“International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research Vol. 2, Issue1 (January- June) 2014” by Sky Insititute

VOLUME – 1, ISSUE – 1 (JANUARY - JUNE) 2013

Editorial

I am happy to convey that second issue of third volume of "International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research (IJSIR)", a bi-annual journal has been published by Sky Institute, Lucknow in an effort to promote multidisciplinary scientific and innovative research of societal benefit. This journal covers all branches of science, technology, engineering, health, agriculture and management. Research articles in the field of education are also encouraged in order to promote educational technology aiming at improvement in present educational system. As research and development (R & D) has been playing a significant role in overall development of society, continuous multidisciplinary innovative research in science and technology is needed to address the challenges in context to changing environmental conditions in the present era of gradual increase in industrial and technological advancement at global level. Efforts should be made to develop eco-friendly technologies in order to provide solutions for developing socially, economically and culturally sustainable society. The present issue of International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research (IJSIR) contains 6 research papers I articles covering different areas of science and technology. All these papers are well written and informative in content. I express my sincere thanks and gratefulness to Mr.Mohit Bajpai, Chairman, Sky Institute, Lucknow (U.P.), India for his support in publishing it. I express my thanks to members of Committee for Editorial Assistance Dr. B.C.Tripathi, Dr. Pankaj Verma, Shri Sanjay Pandey, Shri Sanjay Dixit and Mr. Shamshul Hasan Khan for their hard work and devotion in giving the final shape to the journal. I am thankful to all faculty members, scientists and research scholars of different universities, research organizations and technical institutions for contributing their research articles for publication in the present issue of the journal. The help provided by faculty members and supporting staff of Sky Institute in publishing the present volume of the journal is also acknowledged. I hope scientists, academicians and young researchers will be greatly benefited by this publication for their research work. I request humbly to the readers and contributors of our journal to continue encouraging us for regular publication of the journal. Any suggestion and comment for the improvement in the quality of the journal are always welcome.

Dr. B. R. Pandey Editor-in-Chief

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 281-285, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

DR. B.R. PANDEY

FORMER

DIRECTOR (RESEARCH) SKY INSTITUTE, KURSI ROAD, LUCKNOW, U.P, I NDIA FORMER JOINT D IRECTOR, COUNCIL OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY , UP, LUCKNOW (D EPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY , UP GOVERNMENT ), INDIA PROFESSOR, INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HERBAL M EDICINE (IIHM), LUCKNOW, U.P., INDIA E- MAIL ID: editorijsir02@gmail.com, MOBILE-: 9794849800

COMMITTEE FOR EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE Dr. B.C.Tripathi

Dr. Pankaj Verma

Shri Sanjay Pandey

Shri Ashish Tiwari

Assistant Prof. Deptt. of Education, Rama P.G. College, Chinhat, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Senior Research Fellow, Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Assistant Prof. National Institute of Fashion Technology, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh

Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, Jharkhand

ADVISORY BOARD Prof.(Dr.)S. P. Ojha

Prof. (Dr.) S.P. Singh

Former Vice Chancellor, CCS Meerut University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Pharmacology, G. S. V. M. Medical College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)V.K. Srivastava Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Community Medicine

Prof. (Dr.) R. L. Singh

King George Medical University, Lucknow. Former Director, Integral Institute of Medical Sciences & Research, Integral University, Lucknow Former Vice -Chancellor, Texila American University, Georgetown, Guyana, South America

Prof & Head, Department of Biochemistry & Coordinator Biotechnology Program , Dr. R. M. L. University Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Sarita Verma

Prof.(Dr.) M.I. Khan

Pro. & Ex-Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, U.P.

Head, Deptt. of Home Sci., Mahila P.G. College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) S.K.Agarwal

Prof & Head, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg., Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Bharat Sah Director, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Avasthi Former Director, H.B.T.I., Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)N.S. Verma

Prof.(Dr.) Amrika Singh

Prof., Deptt. of Physiology, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof & Head (Chemistry), Deptt. of Applied Sciences, Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)A.K. Tripathi

Prof.(Dr.) U.N. Dwivedi

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Clinical Hematology & Medical Oncology, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof & Ex- Head, Deptt of Biochemistry, Former Pro- Vice Chancellor, Former Dean, Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.)C.M. Pandey

Prof.(Dr.) U.K. Misra Head, Deptt. of Neurology, Ex Dean, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biostatistics & Health Informatics, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. A.K. Gupta

Dr. Rupesh Chaturvedi

Former Deputy Director General, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Ansari Nagar, New Delhi

Associate Prof., School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Former Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences , College of Pharmacy, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee, USA

Prof.(Dr.) V.K.Tondon Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Chemistry, Ex- Dean Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. S.Sinha

Prof. (Dr.) Amod Kumar Tiwari, Prof.- Director, Bhabha Institute of Engg.& Technology, Kanpur, U.P.

Asstt. Prof. Deptt. of Internal Medicine, CD University, C. David Giffen School of Medi., University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Prof.(Dr.) Chandra Dhar Dwivedi

Dr. K.Raman

Former Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, South Dakota State University, Borokings, South Dakota, USA

Principal Scientist, Martek Biosciences Corporation, 6480 Dobbin Road, Columbia, MD 21045, USA

Prof.(Dr.) Vimal Kishore

Dr. P.K.Agarwal

Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xevier College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana, 7325, Palmetto Street New Orlens, Louisiana USA

Editor –in – Chief, Natural Product Communication, Natural Product Inc 7963, Anderson Park Lane West Terville, OH, USA

Prof .(Dr.) M.C. Pant,

Chief Scientist, Division of Toxicology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. R.K.Singh,

Former Director, R. M. L. Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow and Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Radiotherapy, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

www.ijsir.co.in

Dr. Mohd. Tarique Prof., Deptt of Physical Edu., Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

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EDITORIAL BOARD Prof.(Dr.) Y.B. Tripathi

Dr. Vinod Singh

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Medicinal Chemistry,Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Assoc. Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Microbiology, Baruktulla University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) R.K. Singh

Dr. K.K.Verma

Prof. & Head , Deptt. of Biochemistry, Shri Guru Ram RaiInstitute of Medical & Health Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand & Former Prof. & Head, Department of Biochemistry, K. G. Medical University , Lucknow, U.P.

Assoc. Prof., Deptt. of Physics & Electronics.Dr. R. M. L. Awadh University , Faizabad,Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Diwedi

Senior Scientist, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Atul Gupta

Former Director, National Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG) , ICAR, Junagarh, Gujarat & Former Principal Scientist â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Head, Deptt. of Plant Physiology, Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Saudan Singh, Senior Principal Scientist,CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Nuzhat Husain Prof. & Head , Deptt of Pathology & Acting Director, R. M. L. Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. S.K.Tiwari Senior Principal Scientist ,CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Amita Jain Prof. Deptt. of Microbiology, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. Shivani Pandey,

Dr. Sudhir Mahrotra

Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry,K.G.Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.

Associate Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. B.C. Yadav,

Prof. (Dr.) Vibha Singh

Lucknow Associate Prof. & Coordinator, Deptt. of Applied Physics, School for Physical Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof., Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Anchal Srivastava,

Prof. (Dr.) U.S. Pal

Prof., Deptt of Physics, Lucknow University,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Shalini Bariar

Prof. (Dr. ) K.K. Pant

Dr.A.K.Pandey

Asstt. Professor, Durga Devi Saraf Institute of Management, Mumbai, India

Prof. & Head , Deptt. of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Principal Scientist, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,Lucknow, U.P.

Dr.S.K.Pandey

Dr. C.M.K.Tripathi

G.M. LML Factory, Kanpur Uttar Pradesh

Former Deputy Director & Head, Division of Fermentation Technology, CSIRCentral Drug Research Institute , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Suneet Kumar Awasthi, Asst. Prof ,Deptt.of PhysicsJ.P. University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. R.D. Tripathi

Dr.G. N. Pandey

Chief Scientist & ProfessorPlant Ecology & Environmental Science Division, Uttar Pradesh CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, U.P.

Asst. Prof, Deptt. of Physics Amity University, Noida ,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Mukesh Verma

Prof.(Dr.) Ashwani K. Srivastav

Asst. Prof., Deptt. of Physical Education, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biosciences, Integral University,Lucknow, Former Senior Scientist, Birbal Sbahani Institute Paleobotany, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. Abhay Singh,

Prof.(Dr.) L. Pandey

Head, Physical Education, Delhi Public School, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh

Prof. & Head , Postgraduate Deptt . of Physics,Former Dean, Faculty of Science, Rani Durgawati University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India

Dr. Santosh Gaur Asst. Prof. Deptt. of Physical Education, Jawahar Lal Nehru P.G. College, Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh

Prof .(Dr.) Bali Ram Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Dr.Sanjeev Kumar Jha

Prof.(Dr.) J.P.N.Rai

Senior Scientist, DEOACC Patna

Prof.& Head, Deptt. of Environmental Sciences, G.B. Pant University of Agr. & Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand

Dr. Shivlok Singh Scientist, DEOACC, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr. )R. S. Dubey

Dr. Anurag Tripathi,

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.

Asstt . Prof. , Deptt. of Electrical Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Omkar Deptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. V.P.Sharma

Prof.(Dr.) Sudhir Kumar

Senior Principal Scientist, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof., Deptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) Naveen Khare

Dr. Krishna Gopal

Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Former Deputy Director & Head , Aquatic Toxicology Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) S. M. Natu Prof., Deptt. of Pathalogy,K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. S.P. Shukla

Dr. Kusum Lata Mishra,

Prof. , Deptt. of Civil Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

In-charge, Coagulation Laboratory, Deptt. of Pathology, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Ajay Mishra

Prof.(Dr.)V.K. Sharma,

Associate Prof. , Deptt. of Geology, Lucknow University, Lucknow , U. P.

Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Ashutosh Singh

Prof.(Dr.) R.K. Shukla

Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry,Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad, U. P.

Prof., Deptt. of Physics, Lucknow University, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh

Dr. S.K. Singh

Prof.(Dr.)Anil Gaur

Principal, Gita College of Education , Nimbari, Panipat, Haryana

Prof., Deptt. of Biotechnology & Genetic Engg., G.B. Pant University of Agr. & Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand

Shri Sudesh Bhat Advisor (Education), Sky Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Mahesh Pal

Dr. Krishna Gopal

Principal Scientist ,Phytochemistry Division, CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

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Asst. Prof., Deptt. of English,Rama University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 281-285, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

ABOUT EDITOR-IN- CHIEF : DR. B. R. PANDEY Dr. B. R. Pandey is a well known academician and scientist with brilliant academic career and research accomplishments . He has done M.Sc. ( organic chemistry) from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India in the year 1972. He has done PhD in Medicinal Chemistry under the guidance of world renowned Biochemist & Medicinal Chemist, Professor S.S. Parmar , Professor of Medicinal Chemistry & Chemical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical College, Lucknow ( Presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India in the year 1976. Dr. Pandey has all throughout first class educational qualifications and his research interest covers medicinal chemistry, biochemical pharmacology, neurochemistry, neuro-toxicology, environmental chemistry, herbal medicine & natural products. He is having extensive research experience of more than 40 years and published several research papers in peer reviewed journals of international repute. His research particularly on the studies of central nervous system acting drugs and anti-inflammatory drugs and their biochemical mode of action using animal models and enzymes such as monoamine oxidase, acetylcholine esterase, purine catabolizing enzymes , proteolytic enzymes, membrane stabilizing enzymes, respiratory enzymes, microsomal enzymes etc. has been well recognized as evidenced by his research publications . Further, his research on developing herbal medicines has been found very useful in prevention and treatment of chronic diseases and other refractory diseases for which modern system of medicine have no permanent cure. He has worked on the position of Joint Director, Council of Science & Technology, U.P., Lucknow, Department of Science & Technology, Uttar Pradesh Government, India from the year 1979 to 2011, where he successfully executed several R & D projects in various disciplines of Science & Technology including chemical & pharmaceutical sciences, medical sciences, biological sciences, environmental sciences etc. During his tenure as Joint Director, he has been instrumental in launching and implementing important schemes: Young Scientists Scheme, Young Scientist Visiting Fellowship Scheme, Establishment of Centre of Excellence- Encephalitis Research Centre of Excellence in Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences ( SGPGIMS), Lucknow , U. P. India ; Centre of Excellence in Materials Science ( nano materials) in Z. H. College of Engg. & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. India, Establishment of Patent Information Centre in the premises of Council of Science & Technology , U.P. He has also worked on the post of Secretary ( as additional charge ) , Council of Science & Technology, U.P. several times and functioned as Administrative Head of the Organization. Prior to taking over the position of Joint Director, Council of Science & Technology, U.P. in the year 1979, he has worked as Junior Research Fellow/ Senior Research Fellow ( Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi ), Assistant Research Officer ( Jawaharlal Nehru Laboratory of Molecular Biology) at Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical College ( presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India from the year 1972 to 1979 and involved in multidisciplinary biomedical research leading to drug development . He has worked as Visiting Scientist / Faculty in the Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA and also visited scientific institutions in Sweden, U.K. and U.S.A. under Training Program on Capacity Building in Environmental Research Management (World Bank Funding Project). After his superannuation in the year 2011, he has been associated with International Institute of Herbal Medicine (IIHM), Lucknow, India as Professor and is presently associated with Sky Institute, Lucknow , India as Director ( Research) and involved in programs related to higher education and research of scientific & technological fields. He has www.ijsir.co.in

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organized several national and international conferences. He has actively participated in national and international conferences, symposia and workshops and presented research papers and chaired scientific / technical sessions. He is life member and fellow of many scientific societies such as National Academy of Sciences India , Society of Toxicology of India, Indian Academy of Neurosciences, Bioved Research Society India, International Society for Herbal Medicine (ISHM), Society of Biological Sciences and Rural Development, India. He has been member of several scientific expert committees/ advisory committees to evaluate scientific research proposals. Dr. Pandey has been actively associated with various universities and institutions in India as examiner for conducting graduate, post graduate and doctoral level examinations in disciplines like chemical sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, biochemical sciences, biotechnology and allied areas and member of Board of Studies for the academic development in the department. He has been approved research supervisor for guiding research in chemistry, biotechnology and related areas from various universities of India leading to PhD Degree. In view of his vast research and administrative experience and broad R & D vision, Dr. Pandey has been associated with International Journal of Scientific & Innovative Research (IJSIR) as Editor-in-Chief.

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 281-285, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

FROM THE DESK OF CHAIRMAN, SKY INSTITUTE It is my privilege to state that I have great desire to contribute to the development of our country and to bring about social transformation through education, higher learning and research. This inner feeling prompted me to establish Sky Institute in Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh), the city known for its rich cultural heritage and vibrant academic institutions of higher learning. Sky Institute, since its inception in the year 2006, has been functioning to impart various educational and training courses with a vision to improving lives through education, research and innovation. The institute provides a professional learning environment that acts as a catalyst, for the exponential growth of student as well as extracurricular abilities. It conducts regular courses as well as distance learning courses at the level of under graduate and post graduate followed by research courses leading to M Phil and PhD in all subjects in association with universities recognized by University Grants Commission (UGC), the Distance Education Council (DEC), Association of Indian Universities (AIU), Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India. I feel great pleasure to highlight that Sky Institute has started to publish a bi-annual journal â&#x20AC;&#x153;International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research (IJSIR)â&#x20AC;? which encourages to publish research articles in all branches of science, technology ,engineering, health, agriculture and management. Research articles in the field of education are also considered in order to improve educational standard in educational institutions with innovative technologies. First volume of the journal has been successfully published. The present issue of second volume of the journal contains useful and informative research articles which may be interesting to readers and educational and research organizations. The association of eminent faculty and scientists of reputed organizations with our journal is highly appreciable. I call upon all the students who are willing to join various programs/courses being run at Sky Institute in association with selected universities, to strive hard to gain knowledge, transform it into skills with right attitude and inculcate the habit of learning, which will drive them to self directed learning. My best wishes to all the aspiring students. Mohit Bajpai Chairman

Sky Institute

www.ijsir.co.in

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CONTENTS SIGNIFICANCE OF ASCORBATE IN TRANS-PLASMA MEMBRANE ELECTRON TRANSPORT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE OF HUMANS: REVIEW

PAGE 1

Varsha Shukla, Babita Singh, A.A.Mahdi, Shivani Pandey

AGGRESSIVE FIBROMATOSIS OF MANDIBLE: A CASE REPORT AND LITERATURE REVIEW

Nimisha Singh, Vibha Singh, Satish Dhasmana, Ridhi Jaiswal, Gagan Mehta

POLYALTHIA LONGIFOLIA AND ITS PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES : REVIEW

Prateek Dixit, Tripti Mishra, Mahesh Pal, T. S. Rana and D. K. Upreti

USE OF GENE THERAPY TO CURE AIDS

Sudhir Mehrotra, Khushwant Singh, Pushkar Singh Rawat

A REVIEW ON SYNTHESIS, FABRICATION AND PROPERTIES OF NANOSTRUCTURED PURE AND DOPED TIN OXIDE FILMS

B.C. Yadav, Raksha Dixit and Satyendra Singh

MINIMIZATION OF CONTACT TIME FOR TWO-STAGE BATCH ADSORBER DESIGN USING SECOND-ORDER KINETIC MODEL FOR ADSORPTION OF METHYLENE BLUE (MB) ON USED TEA LEAVES

S.P. Shukla, A. Singh, Lalji Dwivedi, K J. Sharma, D.S. Bhargava, R. Shukla, N.B. Singh, V.P. Yadav, Markandeya

PROBLEM ANALYSIS DIAGRAM DECLARATIONS OF COMPILER TECHNIQUE FOR APPLICATIONS OF C/C++ PROGRAMMING

Rohit Saxena, Deepak Singh, Amod Tiwari

A HIGH FIDELITY VERSION OF A THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL USING MATLAB/SIMULINKS Harish Kumar Mishra, Anurag Tripathi

GREEN WALL: A METHODOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT USING GREEN COMPUTING

Ankit Kumar Srivastava, Neeraj Kumar Tiwari and Bineet Kumar Gupta

BIOCONTROL : AN OVERVIEW

Kalpana Singh

ECO-DEVELOPED SOCIETIES: A HOPE FOR THE FUTURE GENERATION

Monika Raghuvanshi

GREEN MARKETING AS A SOCIETAL CONCEPT Monika Raghuvanshi FORENSIC INSECTS FACILITATE ECOLOGICAL RECYCLING

97 105

Sunita Rawat, Reema Sonker and Kalpana Singh

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALGORITHM FOR ASSESSMENT OF THE LEARNING STYLE OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING STUDENTS

