained from the slope of the plot of qt versus the square root of time. If the regression of qt versus t0.5 is linear and passes through the origin, then intra-particle diffusion is the sole rate-limiting step; if not, the boundary layer diffusion controls the adsorption to some degree and this indicated that the intra-particle diffusion is not the only rate controlling step, but also other processes may control the rate of adsorption. 5. Adsorption isotherms An adsorption isotherm shows the equilibrium relationship between concentration in the solution and the quantity of adsorbate adsorbed at constant temperature. They provide fundamental physiochemical data about the sorption process, and may be used for scalingup batch type processes with moderate success. The shape of the equilibrium adsorption isotherm provides information about the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the adsorbent surface [50,51] . In the present investigation, the equilibrium data were analyzed using five equilibrium models, the Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, the Redlich– Peterson (RP), and the Langmuir–Freundlich (LF) isotherms for describing solid–liquid sorption systems. In this study, the equilibrium adsorption isotherms were only applied to the adsorbent which had the highest MB removal efficiency. All the model parameters were evaluated by nonlinear regression. 5.1. Langmuir isotherm The Langmuir adsorption isotherm model assumes that adsorption occurs on a homogenous adsorbent surface of identical sites that are equally available and energetically equivalent, with each site carrying an equal number of adsorbed molecules, and no www.ijsir.co.in
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interaction between adsorbate molecules [51–53] . The saturated monolayer isotherm can be represented as: qe= qmax KLCe/1+ KLCe
(12)
where qe is the amount of MB adsorbed on adsorbent at equilibrium (mg/g), Ce is the equilibrium concentration in the solution (mg/l), qmax is the qe for a complete monolayer (mg/g), a constant related to the sorption capacity, and KL is the adsorption equilibrium constant related to the affinity of the binding sites and the energy of adsorption (l/mg). For Langmuir type adsorption processes, the influence of the isotherm shape on whether adsorption is “favorable” or “unfavorable” can be classified by a term “RL” a dimensionless constant separation factor [54]. RL= 1/1+KLCi
(13)
where Ci (mg/l) is the liquid phase initial concentration of the dye. The RL parameter is considered a reliable indicator of the adsorption. There are four probabilities for the RL value: (i) for favorable adsorption, 0 < R L < 1, (ii) for unfavorable adsorption, RL>1, (iii) for linear adsorption, RL = 1, and (iv) for irreversible adsorption, RL = 0 [52] . 5.2. Freundlich isotherm The Freundlich isotherm assumes that the adsorption occurs on a heterogeneous surface at non-identical sites with different energies of adsorption that are not always available. This fairly satisfactory empirical isotherm can be used for non-ideal sorption and is expressed by the following equation [50, 55,56] : qe= KF Ce 1/n
(14)
where K F is an indicator of the relative adsorption capacity of the adsorbent (mg1"(1/ n) l1/n/g); and n is that of the adsorption intensity respectively. In order to determine the maximum adsorption capacity, it is necessary to operate with a constant initial concentration C i and variable amounts of adsorbent; ln qmax is then the extrapolated value of ln q for C = Ci [57]. KF = qmax/ Ci 1/n
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(15)
where C i (mg/l) is the liquid phase concentrations of dyes initially and qmax is the Freundlich maximum adsorption capacity (mg/ g). 5.3. Temkin isotherm The derivation of the Temkin isotherm assumes that the fall in the heat of sorption is linear rather than logarithmic, as implied in the Freundlich equation. The heat of sorption of all the molecules in the layer is assumed to decrease linearly with coverage due to sorbate/ sorbent interactions [58]. The Temkin isotherm has generally been applied in the following form: qe= RT/BT .ln (AT Ce)
(16)
where BT is the Temkin constant, related to the heat of sorption (J/mol); AT is the Temkin isotherm constant (l/g); R is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol K); and T is the absolute temperature in K. 5.4. Redlich–Peterson isotherm The Redlich–Peterson isotherm contains three parameters and incorporates the features of the L angmuir and Freundlich isotherms. It can be represented by the following formula [51] : qe= KR Ce/ 1+A Ceb
(17)
where C e (mg/l) is the equilibrium concentration in the solution; KR (l/g) and A {(l/ mg)b} are the Redlich-Peterson constants; and b is the Redlich-Peterson isotherm exponent. In this study all the model parameters were calculated by nonlinear regression. 5.5. Langmuir–Freundlich (LF) isotherm The Langmuir–Freundlich (LF) isotherm, derived from the Langmuir and Freundlich models, is a three parameter empirical model represented by the following equation [59] where KLF is the equilibrium constant {(l/mg)1/n}, qLF is the maximum amount of dye per unit weight of biosorbent(mg/g), and n is an empirical dimensionless parameter. If n = 1, Eq. (18) becomes the Langmuir equation. This model is valid when l/n>1. In this study the isotherm parameters of L-F equation were evaluated using nonlinear regression.
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Fig.1- FTIR spectra for CRH, SRH, HRH, NRH.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. FTIR spectroscopy studies The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy technique is an important tool for identifying characteristic functional groups which are capable of adsorbing metal ions and dye ions. The raw material and acid-modified
adsorbent were characterized using a FT-IR spectrophoto-meter (PerkinElmer, Spectrum RX1) at room temperature (Fig. 1). As seen in Fig. 1, the presence of OH groups on the surface of the rice husks is confirmed by a broad band between 3300 and 3450 cm–1 [60] . This stretching of OH groups is associated to silanol groups (Si– OH) and to adsorbed water on the rice husks’ surfaces. Other OH groups bound to methyl radicals exhibited a signal between 2920 and 2940 cm–1[6] .These groups are common in lignin structures. The peaks located at 1640 to 1670 cm–1 are characteristic of carbonyl stretching from aldehydes and ketones [61] .The peaks associated with the stretching of aromatic rings were verified at 1511 cm –1 [60] . The bands between 1130–1050 and 810–800 cm–1 were attributed to O–Si–O and typical structures of SiO2, which was an indication of silica [62]. Finally, the presence of a band around 466 cm –1 is generally attributable to the bending vibration of O–Si–O [62]. 2. Effect of acid concentration on sorption and sorption kinetics verified
Fig. 2- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profiles and comparison of kinetic models in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto CRHs modified by various acid concentrations. 96
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Fig. 2 shows the effect of the acid concentration and the contact time on the amount of MB adsorbed onto H2SO4 modified rice husks. It was observed that the chemical modification resulted in a decrease of the sorption capacities of the CRH. In order to analyze the MB biosorption kinetics, the pseudofirst-order kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic, Elovich, and intra-particle diffusion kinetic models were applied to the data. The fittings of the pseudo-first-order kinetic model to the experimental results are shown in Fig. 2a, and the values of the estimated parameters are presented in Table 1. The resulting curves and data obtained by the pseudo-first-order kinetic equation did not describe the biosorption of the dye on the CRH well. It was noticed, also, that curves of fit for the H2SO4 modified CRH were closer to the experimental values than the curve of fit for the CRH. These results indicated that the modification of CRH could destroy the structure of the adsorption surface and affect the mechanisms of adsorption. The comparisons of the calculated results for the pseudo-secondorder kinetic model and the measured results for the CRH and acid-modified CRHs are shown in Fig. 2b. As observed in Fig. 2b, the pseudosecond order expression better predicted the sorption kinetics than the pseudo-first-order model for the entire sorption period, especially for CRH. This suggested that pseudo secondorder kinetic model could be used to predict the dye uptake amount at different contact time intervals and at equilibrium for CRH and H2SO4 modified CRH. The experimental data and the simulations using the Elovich equation for modeling the adsorption of MB onto different absorbents are shown in Fig. 2c. The fits are not as good as the pseudo-second-order models. As for the pseudo-first-order model, the curves of fit for H 2 SO 4 modified CRH were closer to the experimental values than the curves of fit for CRH. The constants for the Elovich equation for the same experimental data were obtained from the slope and intercept of the plot of qt against ln t (plot not shown), listed in Table 1. When using the Elovich equation, the constant represents the initial adsorption rate, while is related to the extent of the surface coverage and the activation energy involved in chemisorption www.ijsir.co.in
[63]
and decreased . It was observed that as the acid concentration increased (Table 1).This suggests that the adsorption surface of the absorbents was affected such that the available adsorption sites lessened as the acid concentration increased. The simulations using the intra-particle diffusion
equation for the adsorption of MB onto the different absorbents are shown in Fig. 2d. The intra-particle diffusion model expression did not fit well with the experimental data for the CRH. This suggested the intra-particle diffusion model could not be used to predict the amount of dye uptake at different contact time intervals and at equilibrium for CRH. However, a good fit was produced for the experimental data for H2SO4 modified CRH, almost as good as the pseudosecond-order model. These results again indicated that the acid modification of CRH could destroy the structure of the adsorption surface and affect the mechanisms of adsorption. The adsorption process for MB onto CRH is mainly controlled by diffusion from the solidliquid interface towards the solid particles. This mechanism may be tested by plotting qt versus t0.5 (Fig. 3). As shown, the adsorption process for CRH was not linear over the whole time range and tended to be in two phases. The initial curved portion is attributable to the boundary layer
Fig 3- Intraparticle diffusion plot for the dsorption of MB onto CRHs modified by various acid concentrations. 97
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diffusion effects and the final linear portion may be due to the intra-particle diffusion effects. Also, the linear plot for the non-modified CRH does not pass through the origin, which indicates that intra-particle diffusion was not the only rate controlling step. However, the linear plots for each acid-modified absorbent pass through very close to the origin, indicating that intra-particle diffusion plays a major role in the adsorption for acid-modified absorbents. 3. Effect of chemical treatment on sorption and sorption kinetics The chemical treatment of CRH was shown to result in certain changes in its surface properties. Accordingly, the MB adsorption behavior for each of the acid-modified CRHs was more closely examined. Fig. 4 shows the effect of the chemical treatment and the contact time on the amount of MB adsorbed onto H 2SO 4 modified rice husks. It can be observed that the sorption capacities of CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH increased with an increase in the contact time. It
can also be observed that acid modification decreased the MB sorption capacities of CRH from 2.43 to 1.65, 1.47 and 1.36 for NRH, HRH and SRH, respectively. The results showed that HRH and SRH had the lowest sorption capacity for MB among the modified rice husks. These results indicated that the chemical treatment did not improve the adsorption performance of the rice husks. In fact, modification of CRH could damage the structure of the adsorption surface and affect the mechanisms of adsorption. In order to design a fast and effective model, further investigations into the adsorption rate were made. A suitable model was sought to understand the mechanisms of adsorption, including the mass transfer chemical reaction [29]. The experimental data for the uptake of dye versus time, qt, were fitted to the pseudo-firstorder kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic, Elovich, and intraparticle diffusion kinetic models using nonlinear regression. The regression results are presented in Fig. 4 and Table 2. Fig. 4a shows a non-linearized
Fig 4- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profiles and comparison of kinetic models in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto various pretreated rice husks. 98
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plot of the pseudo first-order model at 50 mg/l initial MB concentration for the first 240 min. It can still be seen from the plots of qt versus t that the theoretically generated curves do not agree well with the experimental data. This suggests that the sorption of MB onto CRH and acidmodified rice husks does not follow the pseudofirst-order sorption rate expression of Lagergren. The experimental data and the simulations using the pseudo-second-order equation for adsorption of MB onto different absorbents are shown in Fig. 4b. It shows good agreement with the pseudo-second-order equation, reflected in the extremely high correlation coefficients listed in Table 2, which are greater than 0.96.These findings suggest that the pseudo-second-order kinetic model could be used to predict the amounts of dye taken up at different contact time intervals and at equilibrium. The simulations using the Elovich equation are plotted in Fig. 4c together with the experimental data points. Table 2 lists the kinetic constants obtained. As can be seen, the constant was observed to decrease sharply when the CRH was modified by acids, and the constant also decreased. Therefore, when the CRH is acid-modified within the range studied, the rate of chemisorptions and the available adsorption sites on the surface decrease. Although the Elovich equation does not provide any mechanistic evidence, it has proved suitable for highly heterogeneous systems, of which the adsorption of MB onto CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH is undoubtedly such a case. Moreover, when using the Elovich equation, the correlation coefficients were lower than those of the pseudo-second-order equation, but the Elovich equation might still be used to describe the kinetics of adsorption of MB onto NRH, HRH, and SRH. The simulations using the intra-particle diffusion equation for the adsorption of MB onto different absorbents are shown in Fig. 4d. As observed, the intra-particle diffusion model expression does not give a good fit to the experimental data for the adsorption of CRH. This suggests that intra-particle diffusion model cannot be used to predict the amounts of dye taken up at different contact time intervals and at equilibrium for the CRH. However, the intra-particle diffusion equation gives a good fit www.ijsir.co.in
Fig. 5- Intraparticle-diffusion plot for the adsorption of MB onto various pretreated rice husks.