107

Ankita, K P Yadav

A STUDY OF VARIOUS WORMS AND THEIR DETECTION SCHEMES

115

Sucheta, K P Yadav

SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT WEB USAGE MINING SYSTEM AND TECHNOLOGIES 123 Vignesh V., K. Krishnamoorthy

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1) P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

STUDY OF DATA MINING ALGORITHM IN CLOUD COMPUTING USING MAP REDUCE FRAMEWORK

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E. Gajendran, K P Yadav

A DHT ORIENTED PEER TO PEER NETWORK WITH NEW HASH FUNCTION

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Vivek Saini, K P Yadav

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF RELIABILITY GROWTH MODELS USING SUPERVISED LEARNING TECHNIQUES

142

G Sarvanan, K Krishnamoorthy

STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL UNDER VARIABLE RAKE ANGLE

150

Deepak Bhardwaj, B. Kumar

QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD): A CASE STUDY

158

Satish Chander Garg, B. Kumar

MANUFACTURING QUALITY

169

Rohitash Kumar Kaushik, B Kumar

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON EMISSIONS FROM TWO STROKE COPPER COATED SPARK IGNITION ENGINE WITH ALCOHOLS WITH CATALYTIC CONVERTER

173

N L Maharaja, B. Kumar

OPTIMAL POWER FLOW BY PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION FOR REACTIVE LOSS MINIMIZATION

179

G. Sridhar, Radhe Shyam Jha ‘Rajesh’

INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION AND RELATED LEGISLATIONS IN INDIA

186

M.I.Khan, Niaz Ahmed Siddiqui

CARBON TRADING : SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT WITH POTENTIAL WEALTH

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Imran Farooq, Kamlesh Kumar Shukla

SOCIAL MEDIA AND ITS ROLE IN BRAND BUILDING

206

Shalini Bariar

IMPORTANCE OF LIFE INSURANCE IN MEETING OUT FINANCIAL NEEDS AND SECURITY IN CURRENT SCENARIO WITH CHALLENGES AND EMERGING TRENDS

210

Jyoti Agarwal, S.C. Pandey

FDI IN INDIAN RETAIL SECTOR: ANALYSIS OF COMPETITION IN AGRIFOOD SECTOR

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P Nixon Dhas, N P Sharma

SIX SIGMA – DMAIC FRAMEWORK FOR ENHANCING QUALITY IN ENGINEERING EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

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Vikas Singh, N P Sharma

BIO MEDICAL WASTE: A SERIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN

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Kushagra Sah, Swapnil Srivastava, Shubham Singh

A CRITICAL STUDY ON FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF SIDBI

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Prakash Yadava

ROLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT ON ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION COGNITION IN TRIBAL AND NON-TRIBAL ZONES

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Mahendra Singh, Rohtash Malik www.ijsir.co.in

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ANALYSIS OF RESPONSIVENESS & ASSURANCE DIMENSIONS OF SERVICE QUALITY & CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN INDIAN AIRLINES

248

Renuka Singh,

A STUDY ON MORAL JUDGMENT ABILITY OF TEENAGERS (14-19 YEAR)

255

Sunil Kumar Singh, Manisha Singh

E –GOVERNANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION

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S.K. Singh, Manisha Singh, Priyanka Singh

WOMEN EDUCATION FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

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B.C. Tripathi, M. Awasthi, R. Shukla

ROLE OF E-GOVERNANCE TO STRENGTHEN HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA

270

Charanjeet Kaur, Prem Mehta

GROWTH OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA DURING THE PERIOD 1950-2005

277

Prem Yadav, Prem Mehta

VALUE-BASED EDUCATION: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT VITAL TOWARDS EFFECTIVE INTEGRATION

281

Vinay Kumar, Prem Mehta

AIM, SCOPE & EDITORIAL POLICY OF THE JOURNAL

286

INSTRUCTION TO AUTHORS

287

SUBSCRIPTION FORM

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UNDERTAKING

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COVER LETTER

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

SIGNIFICANCE OF ASCORBATE IN TRANS-PLASMA MEMBRANE ELECTRON TRANSPORT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE OF HUMANS: REVIEW VARSHA SHUKLA, BABITA SINGH, A.A.MAHDI, * SHIVANI PANDEY Department of Biochemistry, King Gorgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Predesh, India *Dr. Shivani Pandey, Assistant Professor, Department of Biochemistry, King Gorgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, email : drshivani111263@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Trans-Plasma membrane electron transport (t-PMET) has been established in the year 1960s.This system (t-PMET system) transfer electron across the plasma membrane, which results in the net reduction of extracellular oxidants (e.g., ferricyanide) at the cost of intracellular reductants such as NADH and ascorbate. Ascorbate (vitamin C), helps in the protection of organism against a variety of oxidative agents. Oxidation of ascorbate takes place in two oneelectron steps, the first step results in the Ascorbate Free Radical (AFR) formation. AFR can be oxidized further to produce dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) and also two molecules of AFR disproportionate to form one DHA and one ascorbet molecule. In humans, NAD(P)H- and NADH dependent system have been distinguished. Recent finding suggest that transplasma membrane ascorbate/dehydroascorbate cycling enhance NTBI reduction and uptake by human erythroleukemia (K562) cells. By this phenomenon cell can respond to change in the redox microenvironment which is responsible for regulating several biological functions such as cell metabolism, proton pumping, and activity of ion channels, growth and death. This review will give an update on functional significance of ascorbate in t-PMET and emphasis on its correlation to some harmful diseases, such as cancer, abnormal cell death, cardiovascular diseases, aging, obesity, metabolic syndrome etc. and genetically linked pathologies. Keywords: Dehydroascorbate, ascorbate free redical, K562 cells, vitamin. INTRODUCTION Transplasma membrane electron transfer (tPMET) systems are responsible for reducing extracellular electron acceptor utilizing cytosolic electron doners. In humans, NAD(P)H and NADH-dependent systems have been distinguished. tPMET activities are related to the regulation of vital cellular processes including the bioenergetics, regulation of growth and differentiation, apoptosis, pH control and mitogenesis cell signal transduction, antioxidation, and iron/copper metabolism. In accordance, deregulation of tPMET is related to various human conditions which includes aging and neurodegeneration, macrophage-mediated LDL oxidation in atherogenesis , diabetic nephropathy and glycolytic cancer progression [1] . A distinction was made between NAD(P)H and www.ijsir.co.in

NADH-dependent system, the NAD(P)Hdependent system includes the members of the Nox and Duox families [2], where as the NADHdependent system often referred to as the plasma membrane NADH: oxidoreductase system or PMOR-this system include at least an NADH oxidase and an NADH: ferricyanide reductase activity[3]. By this cells can respond to change in the redox microenvironment which is responsible for regulating several biological functions such as cell metabolism, proton pumping, activity of ion channels, growth and death. Ascorbate promotes the availability of iron from numerous food sources in vivo and in vitro. Ascorbet supplementation stimulates extracellular ferricyanide reduction by several cell types, including K562 cells [4], HL-60 cells and human erythrocytes. 1

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

BIOCHEMISTRY OF ASCORBATE L-ascorbic acid (C 6 H 8 O 6 ) is the trivial/ common name of Vitamin C. The chemical name of ascorbate is 2-oxo-L-threo hexono-1,4lactone-2,3-enediol. L-ascorbic and dehydroascorbic acid are the major dietary forms of vitamin C. The monovalent ascorbate anion undergoes sequential one-electron oxidations under physical condition of pH, temperature and oxygen tension [5]. The ‘first oxidation product is relatively long-lived and electrochemically stable ascorbet free radical (AFR; also known as semior mono-dehydroascorbate;E’0= +330mV .The first oxidation step of ascorbate requires relatively low levels of circulating redox-active transition metals, such as iron and copper [2]. AFR is unreactive with dioxygen dissimilar to other free radicals and it tends to decay mainly by

disproportionation, the formation of AFR takes place by reaction of ascorbate with reactive radical species which tends to inhibit free radicalinduced oxidative chain reactions and it is irreversible reaction ; and rapidly AFR reduced back to ascorbate. Further monoelectronic oxidation of AFR produced DHA (E’0= -210mV) in the presence of mild oxidant such as ferricyanide and /or NTBI species [4]. In the absence of oxidants, two AFR molecules rapidly oxidized to form one ascorbate and one DHA molecule (fig.1). Though oxidation (or disporportionation) of AFR to DHA requires twoelectron reducing capacity of ascorbate, DHA is a structurally labile species which rapidly undergoes an irreversible hydrolytic reaction also known as ring-opening reaction to form 2,3diketogulonic acid in plasma with a half-life of several minutes[ 4]

Fig.1. The oxidation products of vitamin C.

These reactions mainly require enzymes, e.g. glutaredoxin, thioredoxin reductase, or AFR reductases, also chemical reduction by glutathione alone has been described. When extracellular oxidation occurs, then DHA reduction takes place into the cell. In case of erythrocytes, AFR and DHA can be reduced extracellular by redox enzymes present in the plasma membrane, which require intracellular NADH as a source of reducing equivalents [6]. These are evidence of alternative pathway for 2

the reduction of extracellular ascorbate free radicals in the erythrocyte (fig.2). The intracellular ascorbate provides the reducing equivalents for the reaction but not NADH, which utilized a transmembrane redox enzyme. This reaction is similar to the redox process present in the adrenal chromaffine granules. There is possibility of another, similar, erytherocyte redox system responsible for the reduction of AFR. On the other hand, it is suggested that electrons can be transported to the membrane by small lipid www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

soluble molecules like á-tocopherol and coenzyme Q [7]. DHA degradation results in a complete loss of the vitamin from human systems –it is a point which is particularly pertinent in the case of species which lacks gulono-ã-lactone oxidase activity. In order to overcome the loss of ascorbate, the vitamin must be retained predominantly in the two-electron reduced form (i.e. ascorbate) in both intracellular and

extracellular biological fluids. This observation implies that, human cells possess several conservative reduction mechanisms for maintaining both intra-and extracellular ascorbate . Even cultured cells, which are supplemented with artificial standard culture conditions, maintain an extraordinary ability for ascorbate regeneration [6].

Fig.2. Model for the Ascorbate-dependent reduction of AFR.

ASCORBATE-STIMULATED PLASMA MEMBRANE FERRICYANIDE REDUCTASE tPMET activity is present in human erythrocytes that utilizes intracellular ascorbate which acts as major electron donor for reduction of extracellular ferricyanide .After increasing intracellular ascorbate by dehydroascorbate, stimulation of the plasma membrane ferricyanide reductase activity takes place [8].By the addition of ascorbate oxidation the stimulation of ferricynade reductase activity is not affected (all extracellular ascorbate is oxidized to form DHA and inhibits direct reduction of ferricyanide by ascorbate),therefore intracellular ascorbate acts as an electron donor for reduction of extracellular ferricyanide (Lane et al., data not shown).Direct addition of ascorbate could not reproduce the stimulation of reductase activity; hence these cells do not express significant levels of sodiumascorbate co-transporters (SVCTs) [9]. CELLULAR DHA UPTAKE Maximum human cells are able to maintain intracellular ascorbate concentration that is remarkably higher e.g. up to 30-fold in some

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cases in comparison to the extracellular fluid or plasma. Although most of the cells maintain outward-facing concentration gradient by SVCTmediated ascorbate import [4], low-affinity, highcapacity GLUTs is also a significant contributor to facilitate the diffusion of DHA. An inward-facing DHA gradient is maintained with respect to DHA through rapid reduction of imported DHA back to ascorbate by the cells; ascorbate is poor substrate for GLUT-mediated transport [5] . Elevated level of intracellular ascorbate is seen after loading the K562 cells with DHA. This is inhibited by cytochalasin B. GLUTs is responsible for DHA uptake by K562 cells which is evidenced by two pharmacological observations, the accumulation of intracellular ascorbate is response to extracellular DHA inhibited by: i) low micro molar concentration of cytochalasin B, but not the structural analog dihydrochalasin B, the latter of which shares with cytochalasin B, its inhibition of cellular motile processes but not that of facilitated glucose transport [4]; and ii) millimolar concentrations of the transportable ( but not metabolizable) D-glucose analog 3-O-methyl-Dglucose, but not the non-transportable glucose stereoisomer L-glucose. Again, primary 3

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

astrocytes demonstrate similar behavior (Lane et al., data not shown). IRON UPTAKE AND ASCORBATE / DHA SHUTTLE Cellular uptake of NTBI is well evidence, but less well understood in comparison to the classical transferrine-dependent iron import pathway [9].Cellular uptake of NTBI may be particularly related to in iron overload diseases such as hereditary hemochromatosis, hypotransferrinemia, and thalassemia , in which plasma iron presents in excess of transferrinebinding capacity [5].By the analysis of ascorbatemediated stimulation of NTBI reduction and uptake by human erytheroleukemia ( K562) cells it is found that DHA loading of cells stimulated both processes ( viz. 12-and 2-fold, respectively), yet unlike the reduction of ferricyanide- remained inhibitable by extracellular ascorbate oxidase [9]. Furthermore, as cells were able to import iron in a manner inhibitable by cell-impermant ferrous ion chelators, the ascorbate-stimulated iron uptake is clearly dependent on the initial adoption of the ferrous state [8]. This suggests that ascorbate released from cells- following uptake and reduction of DHA-

mediates direct reduction of ferric to ferrous iron, ferrous iron is then imported ( fig. 3). Subsequent addition of DHA to control or loaded cells resulted in a dose-dependent stimulation of both iron reduction and uptake that can be inhibited by cytochalasin B, suggesting responsedependence on DHA uptake via GLUTs. Again, these results are basically reproducible with primary astrocyte cultures [9] .Several possible candidates for the cellular export of ascorbate have been proposed, including exocytosis of ascorbate-containing vesicles, ascorbateascorbate homeoexchangers ,connexin hemi-channels and volume-sensitive osmolyte and anion channels (VSOACs) .VSOAC permeability and ascorbate efflux from cells can be inhibited by generic anion channel inhibitors, such as 4,4’-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2’disulfonic acid (DIDS) and 4-acetamido-4’isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2’-disulfonic acid (SITS), suggesting that a significant proportion of ascorbate release occurs via this pathway. It has been observed that DIDS inhibits ascorbate release, ferrireduction and iron uptake to similar degree in K562 cells [4]. COMPOSITION OF T-PMET The reduction of extracellular molecules takes place by outward flow of electrons coming from cytosolic donors, due to the action of tPMET. Enzyme-mediated and/or shuttle-based electron transfer is involved in this trans-plasma membrane flow. (Fig. 5) [10, 11,12]. Identification of several components has been done in last two decades and characterization at the molecular and biochemical level of some of these components has been done. Among them, some are expressed ubiquitously, some are present in certain cell types, some utilize only a subset of electron donor and acceptor and some are less specific [13].

Fig.3. Ascorbate/DHA shuttling in human NTBI uptake 4

(A) Electron Donor: From NADH and NADPH, intercellular reducing equivalents may be derived, catabolic reactions are responsible for production of first co-enzyme Q, where as synthesis of fatty acid and cholesterol takes place by the presence of NADPH/NADP+ system, these reducing equivalent systems are also required for hydroxylation and detoxification reactions. www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

Numerous biological functions are affected by the ratios of NAD+/NADPH [14, 15].To determine the changes in these ratio, several biological techniques such as bio-luminescence, chromatography and cycling assays have been developed. These techniques can determine the change in ratio under both physiological and pathological conditions. As living cells contain enzymes, which are able to hydrolyze pyridine nucleotides, technical problems may arise during their extraction and these techniques also have some limitations, such as concerning sensitivity, reproducibility and interference with other reducing compounds present in assay buffer[16].

important mechanisms, in which Asc contributes to tPMET, are (i) enzyme-mediated electron transport, in which electron donor is Asc for transmembrane oxidoreductases and (ii) non enzymatic electron transfer, where cells directly release Asc which act as reducing agent thus oxidized to dehydroascorbate (DHA) via intermediate ascorbyl free radical (AFR) [22,23,24] . DHA further reduced back to Asc by the reducting equivalents coming from cellular metabolite shuttling/cycling mechanism involving other redox couple including superoxidedioxygen [25,26], dihydrolipoic acid/ รก-lipoic acid [27,28] and reduced glutathione/cysteine [29].