to the experimental data for the acid-modified rice husks, almost as good as the pseudosecond-order model. Intra-particle diffusion rate constants for CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH were obtained from the plots of the amount of dye adsorbed versus t0.5 (Fig. 5). The figure indicates that the adsorption processes for CRH were not linear over the whole time range, and tended to occur in two stages. At a certain time limit for the intra-particle diffusion for the acidmodified absorbents, the curves reveal linear characteristics (as illustrated in Fig. 5). It has been suggested that if the plot of qt versus t0.5 is a straight line, intra-particle diffusion controls the sorption process. If the line does not pass through the origin, the intra-particle diffusion is not the only rate limiting step, suggesting the process is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;complexâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, with more than one mechanism limiting the rate of sorption. Though the plots of qt versus t0.5 give straight lines in acid-modified absorbents, they fail to pass through the origin. This might also indicate a combined mass transport triggered by the initial film [39] . 4. Effect of MB initial concentration and sorption kinetics Fig. 6 shows the effect of the initial MB concentration and the contact time on the amount of MB adsorbed onto the CRH. It can be observed that the amount adsorbed increased with contact time, and at a certain point in time reached an almost constant value, with the 99
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amount of dye being removed from the aqueous solution onto the CRH in a state of dynamic equilibrium with the amount of dye being desorbed from the CRH into the aqueous solution. As seen in Fig. 6, the initial dye concentration influence the contact time necessary to reach the maximum sorption capacities. For the range of contact times under which the experiments were conducted, the adsorption rate for the lower initial MB concentrations was faster than for the higher initial MB concentrations. The adsorption of MB onto CRH was also investigated in terms of the kinetics of the adsorption mechanism by using the pseudo-first-order kinetic, pseudo-secondorder kinetic, Elovich, and intra-particle diffusion models. The fittings of the experimental kinetic results to the pseudo-first-order kinetic models are shown in Fig. 6a, and the values of the estimated parameters are p resented in Table 3. It is clear that the theoretically generated curves do not agree well with the experimental data at initial dye concentrations higher than 25 mg/l. This finding suggests that the sorption of
MB onto CRH did not follow the pseudo-firstorder sorption rate expression of Lagergren at high initial MB concentrations. The pseudo-second-order kinetic constants for adsorption of MB onto CRH are shown in Table 3. The correlation coefficients for the pseudo-second-order kinetic model were close to 1.0 for all cases. In addition, the experimental data and the simulations using the pseudosecond-order kinetic equation for the adsorption of MB onto CRH are shown in Fig. 6b. By comparing Figs. 6a and 6b, it is obvious that for the entire adsorption period the pseudo-secondorder model fits the experimental data better than the pseudo-first-order model. This indicates that the sorption mechanism for CRH is chemisorption, involving covalent forces through sharing or exchange of electrons between sorbent and sorbate [64] .Fig. 6b also shows that the calculated q values increased with increasing concentration of MB, presumably due to the enhanced mass transfer of MB molecules to the surface of CRH. This observation suggests that
Fig.6- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profi les and comparison of kinetic models in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto CRH at different initial MB concentrations. 100
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the boundary layer resistance was not the rate limiting step [65] .The experimental data and the simulations using the Elovich equation for the adsorption of MB onto CRH are shown in Fig. 6c. It is clear that the theoretically generated curves agree well with the experimental data at concentrations lower than 25 mg/l, but deviation is observed at later periods of the sorption process at concentration higher than 25 mg/l. Table 3 lists the kinetic constants obtained from the Elovich equation. When using the Elovich equation, the correlation coefficients were lower than those of the pseudo-second-order equation, but it might still be used to describe the kinetics of adsorption of lower initial MB concentrations onto CRH. As can be seen from Table 3, the constants and decreased sharply when the initial dye concentrations increased. The fittings of the experimental kinetic results to the simulations using the intra-particle diffusion kinetic model are shown in Fig. 6d. The intra-particle diffusion model does not fit well to the experimental data for the adsorption of MB. This suggests the intra-particle diffusion model cannot be used to predict the amounts of dye taken up at different contact time intervals and at equilibrium for the CRH. The intra-particle diffusion plots of the experimental results of qt versus t for the various absorbents are shown in Fig. 7. Within these, the first, sharper region is the instantaneous adsorption or external surface adsorption. The second region is the gradual adsorption stage where intra-particle diffusion is rate limiting. In some cases, a third region exists, the final equilibrium stage where intra-particle diffusion starts to slow down due to the extremely low adsorbate concentrations left in the solutions
Fig.7- Intraparticle diffusion plot for the adsorption of MB onto CRH at different initial MB concentrations. www.ijsir.co.in
[66]
.The plots in Fig. 7 are not linear over the whole time range, implying that more than one process affected the adsorption. This indicates that the rate of adsorption for the initial MB concentrations of 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg/l was initially controlled by film diffusion, then changed to intra-particle-diffusion control after 50–60 min. The intercepts (C) and the intraparticle rate constant (Kid) values calculated from the slopes of the linear portions of the plots of Fig. 7 are presented in Table 3. The intercept C provides information about the thickness of the boundary layer; the resistance to the external mass transfer increases as the intercept increases. The constant C was found to increase from 0.4393 to 2.171 with an increase in the dye concentration from 10 to 75 mg/l, indicating an increase in the thickness of the boundary layer and a decrease in the chance of external mass transfer, and hence an increase in the chance of internal mass transfer [67].However, beyond 75 mg/l, the intercept decreased, suggesting that at higher concentrations, the sorption process is controlled by intra-particle diffusion, with only a minor effect from the external film. Ponnusami et al. reported a similar observation for the adsorption of MB onto guava (Psidium guajava) leaf powder [68]. The value of Kid was found to increase with an increasing initial concentration of dye solution. Another similar observation was reported by Mane et al. for the adsorption of brilliant green onto bagasse fly ash [69]. 5. ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS The capacity of CRH for adsorption of MB can be determined by measuring equilibrium isotherms, which describe how adsorbates interact with adsorbents. The correlation of equilibrium data to either theoretical or empirical equations is essential for the subsequent practical application of the isotherms [50].Several mathematical models can be used to describe experimental data for adsorption isotherms. The experimental data were analyzed according to the nonlinear forms of the Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Redlich– Peterson, and Langmuir– Freundlich empirical models. Table 4 gives the calculated isotherm constants for the different initial MB concentrations. In order to assess the different isotherms and their ability to correlate the experimental results, the theoretical plots for 101
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Tables Table 1- KINETIC PARAMETERS OF THE REMOVAL OF MB FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION BY THE CRHS MODIFIED BY VARIOUS ACID CONCENTRATIONS Acidconc. Pseuodo firstorder K1 qe
r
Pseuodo second order
2
k2
qe
h
r
Elovich equation
2
α
β
r
Intraparticle diffusion
2
kid
r2
C
Table 2- KINETIC PARAMETERS OF THE REMOVAL OF MB FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION BY VARIOUS PRETREATED RICE HUSKS. Adsorbents . Pseuodo firstorder K1 qe
r2
Pseuodo second order k2
qe
h
r2
Elovich equation α
β
r2
Intraparticle diffusion kid
C
r2
Table 3- KINETIC PARAMETERS FOR THE EFFECTS OF INITIAL DYE CONCENTRATIONS ON SORPTION OF MB ONTO CRH
102
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Fig. 8- Experimental points and comparison of the fitted curves from various adsorption isotherms for the adsorption of MB onto CRH.
each isotherm have been shown along with the experimental data for the adsorption of MB onto CRH (Fig. 8). The isotherm curves show the superposition of the experimental results (points) and the theoretical calculated results (lines). The Langmuir sorption model serves to estimate the maximum uptake or the total capacity of the adsorbent for the dye (q max) where it could not be reached in the experiments. KL is the adsorption equilibrium constant representing the affinity between the sorbent and sorbate. The values of q max and KL calculated from the L angmuir model are tabulated in Table 4. The
Fig. 9-. Plot of the separation factor for MB onto CRH versus the initial dye concentration.
calculated R L values versus the initial MB concentrations are shown in Fig. 9, in which it can be observed that sorption was more favorable at higher concentration. The fact that RL is in the range of 0–1 at all initial dye concentrations confirms the favorable uptake of the malachite green process [70] .Table 5 presents a comparison of the adsorption capacity of the CRH obtained in this study with www.ijsir.co.in
those obtained in the literature for the adsorption of MB. It shows that CRH can be considered as a promising material for removing basic dyes, even compared to some other low cost adsorbents and activated carbons previously suggested for the uptake of MB from a queous solutions [13, 37, 71-77].The Freundlich isotherm was originally empirical in nature but was later interpreted for sorption to heterogeneous surfaces or surfaces supporting sites of varied affinities and has been used widely to fit experimental data [78] .The value of n, the Freundlich constant, is an empirical parameter that varies with the degree of heterogeneity and indicates the degree of non-linearity between dye uptake capacity and unadsorbed dye in the solution, and is related to the distribution of bonded ions on the sorbent surface [79].In general, an n > 1 suggests that the adsorbate is favorably adsorbed onto an adsorbent. The results in Table 4 indicate that MB was favorably adsorbed by CRH, as the n value was greater than one. Compared to the Langmuir isotherm, the Freundlich isotherm had a poorer fit to the present data. The Temkin constants AT and BT are listed in Table 4 and the theoretical plot of this isotherm is shown in Fig. 8. The correlation coefficient is also given in Table 4 and is lower than the Langmuir and Freundlich values. Therefore, the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms fit better to the experimental data than the Temkin isotherm. Fig. 8 shows the same. The experimental data were further fitted to the three-parameter Redlich-Peterson isotherm and Langmuir–Freundlich isotherm models. The three-parameter empirical Redlich-Peterson isotherm equation combines elements from both the Langmuir and Freundlich equations, modeling a hybrid mechanism of adsorption : a hybrid, not following ideal monolayer adsorption. Therefore, the Redlich–Peterson isotherm equation is widely used as a compromise between the Langmuir and Freundlich systems. The adsorption parameters calculated according to the Redlich–Peterson isotherm model are listed in Table 4. The r2 was higher than 0.998, while b was smaller than one, obeying the theory behind the RedlichPeterson isotherm. In fact, any value of b out of the range 0–1 fails to agree with the theory behind the Redliche-Peterson isotherm. Fig. 8 103
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illustrates that the Redlich–Peterson isotherm model is a better fit to the experimental data than the Freundlich and Temkin isotherms.The Langmuir–Freundlich model is another three parameter empirical model for representing equilibrium biosorption data. It is also a combination of the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm type models. The corresponding Langmuir–Freundlich parameters of A, B and m are given in Table 4 and the theoretical plot is shown in Fig. 8. As seen from Table 4 and Fig. 8, the Langmuir–Freundlich isotherm provides the best correlation to the experimental data, whereas Langmuir and Redlich–Peterson isotherms also fitted the experimental data. CONCLUSIONS 1.
2.
3.
4.
The experimental results indicated that both untreated and acid-modified rice husks show promise as adsorbents for the removal of MB from aqueous solutions. The chemical modification of rice husks to produce NRH, HRH and SRH reduced the sorption efficiency of CRH for MB from 98% to 67%, 59% and 55%, respectively. The sorption capacity increased with higher initial dye concentrations. It is speculated that the initial concentration of dye provides the driving force to overcome the resistances to the mass transfer of MB between the aqueous and the solid phases. In addition, an increase in the initial dye concentration enhances the interactions between MB and the CRH. An increase in the initial MB dye concentration enhances the adsorption of MB.
The analysis indicates that the adsorption of CRH does not occur on a heterogeneous surface with sites of equivalent energy of adsorption that are always available, since the Freundlich isotherm had a poor fit to the experimental data.
7.
The experimental adsorption data fitted better to the Langmuir–Freundlich model than the other models.
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AIRBORN BACTERIA AND FUNGI LEVEL IN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR AREAS 1
*AASHISH TIWARI,1 DIVYA SAHNI,2 A.H. KHAN3 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi.India ,2ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Regional Research Station, Lucknow, India.3CSIR-Indian Institue of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India.
*Address for Correspondence: Aashish Tiwari, Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi .India Email ID: aashishtiwaribu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT In this study, we investigated the relationship between indoor and outdoor concentrations of airborne actinomycetes, fungal spores, and Bacterial Species. Different types of indoor environments (Two different Canteen area, Institute’s auditorium, laboratory, Shopping Mall) and their outdoor environments (Institute’s Outer Building area) were investigated in terms of bio-aerosol contamination. A total of 120 Sample were investigated in Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow. The single-stage / Bio-stage sampler was used for viable bio-aerosol sampling. During the sampling, indoor and outdoor temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 concentration were measured. Total bacteria counts (TBC) and fungi concentrations varied on a large scale within and between the sampling site groups (10–103 CFU/m3). The highest TBC levels were measured in Humid less Indoor area, while the highest mold levels were measured in Canteen, Auditorium. Micrococcus spp., Staphylococcus auricularis, and Bacillus spp. were predominant bacteria species and Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., and Cladosporium spp. were the most observed mould genera detected in the samples. Indoor-to-outdoor ratios of the observed fungi counts were calculated as approximately around one, and for bacteria counts these ratios were higher than one. There was no statistical difference between indoor and outdoor mould levels, while a significant difference was found between indoor and outdoor bacteria levels (p < 0.001). A significant correlation between indoor CO2 and bio-aerosols indicates insufficient ventilation. Keywords: Contamination, Indoor Air; Bacteria, Outdoor; Aspergillum; Bio-aerosols; Conventional methods; Microorganisms INTRODUCTION A variety of contaminants responsible for adverse health effects may be found in indoor air. Since the beginning of the areas, airborne biological agents have attracted increased attention due to their diverse immunological activity and widespread occurrence indoors. Fungi are commonly present in indoor environments and cause of many diseases. Fungi and bacteria isolated from Canteen with moisture problems have shown both cytotoxic and immunotoxic characteristics . Many fungal species of Penicillium, Aspergillus, Alternaria and Cladosporium have been shown to trigger rhinitis, asthma and dermatitis. The major pathway of acquisition is inhalation of airborne fungal spores small enough in diameter to reach the deeper airways. 108
The sources from which fungi and bacteria derive may have importance in their health effects. It has been established that most people spend over 90% of their lives indoors, offices, canteen for lunch / break-fast where they are exposed to some indoor environmental factors such as bioaerosols which could influence their health and physical condition. This has contributed to the growing interest in indoor microbial studies in recent years [1-5]. The ubiquitous nature of microorganisms in the atmosphere has contributed to the biological contamination of indoor environments, which is mostly caused by bacteria, moulds and yeast. They can be dangerous as pathogenic living cells but they can also secrete some substances harmful to health. These are different kinds of toxic airborne metabolism prodwww.ijsir.co.in
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ucts, for example mycotoxins. The aerial spatial distribution of microorganisms varies according to environmental conditions, type of organism and location. Generally, a higher microbial concentration is found in the outdoor air of urban areas than surrounding rural areas [7,8] . Many activities like traffic, constructions and people gathering in urban areas contribute largely to outdoor microbial load [ 1,2]. Recent epidemiological studies have illustrated that extremely high concentration of microorganisms in the air can be allergenic, however sometimes even very low concentrations of some particular microorganisms can cause serious diseases. Moulds have been shown to react with humans causing 30% of health problems relevant to the indoor air quality [3], particularly in rooms with heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems [11 ,6 ] and can breed allergies[4], SBS symptoms (â&#x20AC;&#x153;sick building syndromeâ&#x20AC;?) causing irritation of mucous membranes, bad physical condition, tiredness, headaches, vertigo, decrease of concentration, memory and intellectual work ability [5,6],dermatosis, respiratory diseases (including asthma) [7,8] . The proportion of pathogenic microorganisms is higher in indoor than outdoor air [9] . Environmental conditions such as relative humidity (RH), temperature and wind velocity exert significant effect on the type of population and amount of microorganisms in the air [10,11] . Generally, microbes enter into atmosphere from natural (vegetation and soil) and anthropogenic sources but their survival and distribution depend on the cell structure of microbes and meteorological conditions [ 12,13,14 ]. Many airborne microorganisms are either pathogenic or can cause sensitivities due to prolonged exposure.[15] Airborne microbes attach to dust particles, condense and enter human body directly via inhalation or indirectly via ingestion of contaminated foods and water [22 ] resulting in the development of disease [22 ]. Airborne bacteria can also affect visibility, climate and the quality of life [16, 18 , 20 ] . It is important to know the distribution pattern of live bio-aerosols at different sites in the urban environment. The aim of this work is long-term observation of microbiological quality of indoor air in selected shops in two business locations in Ibadan metropolis, where thousands of people www.ijsir.co.in
spend several hours working in enclosed spaces every day and where microbiological quality of indoor air can influence their health and physical condition. The study embraced a measurement of the concentration of bacteria and fungi in the air of selected shops and meteorological conditions such as temperature and relative humidity. Exposure to bio-aerosols, containing airborne microorganisms and their by-products, can result in respiratory disorders and other adverse health effects such as infections, hypersensitivity pneumonitis and toxic reactions. Fungi are common in indoor and outdoor environments and nearly 10 % of people worldwide have fungal allergy. In many environments including hospitals, animal sheds, clean-rooms, pharmaceutical facilities and spacecraft environments, the presence of bio-aerosols can compromise normal activities, making efficient monitoring crucial. Microbial damage in indoor/outdoor areas, is caused most frequently by molds and bacteria. These micro-organisms have a very important role in the biogeochemical cycle, as their task consists of disintegrating organic mass to reusable metabolites. In the environment spores of molds and bacteria may become airborne and are therefore ubiquitous. They can enter indoor areas either by means of passive ventilation or by means of ventilation systems. Many genera are also emitted by indoor sources like animals, flowerpots and wastebaskets. In most cases [21] normal flora is not harmful. However, growth conditions like excessive humidity and/or a high water content of building materials are encountered on a more frequent basis, which in most cases can be described as the limiting factor for microbial growth. This is caused by shortcomings of the buildings such as the lack of thermal insulation, as well as the incorrect behavior of users of rooms. The relative humidity and or the moisture content of the materials determines that to what extent different micro-organisms are able to grow on indoor or outdoor materials. These may cause destruction, adverse health effects and unpleasant odors. Therefore, the task of microbial examinations is to differentiate between normal indoor micro-organisms, airborne or adherent to walls and floors and fast growing species, attaching 109