Intercellular substance like flavonoids and ascorbate (Asc) have been seen to protect cells from extracellular oxidant stressors, in fact they are crucial substrates for tPMET activity in red blood cells, erythrocytes may encounter a verity of oxidants that exert detrimental effects. Abundantly present flavonoids in fruits and vegetables are quercetin and myricetin, which are utilized by erythrocytes and actively promote tPMET activity. Their structure is responsible for their ability to act as electron donor, the B ring structure of catechol is necessary for the reducing activity of these molecules [17]. Red Blood Cells are dependent on the intercellular Asc level, as is evident from the observation that the treatment of erythrocytes with nitroxide free radical Tempol (2, 2, 6, 6,-tetramethyl-4-hydroxypiperidine-Noxyl) (fig.4) which is responsible for the endogenous Asc depletion (without affecting glutathione or รก-tocopherol content) [18], where as inhibition of 80% basal rate of ferricyanide reduction were seen in untreated cells [19,20]. Astrocytes show similar situation, in these cells Asc-dependent tPMET is more important than the NADH-dependent tPMET [21]. There are two

(B) Electron Acceptor: Oxygen is most important extracellular acceptor which fully reduced to water with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) including superoxide (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which help in the modulation of specific cellular function and signal transduction pathway [30] . AFR is another physiological substrate which reduced to Asc [24] and ferric ion which again reduced to ferrous ion [31] , ferrous ion is important for the proximal small intestinal epithelium, where enterocytes utilize iron, but before its transportation across the membrane occures it should be reduced. ( C ) Intermediate Electron Carriers: Intermediate electron acceptors are mainly b cytochromes, flavin and vitamin E, but most widely used electron shuttle is ubiquinone (or coenzyme Q [CoQ] ) (Fig.5). It is able to move between membrane bi layer and links the cell from inside to outside. [32] FIG. 5. Key components of t-PMET

(D) Enzymes 1. NADPH oxidases Fig.4.Structure of 2, 2, 6, 6,-tetramethyl-4hydroxypiperidine-N-oxyl www.ijsir.co.in

Superoxide families generating NADPH oxidases also named as Nox or Phox i.e. 5

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 1-11, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

phagocytic oxidases. It includes seven proteins (Nox1 to Nox5 and Duox1 and Doux2) and is best characterized class of enzymes present in tPMET. Nox 2 is the first recognized and most extensively studied member, expressed in human phagocytes and responsible for production of superoxide during engulfment of invading microbes [33,34].Members of Nox family are involved in many biological functions such as signal transduction, host defense, development, angiogenesis, blood pressure regulation and biosynthetic processes [35,36] . NADPH acts as electron donor for catalyzing the reduction of oxygen to produce superoxide , hydrogen per oxide and oxygen with the help of enzyme superoxide dismutase [SOD]. Hydrogen peroxide so formed acts as second messenger molecule. On the basis of structure, the Nox enzymes are classified into three functional groups. They are as follows. 1) Nox 1-4: Nox 2 is the first identified prototype of this family. Cytochrome b558, is the catalytic part of Nox 2, it is heterodimer composed of two sub nits, namely, p22phox (light chain) and gp 91phox (heavy chain) (37). Nox2 is usually inactive in resting cells. Nox 1 is expressed in color epithelial cells primarily and also found in vascular smooth muscle cells, uterus and prostate [38].p22phox is associated with Nox 1 like Nox 2, Nox 1 requires NoxO1 protein an organizer and NoxA1 protein an activator. Nox 3 mRNA is found in foetal tissues, kidney, liver, lung and spleen [39,40] but mainly present in inner ear like Nox 2 and Nox 1, it also requires p22phox but it does not require organizer and activator protein for its enzyme activity. Finally, the expression of Nox 4 is higher in kidney and vascular endothelial cells [11,32]. Nox is able to produce a functional diamer with p22phox , it can produce superoxide anions without intervention of organism and activator protein same like Nox 3. 2). Nox 5: It is found in testis and also expressed itself in T- and B lymphocytes [41]. Nox 5 is also related to the other members of the family. Its activity does not require organizer and activator protein, in this way it differs from other Nox isoforms but it requires intercellular calcium concentration and is totally depend on it. In Nox 5 calcium sensitization is archived by two main mechanisms. 6

a). The first mechanism involves protein kinase C –dependent phosphorylation of Thr494 and Ser 498 present in the FAD binding domain.[42] b). The second mechanism involves calmodulin binding site present in the NADPH binding domain. [43] 3) Duox 1and Duox 2: Expression of these oxidases is mainly found in the membrane of thyroid glands [43]. They usually produce H2O2 rather than O2.They have the basic structure of gp91phox enzymes [44].Therefore superoxide anions are mainly produced which rapidly converted to H 2O 2 by the help of enzyme dismutase, this process is known as dismutation.They have an additional Nterminal peroxidase like domain present on the outside membrane. These enzymes are calcium responsive enzyme. [45] Biological Function ·

Nox 1 plays two important roles: immune defense and cell proliferation.

Nox 2 helps in signaling and also involves in immune defense, it is present in endothelial cells and responsible for endothelial growth factor and thrombin and also implicate in new blood vessel formation. They are also responsible for tumor cell proliferation.

Most important function of Nox 3 is participation in normal vestibular functions as it is present in the inner ear.

In kidney Nox 4 helps in oxygen sensing and regulation of erythropoietin synthesis. It also acts as an antimicrobial system as it helps in detoxification of urine wastes by releasing ROS in glomerular filter.

Main function of Nox 5 is in testis as it promotes oxidative changes which are usually associated with sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction.

2. NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase It is also known as DT-diaphorase or QR1.It is present in cytosole and is homodimeric flavor protein. Its enzyme commission number is 1.6.99.2. Under oxidative condition it is over expressed and trans located to plasma membrane. [46, 47] www.ijsir.co.in

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Biological Function • •

•

It is a key enzyme for cellular defense against ROS. It shows scavenging activity due to the presence of NAD(P)H-dependent superoxidase. It is responsible for ubiquinone cycle and facilitates in-out transfer of electron [48] and it also produces redox-labile hydroquinone. Therefore it has a complex metabolic pathway for its protective functions.

•

It acts as chemo-protective enzyme, as it is able to reduce quinine-imines, nitro- and azocompounds.

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It helps in detoxification of xenobiotics and prevents cytotoxic and carcinogenic effects [49] .

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It is able to modulate oncoprotein stability.

3. Disulfide-thiol exchangers: They belong to the family of cell surface proteins and exhibit hydroquinone (NADH) oxidase activity and protein disulfide-thiol interchange activity [50]. They are also known as ENOX proteins as they are located outer side of plasma membrane [50]. Biological Function: It possesses two important biological functions, first function is to participate in enlargement of cell growth and the second function is that it is the important component of biological clock. 4. Voltage-dependent anion-selective channels: It represents a family of 30-35 kDa integral membrane protein. They are located in outer mitochondrial membrane [51]. Biological Function: ·

Its major function is to control metabolic trafficking between cytosole and mitochondria by forming pores which are permeable to low molecular weight molecules such as ATP, ADP, succinate and citrate [52].

They also help in the release of apoptogenic proteins from mitochondria. [53]

5. Duodenal cytochrome b: Dcytb is also known as Cybrd1, it is the member of cytochrome b561 family Dcytb mRNA and protein both are induced in response to hypoxia and iron www.ijsir.co.in

deficiency, they play an important role in iron metabolism.[31] Biological Function: It plays an important role in uptake of dietary nonheme iron. 6. Cytochrome b 5 reductase: Its enzyme commission number is 1.6.2.2, also known as diaphorase-1 or methemoglobin reductase. Biological Function ·

They are membrane associated enzymes present in all human cells, it helps in fatty acid chain elongation and desaturation [54, 55], cholesterol synthesis [56] and hydroxylation of xenobiotics such as hydroxylamine and amidoxime compounds [57].In erythrocytes they help in maintaining hemoglobin in its reduced state. [58,59]

PATHOLOGICAL ROLES OF ASCORBATE IN T-PMET Various pathological conditions are regulated by ascorbate in tPMET . These are described below. Apoptosis This process is involved in body homeostasis and tissue development. Defect in the process of apoptosis leads to several diseases: Hypotrophy can be caused by excessive apoptosis; insufficient amount of apoptosis can cause cancer due to uncontrolled cell proliferation. [60, 61, 62]. ROS generates due to inhibition of ascorbate in t-PMET which leads to pro-oxidant at plasma membrane and promotes apoptosis. Cancer Through mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, normal tissues derive their energy by glucose metabolism and produce carbon dioxide and water. Even in the presence of oxygen cancer cells convert glucose into lactose rather than pyruvate. This phenomenon is known as Warburg effect [63]. Ascorbate plays an important role in cancer biology .It may perturb key redox couples which include NAD(P)H/ NAD(P)+ and CoQH2/Co Q ratio, it neutralizes free radicals before they can damage DNA and initiate tumor growth and or may act as a pro-oxidant 7

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helping body’s own free radicals to destroy tumors in their early stages [64,65]. The t-PMET is useful for anticancer drug development due to its targeting. Recently Prata et al. reported that in human leukemic cells the primary site of action of new anticancer compound is t-PMET such as [3-(2-chloro-5-methoxy-6-methyl-3indolylmethylene)5-hydroxy-1,3-dihydroindol-2one,3-[(2,6-dimethylimidazo[2,1-b]-thiazol-5yl)methylene]-5-methoxy-2-indolinone and guanylhydrazone of 2-chloro-6-(2,5-dimethoxy4-nitrophenyl) imidazo [2, 1-b] thiazole-5carbaldehyde] having antiproliferative activity, therefore for the treatment of leukemia, specific targeting of t-PMET may be utilized in combination of ascorbate with standard chemotherapeutic drugs. Treatment with ascorbyl stearate resulted in concentration-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation cancer cells [66, 67]. The anti-proliferative effect was found to be due to the arrest of cells in S/G2-M phase of cell cycle, with increased fraction of apoptotic cells. Considerable biochemical and physiological evidence suggests that ascorbic acid functions as a free radical scavenger and inhibits the formation of potentially carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds from nitrates, nitritess in stomach and thus offers protection against cancer [68–69]. Cardiovascular diseases t-PMET regulates cardiovascular diseases by controlling the redox state and so, the redoxdependent signaling pathways in endothelial cells. It has been proved that Hyperhomocysteinemia stimulates ferricyanide reductase activity and cytochrome b5 reductase expression, thus forming a potential link between t-PMET, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction [70] ; Jessup’s et.al. found that enhanced t-PMET activity induces low-density lipoprotein oxidation [71], thus up regulation of tPMET may be numbered among atherogenic factors. Nox1, Nox2 and Nox4 provide new avenues for therapeutic interventions. Regular physical exercise training has also improved endothelium dependent vasodilatation, by down regulating Nox subunits, especially gp91phox, p22phox, and Nox4 [72]. A potential protective role of t-PMET has been reported by Lee at.el. However, a recent meta analysis on the role of ascorbic acid and antioxidant vitamins showed 8

no evidence of significant benefit in prevention of CHD [73]. Thus, no conclusive evidence is available on the possible protective effect of ascorbic acid supplementation on cardiovascular disease. Aging Ascorbate present in t-PMET plays a protective role by maintaining the optimal levels of plasma antioxidants. In line with this hypothesis, caloric restriction, a common intervention able to delay age related oxidative damage [74], increases the amounts of CoQ10 and á-tocopherol, as well as the activity of several NAD(P)H oxidoreductases. Hence, up regulation of t-PMET would be useful to decrease oxidative stress and confers an anti-aging, stress resistant phenotype, thus extending life span [75]. Obesity, metabolic syndrome and diabetes Obesity represents a world wide nutritional problem, as it dramatically increased during the past 20 years. An unbalanced redox state has been implicated as one of the key factors leading to obesity-associated complications, such as the metabolic syndrome and diabetes. Thus, obesity may be viewed as a state of chronic oxidative stress, characterized by enhanced levels of ROS and impaired antioxidant defenses. t-PMET is likely to participate in the chronic oxidant/ antioxidant unbalance due to presence of vitamin C. Indeed, Nox1, Nox2, and/or Nox4 have been shown to be implicated in pathways leading to steatosis and insulin resistance in the liver, as well as to pancreatic B-cell dysfunction, thereby allowing progression from the metabolic syndrome to type 2 diabetes [76]. CONCLUSIONS Cell plasma membranes have complex signaling systems for regulating cellular metabolism. Several research studies basically concentrate on enzymatic tPMET systems; however several examples of ‘shuttle- based’ tPMET systems have been documented as well, including ascorbate/DHA , dihydrolipoic acid/alipoic acid , reduced glutathione/cysteine and superoxide dioxygen shuttles. t-PMET unregulated optimal NAD+ level which is required for the production of ATP in glycolysis under low mitochondrial activity whereas increased activity www.ijsir.co.in

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is responsible for superoxide anion and hydrogen per oxide production which enhance cell growth by regulating signaling molecule [1]. As with classical enzyme-mediated tPMET systems, these ‘shuttle-based’ systems result in the net transfer of metabolically derived reducing equivalents from the cytoplasmic compartment to the extracellular space. In the extracellular space, the fate of these reducing equivalents depends on the particular redox couple involved. Many enzymes present in t-PMET have inducible systems, which are activated by variety of extracellular effectors such as growth factors, cytokines and hormones, so that oscillation of ROS production serves the need of different tissues. The example of shuttle-based tPMET is transplasma membrane ascorbate/DHA cycling, which leads to redox change linked to cell metabolism. Transplasma membrane ascorbate DHA cycling may contribute significantly to NTBI ferric reduction prior to ferrous uptake. As an example, superoxide production at cell surface may not be derived from any of NOX isoform action, non -mitochondrial oxygen consumption was inhibited by extracellular NADH in several glycolytic cancer cell lines [77], whereas the oxygen burst observed in activated platelets and leukocytes was demonstrated to be stimulated by the presence of exogenous NADH [78].From the involvement of ascorbic acid present in tPMET in several pathological conditions, it is mandatory to understand, in the future, the relative contribution of each oxidase system to ROS generation and shuttle-based t-PMET systems; this will help us to design novel therapeutic approaches. Thus, though ascorbic acid was discovered in 17th century and TransPlasma membrane electron transport (t-PMET) has been established in the year 1960s, their role is important in human health and disease, still remains a mystery [79].

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AGGRESSIVE FIBROMATOSIS OF MANDIBLE: A CASE REPORT AND LITERATURE REVIEW 1

NIMISHA SINGH1,* VIBHA SINGH1, SATISH DHASMANA2, RIDHI JAISWAL3, GAGAN MEHTA1 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, 2Department of Anaesthesia, R.M.L.Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow , Uttar Pradesh, India, 3Department of Pathology and Microbiology, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India *Address for Correspondence: Dr. Vibha Singh, Professor, Dept.s of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery ,K.G.Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, email: vibhasinghraghuvanshi@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Aggressive fibromatosis or desmoid tumor is a benign but locally-aggressive tumor, which most often affects the muscles of the shoulder, the pelvic girdle, and the thigh. This tumor has high potential for loco regional extension. It is very rarely located in the mandible. The differential diagnosis with malignant tumors is difficult. Surgery is the first-line treatment. However, alternative therapies should be considered, especially in children, to avoid mutilating operations. This article reports a case of aggressive fibromatosis involving mandible in a 13 year old female and literature review. Keywords: Desmoid, Fibromatosis, Mandible. INTRODUCTION Desmoid tumors (DT), also called aggressive fibromatosis (AF), are rare neoplasms, occurring both sporadically and in the context of familial adenomatous polyposis, also recognized as Gardner ’s syndrome. Fibromatoses are a group of fibrous connective tissue lesions that are morphologically classified as benign neoplasms. They do not usually develop distant metastasis, however, locally they show an aggressive and infiltrative behavior. The low incidence of this rare tumor presents problems in both diagnosis and management. Juvenile aggressive fibromatosis affects infants and children and requires radical surgery. Stout[1] first described ‘juvenile fibromatosis’ as a non-congenital disease affecting children younger than 16 years. There are two types of juvenile aggressive fibromatosis, superficial and deep. The superficial variant is not aggressive, does not grow faster, and does not invade deep tissues. By contrast, deep fibromatosis is more aggressive and invades other tissues. Some authors tend to classify it as a fibroblastic proliferative disorder different from neoplasia [2]. 12

This variant affects young children, especially those from 18 months to 3 years old, and females in a 3:1 ratio over males[3]. It affects different regions of the body but especially the neck and face, specifically the tongue and lower jaw [2,3,4,5]. This disease is characterized by a massive infiltration of muscle, fat tissue, and bone. The etiology is unknown. Multiple factors are thought to influence pathogenesis including genetic, trauma and endocrine factors. Membrane-specific estrogen and progesterone receptors have been implicated in desmoids in pregnancy and steroid hormones play a vital role in the dysregulation of fibroblast activity. Loss of the Y chromosome and deletion of 5q chromosome may occur [6]. Fibromatosis occurs mostly in the lower abdominal wall of females during or after pregnancy [7]. Extra abdominal fibromatosis often affects the muscles of the shoulder and pelvic girdles. Between 7% and 15% of AFs occur in the head and neck region, 26% of which arise from the soft tissues (including the periosteum) around the mandible [8,9]. Fibromatoses are more common in females than males at a ratio of 3:2 www.ijsir.co.in

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or even higher for the abdominal desmoids [9]. Although fibromatosis can affect any age group from neonatal to elderly, it is predominantly a disease of children and young adults. Twenty five percent of all AFs occur in children under 15 years of age[1]. Surgical ablation in this kind of tumor should be radical, as there is a high rate of recurrences after more conservative treatment [5,10,11] . Fig 2: OPG showing radio-lucent lesion from the right mandibular ramus to left parasymphysis.

CASE REPORT A 13 year old female presented to Outpatient Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, K.G.Medical University, Lucknow with a firm swelling Fig 1: Frontal view showing large swelling of right lateral mandible.

in the right lateral mandible measuring 11x6 cm, without involvement of skin or gingiva. (Fig. 1) There was no history of trauma to the face or neck and no complaints of pain, voice change, or dysphagia. No relevant diseases were reported in the family. A general physical examination was normal. Oral and maxillofacial examination revealed a large swelling of the right lateral mandible. It extended from the right ramus of the mandible to the left parasymphyseal region, crossing the mid line. The mass was firm, hard, non-pulsating, and measured 11x6 cm. The swelling obliterated the right buccal sulcus and was palpable in the floor of the mouth. The overlying skin and mucosa were normal. No cervical lymphadenopathy was present. The orthopantomograph revealed a radiolucent lesion with ill-defined borders extending from the right mandibular ramus to the left parasymphysis (Fig. 2). A CT scan showed a tumour arising from the right mandibular ramus, extending to the anterior mandibular body, crossing midline with erosion of the lingual and buccal cortical plates at some places, and extending towards the floor of the mouth and submandibular area (Fig. 3). www.ijsir.co.in

Fig 3: CT scan showing radiolucent tumor.

The patient underwent an intraoral incisional biopsy. Sections show a benign mesenchymal tumor disposed in bundles or fascicles or an interlacing pattern. The fascicles comprise of oval to elongated cells having uniform spindle nuclei (Fig. 4a). Collagen formation is seen. At the periphery several bone trabeculae rimmed by osteoblasts and covered by squamous epithelium are seen (Fig. 4b). The histological examination revealed aggressive fibromatosis.

Fig 4a: Microscopic picture showing mesenchymal tumor disposed in intersecting fascicles. 13

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Fig 4b: Microscopic picture showing osteoid rimming the tumor tissue.

Fig 7: Immediate reconstruction of mandible with reconstruction plate

The patient was planned for surgery under general anaesthesia for radical excision. A right mandibulectomy was performed via a submandibular incision (Fig 5, 6). Immediate reconstruction was performed by using reconstruction plate (Fig. 7).

Postoperative healing was uneventful (Fig. 8). Naso-enteral feeding was continued for 6 days, after which the patient was kept on a liquid oral diet.

Fig 8: Post-operative view of patient

DISCUSSION

Fig 5: Exposure of tumor via submandibular approach

Fibromatosis encompasses a group of soft tissue lesions which are characterized histologically by fibroblastic proliferation and clinically by the potential to infiltrate locally and to recur after surgical excision, but not metastasize. Seper et al. [11] presented a complete literature of aggressive fibromatosis of the mandible reported between 1960 and 2003. Out of 37 published cases, most (89%) underwent surgical resection with 22% of recurrences reported after an average follow up of 3.8 years. The tumor is very rare in the maxilla. We know only 15 cases that have been reported from1980 to now12, 13.

Fig 6: Resected tumor mass 14

The incidence of these lesions in the head and neck is mentioned as from 9.5% to 50% of www.ijsir.co.in

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all desmoids tumors.[14] Within this area, 40% to 80% of the tumors are located in the neck[15]. The face is mentioned as the second most frequent site for desmoids lesions, with preponderance in the region of the cheek [15]. Clinically, AF manifests as a painless, firm, rapidly enlarging mass, fixed to underlying bone or soft tissue. Histologically, AFs are tumors with proliferation of mature fibroblasts with long ovoid nuclei without polymorphism. Abundant collagen is present with the neoplastic cells. Radiographic findings are variable ranging from periosteal thickening with ill-defined radiolucency to frank bony destruction. CT and MRI show infiltration of soft and hard tissue boundaries [4]. The osteolysis of the mandible with a large extra oral swelling but without involvement of the mucosal or skin surface could indicate the presence of a primary osseous lesion. Therefore, AF could be misdiagnosed as desmoplastic fibroma, in particular because it has a similar histopathol[ogical appearance [16]. Estrogen, progesterone receptors and antiestrogen binding site studies may be of clinical importance, as a therapy with hormonal agents might be effective in AF [17]. According to the literature, surgery is the most common treatment of AF in head and neck with local invasion into the mandible [18,19]. Extensive and mutilating resection of a benign neoplasm is a difficult decision. However, the disease can result in a lethal outcome. Therefore, complete excision of AF with a generous border of histologically tumor-free tissue is generally recommended [3 ,5 ,20]. When bone is involved, the treatment has to include the affected part of the mandible. Owing to the locally aggressive progression of AF and patient’s uncompleted growth, the treatment of head and neck lesions in young children needs multidisciplinary approach. The therapy alternatives in AF include Chemotherapy [21] hormonal therapy (antiestrogen), NSAID therapy [22] . Radiotherapy is reserved for inoperable disease and chemotherapy may be useful as an adjunct.

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CONCLUSION Aggressive fibromatosis presents a diagnostic dilemma and may mimic malignancy. The differential diagnosis with malignant tumors is difficult. Fibromatosis in the maxillofacial region is a very rare among diverse pathologic conditions, and because of the rarity of this tumor, definite treatment regimen is not established, which may be responsible for a high recurrence rate of these tumors. Surgery is the first-line of treatment, however, alternative therapies should be considered, especially in children, to avoid mutilating operations. REFERENCES 1.

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19. Akama MK, Chindia ML, Guthua SW, Nyongâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;o A. Extraabdominal fibromatosis invading the mandible: case report. East Afr Med J 2002;79:49-51

14. Das Gupta TIC, Brasfield RD, Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Hara J. Extraabdominal desmoids: a clinicopathological study. Ann Surg 1969; 170:109-21.

20. Spear MA, Jennings LC, Mankin HJ, Spiro IJ, Springfield DS, Gebhardt MC, et al. Individualizing management of aggressive fibromatoses. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1998;40:637-45.

15. Conley T, Healey WV, Stout AD. Fibromatosis of the head and neck. Am J Surg 1966;112:609-14. 16. Addante RR, Laskin JL. Large right mandibular mass. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1985;43:531-6. 17. Wilcken N, Tattersall MHN. Endocrine therapy for desmoids tumors. Cancer 1991;68:1384-8. 18. Melrose RJ, Abrams AM. Juvenile fibromatosis affecting the jaws. Report of 3 cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1980;49:317-24

21. Azzarelli A, Gronchi A, Bertulli R, Tesoro JD, Baratti D, Pennacchioli E, et al. Low-dose chemotherapy with methotrexate and vinblastine for patients with advanced aggressive fibromatosis. Cancer 2001;92:1259-64. 22. Lackner H, Urban C, Kerbl R, Schwinger W, Beham A. Noncytotoxic drug therapy in children with unresectable desmoids tumors. Cancer 1997;80:334-40.

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 17-25, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

POLYALTHIA LONGIFOLIA AND ITS PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES : REVIEW PRATEEK DIXITa, TRIPTI MISHRAa, MAHESH PALa*, T. S. RANAb AND D. K. UPRETIb Phytochemistry Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226 001, India, bPlant Diversity, Systematics and Herbarium Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226001, India

*Address for Correspondence : Dr. Mahesh Pal, Principal Scientist, Phytochemistry Division CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226 001, India E.mail: drmpal.nbri@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT Polyalthia longifolia var. angustifolia is a member of the Annonaceae family and is a small medium-sized tree distributed in many tropical countries around the world, commonly used as ornamental street tree due to its effectiveness in combating noise pollution. In traditional and indigenous systems of medicine Polyalthia longifolia has been commonly used in the treatment of fever, helminthiasis, diabetes and in cardiac problems. Various pharmacological investigations have shown that Polyalthia longifolia posseses significant biological and pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor, anti-ulcer, antidiabetic and antioxidant properties. In context of various medicinal importance of P. longifolia, this review is an attempt to compile detailed exploration of all currently available botanical, phytochemical, pharmacological and other ethnomedicinal properties of P. longifolia in an attempt to provide a direction for further research work. Keywords: Polyalthia longifolia, Phytochemistry, Pharmacological Actions. INTRODUCTION Herbs and the humans have a great relationship with each other. Plants have been known to be used for alleviation and management of diseases since the very beginning of human civilization. Even at present day medicinal plants play important roles despite the tremendous scientific development and hold much more hidden treasure to be explored as almost 80 percent of the human population in developing countries is dependent on plant resources for their primary healthcare [1]. Plantbased therapy has been used as a vital component in traditional medicine systems and also serves as the main source of inspiration for several major pharmaceutical drugs used in the defence against various diseases. One such plant Polyalthia longifolia (Order: Magnoliales ; Family : Annonaceae) is an evergreen plant commonly used as an ornamental street tree due to its effectiveness in combating noise pollution. Polyalthia longifolia is also known as false www.ijsir.co.in

Ashoka, Buddha Tree, Green champa, Indian mast tree, and Indian Fire tree. It exhibits symmetrical pyramidal growth with willowy weeping pendulous branches and long narrow lanceolate leaves with undulate margins. The tree is known to grow over 30 ft in height. In traditional medicines various herbal preparations are being used for treating dueodenal ulcers. The plant has been used in traditional system of medicine for the treatment of fever, skin diseases, diabetes, hypertension and helminthiasis. A number of biologically active compounds have been isolated from the plant [2]. The leaves of the plant are aromatic and are generally used for decoration, while the bark is used as a folk medicine for the treatment of pyrexia and other bleeding disorders in India [3]. Ethanomedically Polyalthia longifolia is a versatile plant which is used to treat rheumatism, menorrhagia, scorpion sting, diabetes, skin disease, hypertension, helminthiasis and also in treatment for the digestive system [4].

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DISTRIBUTION The genus Polyalthia includes about 120 species occurring mainly in Africa, South and South Eastern Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. India has 14 species of Polyalthia [5]. The distribution of major Polyalthia species in India are Polyalthia cerasoides Bedd.; a shrub or small tree, found throughout India, Polyalthia fragrans Benth ; a large tree found in Western Ghats and P. longifolia (Sonn.) Thw ; found under cultivation in India. There are two distinct varieties of this species, both found in Maharashtra and elsewhere [6]. PHYTOCHEMISTRY LONGIFOLIA

POLYALTHIA

Polyalthia longifolia is very versatile plant due to its chemical constituents which are responsible for its various pharmacological actions. Literature report of few phytochemical screening tests on this plant shows the presence of saponins, carbohydrates, alkaloids, tannins, resins, steroids, glycosides and flavonoids as major phytochemical constituents. Previous studies on its leaves, bark, roots, root bark, and seeds have revealed various types of diterpenoids and alkaloids with numerous biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic effects. A new halimane diterpene, 3â,5â,16átrihydroxyhalima- 13(14)-en-15,16-olide, and a new oxoprotoberberine alkaloid, (-)-8oxopolyalthiaine, along with 20 known compounds, were isolated from a methanolic extract of Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula. These compounds were evaluated for cytotoxicity toward a small panel of human cell lines [7]. O O OH

Fig 1. 3 ,5 ,16 trihydroxyhalima13(14)-en-15,16-olide

HO OH

OH H OH

OCH3

(-)-8-oxopolyalthiaine OH

Ethanolic extract of the leaves of P. longifolia var. pendula showed the presence 16ahydroxycleroda-3,13(14) Z-dien-15,16-olide as the active principle, and its metabolite 16oxocleroda-3, 13(14) Z-dien-15-oic acid as a novel antidyslipidemic agent [8]. HO O

O O

H OH

Fig. 2: 16a-hydroxycleroda-3,13(14)Z-dien-15,16olide & its metabolite

Other clerodanes like compounds also reported from stem of P.longifolia by other researchers are 6á,16-dihydroxycleroda-3,13dien-15-oic acid, 6á,16-dihydroxycleroda4(18),13-dien-15-oic acid, and 4á,18â-epoxy-16hydroxyclerod-13-en-15-oic acid [9] as well as 16hydroxycleroda-13-ene-15,16-olide-3-one from bark [10]. Isolation of the methanol extract of leaves and berries shows the presence of three new clerodane diterpene from this plant i.e. methyl16-oxo-cleroda-3,13(14)E-dien-15-oate, 3â,16ádihydroxy-cleroda-4(18), 13(14)Z-dien-15,16olide, and solidagonal acid [11]. Later, two other clerodane diterpenes were obtained from leaves and these were 3á,16 á-dihydroxycleroda4(18),13(14)Z-dien-15,16-olide and 3â,16 ádihydroxycleroda-4(18),13(14)Z-dien-15,16-olide [12].

The bark of Polyalthia longifolia has also been reported to contain a new clerodane-type www.ijsir.co.in

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gamma hydroxylbutenolide diterpene i.e. (Z)-4hydroxy-3-(2"6"-hydroxy-5"-(hydroxymethyl)5",8"a-dimethyloctahydro-1H-spiro[naphthalene2",2"-oxiran]-1"-yl) ethylidene)dihydro-furan2(3H)-one [13]. O O

Other than terpenoids the other major group of chemical from this plant was alkaloid. Azafluorene type of alkaloids are majorly found in this plant which includes polylongine and polyfothine [21]. Aporphine alkaloids were also obtained which include methylnandigerine-창-Noxide as well as liriodenine, noroliveroline and oliveroline-창-N-oxide [21, 22]. O

Fig [6] polyfothine

OH H

Fig. 3: Gamma hydroxylbutenolide

The dimeric clerodane diterpene has also been isolated and two examples of this bisclerodane compound are Longimide A and Longimide B [14]. O N

CH3

H3CO noroliveroline

H3CO

The protoberberine compounds obtained has also been identified as (-)-8-oxo-polyalthiaine [23], pendulamine A and pendulamine B [24].

COOH O

OCH3

Fig [7] Pendulamine A

Fig. 4: Longimide B

Other than these compounds this plant has also been reported to have 5-hydroxy-6methoxyonychine [15,16], (-)-anonaine [17], (-)norboldine [18], (+)-norboldine, (-)-norpallidine [19], (-)-asimilobine, p-hydroxybenzoic acid [20], betasitosterol and stigmasterol. O O

NH O H3CO

N OH

Fig [5] 5-hydroxy-6methoxyonychine, www.ijsir.co.in

(-)-anonaine

OH OCH3

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES POLYALTHIA LONGIFOLIA

(A) Antibacterial activity Silver nanoparticles of Polyalthia longifolia leaves extract were synthesized along with Dsorbitol. These silver nanoparticles exhibited excellent antibacterial activity against the bacterial pathogens Staphylococcus aureus (Gram positive), Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram negative) [25] and indicated that the synthesized silver nanoparticles have good antibacterial action against Gram-positive organism than Gram19

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negative organisms. Results showed that the effect of antibacterial activity against test organisms (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus) is higher in the case of silver nanoparticles synthesized at 60° C (8mm-16.4 mm) compared to 25° C (7.3-14 mm) because of being smaller in size [26]. Leaf extracts of Polyalthia longiflia (Debdaru) treated with different solvents like hexane, methanol and chloroform were subjected to in vitro determination of antibacterial activity against six tested pathogenic bacteria viz. Bacillus subtilis, Sarcina lutea, Xanthomonas compestris, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia and Pseudomonas sp. using agar disc diffusion method and MIC determination test. The zone of inhibition against the tested bacteria was found ranging from 21.00 to 44.20mm. The highest zone of inhibition produced by the hexane, methanol and chloroform extracts of Polyalthia longiflia at a concentration of 500ìg/10ìl against pathogenic bacteria i.e. Sarcina lutea were found 41.80mm, 44.20mm and 43.50mm respectively. The MIC values of all extracts against six tested bacteria were almost 15.625 ìg/ 10ìl [27]. Polyalthia longifolia var. angustifolia stem bark extracts were evaluated against six important pathogenic bacteria viz. Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella sp.and Staphylococcus aureus. The powdered stem bark extracts were successively extracted with petroleum ether, chloroform, methanol and water using Soxhlet apparatus. The antibacterial activity study was performed by both agar well diffusion and serial dilution methods. The petroleum ether extract was found to exhibit highest activity against all tested bacteria [28] (B) Antioxidant activity: The antioxidant activities of the ethanolic extract of Polyalthia longifolia seeds were assayed using rat liver homogenate. Nitric oxide, ferrous sulphate and carbon tetrachlorideinduced lipid scavenging activities were carried out and showed significant free radical scavenging activity. The percentage inhibition of peroxide formation increased in a dosedependent manner [29]. 20

Methanolic leaf extracts from Polyalthia longifolia were evaluated for in vitro antioxidant activity for free radical scavenging capacity, using established in vitro models such as ferricreducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH), hydroxyl radical (OH), nitric oxide radical (NO) scavenging, metal chelating, and antilipidperoxidation activities. The methanolic extracts of P. longifolia exhibited concentration dependent antiradical activity by inhibiting DPPH radical with inhibitory concentration 50% (IC50) values of 2.721 ± 0.116 mg/mL [30]. The active constituents like quercetin, quecetin-3-O-ß-glucopyranoside and rutin were isolated from the ethanolic extract of the leaves of the P. Longifolia and shows the antioxidant capacity determined by their ability to scavenge ABTS+ radical cation which was expressed using Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) assays [31]. (C) Anti-inflammatory activity A clerodane diterpenoid 16-hydroxycleroda3,13(14)E-dien- 15-oic acid from P. longifolia significantly inhibited the generation of superoxide anion and the release of elastase in formyl L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine (FMLP) activated human neutrophils in a concentration-dependent fashion with IC50 values of 3.06±0.20 and 3.30±0.48 ìM, respectively [32]. CH2OH HOOC

Fig. 8: 16-hydroxycleroda3,13(14)E-dien-15-oic acid.

The anti-inflammatory potential of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of P. longifolia leaf in albino wister rats was evaluated using Cotton pellet granuloma which is a sub-acute antiinflammatory model. All the extracts were found to produce significant decrease in the granuloma tissue as evident by the decrease in the weight of cotton pellet when compared to the disease www.ijsir.co.in

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control. Both ethanolic and aqueous leaf extracts revealed anti-inflammatory activity comparable with indomethacin and at dose 300 mg/kg being the most active, exhibited maximum antiinflammatory activity. However, the aqueous extracts showed better anti-inflammatory activity when compared to the ethanolic extracts at dose of 200mg/kg body weight [33]. The anti-inflammatory activity of various solvent extracts (petroleum ether, hexane, toluene, chloroform, acetone and methanol) of P. longifolia leaf was evaluated using acute inflammatory studies in Wistar albino rats. Methanolic extract revealed most potential antinflammatory effect hence; three doses of methanolic extract (300, 600, 900 mg/kg) were used to evaluate its potential as an antiinflammatory agent. The three doses of methanolic extract showed anti-inflammatory activity comparable to that of the standard (Diclofenac sodium) [34]. (D) Anti-leishmanial Activity A clerodane diterpene; 16a-Hydroxycleroda3,13(14)Z-dien-15,16-olide from Polyalthia longifolia was found to be a potential antileishmanial and non-cytotoxic, as evidenced by long-term survival (>6 months) of treated animals. A very rapid and dose-dependent death occurred with Compound 1 at concentrations between 2 and 50 mg/ml. The IC50 was calculated to be 8.04 mg/mL against the reference drug miltefosine [35].

concentration (MIC) of this compound exhibited significant antimicrobial activity (15.625 31.25 mg/ml) against reference strain [37]. Methanol extracts of leaves, stem, twigs, green berries, flowers, roots, root-wood and rootbark of Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula, were tested for their antibacterial and antifungal potentials. Bioassay monitored isolation work on the methanol extract of leaves and berries which possesses promising antibacterial activity with MIC values ranging between 7.8 and 500 ìg/ml [11].

Different P. longifolia leaf extracts like 1, 4dioxan, methanol and acetone extracts were investigated at two different concentrations for their antimicrobial potentiality against 91 clinically important microbial strains. All the three extracts at 500 ìg/disc concentration were active against 95% of the total gram positive bacterial strains. 1, 4-Dioxan extract was active against 18.18% of the total gram negative bacterial strains while methanolic and acetone extracts were active against 12.72% of the total gram negative bacterial strains [38]. (F) Antifungal Activity Different solvent extracts viz., petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, methanol and ethanol extracts of Polyalthia longifolia were tested for their antifungal activity where petroleum ether extract showed highly significant antifungal activity than other solvent extracts [39].

(E) Antimicrobial Activity

Antifungal activity of aqueous (10-50% concentration) of Polyalthia longifolia were tested against ten seed borne fungi of paddy (Oryza sativa. L) in vitro condition. The fungus strain A. alternata recorded a maximum inhibition of 92.88% followed by F. solani (87.10%), F. moniliforme (86.40%), D. Halodes (86.07%), F. oxysporum (85.14%), C. lunata (83.33%) and D. tetramera (83.02%) at 50% concentration compared to synthetic fungicide, Dithane M-45, Captan, Benlate, Thiram and Bavistin at 2% recommended dosage [40].