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itself to building materials and producing microbial products and ultimately causing adverse health effects. Air sampling of microorganisms is a popular method of conducting microbial examinations, as it allows a direct toxicological evaluation. These results can be related to a concentration expressed in colony forming units per cubic meter. Sometimes information might even be available on a particle which allows for an estimation of how deep those particles may penetrate into the lungs of a human being. Micro-organisms are generally not equally distributed in indoor air. They mostly occur in clouds and are often overlooked in air measurements, especially if the microbial damage is hidden by paneling, walls, etc. Another reason for false-negative results obtained by air measurements is that fungal spores are not released during all the stages of its growth. In this case, other techniques are helpful, for example, the sampling of household dust, the sedimentation method or direct sampling from surfaces. The differentiation of bacteria is performed by a biochemical method as a rule, whereas in most cases the differentiation of molds is done microscopically, especially when the forms of spores need to be detected. On many occasions, the growth behavior and patterns on different nutrient agars also have to be evaluated. Non-sporulation species have to be triggered to produce spores, otherwise â&#x20AC;&#x153;sterile myceliumâ&#x20AC;? will result, which means they cannot be named by genera or even species. Methods of genetic fingerprinting are still in their early stages and only available for some genera or species. In the meantime enzymatic tests have become available to decide between mold growth and normal quantities on building surfaces. Searching for hidden mold growth can be a very difficult task. An example of this is if adverse health effects like the fungal syndrome is observed. The fungal syndrome is characterized by the occurrence of unspecific symptoms. The analysis of microbial volatile organic compounds or even the use of specially trained sniffer dogs are some of the methods used to detect hidden mold growth. However, these methods have not been scientifically evaluated [22] . The extermination of microorganisms is of110
ten carried out, but this procedure is not sufficient because non-viable spores for example, keep their allergenic potential. The acuteness of the rehabilitation procedures is normally considered according to the extent of the microbial damage. Adverse health effects are supposed to be linked with microbial growth in indoor areas and are mostly related with mold growth. Allergies is a predominant condition which has to be mentioned, followed by toxic alveolitis and reactions like (allergic) bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, as well as the aggravation of asthma. Infections by molds and bacteria are very rare, but persons with immunodeficiency are especially susceptible to fungal infections. It has been found that spores of fungi contain fungal toxins (mycotoxins), which are well known from food contaminations. It has however not been confirmed whether these mycotoxins show toxic effects if fungal spores are inhaled. On the whole, the dose relationship between the concentration of microbial particles already mentioned and the adverse health effects described, is not very well established. When sanitary effects are observed, the susceptibility of the individual is very often crucial. The result of this is that guidelines concerning microbial products in indoor areas are sparse and mostly not scientifically sound. In non-industrial indoor environments, the most important source of airborne bacteria is the presence of human. Specific activities like talking, sneezing, coughing, walking, washing and toilet flushing can generate airborne biological particulate matter. In addition food stuffs, house plants and flower pots, house dust, pets and their bedding, textiles, carpets, wood material and furniture stuffing, occasionally release spores of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Scopulariopsis into the air. Although indoor environments are considered to be protected, they can become contaminated with particles that present different and sometimes more serious risks when their concentrations exceed recommended maximum limits than those related to outdoor exposures. Human beings build the home to be protected in the environment. Indoor air pollution can be as much more worse than that of outdoor air, it can cause a www.ijsir.co.in
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wide range of health problems. Mold, mildew, fungi, bacteria, viruses, microorganisms, chemical fumes, organic odors, dust pollen and other floating particles are potential threats in many households. Most people assume that this particular problem is addressed if they filter the air. The truth is that filters will not remove all the particles from the air. Even if a high-efficiency particulate air filter (HEPA) is used, the problem will not be effectively addressed. HEPA filters will only remove particles the size of 3 microns or larger. Consequently, dust particles smaller than 3 microns will pass through unhindered. Unfortunately, filters can also become breeding grounds for mold and bacteria. A filter only collects and does not kill toxic particles. For a filter to work effectively, air has to pass through it. If a person inhales air prior to it passing through a filter, the particles would have already entered the personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lungs. In addition, if a filter collects only mold spores, it does not solve the problem. Effectively, the mold that created the spores is still alive and continues to generate mold spores. A filter is not designed to eliminate the source itself. Ultraviolet lights (UV) are claimed to kill 99.9 % of all organisms. Even though UV has the potential to kill 99.9 % of all organisms, it will only kill that which passes through the light. In addition not all UV rays have the same potential to kill organisms. Airborne bacterial concentrations were usually higher than fungi. Bacteria and fungi had similar diurnal variation patterns. The objective of this study was to investigate the airborne fungi and bacteria collected in indoor and outdoor environment. The study was carried out in four areas, using conventional enumeration of airborne micro-organisms and relied on a culture-based method for bio-aerosol sampling, aimed at generating an exposure database and examines the relationship between the in- and outdoor culturability of fungi and bacteria. The primary goal of the bio-aerosol sampling was the quantitative evaluation of the viable airborne bacteria and fungi. Besides the standard enumeration of culturable microbes as CFU/m3, this study attempted to identify and evaluate the colonies through their specific color, turbidity or other characteristics that appear when grown on selective media. www.ijsir.co.in
MATERIALS AND METHODS Air Sampler Performances (a)Air Sampling Total fifty air samples were collected from indoor areas as canteen, auditorium, office and from outdoor area as outdoor near building I.I.T.R. (Indian Institute of Toxicology Research) area of Institute building. These all samples were taken at various time throughout eight working hours. Airborne concentration of microorganisms can be studied by counting propagules in air samples or settled dust particles. Sampling of culturable microorganisms is based on impaction (in which microorganisms are collected from the air stream due to an inertial force that deposits them on to solid or semi solid selection surface), liquid impingement ( separation of microorganism from the airstream by passage through a porous medium such as filter). After sample collection colonies of bacteria and fungi are grown on culture media at a defined temperature for the length of time required for colony development (usually 3-7 days). Colonies are counted manually or by image analysis techniques. To date, no standard methods are available for detecting and enumerating fungi in indoor environments, which significantly limit the potential for comparing data from different studies. These include poor reproducibility selection of certain species for example the choice of sampling method, culture media or temperature chosen and lack of detection of non-culturable and dead microorganisms and microbial components, although they too may have toxic or allergic properties. Sampling methods for airborne particles can be subdivided into passive sampler using natural aerosol conviction, diffusion or gravity, and active samplers using stationary or personal pumps. The stationary sampling is the most widely used method for conducting microbial measurements in indoor/outdoor environments. The results obtained with different devices are not easily comparable with each other due to differences in sampling times, volumes and principles. In addition, no good methods for sampling personal air for culturable microorganisms are available, and air sampling for more than 15 min111
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utes is often not possible, whereas air concentrations usually vary widely over time. Nevertheless, counting culturable microorganisms is potentially a very sensitive technique, allowing the identification of many different species. Traditional culture methods have proven to be of limited use for quantitative assessment of exposure. Culture-based techniques thus usually provide qualitative rather than quantitative data. The former can, however, be important in risk assessment, as not all fungal and bacterial species pose the same hazard. Furthermore, a qualitative comparison of indoor and outdoor micro biota (in samples collected at the same time) may provide important information about potential indoor sources of contamination. More extensive reviews of techniques for sampling and culturing microorganisms are available. The Sample is collected from Bio stage Sampler, at a flow rate of 28.3 liter / minute. There were collected 50 liters of air with Bio stage sampler by using for two minutes. The instruments were placed one meter above the floor and in two meter distance in every sampling in various times.
Nutrient agar media (peptone-0.5% beef extract/ yeast extract- 0.5%, agar-1.5%, Nacl-0.5%) is also used for the bacterial growth. The malt extract agar was incubated at 350 c for 24-48 hrs and the nutrient agar and Luria Bertani agar is to be incubated at 370 c for 48-70 hrs. For inhibiting the contamination of fungi, during making media especially bacterial media, the anti- fungal AMPHOTERICIN-B is used in 10 micro-liters in 200 ml of media sample, to be taken for highly concentrated. The institute, IITR-CDRI (outdoor) building, where the sample was taken is situated on the bank of Gomati river. The climate is warm and humid in March to May and a normally cool in January to February. The temperatures fluctuate between 320c to 450c in summer, and in 150c to 240c in early winter. Each stage of sampler contains 200 spores, each having a diameter of 1.5 mm in all stages, for fungi, a viable spores captured by samples were also isolated on 2% malt extract agar medium supplemented with Streptomycin Sulphate (40 microgram per ml) following incubation for 48-72 hrs at 270c. The colonies were identified based on their colony characteristics such as color, shape and other morphological features of the mycelia and spores to the lowest taxonomic rank possible. The most efficient methods of removing suspended particles from the air, example, filtration through fine pore matrices, might be adequate for resistant forms of microorganisms, such as spores, but can be less damaged environmentally resistant vegetative cells. Determination of concentration of Microbes in air samples
A fig. 1: A bio Stage Sampler used in Air Sampling
The concentration of Microorganism counted from Petri plates or on slides for spores is calculated as per the given formula:
(b)Media used for Growth & Culture Analysis
generated by an Adobe applicationTotal number of microbesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; colonies Ă&#x2014; 1000 generated by an Adobe applicationVol. of air sample in liter
The media is basically used for the growth of Micro- organism, Malt extracts agar (malts extract-30 gm/l, mycological peptone-5.0 gm/l, agar-15 gm/l) and Luria Bertani agar tryptone1.0%, yeast extract-0.5%, Nacl-1.0%) media is used for the enumeration of heterotrophs and Fungi and for selective bacteria as E. coli. Instead of above both media, the common media 112
Total volume of air sampled the counts are expressed as number of colony forming units (CFU/m 3 ) or number of spores per colony (spores / m3). After isolation of microbes in another media by streak plate method, spread plate method by using Inoculation loop, they have to dyeing for the detection of their biochemically identifiwww.ijsir.co.in
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cation. Gramâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s staining is used for the identification and especially for classification of bacteria in their gram positive, or gram negative bacteria. For the slide preparation a drop of stain were put on the clean slide then picked-up a small tuff of fungus. Then gently teased the tuff to separated the hyphae by cool needle and mix with the Lacto phenol cotton blue stain properly for Fungi.
A Fig.2: A Photograph of I.I.T.R. Canteen
RESULT AND DISCUSSION The results obtained from indoor area and outdoor area monitoring reveals that the microbial concentration, bacteria and fungi were lower in morning time in comparison to those in the evening time. In addition to bacteria and fungi reduction of heterotroph were also observed from morning to evening time in canteen, office and auditorium samples. In the afternoon these
counts rise gradually up to a maximum level at the end of working period, which indicates that an indoor environment provides more favorable conditions for the survival of aerosolized fungi. The highest in- and outdoor culturability of fungi was observed in the humid condition. Cladosporium had the highest median value of culturability (38 % and 33 % for indoor and outdoor, respectively) followed by Aspergillus/Penicillium (9% and 2 %) among predominant genera of fungi. Microbial flora of indoor air depends on several factors including the number and hygienic standard of people present, in indoor space and mechanical movement within the enclosed space. In poor quality and crowded domiciles, the higher number of residents confined to a small space result in the build-up of airborne microbes shed by the human body. For both the in and outdoor air samples, the concentration of total bacteria were lower than the concentration of total fungi for all the areas. For individual fungi species the concentration of both the inand outdoor air was Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Alternaria in descending order. For both the total bacteria and the total fungi, the outdoor concentration for the four different areas was usually higher compared to the indoor concentrations. The indoor concentrations of Aspergillus and Penicillium were usually lower than the outdoor concentration near office building due to the fact that open area naturally have higher temperatures, more humidity, and more nutrients available for bacteria to exist naturally.
Data recorded for the concentration of microbes, bacteria and fungi in Indoor and Outdoor area
Sr. no.
Sample area
Bacterial concentration (Colony/plate)
Morning session (10:00-12:00pm)
After lunch(2:30pm)
Fungal concentration (Colony/plate)
Morning session (10:00-12:00pm)
After lunch(2:30pm)
Canteen 1
sample -1
2
Canteen sample-2
Canteen www.ijsir.co.in
89
84
102
27
52
101
25
59
113
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Canteen 3
sample-3
81
106
38
43
4
Canteen sample- 4
76
99
26
44
41
58
34
52
33
59
37
65
41
67
45
87
Office sample5
1 Office sample-
6
2 Office sample-
7
3 Office sample-
8
4
34
62
34
54
9
Canteen sample-5
41
71
31
62
Canteen 10
sample-6
23
37
27
56
11
Canteen sample-7
31
59
68
105
12
Canteen sample-8
32
56
42
85
63
Canteen 13
sample-9
24
43
35
14
Canteen sample-10
23
52
31
51
24
46
23
67
20
48
32
85
22
54
34
87
Office sample 15
6 Office sample-
16
7 Office sample-
17
8 Office sample-
114
18
9
16
29
23
42
19
Office sample10
21
43
27
49
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Average
65
85
55
90
Minimum
16
29
23
42
Maximum
89
106
68
105
91
95
40
66
sample-2
98
100
31
63
Average
93
97
35
64
Minimum
91
95
31
63
Maximum
98
100
40
66
Auditorium 20
sample-1 Auditorium
21
Sample area
Bacterial concentration(Colony/plate)
Fungal concentration (Colony/plate)
(Outdoorsample) Morning session (10:00-12:00pm)
After lunch(2:30pm)
Morning session
After
(10:00-12:00pm)
lunch(2:30pm)
1
Outdoor- 1
37
41
57
59
2
Outdoor-2
67
56
65
79
3
Outdoor-3
65
54
74
94
4
Outdoor-4
46
67
67
82
5
Outdoor- 5
70
88
78
92
6
Outdoor-6
64
89
64
85
7
Outdoor-7
56
76
85
97
8
Outdoor-8
74
92
9
Outdoor-9
54
61
64
67
10
Outdoor-10
65
72
53
68
Average
60
70
80
90
Minimum
37
41
53
59
Maximum
74
92
85
97
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76
87
115
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In this study, an attempt was made to determine the composition and variability of airborne fungal spores in a comprehensive manner by synchronous use of non-viable and viable sampling method. The study was of a kind that first volumetrically assessed the cultivable airborne fungal spore in the region and determined its relationship with the meteorological factors.
Fig. 3: Shows the concentration study of Bacteria in morning
Fig.4 : Concentration study of lunch timing
bacteria after
Fig.5: Concentration study of Fungi in morning
Fig.6: Concentration study of Fungi after lunch timing 116
Non-viable sampling of total airborne spore The total airborne fungi monitored by the bio stage sampler showed a perennial occurrence pattern and attained the main peak in early winter and subsidiary peak in April-May. The relative humidity and temperature in moderate temperature in moderate range, very low wind speed, and minimal dew, during early winter might have facilitated the release in dispersion of dry spore mass; these factors presumably contributed toward achieving the main peak during these months. In January, whereas ascospores and basidiospores were the major components of airborne fungi which peaked in May. The total cultivable airborne fungi attained two peaks in the first month of January-last week to May-first week, total 50 samples were taken for four months. Among 13 cultivable fungal genera (comprising 26 species) recorded by the viable sampler, the predominant fungal genus was Aspergillus spp., though Cladosporium cladosporiodes occupied the first position, other prevalent genera included Curvularia spp., Alternaria spp., Penicillium spp., Nigrospora spheroids. Sterile mycelia (non-sporulating colonies), which may represent the vegetative phase of either Ascomycota or Basidiomycota, contributed a significant fraction to the total viable spore count. The remainder such as, Absidia corymbifera, Mucor hiemalis, and Syncephalastrum racemosum was observed in considerably low concentration throughout the six months. Eight species of Aspergillus were isolated of which Aspergillus niger occupied the first position in order of dominance, followed by Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigates, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus japonicas, Aspergillus ustus, and Aspergillus sydowi. Several cultivable fungal spores (e.g.Curvularia hunata & Curvularia pallescenes, Aspergillus japonicas, Aspergillus sydowi). During February, only Penicillium spp., achieved an elevated concentration level. In a handful cultivable spores (e.g. Absidea corymbifera, A, flavus, A. fumigates, A. nidulans, Cladosporium spp) only three genera of bacteria and six genera of fungi as, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Drechslera and Nigrospora and in bacteria especially, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus www.ijsir.co.in
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spp. etc. were found during sampling. The ascospores and basidiospores that constitute a significant part of the airborne fungi were recorded only by the non-viable sampling. The ratio of total airborne fungal spores to cultivable mold was obtained in the range of 0.19 to 4.16. The spores of Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes members are visible in light microscope, but they are unable to grow in laboratory culture media. For this reason, decrease in concentration of cultivable mold compared to total fungal spores is generally anticipated while analyzed by light microscopy. CONCLUSION This study clearly indicates that there is significant assessment of the indoor and outdoor airborne bacteria and fungi. Airborne fungal and bacterial concentrations in auditorium, offices, canteen were lower than in the other facilities of the outdoor area of building. A large range of different bacteria including Actinomycetes, mesophilic bacteria, Mycobacteria, gram-negative bacteria, and thermopile bacteria were present in canteen, which is specific for indoor air quality. The moisture damage affects diversity of microbial concentration. In the moisture-damaged building, the microbial diversity was higher in canteen, offices and other indoor area. The measurements of airborne microbial concentrations during four consecutive months showed the variation of microbial levels due to climatic conditions. The results showed that the average fungal concentration was 80 CFU/m3, similarly the average concentration of bacteria was 60 CFU/ m3 which was lower than the fungi concentration in outdoor area and in indoor area the average fungal concentration is 90 CFU/m3 in comparison to bacterial concentration is 65 CFU/m3.So the result is the concentration of fungi is higher than the bacteria in indoor and outdoor area.