Previously reported clerodane diterpene (16á-hydroxycleroda-3, 13 (14) Z-dien-15, 16olide) was isolated from Polyalthia longifolia against methicillin-resistant S. aureus through in vitro and in vivo assays. Minimum inhibitory

The leaf and pericarp aqueous extracts of P. longifolia were assessed in vitro for inhibitory activity against Fusarium oxysporium and Pythium aphanidermatum which were isolated from rhizome rot specimen of ginger. The extract

The in vitro antileishmanial activity of methanolic extract from P.longifolia leaf was evaluated against Leismania donovani promastigotes by in vitro promastigote cell toxicity assay by using MTT [3-4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)2,5 diphenyltetrazolium bromide]. The extract markedly inhibited the growth of L.donovani promastigotes in vitro in a dose dependent manner and demonstrated IC50 value of 4.18 µg/ ml [36].

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was found to be active and showed dose dependent antifungal activity [41]. (G) Anti-diabetic activity Ethanol and chloroform extracts of Polyalthia longifolia showed in vitro inhibitory activity of the two enzymes viz. á-amylase and á-glucosidase and in vivo anti-diabetic activity against streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes mellitus in rats. The IC50 of ethanolic extract for áamylase was found to be 154.3±2.42 ìg/ml whereas chloroform was 180.3± 1.35 ìg/ml. While the IC50 values of the ethanol for á- glucosidase inhibition was found to be 208.7±2.54 ìg/ml and chloroform showed at 271.6±0.85 ìg/ml. Acute toxicity studies showed that the extracts were safe at 2000 mg/kg b.w. Both the extracts dose dependently reversed the abnormal changes observed in untreated diabetic rats and the effect produced by the ethanol extract was slightly higher than the chloroform extract [42]. The petroleum ether extract from Polyalthia longifolia leaves (50, 100, 200 and 300 mg/kg) produced a significant decrease in the blood glucose level in the model of alloxan-induced diabetes in rabbits on oral administration [43]. Different solvent n-hexane, ethyl acetate and methanolic extracts of Polyalthia longifolia bark showed markedly improved the glucose tolerance in alloxan- induced diabetes in rats when compared to normal control and these extracts at 300mg/kg dose showed reduction in glucose level [44]. The hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic activity of various solvent extracts of Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula leaf extracts was evaluated in alloxan- induced experimental diabetes in rats. Polyalthia longifolia extracts and powder produced glucose lowering activity. However, the extracts did not modify any of the biochemical parameter significantly [45]. (H) Antipyretic activity Polyalthia longifolia methanolic extracts of the leaves, stem bark and root were tested for their antipyretic activities at doses of 30, 100 and 300 mg/kg body weight using LPS-induced antipyretic activity model. All extracts showed significant dose-dependent antipyretic activity. At 22

300 mg/ kg, all extracts exhibited activities higher than that of Acetylsalicyclic acid (Aspirin) whose percentage inhibition of pyrexia was 86%. The root extract was the most active with a percentage inhibition of 127.5%, followed by the leaf extract (123.0%) and the stem bark extract (99.2%) [46]. (I) Anti-ulcer activity The ethanolic extract of polyalthia longifolia was investigated for anti-ulcer activity against aspirin plus pylorous ligation induced gastric ulcer in rats, HCl – ethanol induced ulcer in mice and water immersion stress induced ulcer at 300 mg/kg body weight which showed a significant reduction in gastric volume, free acidity and ulcer index as compared to control. It also showed 89.71 % and 95.3% inhibition in ulcer inhibition in HCl- ethanol induced ulcer and ulcer protection index in stress induced ulcer respectively [47]. Methanolic extract of Polyalthia longifolia showed gastroprotective potential on ethanol and ethanol/HCl induced ulcers at 270 mg/kg and 540 mg/kg body weight. The reduction of ulcer index in treated animals was found to be statistically significant with respect to control animals [48]. (J) Anticancer activity The ethanolic extract of stem bark of Polyalthia longifolia was screened for its in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity and extract showed concentration-dependent cytotoxicity in Ehrlich’s Ascites Carcinoma (EAC), Dalton’s ascites lymphoma (DLA), HeLa and MCF-7 cells with IC50 values of 45.77 and 52.52, 25.24 and 50.49 ìg/ml respectively [49]. The two new clerodane diterpenes were isolated from the leaves of Polyalthia longifolia viz polyalthialdoic acid and 16 á-hydroxy-cleroda3,13(14)Z-diene-15,16-olide and evaluated for their apoptotic potential against human leukemia HL-60 cells. These compounds inhibited cell proliferation with IC50 values of 21.8 and 13.7 µM, respectively [50]. The rare bisclerodane imides Longimide A and Longimide B were isolated from ethanolic extract of the leaves of Polyalthia longifolia and evaluated for their cytotoxic effects against four human cancer cell lines and found to be most www.ijsir.co.in

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active against cervical carcinoma cell lines with IC50 value of 10.03 and 4.12 lg/ml, respectively [51] . (K) Termiticidal activity Polyalthia longifolia showed termiticidal activity in comparison to their respective solvent extract viz. chloroform, methanol, ethyl acetate, n- hexane, distilled water, at various concentrations (0.5%-5% solution). Methanolic extract showed potent termiticidal activity [52]. A significant mortality rate was recorded with 5 % chloroform extract of Polyalthia longifolia along with Samanea saman, Cassia siamea, Pithecellobium dulce, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, at various concentrations viz 75, 75, 55, 50 and 45% mortality occurred respectively [53]. (L) Hepatoprotective activity Methanolic extract of fruits of Polyalthiya longifolia was investigated as the potent hepatoprotective agent by in vitro and in vivo methods. In the in vitro study, freshly isolated rat primary hepatocytes and HepG2 cells were exposed with CCl4 along with/without various concentrations of methanolic extract (125, 250, 500 ìg/kg). In the in vivo studies, CCl4 intoxication method was used and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total bilirubin and total proteins were estimated and supported with histopathological studies [54]. The methanolic leaf extract of Polyalthiya longifolia showed a significant hepatoprotective activity when subjected to 300, 600, 900 mg/kg concentrations and determined its potential as an hepatoprotective agent against diclofenac sodium as the toxicant [55]. CONCLUSION In this review, we attempted to bring together the phytochemical, pharmacological, toxicological and ethnomedicinal information on Polyalthiya longifolia, a medicinally important herb used in the traditional system of medicine and an ancient remedy to be explored for novel therapeutic uses. The survey of the literature revealed the presence of various phytochemicals in Polyalthiya longifolia, which will be lead www.ijsir.co.in

compound for novel therapeutic agents. These studies place this indigenous drug as a novel candidate for bioprospection and drug development for the treatment of diseases, such as cancer, infectious diseases, diabetes, and various inflammatory conditions. The medicinal applications of this plant and the countless possibilities for investigation still remain in relatively newer areas of its function. Hence, phytochemicals of this plant will enable to exploit its therapeutic use. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India for facilities and encouragements. The authors are also thankful to the Director, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow for the encouragements and allowing us to the anticancer activity. The financial support received from Council and Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi under the project ‘Bio-prospection PR (BSC0106)’ is duly acknowledged REFERENCES 1.

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38. Chanda S., Nair R., Antimicrobial Activity of Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw. var. Pendula Leaf Extracts Against 91 Clinically Important Pathogenic Microbial Strains. Chinese Medicine. 2010; 1, 31-38. 39. Satish S., Mohana, D.C., Ranhavendra, M.P., Raveesha, K.A. Antifungal activity of some plant extracts against important seed borne pathogens of Aspergillus sp. Journal of Agricultural Technology. 2007; 3(1): 109-119.

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47. Malairajan P., Gopalkrishnan G., Narasimhan S., Veni K. Evalution of anti-ulcer activity of Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thwaites in experimental animals. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 2008; 40 (3), 126-128. 48. Chanda S., Baravalia Y., Kaneria M. Protective effect of Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula leaves on ethanol and ethanol/HCl induced ulcer in rats and its antimicrobial potency. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2011; 673-679. 49. Sampath M., Vasanthi M. Isolation, Structural Elucidation of Flavonoids From Polyalthia Longifolia (Sonn.) Thawaites and Evaluation of Antibacterial, Antioxidant and Anticancer Potential. International Journal of Pharmmaceutical Sciences. 2012; 5 (1): 336341. 50. Sari D.P., Ninomiya M., Efdi M., Santoni A., Ibrahim S., Tanaka K., Koketsu M. Clerodane Diterpenes isolated from Polyalthia longifolia Induce Apoptosis in Human Leukemia HL-60 Cells. Journal of Oleo Science. 2013; 10 (62): 843-848. 51.

Koneni V., Sashidhara A., Suriya P., Kant R., Maulik P.R, Sarkar J., Kanojiya S., Kumar R. Cytotoxic cycloartane triterpene and rare isomeric bisclerodane diterpenes from the leaves of Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 2010; 20: 5767–5771

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40. Lalitha V., Kiran B., Raveesha K.A., Antifungal Activity of Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw. against Seed Borne Fungi of Paddy (Oryza sativa. L). Journal of Phytology. 2011; 3(5): 04-08. 41. Dileep N., Junaid S., Rakesh K.N, Kekuda T.R., Nawaz A.S., antifungal activity of leaf and pericarp extract of Polyalthia longifolia against pathogens causing rhizome rot of ginger. Journal of Science, Technology and Arts Research. 2013; 2(1): 56-59. 42. Sivashanmugam A.T., Chatterjee T.K., In vitro and in vivo antidiabetic activity of Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. leaves. Oriental Pharmacy and Expermental Medicine. 2013; 13:289–300. 43. Laddha G.P., Bavaskar S.R., Baile S., Chaudhari M. Assessment of Anti-Diabetic Bustle of Polyalthia Longifolia Roxb Journal of Pharmacy Research. 2012, 5(3): 1457-1459. 44. Lakshmi A., Rao Y., Bhargavi C., Seelam U. Antidiabetic and Wound Healing Activity of Various Bark Extracts of Polyalthia longifolia. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical And Clinical Research. 2011; 4 (1): 109-113. 45. Nair R., Shukla V., Chanda S. Assessment of Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula for hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic activity. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2007; 3:116-121.

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55. Jain A.K., Jain A., Jain A., Jain S., Sikarwar M.S., Dubey S.K. Xanthine Oxidase 56. Inhibitory Activity And Enzyme Kinetics of Polyalthia Longifolia ( Sonner.) Thw. Leaves Using In-vitro Method. Plant Archives. 2006; 6: 841-842.

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USE OF GENE THERAPY TO CURE AIDS * SUDHIR MEHROTRA, KHUSHWANT SINGH, PUSHKAR SINGH RAWAT Department of Biochemistry, University of Lucknow, Lucknow , Uttar Pradesh, India

Address for Correspondence: Dr. Sudhir Mehrotra, Associate Professor, Deparment of Biochemistry, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India , Email : sudhirankush@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT According to WHO survey in 2010 there are 34 million people who are infected with HIV and attained AIDS. Per year about 1.8 million people dies with AIDS and 2.7 million new people become infected with HIV. AIDS is a secondary immunodeficiency caused by HIV virus that belongs to retroviral family. During AIDS T-cell count in blood falls tremendously below 200 cells ìl¯ that results to be fatal in about 2-3 years. HIV can be transmitted from one person to another by unprotected homosexual or heterosexual sex, by transfusion of blood infected with HIV, by needle sharing between drug or steroid abusers, from mother to child during childbirth or during breast feeding and presence of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) increase the threat of HIV infection. During AIDS many opportunistic infections and other immune deficiencies occur frequently that usually have negligible chances to affect a normal healthy person. It was found in Berlin patient of HIV, who was living on HAART, was transplanted with bone marrow from a person who was homozygous for CCR5Ä32bp deletion i.e. deletion of one base pair on 32 position in CCR5 gene after which patient became resistant to HIV infection. He discontinued the HAART therapy and lived like a normal person. Viral particles and viral reservoirs were vanished from his blood. This observation laid the basis for use of gene therapy against AIDS. By modifying stem cells taken from bone marrow in which using gene therapy genes for disrupted CCR5 were inserted in place of normal CCR5 gene and then the cells were re-implanted in bone marrow after which they started producing HIV resistant blood cells. Another observation was that modifying stem cells to produce interfering RNAs like sense RNA, antisense RNA, ribozymes that interfere in viral replication cycle or host cell function that is required for viral replication also provided good results to produce anti-HIV immune system. Like HAART in which combination of many drugs are used in similar way if many anti-HIV genes are used simultaneously to modify stem cells targeting different point in viral life cycle provide better results than results acquired by use of single anti-HIV gene to eradicate HIV infection. Although gene therapy provided good results against HIV infection but it is still in trial stage and have not been used on humans yet. Keywords: HIV, AIDS, CD4+TCells, HAART, Stem cells etc. INTRODUCTION 1. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) One of the most common secondary immunodeficiency is Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, or AIDS, which results from infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there were 34 million people living with AIDS, with 2.7 million new cases and 1.8 million deaths worldwide in the year 2010(Organization, W.H. World health organization: global). HIV 26

infected patients are symptomized by challenged immunity of the patient and various opportunistic infections readily occur to patients. Those microorganisms that healthy individuals can harbor with no ill consequences but can cause disease in those with impaired immune system [1] . In 1983 the virus that causes AIDS was isolated from the lymph node of an infected individual by Montagnier’s group in Paris and was called the human immunodeficiency virus or HIV for short. A second strain of HIV was identified in 1986; this was called HIV-2 and the first strain www.ijsir.co.in

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was renamed HIV-1 [2]. Some characteristic features of HIV include following: 1) A long latent period 2) Tropism for hematopoietic and the nervous system 3) Several immunodeficiency 4) High mutation rate [3]. 2. HIV- STRUCTURE AND GENETIC ORGANISATION

appears as knob and consists of two types of glycoprotein: 1) gp120 : forms cap of ENV with homo trimer[4] 2) gp41: forms stem of Env with homo trimer.These are transmembrane proteins and act as anchor for Env protein [5]. gp120 and gp41 are bound non-covalently enable HIV to enter CD4+T helper cells using CD4 a cell surface molecule on TH cell as viral receptor. These proteins are targeted by researchers to develop the HIV vaccine [6]. - VIRAL CORE The genome is surrounded by a nucleocapsid consisting of an inner layer of protein called p24 and an outer layer of matrix protein called p17. Core is in shape of bullet consist of approx 2,000 copies of viral protein p24. Inside the core 2 HIV-RNA are present that are single stranded, identical and have associated enzymes: reverse transcriptase, integrase, protease, packed inside the core [7].

FIGURE 1: STRUCTURE OF HIV

HIV STRUCTURE - VIRAL ENVELOP HIV virus is roughly spherical and approx 120 nm in diameter i.e. 1/10,000 of mm. Outermost coat of virus is known as Viral Envelop that generally consists of phospholipid bilayer that is derived from host cell membrane during the process of budding out from the host as shown in (figure 1). Envelop consists throughout the proteins of host in addition to 72 copies at average of Env protein embedded. Env protein GENE gag pol env tat rev vif vpr

GENETIC ORGANISATION Core consists of two identical single stranded RNA both RNA terminals possesses RNA sequence called Long Terminal Repeats (LTR) that act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins either from HIV or the host cell. HIV genome consists of 9 genes out of which 3 genes are common to whole retroviral family these are env, gag and pol. Besides these 6 regulatory genes that are unique to HIV that guides the whole life cycle of HIV in various ways are tat, rev, nef, vpr, vif [8, 9]. TABLE 1: The genomic organization of HIV

[10]

GENE PRODUCT/ FUNCTION Group-specific antigen Polymerase Envelope Transactivator Regulator of viral expression Viral infectivity Viral protein R

vpu

Viral protein U

nef

Negative regulation factor

Core proteins and matrix proteins Reverse transcriptase, protease, and integrase enzymes Transmembrane, glycoproteins. gp120 binds CD4 and CCR5; gp41 is required for virus fusion and internalization positive regulator of transcription Allows export of unspliced and partially spliced transcripts from nucleus Affects particle infectivity Transport of DNA to nucleus. Augments Virion production. Cell-cycle arrest Promotes intracellular degradation of CD4 and enhances release of virus from cell membrane Augments viral replication in vivo and in vitro. Decreases CD4, MHC class I and II expression

*Env gene produces protein called gp160 that is broken down by a viral enzyme to form gp120 and gp 41 the component of env protein. www.ijsir.co.in

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LIFE CYCLE OF HIV a. INFECTION: The Env protein interacts with CD4 molecules on the surface of target Tcells. Conformational changes are induced in gp120 that permit interaction with chemokine receptor and the reaction fusing viral and cell membranes is triggered. This permits entry of viral genomes into the target T-cell. b. VIRAL ENTRY IN CELL: Conformational changes occur on binding to receptor and coreceptor enabling gp41 mediate fusion of HIV with host cell membrane. c. VIRAL RNA PRODUCTION: A cDNA copy of viral RNA is synthesized inside the host using the Reverse Transcriptase enzyme. d. PROVIRUS PRODUCTION: cDNA enters the nucleus and integrates with host cell cDNA using viral integrase enzyme where it replicates with host. e. DNA numerous non-infectious proviruses are produced. f.

VIRAL RNA PRODUCTION AND TRANSLATION: Provirus transcription occurs with host DNA n viral RNA is produced which after splicing go to cytoplasm.

g. VIRAL PROTEIN PRODUCTION : Viral RNAs are translate in cytoplasm to characteristic regulatory proteins i.e. Tat , Rev ,and structural proteins like gp160 MA, p17,CA, p24,NC, p7,p6 p1 and p2. h. VIRAL PROTEINS MODIFICATION: Viral proteases cleave viral precursor proteins Like GP160 is cleaved into gp120 and gp41 that forms the viral receptors for T-cells. i.

PRODUCTION OF NEW VIRUSES: All the viral components i.e. viral proteins and viral RNA get assembled to form new viral particle.

VIRAL RELEASE FROM INFECTED TCELL: Assembled viral particles now buds out the host T-cell picking its lipid envelop with proteins of host cell membrane. Virus particles bud out of host cell.

k. NEW VIRUS PARTICLES FATE: After release from the host cell it may enter a latent phase and may get activated in response to any microbial infection or may infect other cell simultaneously [11].

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS): It is the terminal phase of HIV infection cycle. During AIDS the opportunistic infections become more frequent with decrease in CCD4+ cell count to below 200Âľl -1 that results in profound immunodeficiency indicates the final stage of HIV i.e. AIDS viral load (viaremia) is highest in this stage and level of CTLâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and antibodies are lowest and patient survives not longer than 2 years even with highest quality of sophisticated treatment and at last patient dies [12]. AIDS is usually not caused just after the infection and till today it is not known how virus damages the immune system and if a person infected with HIV1 will develop the AIDS. Great researches have been done but still a safe cure for HIV is not found. The main priority for immunologists is to develop vaccine against AIDS .There are several effective strategies present to develop anti-viral drugs. Researchers target several points in HIV lifecycle that might be blocked by pharmaceutical agents. Two major challenges to produce vaccine for HIV are: (i) To find immunogens that can stimulate many cross-reacting neutralizing antibodies (ii) to find immunogens that can stimulate high levels of persisting CD8+ and CD4+ T cells. Both humoral and cellular immunity may be needed, but they require different types of immunogens; eventually vaccines could be mixed to achieve both. It was thought that neutralizing antibodies would be stimulated by gp120 preparations, and they do against tissue culture adapted HIV strains but, all such vaccines failed to neutralize primary virus isolates. Now the aim is to design HIV envelope protein immunogens that will stimulate protective antibodies. Unfortunately it has many hurdles in between against this: (i) because of heavy glycosylation of the envelope it is nonimmunogenic in nature. (ii) because it is conformation -ally variable, the chemokine receptor binding site, is not exposed unless CD4+ has bound; (iii) the CD4+ binding site is found interiorly and difficult to access by antibodies; (iv) In addition to carbohydrate gp120 surface is protected by hyper variable loops that vary by mutation at very high rate with no cost to virus www.ijsir.co.in

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therefore escape neutralizing antibodies

[13]

The anti-viral drugs are prepared with aim that these drugs must be specific for HIV-1 and must not interfere with the physiology of the normal cells. Many steps in the virus life cycle are potential targets for drugs, including: (i) entry; (ii) fusion; (iii) reverse transcription; (iv) integration; (v) transcription/ transactivation; (vi) assembly; and (vii) maturation [14, 15]. The first success in treatment of HIV-1was with drugs interfering with the reverse transcription of viral RNA to cDNA; the drug was zidovudine, or AZT (azidothymidine). When AZT, a nucleoside analog, introduced into the growing cDNA chain of the retrovirus termination of the chain occurred. AZT is not effective in all patients, and long-term use of AZT has several adverse side effects and resistant viral mutants may also develop in treated patients. The administered AZT is used also by human DNA polymerase and incorporation of AZT into the DNA of host cells kills them. Precursors of red blood cells are also sensitive to AZT, therefore causes anemia in addition to other side effects. Another drug that can block reverse transcription is Nevirapine, which inhibits the action of the reverse transcriptase enzyme [16]. And the second success was inhibition of the cleavage of precursor proteins by protease to produce proteins that are assembled to produce new mature virion. Like other retroviruses HIV-1, synthesizes polyproteins each of which consists of several tandemly linked proteins. HIV-1 encodes two polyproteins, gag (55 kD) and gagâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;pol (160 kD), both are anchored to the plasma membrane via N-terminal myristoylation. These polyproteins are then cleaved by HIV-1 protease to their component proteins, but only after this enzyme has excised itself from gagâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;pol. This occurs after the virion has budded off from the host cell and results in reorganization of viral proteins to produce virion. The virion is thereby converted from its noninfectious immature form to its pathogenic mature form. If HIV-1 protease is inactivated, either mutagenically or by an inhibitor, the virion remains noninfectious. Hence HIV-1 protease is an opportune drug target [17]. A combination therapy, HAART (highly www.ijsir.co.in

active anti-retroviral therapy) is that the latest procedure to cope with HIV infection. In HAART patient is treated with two nucleoside analogs and one protease inhibitor. This strategy helps to overcome the ability of the virus to rapidly drug resistant mutants. HAART decreases the viral load to undetectable level and health of patient improves. Though it is a bit successful in improving life of HIV infected people but it also has drawbacks like it includes strict time schedule and large no. of pills have to be taken in a every day. Additionally, it may lead to various side effects and some serious patient may not be benefitted by this treatment. Although HAART was a great success but some AIDS experts are not convinced as there is possibility of presence of latent CD4 T cells and macrophages may act as reservoir of infectious virus if provirus is activated by some means. In addition viruses present in brain may not be detected by antiretroviral drugs as these can not penetrate these sites and these remain undetectable [16, 18]. GENE THERAPY Gene therapy is a method that aims to cure an inherited disease by providing the patient with a correct copy of the defective gene so that the patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body can produce the correct enzyme or protein so as to eliminate the main cause of the disease. Gene therapy has now been extended to include attempts to cure any disease by introduction of a cloned gene into the patient. It differs from traditional drug-based approaches, in a way that it can treat problems by directly repairing the cause of genetic flaw i.e. it works at genetic level [19] .There are two basic approaches to gene therapy: 1) Germline therapy 2) Somatic cell therapy 1. Germline therapy : In this type of gene therapy, genetic alterations are done in germ cell (sperm or ova). Done a fertilized egg is provided with a copy of the normal gene and re-implanted into the mother. If the procedure succeeds, the gene will be present and expressed in all cells of the resulting individual. Germline therapy is done by microinjection of a somatic cell followed by nuclear transfer into an oocyte, and theoretically 29

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could be used to treat any inherited disease. This can lead to genetic modifications in unborn and these modifications will then be passed on to the offspring [20]. 2. Somatic cell therapy: Somatic cell therapy involves modification of somatic cells. It is done in two ways: 1) Firstly, cells are removed from the organism, these are transfected using retroviral vectors , and then placed back in the body. 2) Cells are transfected in situ without removal. The technique is very useful to treat inherited blood diseases (e.g. hemophilia and thalassaemia), where genes are introduced into stem cells taken from the bone marrow, which give rise to all the specialized cell types in the blood [20]. Vectors used in gene therapy

to DNA using enzyme encoded by viral RNA known as Reverse Transcriptase(RT) when viral RNA enters the host cell and as it occurs using another enzyme Integrase viral. DNA is incorporated into the host DNA and replicates with it [20]. Leukemia causing virus of mouse was used in one experiment which have no effect on humans. Disease causing genes were replaced by RNA copy of healthy genes and a small sequence â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;promoterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; was also inserted that acts as on/off switch for transcription of inserted gene in presence or absence of a specific drug.Though it is so efficient but still possesses some drawbacks like it usually infects actively dividing cells and it has no specific manner of insertion of gene in host genome. Therefore it may damage the host genome more than it was thought to repair it. Host may produce immune response against it. To avoid attack of retroviral vector to cell which was not required to be transformed researchers use ex-vivo gene therapy as described below:

Vectors used in gene therapy fall in two categories: (1 ) Viral vector ( 2) Non-viral vector. Because of the highly infectious and virulent nature of the viruses, these can deliver gene incorporated in viral genome using genetic engineering to any animal cell therefore genetically modified viruses carrying human DNA are used as vector for gene therapy.

2) Then cells which are to be transformed are isolated from patient.

Viral vectors: Three types of viruses are used in gene therapy:

4) Cells are monitored if they are working normally.

a) Adenoviruses b) Retroviruses c) Adeno-associated viruses Adenoviruses: These are used so as to avoid insertion of gene in wrong site .This vector does not get incorporated in host genome and transcribe the gene product freely in the host cell but re- administration of vector is required in growing cell line because the gene is not replicating with the host genome. Host range of adenovirus is very broad .It can evoke human immune response and induce inflammatory reaction but then also it is used to treat cancer of liver and ovaries [20]. Retroviral vector: Retroviruses were first to be used in gene therapy because of their great efficiency to infect any kind of cell. These contain RNA as their genetic material which is converted 30

1) Firstly healthy gene is inserted in vector.

3) Now the vector and isolated cells are mixed and cultured in laboratory.

5) Modified cells fractioned out from mixture and are injected back to patient. In this way, patient lacking same protein production starts producing it. Adeno- associated virus : This virus is better vector than all because it can infect both dividing and non dividing cell and its host range is also very broad. Most importantly, it can insert gene specifically at a site in chromosome 19.This virus can be found in almost all humans as it is not pathogenic and do not evoke immune response against it. Still it has got drawbacks as it is very small and carries only two genes naturally therefore it can not carry large gene to transfer it to other cells .It is demonstrated that it can be used to repair genetic defect in animal and now it is used in initial studies to treat hemophilia in humans [20]. www.ijsir.co.in

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CHIMERAPLASTY It is a non viral procedure of gene therapy used to fix defective gene directly by inserting new normal gene sequence in cell nucleus which binds at the defective gene at terminals in cell nucleus . The defective part in middle does not bind forming hump like structure in DNA which activates the DNA repair action of cell, DNA repair enzymes interchange the defective sequence with chimeraplast sequence and remove defective gene that is later degraded. Effectiveness of the chimeraplasty has been found to be 0.0002% effective in transforming yeast cells [20]. HUMAN APOBEC HYPERMUTATIONS

MEDIATED

APOBEC3G or hA3G (human apolipoprotein B is a mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 3G). It belongs to a protein family including hA3D, hA3F, hA3H which possesses cytidine deaminase activity therefore acts as a potent host restriction factor of retroviral replication through, vif a HIV-1 accessory protein interacts with hA3G and protects the virus from its anti-viral activity [21,22]. In the presence of defective vif, hA3G/F/D/H induces mutation in the minus strand of the ssDNA by replacing dCto-dU ,in response to this , dG-to-dA mutations in the plus strand of the cDNA occurs. Viral replication is ceased by hyper mutations produced by hA3G which introduces stop codon in ORFs of retroviral gene mainly in the tryptopham residues (TGG-to-TGA/TAA/ TAG). Many sub-lethal hyper mutations have also been suggested to contribute to the HIV-1 genetic diversity [23] and greater genetic variations due to the low level of G-to-A mutation which allows HIV-1 evolution [24]. In proviral sequence cytidine deamination can generate drug-resistant progenies in vitro [25], pol sequences have been identified as a potential target sites for hA3G/F by computer prediction , but still the effect of hA3G in HIV-1 drug resistance in vivo is unknown and considered to be low [24]. HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL-BASED GENE THERAPY FOR HIV DISEASE HIV gene therapy provides an alternative to HIV infected people living on HAART treatment www.ijsir.co.in

which requires consuming loads of pill per day with tight timetable and in case of some carelessness sudden increment of plasma viral load occurs making patient fall sick seriously. HIV gene therapy targets to transduce hematopoietic stem cells in such a way that those stem cells start producing HIV resistant blood cells i.e. Tcells, B-cells, macrophages etc .Strategies and stages at which HIV virus is antagonized are shown in (figure 2) [38].

Figure 2: Applicable stages and strategies for gene therapy-based antagonism of HIV replication (a) Simplified diagram of hematopoiesis, highlighting myeloid and lymphoid lineages that are susceptible to HIV infection (red), or are refractory to infection (green). Yellow: HIV infection of hematopoietic progenitors remains controversial (b) Schematic of T-cell maturation, indicating applicable anti-HIV therapies at each stage of differentiation. Disruption or modification of some host genes may preferably be performed in more differentiated cells. (c) Three broad access points for inhibition of HIV infection and replication. HIV entry can be blocked by disrupting HIV co-receptor genes, and/ or expression of fusion inhibitors. Genetic modification of TRIM5a, SAMHD1, TREX1 or APOBEC proteins may increase antagonism of viral uncoating and reverse transcription. Pharmacological inhibition of HIV integrase, or targeted disruption of integrated provirus, eliminate or prevent establishment of the latent viral reservoir[38].

(1) Disruption of co-receptors so as to avoid viral entry: Using gene therapy 31

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hematopoietic stem cells can be modified in such a way that they start producing CD4+ T-cells with defective CCR5 (chemokine receptor 5) which is the HIV-1 co-receptor, this will avoid the interaction between T-cell and HIV-1 virus therefore T-cell will remain unaffected and will not die [26]. There is a well documentation for genetic disruption of CCR5 in human CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells and CD4+ T-helper cells. Perez and co-workers demonstrated robust disruption of CCR5 in CD4+ cells, engraftment in an NOG mouse model of HIV-1 infection and enrichment during HIV-1 challenge. These autologous, HIV-resistant CD4+T cells are currently being tested in phase I clinical trials as a novel anti-viral therapeutic [27, 28]. Holt and coworkers performed analogous experiments in human cord blood-derived CD34+ stem cells. These cells engrafted and repopulated hematopoietic niches in all tissues tested in NSG mice, and were enriched following HIV-1 challenge [29]. Using this gene therapy, immune system will not be affected and person will show no symptoms of HIV infection and will be able to live a normal life. This was demonstrated clearly in HIV infected patient of Berlin to whom bone marrow from person who was homozygous for the CCR5-Ă&#x201E;32-bp allele is transplanted .At present patient is not using any kind of drug and is fully healthy. This shows how effective HIV gene therapy is and potential of HIV resistant cell to cure HIV infection [30, 31, 32]. Most of the concern is given to CCR5 but viruses can evolve and use another co-receptor CXCR4 (chemokine receptor 4) to enter in the CD4+ cell and (X4)-tropic HIV strain uses only this co-receptor to enter cell. Cells transduced with CCR5+ defective genes showed excellent protection against CCR5 (R5)-tropic [33], but not CXCR4 (X4)-tropic [34]. In humanized mouse model it has been already shown that disruption of CXCR4 reduces the HIV infection in similar way to CCR5 [35, 36]. In humans no stable CXCR5 null mutation occurs and CXCR4-null mice died during early embryonic development due to multiple defects in hematopoietic, vascular and neuronal development .T-cell specific CXCR4 knockout mice, however, are viable and lack appreciable T-cell defects [37], and 32

Wilen and co-workers [35] have demonstrated that CCR5/CXCR4 doubly-disrupted T cells are viable in vitro. In nut shell, CCR5/CXCR4 double disruption is likely intractable in hematopoietic stem cells, but may represent a viable combinatorial therapy in CD4+T cells [38]. Thus stem cell therapy offers a way that can pretend to act like transplant done in Berlin patient by engineering hematopoietic stem cells of patient to express anti-HIV genes to provide resistance to infection. Gene therapy provides us tool to reconstitute HIV resistant immune system and confers lifelong protection against HIV and main advantage is that it is a onetime treatment and no further consumption of drug or other treatment is required. (2) HSCs transduced with triple-combination Anti-HIV Lentiviral Vector: Today many anti-HIV genes are being designed to inhibit HIV replication. It is known to all that HIV have high rate of mutation therefore single anti-HIV gene may not provide satisfactory result therefore like HAART were combination of many drugs are used in same if we use many anti-HIV gene possibility of formation of escape mutant may end and viral load in patient may decrease to undetectable level or may vanish in small period of time [39]. Most common target sites of the anti-HIV gene include: attachment site, entry site, reverse transcription, and integration [33, 15, 40] . Anti-HIV gene has many benefits over the HAART treatment as it inhibits the formation of pro viruses and keep on replenishing the viral reservoirs that are biggest barrier between HIV infection cure [41, 42]. By combining many anti-HIV genes into a single vector, a efficient pre integration protection can be possessed against HIV infection. A strong pre integration protection from HIV-1 infection, in vitro, was established by Waler and co-workers using a triple combination anti-HIV lentiviral vector containing a human/ rhesus macaque TRIM5ĂĄ isoform, a CCR5 short hairpin RNA (shRNA), and a TAR decoy [43].CCR5 short hairpin RNA to antagonize viral entry, a rhesus macaque allele of TRIM5a to antagonize viral un coating, and a viral TAR decoy to down regulate reverse transcription of viral RNA. This vector not only prevented HIV integration in challenged cells but also blocked the generation of escape mutants. www.ijsir.co.in

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The NRG mouse model (NOD-RAG1/ IL2r) double mutant has the potential to evaluate multi lineage human hematopoiesis from intra hepatic injection of human CD34+ HSCs into newborn mice. After 3 months of transplantation, functional human T cells, B cells, and macrophages can be detected in lymphoid organs, including the spleen, thymus, and bone marrow. Humanized NRG mice infected with HIV displays normal HIV disease symptoms, like, CD4+ cell count decrease and viral load increase in plasma [44]. This mouse model offers a unique preclinical in vivo system to evaluate anti-HIV gene therapy molecules in human cells at a level acceptable to regulatory agencies. Recently, the preclinical safety and efficacy of a combination anti-HIV lentiviral vector has been evaluated, in vivo, in a humanized NRG mouse model. It was demonstrated that multi lineage human hematopoiesis from anti-HIV lentiviral vector-transduced CD34+ HSCs in the peripheral blood and in various lymphoid organs, including the thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. After in vivo challenge with either an R5-tropic BaL-1 or an X4-tropic NL4-3 strain of HIV-1, maintenance of human CD4 cells and a selective survival advantage were observed in mice containing the anti-HIV vector-transduced cells. This combination anti-HIV lentiviral vector inhibiting HIV infection in a stem cell gene therapy has potential to be used on humans in future[45]. (3) HIV gene therapy using interfering RNAbased strategies Recently new antiviral approach has been produced to treat HIV infection using RNA interference (RNAi) via gene therapy .It provided us a genetic tool that can be used in any viral or host cell function that is involved in HIV replication cycle [46]. RNAi can be induced by transfection of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) or by short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) that are intracellularly expressed from a gene cassette [47]. Viral RNAs or the mRNAs encoding cellular co-factors as target imposes some advantages as well as drawbacks. RNAi targeting host may cause cytotoxicity, but one also cannot prohibit adverse off-target effects of anti-HIV shRNAs. Selection of escape variants is one of the most prominent problem to target www.ijsir.co.in

virus [48, 49 , 50]. Targeting the most conserved and evolutionary static regions of the viral RNA genome may give way for anti-escape approach [51] , the simultaneous use of multiple inhibitors in a combinatorial RNAi approach [52] or the use of RNAi reagents in combination with other RNAbased Inhibitors. Various strategies using RNAi have been used to produce HIV resistant immune system. Like knockout of the chemokine co-receptor CCR5 that restricts the viral entry in CD4+ T cells by RNA interference [14,34] , hammerhead ribozymes [53] and DNA-editing zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) [29] have been extensively studied. Alternatively, knockout strategies to introduce host restriction factors to block viral replication have also been reported. For example, the gp41-derived peptide (C46) blocks viral entry by preventing fusion [54] . Other restriction factors, such as TRIM5a from rhesus macaques [55] , polynucleotide cytidine deaminase APOBEC 3G and 3F [56, 57] and BST2/tetherin [58] can also prevent HIV infection and expand the possible repertoire of molecular targets useful for gene therapy. In a similar way viral mRNA can be targeted for degradation with RNAi during transcription therefore viral replication will be disturbed [59] and hammerhead ribozymes [60,61] or sequestering the transcription activator Tat protein by TAR RNA decoy [62], or alternatively blocking Rev-mediated transport by expressing dominant negative Rev mutant (RevM10 [63,64]), sequestering Rev protein by Rev binding element (RBE) RNA decoy [65] or degrading Rev mRNA by RNA interference [59] . Generally antisense RNAs [66], sense RNAs , and ribozymes [68, 69, 70] are used for RNA interference. To inhibit cellular or HIV RNA function antisense RNAs and ribozymes are designed, while sense RNAs is designed to disrupt HIV RNA/protein or RNA/RNA interactions. Live viruses may also be used to cause selective death of the HIV infected cells [71, 72] . A recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) was engineered in which the gene encoding the viral glycoproteins was replaced with those encoding HIV-1 receptor (CD4) and co-receptor (CXCR4). This recombinant virus was shown to infect, propagate on, and kill the [67]

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HIV-infected cells

[72]

Interfering RNAs : These are the RNAs which are intentionally designed so as to block HIV life cycle at one or other specific point by interfering with function of cellular (I.e.CCR5 or CxCR4) or HIV-1 RNA or proteins and effectiveness of the interfering RNA depends on site of interference and ability to avoid the formation of the escape mutants [73]. Table2. Interfering RNA-based strategies in HIV gene therapy Antisense RNAs: Antisense RNAs can be designed to contain or sequences complementary to portions of cellular (i.e. CCR5 or CXCR4) or HIV-1 RNA. The

RNA hybrids may then be cleaved by RNase1 [74] , which would result in a permanent loss of the target RNA. Antisense RNAs spanning 800 nucleotides or more were shown to inhibit HIV replication more effectively [75, 76, 77, 78] . As antisense RNAs are not likely to be toxic to the cells, they may be expressed in a constitutive manner. Antisense RNAs could, upon hybridization with HIV RNA, disrupt Viral RNA splicing, translation, transactivation, nuclear export of all HIV mRNAs, RNA packaging, and/ or reverse transcription of the progeny virus RNA. Lack of protein production would also result in inhibition of protein function. Inhibition of CCR5 mRNA translation would result in inhibition of viral entry and syncytium formation.