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IN SILICO PREDICTION OF EPITOPE-BASED PEPTIDES FROM PROTEOME OF NIPAH VIRUS * B. R. PANDEY 1, SUGANDHA SINGH 2, SHIPRA SRIVASTAVA 3, NIDHI SHARMA 2 1 Sky Institute, Lucknow, India, 2 Research scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 3 Dr. Rawat Institute of Life Sciences, Lucknow, India *Address for Correspondence
: Dr. B. R. Pandey, Director(Research), Sky Institute, Lucknow, India, E mail ID : drbrpandey@gmail.com
ABSTRACT Prediction and modeling of T-cell epitopes of Nipah virus antigenic proteins nucleocapsid, phosphoprotein, matrix, fusion, glycoprotein, L protein, W protein, V protein and C protein followed by the binding simulation studies of predicted highest binding scorers with their corresponding MHC class I alleles were done in this study. ProPred1 tool was used to predict the promiscuous MHC class I epitopes of viral proteins. 3D structures of epitopes were built with the help of PEPstr server. Molecular dynamics simulation studies were performed through the NAMD graphical user interface embedded in visual molecular dynamics. Epitopes IRTIAAYPL and NPTAVPFTL of Matrix Protein and W-protein have lowest binding energy and highest score with HLA-B*2705 and HLA-B*5101 MHC class I allele, respectively. These predicted peptides are highly potential to induce T-cell-mediated immune response and are expected to be useful in designing epitope-based vaccines against Nipah virus. Keywords: Nipah virus, Encephalitis, ribavirin, Immunoinformatics, Nucleocapsid, Phosphoprotein, Matrix, Fusion, Gycoprotein, L protein, W protein, V protein and C protein, T-cell epitopes, Peptide- or Epitope-based Vaccine, NCBI, ProPred I, Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Molecules, Molecular docking. INTRODUCTION Nipah virus (NiV), of the family Paramyxoviridae [1, 2] and the genus Henipavirus, is a zoonotic virus that causes outbreaks of fatal encephalitis in humans [3]. The human Nipah virus (NiV) infection was first recognized in a large outbreak of 276 reported cases in peninsular Malaysia and Singapore from September 1998 through May 1999[4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. The virus was first isolated from a patient from Sungai Nipah village in Malaysia and the name â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Nipahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; was first introduced according to the name of that village. It was also identified in India for the first time in 2001 and second time in 2007. Unfortunately, eleven outbreaks have already occurred in Bangladesh since the first detection of NiV in 2001, with high mortality rate an estimated 80% in an average and 100% in some cases [9]. The most alarming fact is that almost every year in winter (December to March), the deadly NiV strikes in the north and western regions of Bangladesh. Infection with Nipah virus is associated with encephalitis (inflammation of the brain). After exposure and an incubation www.ijsir.co.in
period of 5 to 14 days, illness presents with 314 days of fever and headache, followed by drowsiness, disorientation and mental confusion [10] . These signs and symptoms can progress to coma within 24-48 hours. Some patients have a respiratory illness during the early part of their infections, and half of the patients showing severe neurological signs showed also pulmonary signs. During the first NiV outbreak, the virus infected both pigs and humans, in addition to a small number of cats, dogs and horses [5, 11]. NiV possesses a negative-sense, non-segmented RNA genome that is 18246 nt (Malaysian isolate) or 18252 nt (Bangladesh isolate) in length [12]. In Bangladesh, 135 probable or confirmed cases of NiV infection in humans were identified from 2001 to 2008; 98 (73%) were fatal [7]. There is no effective treatment and vaccine for Nipah virus disease, but ribavarin may mitigate the symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and convulsions. Vaccination is the most effective of all the medical interventions to save human and animal 119
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lives and to increase production[13,14].Compared to the conventional vaccines, peptide- or epitope-based vaccines are easy to produce, more speci没c, cost effective, less time consuming and also safe[15]. It is well established that T cells play a critical role in inducing cellular immune response against foreign antigens but they recognize antigenic fragments only when they are associated with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules exposed on surface of all vertebrate cells[16,17]. Immunoinformatics approach uses computational algorithms to predict potential vaccine candidates or T-cell epitopes. The advantage of a peptide- or epitope-based vaccine is the ability to deliver high doses of the potential immunogen at a low cost [18, 19]. Viral protein which could act as a vaccine candidate must be surface-exposed, antigenic and responsible for pathogenicity [20,21]. MATERIALS AND METHODS The amino acid sequence of Nucleocapsid, phosphoprotein, matrix, fusion, glycoprotein, L protein, W protein, V protein and C protein was retrieved from the protein sequence database of NCBI (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein) and their accession number is shown in Table 1. Prediction of MHC class I binding peptides An online web tool ProPred I [22] has been Protein Nucleocapsid
Accession No ACT32611
Length of amino acids 532
Phosphoprotein
ACT32612
709
Matrix
ACT32613
352
Fusion
ACT32614
546
Glycoprotein
ACT32615
602
L-Protein
ACT32616
2244
W-protein
449
V-protein
YP_007188 592 NP_112023
456
C-protein
NP_112024
166
120
used for the prediction of promiscuous MHC class I binding peptides. It uses matrix-based method that allows the prediction of MHC-binding sites in an antigenic sequence for MHC class I alleles, and also allows the prediction of the standard proteasome and immunoproteasome cleavage sites in an antigenic sequence. The simultaneous prediction of MHC binders and proteasome cleavage sites in an antigenic sequence leads to the identi没cation of potential T-cell epitopes. Structure-based epitopes
modeling
of
T-cell
3D structures of identi没ed potential T-cell epitopes were predicted by PEPstr (peptide tertiary structure prediction server) server [23]. The prediction strategy is based on the realization that b-turn is an important and consistent feature of small peptides in addition to regular structures. Thus, the methods use both the bturns information predicted from Beta Turns and regular secondary structure information predicted from PSIPRED. The side-chain angles are placed using standard backbone-dependent rotamer library. The structure is further re没ned with energy minimization and molecular dynamic simulations using Amber version 6. Table 1: Scores generated by ProPred for MHC class I alleles.
Start position 474 446 474 168 624 85 201 293 192 125 45 247 45 2087 1567 1564 1537 316 186 186 66 316 40 116 0
Epitope
Allele
SLLNLRSRL KREMSISSL SLLNLRSRL DRETDLVHL EPYGAAVQL IRTIAAYPL IAFNLLVYL FQKNLCFSL KQTELSLDL AQITAGVAL ILSAFNTVI RIIGVGEVL ILSAFNTVI VLLQAGLKL TMVDLLSDL GRHTMVDLL DPELFALYL KEEPPQKRL NPTAVPFTL NPTAVPFTL DGDVERRNL KEEPPQKRL FCSAPVENL PDMDLLQAL MMASILLTL
HLA-A*0201 HLA-B*2705 HLA-A2 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*5101 HLA-B*2705 HLA-A*0201 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705 HLA-A*0201 HLA-B*2705 HLA-A2 HLA-A2 HLA-A*0201 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*5101 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*5101 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*5101 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705
ProPred score 3729.239 6000.000 5968.882 2000.000 572.000 6000.000 4702.218 3000 9000 2000 2489.047 2000 3901.211 3475.964 3804.077 30000.000 1522.664 3000.000 880.000 2000 520 2000 3000.000 2000 2000
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3D structure of MHC I alleles Information and 3D structure of selected HLA alleles were retrieved from IMGT/HLA database ( h t t p : / / w w w. e b i . a c . u k / i p d / i m g t / h l a / intro.html)[24].The Database currently contains 10,103 allele sequences. In addition to the physical sequences, the database contains detailed information concerning the material from which the sequence was derived and data on the validation of the sequences. PDB codes of relevant MHC class I alleles were shown in table 2. Table 2: List of class I MHC alleles considered in this study for prediction of binding peptides. S. No.
Allele
Crystal Structure (PDB ID)
1
HLA-A2
1AKJ
2
HLA-A*0201
1AKJ
3
HLA-B*2705
1HSA
4
HLA-B*5101
1E27
Molecular docking AutoDock 4.2[25, 26] has been used for In-silico docking of peptides and alleles structure. Gasteiger charges were added to the ligand and maximum six numbers of active torsion are given to the lead compound using AutoDock tool (http:/ /autodock.scripps.edu/resources/adt). Kollaman charges and salvation term were added to the protein structure using AutoDock tool. The Grid for docking calculation was centered to cover the protein-binding site residues and accommodate ligand to move freely. During the docking procedure, a Lamarckian genetic algorithm (LGA) was used for ûexible peptide and rigid protein docking calculation. Docking parameters were as follows: 30 docking trials, population size of 150, maximum number of energy evaluation ranges of 250,000, maximum number of generations is 27,000, mutation rate of 0.02, cross-over rate of 0.8, other docking parameters were set to the software’s default values. www.ijsir.co.in
Molecular dynamics simulation of epitope and HLA allele complex Molecular dynamics simulation was done using the NAMD graphical interface module [27] incorporated visual molecular dynamics (VMD 1.9.2) [28]. A protein structure ûle (psf) was created from the initial pdb and topology ûles. The psfgen package of VMD is used to create this. To create a psf ûrst a pgn ûle is made, which is the target of psfgen. After running psfgen, two new ûles were generated protein pdb and protein psf and by accessing PSF and PDB ûles; NAMD generated the trajectory DCD ûle. Root mean square deviation (RMSD) of the complex was completed using rmsd tcl source ûle from the Tk console and ûnally rmsd .dat was saved and accessed in Microsoft ofûce excel. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Prediction and analysis of MHC class I binding peptides The Matrix protein peptide IRTIAAYPL at position 85–93 showed ProPred score of 6000 with HLA-B*2705 MHCI allele. The W-protein peptide NPTAVPFTL at position 186–194 showed ProPred score of 880 with the HLAB*5101 allele. ProPred scores of peptides with MHC I alleles are shown in Table 1. Docking energy determination by AutoDock AutoDock binding simulation studies showed that IRTIAAYPL epitope of Matrix protein with HLA-B*2705 allele as well as NPTAVPFTL epitope of W-protein with HLA-B*5101 allele formed stable HLA–peptide complexes with the energy minimization values of -4.03, and -4.14 kcal/mol, respectively (Table 3).After docking studies, we determined the number of H bonds present in the stable complex formed. Using AutoDock, it was found that two H-bond were present in Matrix protein IRTIAAYPL-HLAB*2705 complex (fig. 1) via residue GLY1 and LYS243 of allele HLA-B*2705 with epitope IRTIAAYPL. No hydrogen bond was present in W protein peptide NPTAVPFTL- HLA-B*5101 complex (fig. 2). 121
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Table 3: Docking result of epitopes with Allele structures. Protein Nucleocapsid
Phosphoprotein Matrix
Fusion Glycoprotein
L protein
W protein V protein
C protein
Epitope SLLNLRSRL KREMSISSL SLLNLRSRL DRETDLVHL EPYGAAVQL IRTIAAYPL IAFNLLVYL FQKNLCFSL KQTELSLDL AQITAGVAL ILSAFNTVI RIIGVGEVL ILSAFNTVI VLLQAGLKL TMVDLLSDL GRHTMVDLL DPELFALYL KEEPPQKRL NPTAVPFTL NPTAVPFTL DGDVERRNL KEEPPQKRL FCSAPVENL PDMDLLQAL MMASILLTL
Allele HLA*0201 HLA-B*2705 HLA-A2 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*5101 HLA-B*2705 HLA-A*0201 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705 HLA-A*0201 HLA-B*2705 HLA-A2 HLA-A2 HLA-A*0201 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*5101 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*5101 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*5101 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705 HLA-B*2705
BE -0.57 -0.72 -1.45 0.01 -2.96 -4.03 -1.88 0.36 2.99 -0.61 -2.28 1.1 -0.86 -1.41 -0.23 0.65 -2.92 1.7 -4.14 -2.53 3.05 -0.11 -2.51 1.86 -1.54
IME -11.61 -12.05 -12.49 -10.73 -11.02 -12.68 -11.42 -10.38 -8.04 -8.37 -11.22 -8.44 -9.81 -11.26 -10.08 -9.49 -12.17 -9.64 -11.3 -9.69 -7.99 -11.45 -10.87 -7.98 -11.38
IE -6.7 -5.25 -4.94 -6.03 -6.84 -6.47 -4.85 -4.64 -4.27 -3.82 -6.9 -3.43 -4.73 -6.49 -6.47 -6.91 -8.04 -6.1 -7.46 -4.23 -4.52 -3.99 -7.44 -5.07 -3.75
TorE 11.04 11.34 11.04 10.74 8.05 8.65 9.55 10.74 11.04 7.76 8.95 9.55 8.95 9.84 9.84 10.14 9.25 11.34 7.16 7.16 11.04 11.34 8.35 9.84 9.84
VdwE -10.74 -9.77 -11.75 -10.69 -10.79 10.74 -10.82 -9.12 -7.74 -8.32 -11.71 -7.99 -9.23 -9.53 -10.65 -8.65 -10.74 -7.44 -10.76 -8.89 -7.44 -9.43 -6.23 -6.28 -11.43
EE -0.87 -2.29 -0.74 -0.04 -2.23 -1.94 -0.6 -1.26 -0.3 -0.04 0.49 -0.45 -0.58 -1.73 0.57 0.84 -1.43 -2.2 -0.54 -0.8 -0.55 -2.02 0.45 -1.7 0.15
BE: Binding Energy; IME: Intermolecular Energy; IE: Internal Energy; TorE: Torsional Energy; VdwE:Vdw-lbDesolv Energy; EE: Electrostatic Energy.
Fig. 2: Docked W protein peptide NPTAVPFTLHLA-B*5101 allele (PDB Id: 1E27) complex Fig. 1: Docked Matrix protein peptide IRTIAAYPL - HLA-B*2705 allele complex depicting position of amino acids along with the formation of two Hydrogen bonds(shows as dotted line) with GLY1 and LYS243 residues of Protein 1HSA 122
Molecular dynamics simulation of peptide– allele Complex through NAMD The peptide–allele complexes formed by AutoDock were subjected to molecular dynamics www.ijsir.co.in
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simulation and RMSD. Matrix protein epitope IRTIAAYPL - HLA-B*2705 allele complex displayed the highest peak at RMSD value of 0.96 Å (Fig. 3). W protein peptide NPTAVPFTL HLA-B*5101 allele complex resulted in highest peak at RMSD value of 1.03 Å (Fig. 4). The current study incorporates immunoinformatics approach for reducing the time consumed in the long array of experiments to avoid hit and trial sets.