Interfering RNAs used in HIV gene therapy

Target RNA/protein

Localization required forActivity

Interference site(s)

Fate of HIVinfected Genemodifiedcell

Antisense RNA

Cellular CCR5 mRNA

Nuclear/Cytoplasmic

Viral entry, syncytium formation with infected cells

Protected

HIV mRNAs

Nuclear/Cytoplasmic

RNA splicing, translation, transactivation, nuclear export

Protected

HIV progeny virus RNA

Cytoplasmic/Virion

Sense RNA U3-R-U5 RNA TAR/RRE RNA

Incoming virion RNA

Cytoplasmic

RNA packaging, reverse transcription of progeny virus RNA Virion RNA reverse transcription

Subsequent rounds of Infection Protected

HIV Tat/Rev proteins

Nuclear

HIV Progeny virus RNA

Cytoplasmic/Virion

Ribozymes

Cellular CCR5 mRNA

Nuclear/Cytoplasmic

Incoming HIV virion RNA HIV mRNAs

Cytoplasmic Nuclear/Cytoplasmic

Trans-activation/nuclear export of 4-5 kb and 9.3 kb HIV mRNAs RNA packaging, reverse transcription of progeny virus RNA Viral entry, syncytium formation with infected cells Reverse transcription Translation

Protected

Psi-e RNA

Protected Protected

HIV progeny virus RNA

Virion

RNA packaging, reverse transcription of progeny virus RNA

Subsequent rounds of Infection

Sense RNAs These are designed to contain specific sequences of HIV-1 RNA which are involved in specific viral RNA/RNA or RNA/protein interactions. These RNAs compete with the HIV RNA for binding to viral RNAs or proteins. These may be used to prevent trans-activation, nuclear export Packaging, or reverse transcription of the progeny virion RNA. Sense RNAs with specific sequences present in HIV TAR and RRE act as

Subsequent rounds of Infection Protected

decoys .These RNAs binds to the corresponding Tat and Rev proteins to decrease the effective concentration of these proteins. And, as Tat/HIV1 TAR and Rev/HIV-1 RRE interactions are required for transactivation and nuclear export, virus replication would be inhibited. Sense RNAs possessing HIV-1 Psi signal may form dimers with HIV RNA, which would compete with HIV-1 RNA dimers for packaging into the virions. Furthermore, depending on the presence or absence of various cis-acting www.ijsir.co.in

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elements required for HIV-1 RNA reverse transcription, the co-packaged sense RNA may either compete with HIV RNA for reverse transcription or prevent both sense and HIV RNA reverse transcription. Several cellular factors have been characterized, which interact with HIV TAR and RRE. Thus, in addition to inhibiting Tat or Rev function, the decoy RNAs would also inhibit the normal function of these cellular factors and may cause toxicity. Therefore, TAR and RRE may have to be produced in a Tat-inducible manner However, Tat inducible expression of a molecule that inhibits Tat function may not be ideal, as the amount of TAR produced in the cell may not reach excess concentration required to inhibit virus replication. To solve this problem, minimal TAR and RRE decoys (lacking the binding sites for cellular factors) are being developed that could be constitutively expressed without being cytotoxic. Sense RNAs containing HIV Psi-e (which includes RRE) may be produced in a Tat or Rev inducible manner. Ribozymes Hammerhead and hairpin ribozymes are small catalytic RNAs which can be designed to specifically pair with and cleave a specific target RNA in trans [68]. The following criteria must be fulfilled for designing a specific hammerhead ribozyme [79, 80, 81]. The cleavage site within the target RNA must contain an NUH (N, any nucleotide; H, C/U/A) [82]. The ribozyme catalytic domain must contain 11 of the 13 conserved nucleotides [83], and of the H adjacent to the cleavage site [79, 83]. Cleavage by hammerhead ribozymes occurs 3’ to the H and results in a 5' product with a 2', 3' cyclic phosphate and a 3' product with a 5' hydroxyl group. Hairpin ribozymes have been derived from the tobacco ring spot satellite virus RNA [81]. The conserved nucleotides within the ribozyme catalytic domain are shown in figure below. The substrate specificity is conferred by providing the ribozyme with nucleotides complementary to the sequences flanking the NGUC adjacent to the cleavage site within the target RNA. Cleavage occurs 5’ to the GUC sequence. Ribozymes may be designed to specifically recognize and cleave a number of sites within a www.ijsir.co.in

specific cellular RNA (i.e. CCR5 mRNA) or HIV RNA. The most important criteria in designing an HIV RNA-specific ribozyme is to chose a target site that is accessible and highly conserved. Ribozymes may be designed to cleave the incoming HIV virion RNA in the cytoplasm before reverse transcription occurs, the HIV transcripts in the nucleus or cytoplasm, and/or the virion RNA in the progeny virus. The incoming RNA in the cytoplasm or the primary HIV-1 transcripts within the nucleus may be targeted anywhere within the HIV-1 RNA. However, if the cleavage occurs postsplicing within the nucleus or in the cytoplasm, it may be preferable to target regions that are shared by all spliced and unspliced HIV mRNAs. These regions include the first 289 nucleotides within the 5’ untranslated region (exon 1), 69 nucleotides near the center (exon 5), and the last 1259 nucleotides near the 3’ end (exon 7) of HIV1 RNA (figure 3). While CCR5 ribozymes would have to be expressed in a constitutive manner, anti HIV ribozymes may be expressed in a constitutive or constitutive and Tat-inducible manner (to allow overproduction in HIV-infected cells).

Figure 3: Secondary structure of a transcleaving hammerhead (top) and a hairpin (bottom) ribozyme. The catalytic domain is flanked by the 5’ and 3’ flanking complementary sequences, which are designed to be complementary to the H (hammerhead ribozymes) or NGUC (hairpin ribozyme) adjacent to the cleavage site (â). Target RNA sequences are shown in bold. Cleavage occurs 3’ to the NUH (hammerhead ribozymes) or 5’ to the GUC (hairpin ribozyme). N, any nucleotide; H, C/U/ A.

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Various target sites to block viral life cycle using RNAi There are many steps in viral life cycle that can be blocked using Interfering RNA-based strategies. These inferring RNA are designed to inactivate cellular RNA (e.g. CCR5 or CXCR4)or HIV RNA encoding factors required by HIV to replicate and expand infection in new cells or also be designed to inhibit the function of viral proteins (i.e. Tat and Rev). Blocking of viral entry Using antisense RNAs or ribozymes that inhibit co-receptor (i.e. CCR5, CXCR4) mRNA translation viral entry can be blocked. It also blocks the formation of syncytium in between gene modified HSCs and HIV infected. Blocking at a pre-integration step: Incoming HIV-1 virion RNA reverse transcription might be blocked using antisense RNA or ribozymes viral RNA reverse transcription can be restricted. Strategies can be designed to allow the interfering RNA can be designed that can access the incoming HIV virion RNA, before it is reverse transcribed as HIV RNA reverse transcription takes place in partially uncoated virions. Blocking the post-integration step: Interference with trans-activation of HIV gene expression: For transactivation of HIV-1 gene expression Tat/TAR interaction is required. Against the TAR and/or the tat coding region Antisense RNAs or ribozymes could be designed to inhibit transactivation or TAR decoy RNAs can be developed in use to block Tat protein function. Interference with nuclear export of singly spliced and unspliced HIV mRNAs: Interaction between Rev-RRE is required for nuclear export of singly-spliced and unspliced viral RNAs. Against the RRE sequence present in these viral RNAs antisense RNAs and ribozymes could be designed. To inhibit Rev function antisense RNAs or ribozymes may be designed against the rev coding region. RRE decoys can also be synthesised that can block 36

Rev protein function. Interference with HIV RNA translation: A common sequence EXON 1 is present in all HIV mRNA against which antisense RNA or ribozymes can be designed to inhibit viral mRNA translation. Thus, further translation of all (2, 45, and 9.3 kb) HIV mRNAs would be inhibited. Intervention at the level of infectious progeny virus production: Antisense RNAs and ribozymes directed against the coding regions of several viral proteins including Pr55, Gag Pr160, Gag-Pol Env, Vpu, and Vif that are required for the assembly, release, maturation, and infectivity of virus particles can be done to avoid formation of new viral particles or antisense RNA against factors that facilitate the viral packaging or co-packaging of ribozyme which degrades the viral RNA can be designed to inhibit the expansion of viral infection. ROADBLOCKS IN GENE THERAPY TO CURE AIDS siRNA/miRNA (small interfering/micro RNA) screenings, genome wide association studies (GWAS), and their meta-analyses were performed in different populations in order to understand the gross variability observed in genetic propensity towards HIV-1 [84,85,86]. However, the genetic prototype of natural viraemia controllers that empowers antiviral resistance remains largely enigmatic [86]. It was demonstrated in a report that although the recovered T cell population is resistant to CCR5-mediated HIV cell entry, these are not resistant to CXCR4-mediated cell entry by X4 tropic HIV. While this case study indicates the scope of gene therapy as a possible cure for HIV, it also raises issues of enhancing sensitivity of currently employed viral assays, risks from long lived non haematopoietic cell reservoirs, and restraints of X4 viruses. These are critical issues and hopefully answers to some of these would become available on long term follow up [87,86]. Variations in APOBEC3 genes might enhance resistance to vif and influence antiviral activity. A recent study has shown that an African variant of APOBEC3G H186R is associated with high www.ijsir.co.in

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viral load and progression to AIDS [88,89,86]. Similarly, a deletion of 29.5 kb from the 5 exon to 8 exon of APOBEC3B leads to complete loss of APOBEC3B and this has been reported to be associated with increased risk of HIV-1 infection and disease progression [88, 86]. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES Vaccines that can place appropriate immune effector responses at these early sites appear to provide meaningful protection. Although there remains much work to be done to optimize these approaches and translate this information to licensable vaccines, the HIV/AIDS vaccine field, for the first time, has a pathway to follow that is based on solid observations of efficacy and the foundation of an increasingly sophisticated understanding of lentiviral immunobiology. Gene therapy approaches for the treatment of HIV/AIDS holds great promise for a functional cure of the disease. In the most recent study, patients with AIDS-related lymphoma undergoing autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplant were infused with gene-modified, HIV-resistant stem cells to evaluate the safety and feasibility of this approach. Although a low level of gene marking was observed, the feasibility of isolating, gene modifying and delivering a HSPC product was demonstrated. Additionally, this study demonstrated long term expression of anti-HIV RNA sequences (> 3 years) demonstrating the potential for a long-lasting antiviral effect. In order to obtain substantial numbers of gene-modified lymphocytes resistant to HIV infection, it is still necessary to use myeloablation for stem cell transplants or repeated infusions of modified differentiated T cells for T-cell therapy. There is added difficulty of efficiently transducing stem cells to provide a sufficient population of genemodified stem cells that can give rise to HIVresistant progeny in the long term. Additionally, the large-scale production of viral vectors required for current gene therapy protocols can be costly. Thus, there is a need for better stem cell isolation and expansion protocols that do not result in loss of pluripotency. Results from early stage clinical trials have shown that gene-modified stem cells can engraft and reconstitute the hematopoietic niches. This is promising in combination with reports about www.ijsir.co.in

naturally cycling repopulating cells. It is possible that in the future the approach of permanent HIV gene therapy will change based on these findings. For example, it is conceivable that future protocols will comprise a continuous treatment with only few but highly pure repopulating cells that have been genetically modified prior to infusion. Repeated infusions of small numbers of cells could eventually lead to filling marrow niches with gene-modified progenitors. It may also be feasible to reconstruct the ‘Berlin patient’ results using ZFNs to disrupt the CCR5 gene in hematopoietic stem cells, followed by minitransplants. Improvements in combinatorial approaches involving anti-HIV small RNAs and proteins with low immunogenic profiles and identification of promoters better suited for continuous gene expression are expected to enhance anti-HIV resistance of individual cells. With the advances in our knowledge of HIV-1 biology, novel cellular targets can be identified, thereby expanding the repertoire of potential targets for HIV-1 gene therapies while reducing the likelihood of viral escape. As these obstacles are overcome, expect to see wider applications of gene therapy for the treatment and perhaps ‘curing’ of HIV-1 infection. REFERENCES 1.

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Janet Chung,1 Jane Zhang,1,2,* Haitang Li,1 Dominique L. Ouellet,1 David L. DiGiusto,3 and John J. Rossi. Endogenous MCM7 MicroRNA Cluster as a Novel Platfor to Multiplex Small Interfering and Nucleolar RNAs for Combinational HIV-1 Gene Therapy .DOI: 10.1089/hum.2012.011.

53. Cagnon L, Rossi JJ. Downregulation of the CCR5 beta-chemokine receptor and inhibition of HIV-1 infection by stable VA1-ribozyme chimeric transcripts. Antisense Nucleic Acid Drug Dev 2000;10(4):251-61. 54. Trobridge GD, et al. Protection of stem cell-derived lymphocytes in a primate AIDS gene therapy model after in vivo selection. PLoS One 2009;4(11):e7693. 55. Nakayama EE, Shioda T. Anti-retroviral activity of TRIM5 alpha. Rev Med Virol 2010;20(2):77-92. 56. Smith JL, et al. Multiple ways of targeting APOBEC3virion infectivity factor Interactions for anti-HIV-1 drug development. Trends PharmacolSci 2009;30(12):63846. 57. Albin JS, Harris RS, et al. Interactions of host APOBEC3 restriction factors with HIV-1 in vivo: implications for therapeutics. Expert Rev Mol Med 2010;12:e4. 58. Douglas JL, et al. The great escape: viral strategies to counter BST-2/tetherin.PLoSPathog 2010;6(5): e1000913. 59. Lee NS, et al. Expression of small interfering RNAs targeted against HIV-1 rev transcripts in human cells. Nat Biotechnol 2002;20(5):500-5. 60. Michienzi A, et al. Ribozyme-mediated inhibition of HIV 1 suggests nucleolar trafficking of HIV-1 RNA. ProcNatlAcadSci USA 2000;97(16):8955-60.

46. Van Rij, R.P., Andino, R., The silent treatment: RNAi as a defense against virus 676 infection in mammals. Trends Biotechnol. 2006; 24, 186–193.

61. Unwalla HJ, et al. Use of a U16 snoRNA-containing ribozyme library to identify ribozyme targets in HIV1.Mol Ther 2008;16(6):1113-9.

47. Barichievy, S., Saayman, S., Arbuthnot, P., Weinberg, M.S., RNA interference-based gene expression strategies aimed at sustained therapeutic inhibition of HIV. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2009; 9, 1065–1078.

62. Michienzi A, Li S, Zaia JA, Rossi JJ. A nucleolar TAR decoy inhibitor of HIV-1 replication. ProcNatlAcadSci USA 2002;99(22):14047-52.

48. Boden, D., Pusch, O., Lee, F., Tucker, L., Ramratnam, B., Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 escape from RNA interference. J. Virol., 2003; 77, 11531– 11535. 49. Das, A.T., Brummelkamp, T.R., Westerhout, E.M., Vink, M., Madiredjo, M., Bernards,R., Berkhout, B., Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 escapes from RNA interference-mediated inhibition. J. Virol.,2004; 78, 2601–2605. 50. Westerhout, E.M., Ooms,M., Vink, M., Das, A.T., Berkhout, B. . HIV-1 can escape from RNA interference by evolving an alternative structure in its RNA genome.Nucleic Acids Res. 2005 33,796–804.