Fig. 3: Graph displaying molecular dynamic simulation of Matrix protein peptide–allele complex, resulted in highest peak at 0.96 Å
Fig. 4: Graph displaying molecular dynamic simulation of W protein peptide–allele complex, resulted in highest peak at 1.03 Å
The molecular dynamics simulation showed that complex formed between a peptide and allele was attaining proper stability by creating a parallelism in RMSD over a time window. The mentioned peptides can be either isolated or formulated for further in vitro and in vivo testing. CONCLUSION From the present study it is concluded that the epitopes IRTIAAYPL and NPTAVPFTL of Matrix and W protein, respectively, have considerable binding with HLA-B*2705 and HLAwww.ijsir.co.in
B*5101class I allele and low-energy minimization values providing stability to the peptide–MHC complex. These peptide constructs may further be undergone wet laboratory studies for the development of targeted vaccine against Nipah virus. REFERENCES 1.
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A study of Environmental Awareness among B.Ed. Students of Dehradun District, Uttarakhand *SHAILJA ASTHANA1, D.K. DIVEDI2 1 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 2 Pestle Weed College of Information Technology, Dehradun,Uttarakhand,India *Address for correspondence: Shailja Asthana, Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, E mail ID : aklasthana@wihg.res.in
ABSTRACT Today the environmental degradation is a matter of great concern before human society. Both developing as well as developed countries are facing severe environmental problems. In the developmental process man has been ruthlessly exploiting natural resources and polluting natural environment. The major problem of our present world is environmental degradation. To combat this problem, we need environmentally sensitive and aware people. The present investigation was conducted to find information about the level of environmental awareness of B.Ed students in Dehradun district of Uttarakhand (India). It was found that their level of environmental awareness was remarkable high. Keywords: Environmental Awareness, Degradation, Pollution, Uttarakhand INTRODUCTION According to the Universal encyclopedia, the sum total of all conditions, agencies and influences, which affect the development, growth, life and death of an organism, species or race is called environment. Duglass and Roman Holland opined that environment is a word which describe, in the aggregate, all of the external forces, influences and conditions which affect the life, nature, behavior and the growth, development and maturation of living organism. Indeed environment covers all the outside factors that have acted have been acting on the living being in general and humans in particular since they began life. The environment for man is its surroundings on the earth. In the known universe, the earth is only planet that is gifted with life by the Absolute. It is man’s supreme duty and responsibility to protect the environment. Man cannot afford to ignore environmental degradation. It is a matter of survival or suicide. The United Nations conference on environment and development held in Rio De Janerio in 1992, known as ‘Earth Summit’ brought the issue of rapid environmental degradation and climate change to the center stage and highlighted the reasons for this and called upon the world community to take immediate suitable steps. Same www.ijsir.co.in
warnings were given by Johannesburg Summit in 2002. Earth is the only planet in this universe which has been gifted with life supporting vital elements; water, food, land and air and a rich bio-diversity of flora and fauna bestowed with aesthetic, commercial and medicinal values that are of the utmost significance to human beings. Life on this planet- earth has been possible only because of its environment and it is depends on natural resources; forest, water, minerals, foods, energy and land. Forests, one of the most important natural resources cover the earth like a green blanket. Water, is indispensable natural resource on this earth for the survival of living beings. Minerals which form a very important part of any nation’s economy occur naturally in inorganic and crystalline solids. Land is a finite and valuable resource upon which we depend for our food, fiber and fuel wood- the basic amenities of life. But, unfortunately this planet i.e. the Earth which used to be reservoir of nature’s wealth is loosening its resources because of lack of for sightedness on the part of human beings in the name of development, industrialization, greater production, agricultural extension etc. Development has become 125
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synonymous with growth. Greater production has become the key to prosperity and peace. The ill effects of industrialization and deforestation for agricultural extension are now apparent. Only recently human beings realized the extent of damage done to the earth and the environment. Since the evolution of man on the earth, he had been dependent on the environment. Initially, the human population was small and its need limited. Therefore his activities did not affect the environment. Much slowly, he settled down, became civilized and learnt how to cultivate. As time passed, the development, of science and technology made the life more and more comfortable and man also became more and more ambitious. With such development, human dependence on environment increased, he consumed more resources and the effect of his activities on the environment became more and more visible. With the industrial revolution the consumption of raw material such as wood, minerals, coal and fossil fuels increased tremendously and with the passage of time the pollution of air, water and soil became visible. This made the man more conscious of his actions and their consequences. Slowly, it was realized that the existence of human race itself was in danger and to survive as a race it was necessary to educate the people about the environmental pollution. This led to the development of concept of environmental education. Environmental education is a process of providing learning experiences to obtain knowledge, understanding, skills and awareness with desirable attitudinal changes about man’s relationship with his natural and manmade surroundings [8]. This includes over population, pollution, resource allocation, transportations, technology and urban and rural planning. Environmental education must utilize diverse learning environment and a broad array of educational approaches to teaching learning process. It should help learners to discover the symptoms and real causes of environmental problems and thus to develop critical thinking and problem solving skills. Environmental education should be a continuous life long process, beginning at the pre-school level and continuing through all formal and non-formal 126
stages of getting education and should be interdisciplinary in its nature. The Stockholm conference in 1972 at Stockholm adopted “Declaration on the human environment” and “Declaration of principles”. In short, the declaration states that the men are both creator and molder of his environment and the protection and improvement of human environment is a major issue for the survival of human race. His capability to transform his surroundings should be used wisely. In developing countries most of the environmental problems are caused by lack of proper education. At the very outset, special attention must be paid to the school going children and women. They are to be made aware of health, nutrition, sanitation, hygiene, development, water and food contamination, fodder and fuel wood etc. Non-Government Organization (NGO’s) has to play a significant role in environmental awareness programmes. There are 200 NGO’s which work in the area of environmental education and awareness. The chief goals of environmental education in India must be: i) To minimize the environmental pollution, ii) To improve the quality of the environment and iii) To create awareness towards environmental protection. There are several authors like [1-13] have studied and given his views about the Environmental Awareness of the students. Sharma (1998) investigated attitudes and awareness of primary and upper primary school teachers towards problems and issues related to environmental education [14]. The sample comprised of 750 teachers of 16 primary and 16 upper primary schools from 6 districts of Rajasthan. The sample was selected with the help of stratified cluster sampling method. The researchers developed environmental awareness test and environmental awareness scale for data collection. The data were analyzed with the help of t-test. The findings of the study were: i) The male teachers had more favorable attitude towards environmental education than their female counterparts. ii) The graduate teachers had more favorable attitude towards environmental education under graduate teachers. iii) The urban and rural teachers could www.ijsir.co.in
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not be distinguished so far as their attitude towards environmental education was concerned. iv) The teachers with science background had more favorable attitude towards environmental education than their colleagues with non-science background. v) The male teachers had more awareness about the environment than their female counterparts. vi) The environmental awareness and environmental attitude were positively related. Das (2002) studied the development of environmental awareness through the study of life science in the secondary schools of West Bengal, with the help of three sets of questionnaires (especially meant for students, teachers and parents).[15] A part from survey, curriculum analysis was also made. The study found heterogeneity among the groups in terms of their perceptions of environmental awareness. It was also observed that several approaches related to life science helped in enhancing environmental awareness among the students. Agnihotri (2004) examined environmental awareness in teacher trainees.[16] The sample comprised of 700 teachers trainees from Bundelkhand University. Environmental awareness ability measure test by Dr. Praveen Kumar Jha was used for data collection. The data were analyzed by t-test, ANOVA, point bi-serial, correlation and regression analysis. The findings of the study were: i) High awareness was found in teacher trainees. ii) No significant difference in male & female teacher trainees was found in environmental awareness. iii) Urban teacher trainees were found to have more environmental awareness as compared to rural teacher trainees. iv) Post graduate teacher trainees were found to have more awareness as compared to graduate teacher trainees. v) No significant difference in environmental awareness was found between general & other backward class teacher trainees. vi) High environmental awareness was found for teacher trainees of high socio-economic status where as low environmental awareness was found for teacher trainees of low socio-economic status. Saheb lal (2011) conducted a study on environmental awareness study habits and academic achievement of B.Ed. students.[17] The sample of the study included 214 B.Ed., Male www.ijsir.co.in
Teacher Trainees selected randomly from Karnataka University Jurisdiction. The study revealed that i) The B.Ed., male teacher trainees with extravert personality had more environmental awareness than male teacher trainees with introvert personality. B.Ed. students are would be teachers. They would have to sensitive the school going children regarding environmental issue. The investigator thought it useful to first find the level of awareness of prospective teachers i.e. B.Ed. students themselves. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The major objectives of the study are as follows: 1.
To stud y the level o f environmental awareness of B. Ed students
2.
To compare the levels of awareness of B. Ed students with special reference to gender.
3.
To compare the levels of awareness of B. Ed students with special reference to their locality (rural urban).
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY Proposed research hypotheses are as underHo1. There is no significant difference between the levels of awareness of urban male and rural male B. Ed students. Ho2. There is no significant difference between the levels of awareness of urban female and rural female B. Ed students. Ho3. There is no significant difference between the levels of awareness of urban male and urban female B. Ed students. Ho4. There is no significant difference between the levels of awareness of rural male and rural Female B. Ed students. Sample- A sample of 300 B.Ed. students was selected from various B.Ed. colleges of Dehradun district using random sampling techniques. METHODOLOGY In the present study the investigator has adopted the descriptive survey method of 127
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research. To measure the environmental awareness a tool- Environmental Awareness Ability measure Test (EAAMT) constructed and standardized by Jha, P.K., has been used. Suitable statistical techniques have been adopted for the analysis of data. DATA ANALYSIS, RESULT AND DISCUSSION
S.N. Variable Sample Mean Standard Degree of ‘t’ Deviation(SD) Freedam(df) Value 1 Urban 83 43.20 3.62 Male 148 0.093 2 Rural 67 43.14 4.23 Male
Significance Level Nonsignificant at 0.05 level
In the following table, various basic statistics of the distribution of the environmental scores are given:
Table no2: Mean score of Urban male and Rural male pupil teachers on Environmental awareness scale
Table 1.Various Basic Statistics for the Distribution of Environmental Awareness Scores
It is apparent from table 2 that obtained difference between the means of urban male B.Ed. students and rural male B. Ed students is 0.06 (i.e. 43.20-43.14); and the standard deviations are 3.62 and 4.23 respectively. The obtained ‘t’ value is 0.09 at 148 degree of freedom and at 0.05 level of significance. This value of calculated ‘t’ is less than the table value of ‘t’ (i.e., 1.98). Thus the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in environmental awareness of urban-male B.Ed. students and rural male B.Ed. students is therefore accepted.
Sr. No.
Statistics
Value
1
Sample Size
300
2
Range
51
3
Mean
43.76
4
Median
43.84
5
Mode
43.23
6
Quartile Deviation
2.39
7
P10
37.70
8
P90
47.80
9
SD
3.74
10
Skewness
-1.08
11
Kurtosis
0.2366
Interpretation: Statistics calculated for sample are represented in the above table 1. It is apparent from the table that the mean, the median and the mode are almost same. Obviously the raw scores indicate that the distribution is approximately normal. Raw scores distribution indicates slightly negatively Skewness, (-1.08). It means the mean (43.76) of the scores is less than the median (43.48). It implies that more than 50% scores are above the mean score of the group. A kurtosis of 0.2366 suggests that the distribution is leptokurtic as the calculated value is less than the normal value i.e. (0.263). Ho 1. There is no significant difference between the levels of awareness of urban male and rural male B. Ed students.
Ho 2. There is no significant difference between the levels of awareness of urban female and rural female B.Ed students.
S.N. Variable Sample Mean Standard Degree of ‘t’ Deviation(SD) Freedam(df) Value 1 Urban 92 43.28 3.93 female 148 0.20 2 Rural 58 43.43 4.35 female
Significance Level Nonsignificant at 0.05 level
Table no.3: Mean score of Urban female and Rural female pupil teachers on Environmental awareness scale From table 3, it is clear that the obtained difference between the means of urban female B.Ed. students and rural female B.Ed. students is 0.15 (i.e., 43.43-43.28); and the standard deviations are 4.35and 3.93 respectively. The calculated‘t’ value is 0.20 which is far below that the table value of ‘t’ (i.e., 1.98) at 0.05 level of significance and at 148 degrees of freedom. Thus the hypothesis which states that
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there is no significant difference in environmental awareness of rural female B.Ed. students and urban female B.Ed students is therefore accepted. It is concluded that the level of awareness of rural female B.Ed. students is more or less same as that of urban female B.Ed. students. Ho3. There is no significant difference between the levels of awareness of urban male and urban female B.Ed students.
S.N. Variable Sample Mean Standard Degree of ‘t’ Deviation(SD) Freedam(df) Value 1 Urban 83 43.20 3.62 Male 173 0.137 2 Urban 92 43.28 3.93 female
Significance Level Non significant at 0.05 level
Table no. 4: Mean score of Urban male and Urban female pupil teachers on Environmental awareness scale. It is clear from Table no.4 that the obtained‘t’ value 0.14 is far below than the table value of ‘t’ at 0.05 level of significance and at 173 degree of freedom. Thus the hypothesis which states that there is no significance difference in environmental awareness of urban male B.Ed. students and urban female B. Ed. Students is therefore This indicates that the level of awareness of urban female B. Ed. students (M=43.28) is significantly not higher than that of urban male B. Ed. students (Mean=43.20).
Table 5 clearly reveals that the obtained‘t’ value 0.28 is significantly not higher than the table value of ‘t’ at 0.05 level of significance and at 120 degree of freedom. Thus the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in environmental awareness of male and female B.Ed. students is therefore accepted. This indicates that the level of awareness of rural female B.Ed. students (Mean = 43.43) is significantly not higher than that of rural male students (M=43.14). CONCLUSIONS The B. Ed. Students of Dehradun district of Uttarakhand have remarkably high level of environmental awareness. With regard to sex, it is revealed that the level of environmental awareness of male and female B. Ed. student is almost same. The study further reveals that the level of environmental awareness of urban students high as that of rural B. Ed. Students. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are thankful to the Principal, Pestle Weed college of Information Technology, Dehradun for her valuable suggestions and providing facilities to publish this paper. REFERENCES 1.
Arumugarajan, R. (2010) ‘Environmental Awareness’ Edutracts, Hyderabd, Oct 2010.
2.
Bhattacharya, S. (2003) A critical analysis of Environmental Education curriculum of prospective teachers. Paper presented in the national seminar on 36th annual conference on ‘Environmental Education: Perspective and prospect” Organized by the IATE and Deptt. Of Tech. Education, Uttranchal, March 13-15.
3.
Dubey E. Dubey (2003) Teacher Education and preparation of teachers for environmental education. NCTE (1998) Curriculum frame work for quality teacher Education. New Delhi; NCTE.
4.
Patel, D. Nanubhai (1995) An Investigation in to the environmental Awareness of science students and effect of environmental studies. Progress in Education, 72 (2), 26-29.
5.
Rajaram, Kalpana (2004) ‘Science and Technology in India’ Spectrum Books Pub.
6.
Rajput and Gupta (1998) Environmental awareness among children of non-formal
Ho4. There is no significant difference between the levels of awareness of rural male and rural Female B. Ed students.
S.N. Variable Sample Mean 1 2
Rural male Rural female
Standard Degree of ‘t’ Significance Deviation(SD) Freedam(df) Value Level 67 43.14 4.23 Non123 0.276 significant 58 43.43 4.35 at 0.05 level
Table no.5: Mean score of rural male and rural female pupil teachers on Environmental awareness scale www.ijsir.co.in
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education centers of M.P. & Maharstra. Indian Educational Review, 119-125. 7.
Shanawaj (1990) Environmental awareness and environmental attitude of secondary and higher secondary school teachers and students. Ph.D. Education Uni. of Rajasthan.
13.
Pradhan (2002). Environmental awareness among secondary school teachers, A study. The educational review, 45 (2) 25.
14. Sharma, B.D. (1998). Attitude and Awareness of Primary and Upper primary school teachers of Rajsthan towards problem and issues related to environmental education, Ph.D. (Edu)., M.D.S. University. Sixth survey of Education (1993-2000).
8.
Sharma, V.S. (2005) â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Environmental Education, Anmol Pub., New Delhi
9.
Bharati, C.,et..al. (2004). The study of environmental awareness among the higher secondary school students. School Science, XLII (1), 48-53.
15. Das, J. (2002). Environmental Education, recent research trends, Rajarshi Ray, university News, 44 (12), 20-26.
10. Dhawan, S.,et.al. (2005).Environmental Education in Pre-service Teacher Education. Journal of Indian Education, 29-43.
16. Agnihotri, G. (2004). Environmental Awareness in teachers trainees, Ph.D.(Edu). Bundelkhand University. Sixth survey of Education (19932000).
11.
Mishra, B.B. (2006). Environmental Awareness of Secondary School Students with reference to their intelligence and School background. AIAER, Vol-18 (1,2), 71-73.
12. Pareek and Ashok (1998). Environmental awareness among secondary school students. The educational review, (11), 104.
130
17. Saheblal Mehiboob , Nadaf. (2011). A study of Environmental Awareness of B.Ed. teachers trainees in relation to their personality. Sectors self-concept and study habit. International referred research Journal. ISSN no. 9742-832 Vol.4 (III) issue.
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LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF IN-BUILD SECURITY 1
IMRAN FAROOQ1, JYOTI AGARWAL2, *KAMLESH KUMAR SHUKLA3 Research scholar, Sai Nath University,Ranchi,India, 2Research scholar, Bhagwant University,Ajmer, India, 3 Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P G College, University of Lucknow, Lucknow,India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. Kamlesh Kumar Shukla, Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P G College,, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India, Email ID: drkkshukla78@gmail.com
ABSTRACT The primitive man fought against the forces and creatures of nature to protect him. The man in the Stone Age struggled for security by taking shelter in a cave. Gradually, security was strengthened by the formation of groups within which, all its members shared the common risks. With the passage of time, forms of security changed to meet particular needs. Man derived security from the possession of land and livestock. It was agricultural economy in India, which gave rise to the system of joint family which was the main and often the sole form of security in sickness and old age. It also assured the basic education to the children. The principal function of life insurance is to protect against the financial consequences resulting from the loss of human lives and to provide a systematic method of accumulating a fund for educating children, meeting financial emergencies and finding old age security and other benefits including tax saving and other welfare measures. Life insurance has a socially and economically stabilizing influence. Keywords: Insurance, Agricultural Economy, Financial Sickness LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF INBUILD SECURITY The urge for protection led to the invention of insurance. Life insurance policies are the instruments of social security for the welfare of individuals. In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s uncertain world it has earned paramount importance and is one of the basic necessities of life. With the arrival of human life on Earth, the problem of want or poverty has haunted human beings, in some or the other form; and they always made efforts to secure relief from it. The quest for security and freedom from want and distress has been the unfailing urge of man through ages. Thus, right from the cave age till date, the story of evolution of mankind is in fact a saga of continuous search for security. Though centuries have passed but these problems remained the same, in context to the changes in economic and social circumstances. EVOLUTION OF LIFE INSURANCE AND SEARCH FOR SECURITY The primitive man fought against the forces www.ijsir.co.in
and creatures of nature to protect him. The man in the Stone Age struggled for security by taking shelter in a cave. Gradually, security was strengthened by the formation of groups within which, all its members shared the common risks. With the passage of time, forms of security changed to meet particular needs. Man derived security from the possession of land and livestock. It was agricultural economy in India, which gave rise to the system of joint family which was the main and often the sole form of security in sickness and old age. It also assured the basic education to the children. Gradually, Industrial economy supplanted the purely agricultural economy, resulting in the disintegration of joint family system. With the advent of Industrial Revolution first in England, and thereafter in other countries including India; man became an individual unit and found his security in money power, which enabled him to buy food, clothing, shelter and other basic necessities of life. NEED OF SECURITY FOR HUMAN LIFE Man is no more solely dependent on any group for the solution of his problems of personal 131
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security. He has to provide for all his family needs, and keep aside something on a regular basis as savings for any contingencies in life because life is unpredictable. This necessity of the man multiplied with his persistent quest for safety, security and welfare which brought into the idea of life insurance. Insurance enables man to share in an equitable manner, with other men, the major risks in life, which are usual in the modern life. People found security in their work, which is investment of time, and property. As long as one has an able body and sound health; one can keep earning and ensure one’s family’s wellbeing. It is his income, personally earned, through investment of time at his disposal, which helps him to get along happily. But there is no guarantee that he will always be able to earn, that his income would be regular and continuous, irrespective of what happens to him, that the usual hazards of life like disease, disability, unemployment and death should always be guarded against in his own world. This guarantee comes through the institution of insurance in general and life insurance in particular; life insurance enables man to share in an equitable manner, with other men, the major risks to income, which are unavoidable in today’s industrial world. Life insurance is a much more evolved solution to the problem of uncertainty of life than the joint family system or any other system which the human ingenuity has so far invented. Insurance is a product of a cooperative effort of a large group of people similarly threatened by four hazards of human life namely, unemployment, old age, disability and death. LIFE INSURANCE AS AN AID TO FOUR HAZARDS OF HUMAN LIFE Both men and women has to work very hard so as to meet out the basic amenities of life. Generally they invest about eight or more hours of their time to earn money. The creation of capital of such magnitude out of his/her savings, demands continuous work for years, which can be interrupted, diminished or destroyed by the serious hazards of life like unemployment, old age, disability and death. Life insurance is the arrangement through which one can face these hazards of human life and plan for the continuation of an uninterrupted income if such hazards happen and destroys the ability to earn 132
a living. In other words, life insurance is the only means and measure that is designed to protect against the loss of income arising from inability to work – irrespective of whether it is caused by death, accidental injury, sickness or old age. IN BUILD SECURITY IN LIFE INSURANCE Further, life insurance intrinsically provides an alternative source of income when the insured’s working capacity, ceases due to old age, death or disability. Insurance enables man to share in an equitable manner with other men the major risks and contingencies of life. Life insurance is a perfect combination of the twin principles of ‘savings’ and ‘security’ and the plans are easy, convenient and practicable. It affords security against premature death or disability, which are the basic risks for every individual. Its special virtue is that it can be used to spread the savings conveniently throughout the working period of life. Further, the very idea of having to provide for the future in the shape of small installments out of the present earnings, keeps the person quite reassured of his future, widens his outlook on life, and gives him a sense of security. Life insurance is the only measure of social security to provide against the hazard of death and for the insured’s own old age. Life insurance essentially leads to the maintenance of income in a definite way. For instance, in the case of endowment type of policies maturing during the lifetime of the insured persons, the insurance money serves the purpose of old age provision (though it can also be used as provision for the marriage or education of children). Similarly, in the whole life type of policies or even in endowment type of policies, where death occurs before the expiry of the term of policy, life insurance serves the inevitable purpose of family protection. Thus, life insurance is the only available means of legal and financial assurance in a person’s future plan and it is thus a form of social security. Insurance safeguards the interests of one and all who have got a financial stake in the existence of a particular person or persons. The value of life is immeasurable and its loss in the real sense cannot be met. But it can come to their rescue to replace the value of such lives www.ijsir.co.in
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through the only device called life insurance. It tries to provide the people with the strength and the security that makes life worth living .The principal function of life insurance is to protect against the financial consequences resulting from the loss of human lives and to provide a systematic method of accumulating a fund for educating children, meeting financial emergencies and finding old age security and other benefits including tax saving and other welfare measures. Life insurance has a socially and economically stabilizing influence. The stability of life insurance allows safety and security to policyholders and their beneficiaries. Life insurance affects almost every living person in the country and today it occupies an important place in our society. In the process, it also raises the standards of the community and promotes the welfare of the society. Life insurance is primarily concerned with the benefit of individual and his family members, but in recent times, it has been clothed with some social security policies, which the state provides to fulfill on a constitutional mandate through the life insurance industry.
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Thus, life insurance is the greatest and the most efficient system of providing means for all contingencies and of covering all risks to enable everyone to obtain security at the most economical rate. In this way, life insurance becomes of paramount importance today as the fourth basic necessity for every individual. It tries to provide the people with the strength and the security that makes life worth living. REFERENCES 1.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance
2.
http://www.economywatch.com/indianeconomy/ india-insurance-sector.html
3.
Praveen Singh and Dr.Divyanegi â&#x20AC;&#x153;Growth of Insurance Services in the Himalayan Region of Indiaâ&#x20AC;?, the Journal, Vol-1, November â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2011, pp 203
4.
Business Line dated 26th January, 2012.
5.
Business Line dated 25, January 2012 measured in this study by various parameters according to the available data.
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AIR QUALITY INDEX FOR UTTAR PRADESH WITH A FOCUS ON LUCKNOW 1
*SHUKLA S.P.1, SACHAN R.1, DWIVEDI L.2, SHARMA K.J.2, YADAV V.P.3, SINGH N.B.1 Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow, India, 2Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 3Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi, India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. S. P. Shukla, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow,U.P., India, E-mail ID: sps.iet@gmail.com
ABSTRACT This paper presents air quality data interpretation and air quality index (AQI) prevailing in 13 districts of Uttar Pradesh during period of 2001 to 2009. The mathematical function for calculating sub-indices is based on IND-AQI and USEPA. A maximum operator calculation mode is used to determine the overall AQI. The air pollutants included in the AQI are SO2, NO2, SPM, PM10, PM2.5, NH3, CO, C6H6, O3, Pb, Hg, Ni, As and benzopyrene. The data show that air quality is worst in winter months because of SPM, PM10 and PM2.5. Air Quality generally improves in monsoon months because of washout of air pollutants with rainfall. Maximum AQI variation is found in Ghaziabad, Agra and Firozabad whereas minimum AQI variation is found in Anpara, Gajraula and Jhansi. INTRODUCTION Air pollution has emerged as a major challenge, particularly in urban areas. The problem becomes more complex due to the multiplicity and complexity of the air polluting source mix (e.g., industries, automobiles, generators, domestic fuel burning, road side dusts, construction activities, etc.) [1]. A human need air for respiration. An adult at rest breathes 16 respirations per minute- approximately 5 m3/h (lungs volume 4-6 L), with harder work the rate is 3-6 times more (15-30 m3/h). Poor air can have adverse impact on our quality of life and can damage the fabric of building and sensitive flora and fauna. Air pollution is the accumulation of hazardous substances into the atmosphere that danger human life and other living matter [2]. Outdoor PM air pollution is estimated to be responsible for about 3% of adult cardiopulmonary disease mortality, about 5% of trachea, bronchus and lung cancer mortality, and about 1% of mortality in children from acute respiratory infection in urban areas worldwide. This amounts to about 0.80 million (1.2%) premature deaths and 6.4 million (0.5%) lost life years [3]. The World Health Organization reports that in 2012 around 7 million people died - one in eight of total global deaths â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as a result of air 134
pollution exposure confirming that air pollution is now the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest single environmental health risk. Reducing air pollution could save millions of lives [4]. High PM10 level in air may cause chronic and acute effects on human health, particularly the pulmonary function, as they can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause respiratory problems. Association with high levels of NO2 etc. may further exaggerate such effect. High concentration of PM10, sulfate and SO2 would cause respiratory mortality in several situations [5] . Air quality within a region is affected by emission quantities and meteorological conditions. Good air quality is essential to human health, plants and animals, buildings and to the environment as well. Poor air quality adversely impacts our quality of life and can damage the fabric of building and sensitive flora and fauna. Ambient air monitoring stations measure air pollutant concentrations which not only determine existing air quality, but also help in evaluation of the effectiveness of air pollution control program and to identify areas in need of restoration and their prioritization. Air quality index (AQI) is designed to inform the public about the air quality in their surroundings. AQI is a very useful tool for evaluating the pollution hazards of a particular area on a particular day and can be very helpful to citizens of that area, because www.ijsir.co.in
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it can show them whether or not they need to take precautions while going out. With AQI, one can describe ambient air in terms of pollution level and quality of the air at a certain time and area by single number or color code. Awareness of the air quality is also important for the people who suffer from illness caused by air pollution. According to USEPA (1999) [6], Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed a uniform AQI in 1976 and primarily it was known as pollutant standard index, for the use of state and local agencies to assess urban air quality in USA. AQI may be defined as a single number for reporting the air quality with respect to its effect on human health. In most elaborate form it combines many air pollutant concentrations in some mathematical expression to arrive at a single number for air quality [2]. One of the earliest AQI was proposed by the Green in 1966 based on two pollutants SO2 and COH (coefficient of haze). This index did not include any other pollutants and was applicable only for winter season [7]. In 1967 Rich developed a consumption product index. The index was having the advantage of requiring few actual measurements of air quality relying instead on the assumption that the severity of pollution is directly related to the quantity of fossil fuel burned and inversely related to the atmospheric mixing volume overhead. There are several other AQIs developed in the past such as: Combustion Product Index 1967, Ontario Air Pollution Index 1970, Extreme Value Index 1972, Environmental Quality Index 1976, Dosage Population Product 1978. Oak Ridge AQI 1971 was based on the 24 hr average concentration of pollutant variables (SO2, NOx, PM, CO and Photochemical Oxidants). The Greater Vancouver AQI (GVAQI, 1997) was based on Canadian Federal Government air quality objectives. This index was based on six pollutants (SO2, NO2, O3, TSP, COH and PM10) and relates public health to environment. Index values (25, 50 and 100) were divided into three ranges (Federal Desirable, Acceptable and Tolerable respectively). The GVAQI value was determined by calculating a sub-index for each pollutant measurement and averaging time. The particular pollutant responsible for the maximum sub-index is called the index pollutant with the index value greater than 25. Index was based www.ijsir.co.in
on the assumption that the combined effect of a number of air pollutants was related to the highest concentrations relative to air quality objectives. Albertaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s AQI is based on 24 hr average concentration of Ox, NOx, CO and suspended particulates. Pindex is combined index designed for synergistic effect of air pollution and is based on particulate matter, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxidant, solar radiation and particulate sulfuroxide synergism. Inhaberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s AQI was developed by Inhaber and was based on root-mean-square method of averaging and combining of subindices. Pollution Standard Index was based on SO 2, NO 2 , CO, PM, O 3. CityAIR index was developed for urban area and was based on concentration of CO, NO2, O3, C6H6 and PM10. ORAQI, GVAQI, GI and MURCI are modified according to Indian conditions (index is modified for three pollutants) [8]. These modified indices gave contradictory result for the same set of data for three cities (Delhi, Mumbai and Howrah). Most of the indices developed after 1990 were based on the maximum value of sub-index. METHODOLOGY Calculation of AQI is based on number of pollutant variable, calculation method (mathematical functional relationship between pollutant concentration and index), calculation mode and description categories (good, moderate, unhealthy for sensitive people, unhealthy, Very unhealthy, Hazardous). Minimum three pollutants (SO 2 , NO 2 , and SPM) are sufficient to develop an AQI, although all the pollutants are not necessary, but desirable [8]. The reference scale of the AQI with the corresponding categories varies in the range 0500. To relate the air quality and its effect on human health, the index scale 0-500 is divided in six categories (Table 1) to provide description of index value depending on the break point concentration of each pollutant. The basis of breakpoint for the proposed AQI is based on USEPA, IND-AQI [9, 10, 11] and report of review of ambient air quality standards [12] (Table 2). The AQI value of 50 defines the prevailing National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for each pollutant and 500 as hazardous level.
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Table 1: Categories and break point concentration of AQI System
Index
Descriptor Categories
Health Effects
0-50
Good
No effect on human health and on environment
51-100
moderate
Unusually
sensitive
people
may
experience
respiratory symptoms 101-150
Unhealthy for sensitive Increasing likelihood of respiratory symptoms and people
breathing discomfort in active children and adults and people with lung disease, such as asthma
151-200
Unhealthy
Greater likelihood of respiratory symptoms, increased aggravation of heart and lung disease
201-300
Very Unhealthy
significant
increase
in
respiratory
symptoms,
significant aggravation of heart and lung disease, premature mortality in people with cardiopulmonary disease and significant increase in
respiratory
symptoms 301-500
Hazardous
Severe respiratory symptoms and serious aggravation of heart and lung disease, premature mortality in people and serious effect of respiratory symptoms in general people
Table 2: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
S. No. 1. 2.
3.
136
[13]
Concentration in Ambient Air Time Industrial, Ecologically Sensitive Area Pollutants Weighted Residential, Rural and (notified by Central Average other Areas Government) 50 20 Sulphur Dioxide Annual 3 (SO2), µg/m 24 Hours 80 80 Nitrogen Annual 40 30 Dioxide 24 Hours 80 80 (NO2), µg/m3 Particulate Annual 60 60 Matter (Size <10µm) or 24 Hours 100 100 3 PM10, µg/m Particulate Annual 40 40 www.ijsir.co.in
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4.
5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
10.
11. 12.
Particulate Matter (Size <2.5 µm) or PM2.5, µg/m3 Ozone (O3), µg/m3 Lead (Pb), 3 µg/m Carbon Monoxide (CO), mg/m3 Ammonia (NH3), µg/m3 Benzene (C6H6), µg/m3 Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP) particulate phase only, 3 ng/m Arsenic (As), ng/m3 Nickel (Ni), 3 ng/m
Annual
40
40
24 Hours
60
60
8 Hours 1Hour Annual 24 Hours 8 Hours
100 180 0.50 1.0 02
100 180 0.50 1.0 02
1Hour
04
04
Annual 24 Hours
100 400
100 400
Annual
05
05
Annual
01
01
Annual
06
06
Annual
20
20
Study Area Study area for the calculation of AQI is Uttar Pradesh where ambient air quality is monitored in 13 districts. Uttar Pradesh is situated between 24°N-30°N and 77°E-84°E with a population of 200 million people. The state is spread over a total area of 243,286 km 2. Three dominant seasons, summer (March-June), monsoon (JulyOctober) and winter (November-February) are observed in the study area with maximum temperature in summer (more than 45°C) and www.ijsir.co.in
minimum temperature in winter (less than 1°C) [13, 14, 15] . The state receives average annual rainfall of 1,025 mm in monsoon season. National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in India started in 1984 and presently ambient air quality is monitored in 13 cities of Uttar Pradesh (UP). A total of 39 ambient air quality monitoring stations are maintained by UP Pollution Control Board (UPPCB) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in these 13 districts covering various land use patterns (Table 3). 137
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Table 3: Details of Air Quality Monitoring Stations in Study Area
S.
Districts
No. 1
Agra
Location of
Land Use
Monitoring Station
Pattern
Tajmahal
Sensitive
Monitoring Days
Monitoring Agency
Sunday,
Monday, CPCB
Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Saturday Regional Office Bodla
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Nunhai
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
DIC Nunhai
Sensitive
Wednesday,
CPCB
Saturday
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Allahabad
Anpara
Firozabad
Gajraula
Itmad-ud-daulah
Sensitive
Tuesday, Friday
CPCB
Rambagh
Sensitive
Monday, Thursday
CPCB
Square Crossing
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Bharat Yantra Nigam
Residential
Monday,Thursday
UPPCB
Anpara Colony
Industrial
Tuesday, Thursday
UPPCB
Renusagar Colony
Industrial
Monday,Wednesday
UPPCB
CDGI
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Tilak Nagar
Residential
Wednesday,Saturday
UPPCB
Raza Ka Tal
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Indira Chowk
Residential
Friday, Sunday
UPPCB
Raunaq Auto Ltd.
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Bulandshahar Road
Industrial
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Jail Chauraha
Residential
Tuesday, Thursday
UPPCB
Veeranga Nagar
Residential
Saturday, Tuesday
UPPCB
Fazalganj
Industrial
Saturday,Wednesday
UPPCB
Jajmau
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Deputy Ka Parao
Residential
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Dabauli
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Vikas Nagar
Residential
Monday,
Ghaziabad Atlas Cycles Ind. Ltd.
Jhansi
Kanpur
Tuesday, CPCB
Thursday, Friday Kidwai Nagar 138
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB www.ijsir.co.in
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9
10
Khurja
Lucknow
CGCRI
Industrial
Sunday, Thursday
UPPCB
Ahirpara
Residential
Tuesday, Saturday
UPPCB
Talkatora
Industrial
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Mahanagar
Residential
Tuesday, Thursday
UPPCB
Kapoor
Hotel Residential
& Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Hazratganj
Commercial
Chandganj
Residential
Monday,Wednesday
Aminabad
Residential
Tuesday,Wednesday, UPPCB
UPPCB
Friday 11
12
13
Meerut
Noida
Varanasi
Begum Bridge
Residential
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Thana Railway Road
Residential
Wednesday, Friday
UPPCB
R.O. UPPB
Residential
Tuesday, Thursday
UPPCB
GEE-PEE
Industrial
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Regional Office
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Shivpuri
Residential
Friday, Tuesday
Sigra
Residential
Tuesday, Friday
Computation of AQI To calculate AQI, first step is the calculation of sub-indices (I 1 , I 2 ,….I- n ) for n pollutant variables (X1, X2, ….. Xn) and is carried out using sub-indices functions that are based on air quality standards and health effect. Each subindex value represents a relationship between pollutant concentrations and health effect. Mathematically Ii= f (Xi),
i = 1, 2…..n
Function used to convert concentration to AQI value is given below
Ip =
I HI − I LO (C P − BPLO ) + I LO BPHI − BPLO
UPPCB
or equal to Cp IHI = the air pollution index value corresponding to BPHI of the pollutant p ILO = the air pollution index value corresponding to BPLO of pollutant p In the second step, aggregation of sub-indices Ii is used with mathematical function to calculate overall index (I). I = F (I1, I2……In) In second step aggregation function F may be summation or multiplication operation or maximum operator. In this study, maximum operator system has been adopted as follows:
Where,
AQI = Max (I1, I2…….In)
Ip = the index for the pollutant p
In third step maximum operator function is used for AQI value. It is free from the eclipsing (situation when pollutant is underestimated by AQI) and ambiguity (situation when pollutant is overestimated by AQI) problems. Drawback of the maximum operator function is that synergistic effect of pollutants is not known.
Cp = the actual concentration of pollutant p BPHI = the break point in the Table 4 that is greater than or equal to Cp BPLO = the break point in Table 4 that is less than www.ijsir.co.in
139
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 134-151, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Mathematical function that is used to calculate AQI value is a segmented linear function. Same function is also adopted by various countries (GVAQI and ORAQI etc.). This function is used to calculate AQI value of each pollutant. A pollutant that gives the maximum value, considered as a responsible pollutant and sub-indices value considered as AQI value. Good category lies in index value that is NAAQS for each pollutant. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The pollutants included in the air quality index are SO2, NO2, SPM, RSPM, Pb, As, Ni, C6H6, BaP, O3, NH3 and CO. AQI for all monitoring stations existing in 13 districts has been calculated. The monthly variation, seasonal variation, yearly variation, rainfall impact and responsible pollutant of Lucknow city are presented in detail in this paper and for other cities are mentioned briefly. Monthly Variation of AQI The monthly variation of AQI at all five monitoring stations of Lucknow city (Talkatora, Mahanagar, Kapoor Hotel Hazratganj, Aminabad and Chandganj Nagar) based on available data
140
for the period 2001 to 2009 is shown in Figure 1. AQI category in Lucknow was ‘unhealthy to sensitive people’ at all locations except Talkatora, where it was ‘unhealthy’ category during 200102. Index value at Mahanagar lies at moderate category during 2001. At Talkatora maximum and minimum in AQI was found in March and December during 2001-02. During 2004-09 maximum AQI was found in December, January and February in all the locations. At Kapoor Hotel during 2001-09 maximum AQI was found in November, December, January, February and May. During 2001-09 at Mahanagar maximum AQI was found in April, May, June, November, December, and January. During 2005-09 at Chandganj Nagar and Aminabad maximum AQI was found in November, December, January, February and April. Minimum AQI at all the locations was found in August and September and sometimes July (at Aminabad, Chandganj Nagar and Kapoor Hotel, 2005). During 2001 Maximum variation of AQI are shown in March, June and September at Talkatora and Mahanagar and rest of the locations shown in December except in year 2009 where it was in June and January and minimum variation are shown in August and September.
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400
Talkatora Lucknow, 2001 360
320
320
280
280
240
240
400 360
320
320
280
280
240
240
D EC
JA N
Months
N O V
0 O CT
0
SE P
40
A U G
40
JU L
80
JU N
80
SE P O C T N O V D EC
120
JU L AU G
120
JU N
160
FE B M AR A PR M A Y
160
A PR
200
M A Y
200
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2002
FE B
AQI
360
JA N
Months 400
400
Talkatora Lucknow, 2002 360
320
320
280
280
240
240
AQI
360
200
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2002
200
160
160
120
120
80
80
40
40
S E P O C T N O V D E C
JU L A U G
A P R M A Y
FE B M A R
D EC
N O V
O CT
SE P
A U G
JU L
JU N
M A Y
A PR
M A R
FE B
Months
JA N
0
0
JU N
AQI
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2001
M A R
400
AQI
D EC
SE P O C T N O V D E C
Months
Months
142
N O V
0 O C T
0
SE P
40
A U G
40
JU N
80
A PR
80
JA N
120
JU L AU G
120
JU N
160
FE B M AR A PR M AY
160
M A Y
200
FE B
200
M A R
AQI
360
JA N
AQI
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2001
Months www.ijsir.co.in
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400
280
280
240
240
0 D EC
SE P
JA N
0 N O V
40
O CT
40
JU L
80
A U G
80
JU N
120
M A Y
120
A PR
160
FE B
160
Months
Months
400
400
320
280
280
240
240
D EC
N O V
O CT
SE P
JU L
A U G
JU N
JA N
D EC
N O V
0 O CT
0 SE P
40
JU L
40
A U G
80
JU N
80
M A Y
120
A PR
120
FE B
160
M A R
160
A PR
200
M A Y
200
FE B
AQI
320
JA N
Months
Months 400
400
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2005
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2005
360 320
280
280
240
240
Months www.ijsir.co.in
D EC
N O V
O CT
SE P
JU L
A U G
A PR
D EC
N O V
0 O C T
0 SE P
40
A U G
40
JU L
80
JU N
80
M A Y
120
A PR
120
FE B
160
JA N
160
M A Y
200
FE B
200
M A R
AQI
320
JA N
360
JU N
AQI
Talkatora Lucknow, 2005
360
M A R
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2004
360
AQI
SE P O C T N O V D E C
200
JU L AU G
200
FE B M AR AP R M AY
AQI
320
M A R
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2004
360
320
JA N
AQI
360
JU N
Talkatora Lucknow, 2004
Months 143
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400 360 320
280
280
240
240
Months
320
280
280
240
240
D EC
N O V
O CT
D EC
N O V
O CT
SE P
A U G
JU L
JU N
JA N
D EC
0 N O V
0 O CT
40
SE P
40
JU L
80
A U G
80
JU N
120
M A Y
120
A PR
160
FE B
160
M A Y
200
A PR
200
FE B
AQI
320
M A R
Aminabad Lucknow, 2006
360
M A R
Talkatora Lucknow, 2006
JA N
Months
Months 400
400
320
280
280
240
240
D EC
N O V
O C T
SE P
A U G
JU L
M A Y
D EC
N O V
O C T
0 SE P
0 JU L
40
A U G
40
JU N
80
M A Y
80
A PR
120
FE B
120
M A R
160
JA N
160
A PR
200
M A R
200
JA N
AQI
320
Months
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2006
360
FE B
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2006
360
JU N
AQI
SE P
400
360
AQI
A U G
Months
400
144
JU L
JA N
D EC
O CT
N O V
0 SE P
0 JU L
40
A U G
40
JU N
80
M A Y
80
A PR
120
FE B
120
M A R
160
JA N
160
JU N
200
A PR
200
M A Y
AQI
320
FE B
360
AQI
Aminabad Lucknow, 2005
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2005
Months www.ijsir.co.in
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280
280
240
240
Months
320
280
280
240
240
D EC
N O V
O C T
SE P
N O V
D EC
D EC
SE P
O C T
JU L
A U G
N O V
Months
JU N
JA N
D EC
O C T
0 N O V
0 SE P
40
JU L
40
A U G
80
JU N
80
A PR
120
M A Y
120
FE B
160
M A R
160
A PR
200
M A Y
200
FE B
AQI
320
JA N
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2007
360
M A R
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2007
360
Months 400
320
280
280
240
240
Months www.ijsir.co.in
SE P
O CT
JU L
A U G
A PR
D EC
N O V
SE P
0 O CT
0 A U G
40
JU L
40
JU N
80
A PR
80
M A Y
120
M A R
120
FE B
160
JA N
160
FE B
200
JA N
AQI
320
200
Talkatora Lucknow, 2008
360
M A Y
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2008
360
M A R
400
JU N
AQI
JU L
Months 400
400
AQI
A U G
JA N
D EC
0 O CT
0 N O V
40
SE P
40
JU L
80
A U G
80
JU N
120
M A Y
120
A PR
160
FE B
160
JU N
200
A PR
200
FE B
AQI
320
M A R
Aminabad Lucknow, 2007
360
320
JA N
AQI
360
M A Y
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2006
M A R
400
Months 145
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280
280
240
240
D EC D EC
SE P
O C T
N O V
320
280
280
240
240
Months
SE P
O CT
JU L
A U G
JU N
JA N
D EC
N O V
0 O C T
0 SE P
40
JU L
40
A U G
80
JU N
80
M A Y
120
A PR
120
FE B
160
M A R
160
A PR
200
M A Y
200
FE B
AQI
320
JA N
Months
400
400
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2009 360
320
320
280
280
240
240
Months
D EC
N O V
SE P
O C T
JU L
A U G
A PR
M A Y
D EC
O C T
N O V
0 SE P
0 JU L
40
A U G
40
JU N
80
M A Y
80
A PR
120
FE B
120
M A R
160
JA N
160
FE B
200
M A R
200
Talkatora Lucknow, 2009
JA N
AQI
360
JU N
AQI
Aminabad Lucknow, 2009
360
M A R
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2008
360
AQI
JU L
Months 400
400
146
N O V
Months
A U G
JA N
D EC
0 N O V
0 O C T
40
SE P
40
JU L
80
A U G
80
JU N
120
M A Y
120
A PR
160
FE B
160
JU N
200
A PR
200
FE B
AQI
320
M A R
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2008
360
320
JA N
AQI
360
M A Y
Aminabad Lucknow, 2008
M A R
400
Months www.ijsir.co.in
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280
280
240
240
Months Figure 1: Monthly variation of AQI at Lucknow during 2001-09
D EC
N O V
SE P
O CT
JU L
A U G
JA N
D EC
0 O C T
0 N O V
40
SE P
40
JU L
80
A U G
80
JU N
120
M A Y
120
A PR
160
FE B
160
JU N
200
M A Y
200
FE B
AQI
320
M A R
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2009
360
320
JA N
AQI
360
A PR
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2009
M A R
400
Months
Overall at all 13 districts of Uttar Pradesh, AQI value decreases from July to October and lies in good to moderate category due to rain whereas AQI value increases from November to February and lies in ‘unhealthy for senstive people’ category to ‘unhealthy’ category in most of the cities as calm condition prevails in these months compared to other months. AQI values from March to June are indicating ‘unhealthy for senstive people’ category to ‘unhealthy’ category due to dust storms. Maximum monthly AQI vaiation is found in Ghaziabad, Agra, Firozabad. Minimum AQI variation is found in Anpara, Gajraula, Jhansi. Seasonal variation of AQI Figure 2 shows seasonal variation of AQI at all five monitoring stations of Lucknow city based on available data for the period 2001 to 2009. Talkatora Lucknow, 2001
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2001 360
320
320
320
280
280
280
240
240
240
200
AQI
360
200
200
160
160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
0
0
WINTER
SUMMER
MONSOON
0 WINTER
Seasons 360
SUMMER
WINTER
MONSOON
360
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2002
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2002
360 320
280
280
280
240
240
240
AQI
320
AQI
320
200
200
200
160
160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
0
0
WINTER
SUMMER
Seasons
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MONSOON
MONSOON
400
400
Talkatora Lucknow, 2002
SUMMER
Seasons
Seasons
400
AQI
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2001
360
AQI
AQI
400
400
400
0 WINTER
SUMMER
Seasons
MONSOON
WINTER
SUMMER
MONSOON
Seasons
147
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400
400 360
320
320
320
280
280
280
240
240
240
200
AQI
360
200 160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
0 WINTER
SUMMER
MONSOON
0 WINTER
Seasons
MONSOON
WINTER
400
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2005
320
320
280
280
280
240
240
240
AQI
320
AQI
360
200
200
200
160
160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
0
0
WINTER
SUMMER
MONSOON
WINTER
Seasons
SUMMER
0
MONSOON
WINTER
Seasons
400
320
320
320
280
280
280
240
240
240
AQI
360
AQI
360
200 160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
0
0
SUMMER
MONSOON
0
WINTER
Seasons
SUMMER
WINTER
MONSOON
Seasons
400
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2006
320
320
320
280
280
280
240
240
240
AQI
360
AQI
360
200
200 160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
0
0
SUMMER
148
MONSOON
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2006
200
160
Seasons
MONSOON
400
400
Aminabad Lucknow, 2006
SUMMER
Seasons
360
WINTER
Talkatora Lucknow, 2006
200
160
WINTER
MONSOON
400
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2005
360
200
SUMMER
Seasons
400
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2005
MONSOON
400
Talkatora Lucknow, 2005
Aminabad Lucknow, 2005
SUMMER
Seasons
360
360
AQI
SUMMER
Seasons
400
AQI
200
160
0
AQI
Mahanagar Lucknow , 2004
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2004
Talkatora Lucknow, 2004
AQI
AQI
360
0 WINTER
SUMMER
Seasons
MONSOON
WINTER
SUMMER
MONSOON
Seasons
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400
320
320
280
280
280
240
240
240
360
AQI
200
200
160
160
120
120
80
80
WINTER
SUMMER
160 120 80 40
0
MONSOON
WINTER
Seasons
SUMMER
MONSOON
0 WINTER
Seasons
360
320
320
320
280
280
280
240
240
240
AQI
360
AQI
360
200
200 160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
0
0 SUMMER
WINTER
MONSOON
0
MONSOON
WINTER
Seasons
Seasons
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2008
360
360
280
280
240
240
240
AQI
320
280
AQI
320
200 160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
WINTER
SUMMER
WINTER
SUMMER
WINTER
MONSOON
400
Aminabad Lucknow, 2008
360
360
280
240
240
240
AQI
320
280
AQI
320
280
200 160
160
120
120
120
80
80
80
40
40
40
0
0 SUMMER
Seasons
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MONSOON
WINTER
SUMMER
Seasons
MONSOON
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2009
200
160
WINTER
MONSOON
400
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2009
320
200
SUMMER
Seasons
Seasons
400 360
0
0
MONSOON
Seasons
Talkatora Lucknow, 2008
200
160
0
MONSOON
400
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2008
320
200
SUMMER
Seasons
400
400 360
SUMMER
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2008
200
160
WINTER
MONSOON
400
Talkatora Lucknow, 2007
Aminabad Lucknow, 2007
SUMMER
Seasons
400
400
AQI
200
40
0
AQI
Chandganj Nagar Lucknow, 2007
320
40
AQI
400
Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2007
360
AQI
AQI
Mahanagar Lucknow, 2006 360
0 WINTER
SUMMER
MONSOON
Seasons
149
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400
Talkatora Lucknow, 2009
Aminabad Lucknow, 2009
360
320
320
280
280
240
240
AQI
AQI
360
200
200
160
160
120
120
80
80
40
40
0
0
WINTER
SUMMER
WINTER
MONSOON
Seasons
SUMMER
MONSOON
Seasons
Figure 2 Seasonal variation of AQI at Lucknow during 2001-09
During period of 2001-09, maximum variation of AQI in Lucknow city is found during 2002 at Talkatora, whereas in Kanpur city it is observed during 2005 at Vikas Nagar. The metrological condition and turbulence in the atmosphere are the primary factors affecting pollutant distribution, dispersion pattern and seasonal variations. The air quality generally improves in Monsoon. During Monsoon frequent rain washes down the air borne particulates and gaseous pollutants. Annual variation of AQI Annual variation of AQI at all 13 districts of Uttar Pradesh having monitoring stations based on available data for the period 2001 to 2009 has been observed. In Lucknow city, during 2005-09 there is a little variation in AQI at all the locations (Figure 3), whereas during 2001-04, AQI value is low and AQI value increases after 2004. 800
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Responsible pollutant for AQI The analysis of AQI is based on maximum operator calculation mode, where the maximum sub-index value of pollutants becomes the overall index. It is observed that most of the time SPM and PM10 are the responsible pollutant for high AQI value. Thus, to improve the air quality of U.P. concentration of SPM and PM10 have to be reduced on priority basis.
5.
Singh, K.P., Gupta, S., Kumar, A. and Shukla, S.P. (2012). Linear and nonlinear modeling approaches for urban air quality prediction. Science of the Total Environment, 426, 244-255.
6.
USEPA (1999). Federal Register, Part III, Environmental Protection Agency, 40 CFR Part 58, Air Quality Index Reporting, Final Rule, 64(149), 42530-42549.
7.
Ott, W.R. (1978). Environmental indices theory and practice. Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich. 48106.
8.
Sharma, M., Maheshwari, M. and Pandey, R. (2001). Development of Air Quality Index for data interpretation and public information, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Report submitted to Central Pollution Control Board Delhi.
9.
Sharma, M., Pandey, R., Maheshwari, M., Sengupta, B., Shukla, B.P., Gupta, N.K. and Johri, S. (2003). Interpretation of Air Quality data using an air quality index for the city of Kanpur, India, Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science, 2(6), 453-462.
10.
USEPA (2006). Guideline for Reporting of Daily Air Quality - the Air Quality Index (AQI), EPA-454/B-06001, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and standards, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711.
11.
USEPA (2014). Air Quality Index- A Guide to Air Quality and your Health, EPA-456/F-14-002, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Outreach and Information Division, Research Triangle Park, NC.
12.
IIT Kanpur (2009). Review of Ambient Air Quality Criteria/ Standards, Report submitted to the CPCB.
13.
CPCB (2009). National Ambient Air Quality Standards, Central Pollution Control Board, Notification, New Delhi, the 18th November, 2009. (http://cpcb.nic.in/National_Ambient_Air_Quality _Standards.php) (July 02, 2015)
14.
Shukla, S.P. and Sharma, M. (2008). Source apportionment of atmospheric PM 10 in Kanpur, India. Environmental Engineering Science, 25 (6), 849-861.
15.
Shukla, S.P. and Sharma, M. (2010). Neutralization of rainwater acidity at Kanpur, India. Tellus, 62B, 172-180.
16.
Shukla, S.P., Singh, N.B. and Sharma, M. (2010). Air quality survey at Kanpur City. Indian Surveyor, 64(1), 74-80.
CONCLUSION AQI has been calculated for the 13 districts of U.P. for knowing the status of air pollution with its effect on human health. While comparing all 12 pollutants, it was observed that the concentration of SPM and PM10 are higher than the prescribed standards and concentration of SO2 and NO2 is lower than NAAQS. The air quality worsens in winter month and also during summer month. The summer month are characterized by dust winds resulting high SPM. The AQI generally improves in monsoon period due to rain, good to moderate. The SPM and PM10 have been responsible pollutant for the index. The air quality is giving the holistic view of air pollution levels as clearly exceeded the high air pollution category and has been crossed severe pollution category at many places. REFERENCES 1.
2.
3.
4.
Singh, D., Shukla, S.P., Sharma, M., Behera, S.N., Mohan, D., Singh, N.B. and Pandey, G. (2014). GIS based on-road vehicular emission inventory for Lucknow city. Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Mgmt, DOI: 10.1061/ (ASCE)HZ.2153-5155.0000244. Bishoi, B., Prakash, A. and Jain, V.K. (2009). A Comparative Study of Air Quality Index on Factor Analysis and US-EPA Methods for an Urban Environment, Journal of Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 9(1), 1-17. Cohen, A.J., Anderson, H.R., Ostro, B., Pandey, K.D., Krzyzanowski, M., K端nzli, N., Gutschmidt, K., Pope, A., Romieu, I., Samet, J.M. & Smith, K. (2005). The Global Burden of Disease Due to Outdoor Air Pollution, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A: Current Issues, 68(13-14), 1301-1307. WHO (2014). 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution. (http://www.who.int/
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VALUE BASED EDUCATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1
*ANSHU TRIPATHI1, B.C. TRIPATHI2 Department of Teacher Education, K.S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad, U.P. India, 2Rama P.G. College, Chinhat, Lucknow, U.P., India. *Address for correspondence: Dr. Anshu Tripathi, Assistant Professor, Department of Teacher Education, K.S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad U.P., India, Email ID: tripathi.anshu27@gmail.com
ABSTRACT The Indian education system should adopt value based education at all levels The value oriented educational program should not be led only during the further level, but should be carried on further up to the level of higher education too, as it is form there that the nation’s political leaders, bureaucrats and army personal would emerge. Values based education therefore is a part of the educational programs, which cannot be shelved or done away with. It has to be a part of life, life is a constant education, and the process of living is a process of learning. India is badly in need of value based education and teaching system, which inculcates among the young students values that they need to imbibe and embalm within them. Values based education imparts social, moral integrity, character, spirituality and many more. It builds the qualities of humanity strength and honesty in a person they become better citizens of a country. People with high ethical values will never cheat others. People are taught to co-operate with each other. They make their life happier and works hard to make others happy. A child learns a lot from the people around him, if the social environment is not good, then it becomes very difficult for him to display ethics and values in his behavior. KEYWORDS: Value, Education, Development INTRODUCTION Value is a dynamic term used in different aspects. Indian Philosophy has used it in sense of state free from pleasure and pain 1 . In Psychology the term Value is generally employed to designate a dominant interest motive or broad evaluative attitude. Psychologist in the sense of Psychic energy. Sociologists in the sense of use of time energy and money for certain ends. Value has been defined variously by different Educationist but on the whole it is interpreted to be either a set of feeling or an action. Values are define as, “Socially approved derires and goals that are internalized through the process of conditioning, Learning or socialization and these become subjective preferences, standards and aspirations.” NEED AND IMPORTANCE All port is right when he says “ordinarily attitude should be employed when the disposition is bound to an object or value.” Values are generally long term standards or principles that used to judge the worth of an idea or action2. 152
They provide the criteria by which we decide whether something is good or bad ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. Attitude predispose us to respond in particular ways to people and events. They are not so deeply felt as values and quite often change as a result of experience. VALUE AND CULTURE It is universally accepted that the progress and development of a nation depends upon the quality of values cherished by its citizen, which depends on a large number of factors including intelligence abilities, interests, school climate, teacher values and beliefs, socio-economic status. Cultural background and peer, home and neighborhood influences. Values and their realization through education can be imagined in the words of Dr. S. Radha Krishnan when he says, “Education is not limited to the imparting of information or the training in skills. It has to give the educated a proper sense of values.” Values are a new term used today prior to it www.ijsir.co.in
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the words morals, virtue, ideals, norms or standards were in use. The ancient philosophers used the term ‘virtue’ for moral goodness, particular moral excellence, chastity, good quality or efficacy. This word virtue has been used for behavior showing high moral standard. Values are necessary for individuals and society alike; but today the scientific and technological developments have created evils like industrialization, materialism communalism terrorism, dowry murders, drug addiction, sex abuse, female feticide suicides and all sorts of corruption. Which are the forces to disintegrate and disturb the social life. Religious political and other leaders in the society have lost their integrity. Actually there is a state of chaos and disorder3. In today’s world teaching values to our youth is more important than ever. From the moment they are born children are extremely impressionable. They begin to form their opinion and view of the world before they even hit their adolescence. VALUE AND EDUCATION As parents and educators, we are children’s biggest and number one influences and it is our responsibility to teach our youth about core values so they may grow up to be caring, confident and respectful adults since students spends a majority of their time at school. It should be a place that supports families and communities efforts to establish strong values in students. Educators are tasked with the job of helping children see that values are not only an important part of the educational process but also to their overall development as an individual. By fostering an environment where core values are a focal point, it enables students to logically grabble with the moral life and encourages healthy brain development and growth. Value based education is an approach to teaching that works with values. It creates a strong learning environment that enhances academic achievement and develops students social and relationship skills that last throughout their lives value education aims to achieve two basic outcomes: 1.
Helping students to better understand the values that guide their own daily lives.
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2.
Contribution to changes in values held collectively by communities and personally by individual’s value education is a process of teaching and learning about the ideals that a society deems important. So we know that value education is used to influence student attitudes and behavior for the better at least in life, with what a society would consider appropriate and morally acceptable. Value education may be seen on 3 levels – curriculum, school and community. The level interact with one another.
The Radha Krishnan Commission5, The Kothari Commission National Policy of Education 7 , Rammurti Committee Central Advisory Board of Education on Policy, planning commission core group on values orientation of education, all have gone deep into the role that education plays and can play in designing and developing the national characters. The programs and policies have remained just on paper, just due to lack of co-ordination between the different implementing agencies. It is not merely talking about great men that the child would get oriented to values4. The teacher has to play a major and a decisive role in giving this lesson by precept as well as by example. It is the intellectual, the physical, the emotional, the psychological parts of the child’s personality which would need to be molded and modeled. In a vast nation like India with so many section in the society, so many sects, so many religions, so many regions and so many languages, the child has to be taught the lesson in “unity in diversity”. CONCLUSION Education is the deliberate and systematic influence exerted by the mature person through instruction, discipline and harmonious development of physical, intellectual, aesthetic, social and spiritual power of human being. There valued inputs led to the decision to develop a handbook for schools on strategies of value implementation which hopefully would keep those responsible the selection and development of instructional material for inclusion in the schoolbook they may think of developing. Value cannot be forced, even if 153
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conveyed with intentions. No real integration or internalization of value can be achieved unless the learner agree with it, but it can be developed with the cooperation of all. As the climate of respect surrounds the learners, they automatically imbibe an attitude of tolerance towards their fellowmen and this would certainly activate the human development that eventually leads national development.
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REFERENCES: 1.
Approach paper for secondary teacher education curriculum renewal NCTE 2013. New Delhi.
2.
Biswas N.B. stress on changing values in life of the teaching professionals. Teacher education 1998, Vol.XXX11. Nos. 1 & 2
3.
Mukherjee R.K. (1969), â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;social structures of values. S. Chand & Co. New Delhi.
4.
Nation policy on education (1986), Government of India MHRD Department & Education 2005, New Delhi.
5.
Pandey K.P. Shiksha ke Darshnik and samajik Adhar, Vishvidyalay Prakashan , Varanasi.
6.
National curriculum frame work 2005. NCERT New Delhi.
7.
Report of education commission (1964-66) government of India, ministry of education, New Delhi.
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