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63. Bevec D, et al. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in human T cells by retroviralmediated gene transfer of a dominant-negative Rev trans-activator. ProcNatlAcadSci USA 2002;89(20):9870-4. 64. Bonyhadi ML, et al. RevM10-expressing T cells derived in vivo from transduced human hematopoietic stem-progenitor cells inhibit human immunodeficiency virus replication. J Viro 1997;71(6):4707-16. 65. Buonomo SB, et al. The Rev protein is able to transport to the cytoplasm small nucleolar RNAs containing a Rev binding element. RNA 1999;5(8):993-1002. 66. Weiss B, G. Davidkova& L. W. Zhou: Antisense RNA gene therapy for studying and modulating biological

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process. CMLS, Cell Mol Life Sci 1999; 55: 334-358. 67. Smythe J. A & G. Symonds: Gene therapeutic agents: the use of ribozymes, antisense,and RNA decoys for HIV-1 infection. Inflamm Res1995; 44, 11-15. 68. Tanner N. K: Ribozymes: the characteristics and properties of catalytic RNAs. FEMSMicrobiolRev ,1999;23, 257-275 . 69. Ramezani A & S. Joshi: Development of hammerhead ribozymes for HIV gene therapy: principles and progress. Gene TherMolBiol 1998; 3: 1-10. 70. Medina M. F. C & S. Joshi: RNA polymerase III-driven expression cassette in human gene therapy. CurrOpinMolTherapeutics 1999;1: 580- 594 . 71. Kestler H. W & B. K. Chakrabarti: A live-virus “suicide” vaccine for HIV. Cleve Clin J Med 64:1997; 269-274. 72. Schnell M. J, J. E. Johnson, L. Buonocore& J. K. Rose: Construction of a novel virus that targets HIV-1 infected cells and controls HIV-1 infection. Cell 1997;90, 849-857. 73. Janet Chung, David L DiGiusto& John J Rossi, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology,Duarte, CA, USA, Combinatorial RNA-based gene therapy for the treatment of HIV/AIDS, Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 2013; 13(3):437-445. 74. Sorrentino S & M. Libonati:Structure-function relationships in human RNases: main distinctive features of the major RNase types. FEBS Lett 1997;404, 1-5 . 75. Cohli H, B. Fan, R. L. Joshi, A. Ramezani, X. Li & S. Joshi: Inhibition of HIV-1 multiplication in a human CD4+ lymphoid cell line expressing antisense and sense RNA molecules containing HIV-1 packaging signal and RREs, Antisense Res Dev1994; 4,19-26. 76. Veres G, S. Escaich, J. Baker, C. Barske, C. Kalfoglou, H. Ilves, H. Kaneshima& E.Bohnlein: Intracellular expression of RNA transcripts complementary to the HIV-1 gag gene inhibits viral replication in human CD4+ lymphocytes. J Virol 1996; 70, 8792-8800. 77. Veres G, U. Junker, J. Baker, C. Barske, C. Kalfoglou, H. Ilves, S. Escaich, H. Kaneshima&E. Bohnlein: Comparative analyses of intracellularly expressed antisense RNAs asinhibitors of HIV-1 replication. J Virol1998; 72, 1894-1901 .

79. Haseloff J & W. L. Gerlach: Simple RNA enzymes with new and highly specific endo-ribonuclease activities,Nature1998; 334, 585-591 . 80. Cech T. R: Catalytic RNA: Structure and Mechanism.1992; Hop MemLec21, 229-234 . 81. Hampel A, R. Tritz, M. Hicks & P. Cruz: ‘Hairpin’ catalytic RNA model: evidence for helices and sequence requirement for substrate RNA,Nucl Acids Res 1990;18, 299-304 . 82. Hampel A: The hairpin ribozyme: discovery, twodimensional model, and development for gene therapy,ProgNucl Acids Res Mol Biol.1998; 58, 1-39. 83. Uhlenbeck O.C: A small catalytic oligonucleotide. Nature 1987; 328,596-600. 84. An P, Winkler CA. Host genes associated with HIV/ AIDS: advances in gene discovery. Trends Genet.2010;26:119–31. [PMCID: PMC3792714] [PubMed: 20149939]. 85.

Kaur G, Mehra N. Genetic determinants of HIV-1 infection and progression to AIDS: susceptibility to HIV infection. Tissue Antigens. 2009;73:289–301. [PubMed: 19317737].

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Gurvinder Kaur etal. Genomic architecture of HIV-1 infection: Current status & challenges. Indian J Med Res. Nov 2013; 138(5): 663–681. PMCID: PMC3928698.

87. Sharp PM, Hahn BH. Origins of HIV and the AIDS Pandemic. Cold Spring Harb Prospect Med. 2011;1:a006841. [PMCID: PMC3234451] 88. Kidd JM, Newman TL, Tuzun E, Kaul R, Eichler EE. Population stratification of a common 89. APOBEC gene deletion polymorphism. PLoS Genet. 2007;3:e63. [PMCID: PMC1853121] [PubMed: 17447845] Itaya S, Nakajima T, Kaur G, Terunuma H, Ohtani H, Mehra N, et al. No evidence of an association between the APOBEC3B deletion polymorphism and susceptibility to HIV infection and AIDS in Japanese and Indian populations. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:815–6. [PubMed: 20684727]

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A REVIEW ON SYNTHESIS, FABRICATION AND PROPERTIES OF NANOSTRUCTURED PURE AND DOPED TIN OXIDE FILMS *B.C. YADAV1,2 , RAKSHA DIXIT1 AND SATYENDRA SINGH2 1 Department of Applied Physics, School for Physical Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow-226025, U.P., India 2 Nanomaterials and Sensors Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Lucknow, Lucknow-226007, U.P., India *Email: balchandra_yadav@rediffmail.com

*Address for Correspondence : Dr. B.C. Yadav, Associate Professor and Coordinator, Department of Applied Physics, School for Physical Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow-226025, U.P., India, email: balchandra_yadav@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT The present review reports the synthesis, physical properties, status and prospects for the development of transparent conducting oxides. Progress in the field of material science is heavily depend on the development of metal oxides because they constitute a diverse and fascinating class of materials whose properties cover the entire range from metals to semiconductors and insulators. A special attention is focused on the properties of bulk and nanostructured materials especially tin oxide. Brief literature survey on pure and doped SnO2 has been incorporated. Synthesis and fabrication methods of nanostructured materials are mentioned. Phase diagram and crystal structure of tin oxide have also been described. In this article, we describe some of the important methods employed for synthesis and fabrication of nanostructures, describing a few case studies for illustrative purposes. Keywords: Pure and doped SnO2, Phase diagram, Synthesis techniques, TCOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s film fabrication. INTRODUCTION Metal oxides offer strong and versatile base materials for the development of novel technologies such as superconducting electronics, microwave communications, ferroelectric memories, infrared detectors, magnetic sensors, transparent conducting coatings and gas sensors [1]. The subtle interplay between structure and properties makes these materials strong candidates for the fundamental materials research world-wide. Among these metal oxides, semiconducting metal oxides having wide band gaps have attracted great interest, because of their future possible applications in areas, such as UV sensors, lightemitting diodes (LEDs), laser diodes (LDs), and other high-speed high-power electronic devices [2].

Tin (II) dioxide (VI) or SnO2, one of the important members of the II-VI family of semiconductors, combines high electrical www.ijsir.co.in

conductivity with much high optical transparency (> 97%) and thus constitutes an important component for optoelectronic applications. Another field in which oxides play a dominant role is the solid state gas sensors. A wide variety of oxides exhibit sensitivity towards oxidizing and reducing gases by a variation of their electrical properties, but SnO2 has been one of the first considered, and still is the most frequently used, material for these applications. There is an obvious close relationship between the gas sensitivity of oxides and their surface chemical activity and thus gas sensing applications and catalytic properties may be considered jointly. Thus SnO2 has been extensively studied for wide range of applications such as gas sensors, transparent conductive oxide (TCO) films, catalysis, and far-infrared dichromic mirrors. Chemical and thermal stability, natural off stoichiometery, optical transparency and possibility of conductivity variation over a wide range makes SnO2 suitable for above mentioned 41

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applications

[3].

PHASE DIAGRAM STRUCTURE

AND

CRYSTAL

There are two main oxides of tin: stannic oxide (SnO2) and stannous oxide (SnO). The existence of these two oxides reflects the dual valency of tin, with oxidation states of 2+ and 4+. Stannous oxide is lesser well characterized than SnO2. For example, its electronic band gap is not precisely determined but lies somewhere in the range of 2.5 to 3 eV. Thus SnO exhibits a smaller band gap than SnO2, which is commonly quoted to be 3.6 eV. Also, there are no single crystals available that would facilitate more detailed studies of stannous oxide. Stannic oxide is the more abundant form of tin oxide and is one of the technological significance in gas sensing applications and oxidation catalysts. In addition to the common rutile (tetragonal) structured SnO2 phase there also exists a slightly more dense orthorhombic high pressure phase. Suito et al. [4] showed that in a pressuretemperature diagram the regions of tetragonal and orthorhombic phases can be separated by a straight line of the equation given below:

temperatures less oxygen vacancies could be accommodated. The heats of formation for stannous and stannic oxides at 298 K were determined to be “H= -68 cal/mol and “H = -138 cal/mol, respectively [10]. This results in “H = -70 cal/mol for the reaction as given below: SnO(c) + ½ O2(g) ’! SnO2(c)

P (kbar) = 140.0 + 0.022 T (°C). Figure 1 (a) shows the Sn-O phase diagram at atmospheric pressure [5]. This diagram indicates the presence of an intermediate tinoxide phase between SnO and SnO2 at elevated temperature. Sn 3 O 4 is often given for its composition [6] but Sn 2O 3 [7-8] has also been considered. In these intermediate oxides Sn is present as a mixture of Sn(II) and Sn(IV) [6,8]. Also, the SnO2 phase can accommodate a significant amount of oxygen vacancies. Y.L. Zi et al. [9] measured the variation of the bulk oxygen vacancy concentration as a function of the oxygen partial pressure by colorimetric titration. They found a relationship of the oxygen vacancy concentration X with the oxygen partial pressure PO2 via the proportionality as:

Figure 1 (a): Sn-O phase diagram.

Also the disproportionation reaction of following reaction has been reported to occur at elevated temperatures [11]. SnO(c) ’! SnxOy(c) + Sn ’! SnO2(c) + Sn

X ∝ P02-1/ n with n varying between 5.7 and 8.3 for temperatures between 990 K and 720 K respectively. In these studies a maximum oxygen deficiency of x = 0.034 in SnO2-x at 990 K was observed before metallic Sn is formed. At lower 42

Figure 1(b): Comparison of the structure of the (a) SnO (001) and (b) SnO2 (101) surfaces. Small (bright) balls and large (dark) balls represent tin and oxygen, respectively. The similarities between these two crystal orientation have been proposed to

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 41-57, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971 explain the conversion of SnO (001) textured films into SnO2 (101) textures upon oxidation.

This disproportionation of SnO into Sn and SnO 2 proceeds via the aforementioned intermediates oxides [6-7]. This indicates that stannic oxide is the thermodynamically most stable form of tin oxide. The oxidation of SnO films to SnO 2 has been studied by Raman scattering, IR reflectivity and X-ray diffraction [12]. It was found that the oxidation starts with an internal disproportionation before external oxygen completes the oxidation to SnO2. More importantly, (001)-textured SnO layers convert into (101)-textured SnO 2 films. The same behavior was observed by Yamazaki et al. [13]. Geurts et al. [12] explain this by the structural similarities between the tin matrix of the SnO (001) plane and that of the SnO2 (101) plane. Because of this structural similarity essentially only the incorporation of an additional oxygen layer is required to obtain the final SnO2 structure. For comparison Figure 1(b) shows top views of SnO (001) and SnO2 (101). Stannic oxide is formed in the structure of rutile, the spatial group being P4/mnm. The unit cell is tetragonal, it consists of six atoms – two stannum and four oxygen atoms – and is characterized by the lattice parameters a and c and intrinsic parameter u. The atoms of Sn are located in the bcc-positions (0, 0, 0) and (1/2, 1/ 2, 1/2) and are surrounded by oxygen atoms being in the positions ± (u, u, 0) and ± (1/2+u, 1/ 2–u, 1/2) to form a distorted tetrahedron. The optimized cell parameters obtained in the calculation are as follows: a = b = 4.738Å, c = 3.188Å and u = 0.30756. The unit cell is shown in Figure 2. In the bulk all Sn atoms are six fold coordinated to threefold coordinate oxygen atoms. SnO2 is an anisotropic polar crystal, which crystallises in tetragonal rutile structure with space group D4h [P42/mm] [14-15]. The unit cell contains 6 atoms, 2 tins and 4 oxygens. Each tin atom is at the centre of six oxygen atoms placed approximately at the corners of a regular slightly deformed octahedron, and three tin atoms approximately at the corners of an equilateral triangle surrounding every oxygen atom (Figure 2 and 3). Sn also possesses a lower +2 oxidation state, with Sn(II) adopting distorted 4-fold coordination in the corresponding monoxide www.ijsir.co.in

SnO[16].

Figure 2 : Unit cell of SnO2. The shaded area represents the (110) surface [24-25].

Figure 3: Unit cell of SnO2 with four O2- anions and two Sn4+ cations. The crystalline structure of SnO2 is rutile; each tin atom is at the centre of six oxygen atoms placed approximately at the corners of a regular slightly deformed octahedron and three tin atoms approximately at the corners of an equilateral triangle surrounding every oxygen atom.

In its stoichiometric form SnO2 acts as an insulator, but in its oxygen-deficient form it behaves as an n-type semiconductor with a band gap of 3.6 eV. Although their conductivity is thought to be due to intrinsic defect formation, the exact mechanism is not well understood. Table 1 shows some physical properties of SnO2 materials. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE BULK ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF SnO AND SnO2 The bulk electronic structure has been investigated by a number of authors [17-21] although the detailed defect electronic structure has not yet been studied. Electronic conductivity could then occur due to the mobility of electrons from Sn (II) to Sn(IV) sites [22-23]. Since SnO2 is a n43

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type wide-band gap semiconductor. The origin of this n-type behavior is the native nonstoichiometry caused by oxygen vacancies. The conduction band has its minimum at the &” point in the Brillouin zone and is a 90% tin s-like state. The valence band consists of a set of three bands (2+, 3+ and 5+). Figure 4 shows the band diagram for SnO2 and the projection of the density of states (DOS) for the 1-states of Sn and O. According to results of Barbarat et al. a large contribution of Sn(s)- states is found at the bottom of the valence band between –7 and –5 eV [17]. From –5 eV to the top of the valence band, the Sn(p)- states contribution is decreasing, as the Sn (d)- states are occupying the top of the valence band. A large and extended contribution of the O (p) state is found in the valence band. Clearly, bonding between Sn and O is dominated by the p-state of the latter. Each anion in the unit cell is found to be bonded to the cations in a planartrigonal configuration in such a way that the oxugen p orbitals contained in the four-atom plane, i.e., px and py orbitals, define the bonding plane. Consequently, the oxygen p orbitals perpendicular to the bonding plane, i.e., p z orbitals, have a non-bonding character and are expected to form the upper valence levels [26-27]. The conduction band shows a predominant contribution of Sn(s) states up to 9.0 eV. For energies larger than 9.0 eV an equal contribution of Sn- and O-states is found in the conduction band. More information, mainly about the valence band, can be found in [28-30] and references therein.

species and its neighboring atoms. Both models have their merits, but to understand the surface reactions of semiconductors with gases both chemical and physical perspectives have to be considered [35]. Table 1: Physical Properties of SnO2.

Molecular formula Crystal Structure Space group Geometry Heat Formation[eV] Symmetry Sn-O bond lengths Tin sphere radius Density Molecular Mass Lattice constants at room temperature Melting point Relative permittivity Band gap energy at room temperature (Eg) Specific heat capacity (Cp) Thermal conductivity (k) Thermal diffusivity (α)

SnO2 Rutile(tetragonal), P42/mnm, No. 136 Planar (O2- ) 6.0 Oh 2.054 Å 1.384Å 6.95 g/cm3 150.71 g/mol a = b = 4.738 Å , c = 3.188 Å 1630 °C 7.5 3.6 eV 70 J/(K mol) 4.5 W/(K m) 0.015 cm2/s

When discussing the atomistic and electronic behavior of a surface there are two dominant models in literature: the atomistic model [31-32] or surface molecule model (Figure 5), generally preferred by chemists, and the band model [33-34], generally preferred by physicists. The atomistic model is more appropriate for chemical processes at a solid surface. It describes the solid surface in terms of surface sites or atoms, ignoring the band structure of the solid. The band model is preferable for electron exchanges between (semiconductors) solids and surface groups that include a conductivity change for the solid. It describes the surface in terms of surface states, i.e. localized electronic energy levels available at the surface, ignoring the microscopic details of atom-atom interaction between surface 44

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BRIEF LITERATURE SURVEY ON PURE AND DOPED SnO2

Figure 4: Band diagram of SnO 2 (top) and projection of the density of states (DOS) for the 1s states of SnO2, Sn and O (bottom) [36].

From a chemical standpoint, a surface can be divided into surface sites of varying reactivity. Usually, more reactive sites can be associated with heterogeneous surface regions or surface imperfections. Examples of reactive sites are surface atoms with unoccupied or unsaturated orbitals (“dangling bonds”), surface atoms with unsaturated coordination sphere, crystallographic steps, intersections, interstitial defects or superstructures. From a physical point of view the interruption of the crystal periodicity at the surface results in localized energy levels. These can function as acceptor or donor states, exchanging or sharing electrons with the nonlocalized energy bands in the bulk of the solid. Those energy levels in the band gap have an effect on the electronic properties of the solid, especially for semiconductors. Surface states can result from non-ideal stoichiometry or bulk defects (intrinsic) or arise from (intentional) impurities, as for doping (extrinsic).

Figure 5: Ideal and reduced (compact) SnO2 (110) surfaces; the schema on the right is obtained by removing the bridging oxygen layers.

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Recently the work on transparent semiconducting oxides (TCO’s) such as ZnO, SnO2, In2O3 and Cd2SnO4 has been of great technological interest due to their high quality of electrical and optical properties [37]. Besides, a wide variety of oxides exhibit sensitivity towards oxidizing (O2, NO2, SO2 etc.) and reducing (H2, hydrocarbon, LPG etc.) gases by a variation of their electrical properties. So many efforts are being made to control the sizes and shapes of various oxide nanostructures for tailoring their physical properties [38-39]. Among these oxides, tin oxide (SnO2) belongs to a class of materials that combines high electrical conductivity with optical transparency and thus constitutes an important component for optoelectronic (photovoltaics) applications, rechargeable lithium batteries [40], antistatic coating, transparent electrode preparation and widely used as a photocatalyst for oxidation of organic compounds. Tin oxide is an n- type wide band gap semiconductor (Eg = 3.6 ~ 3.97 eV) [41] and its electrical properties critically depend on its stoichiometry with respect to oxygen, on the nature and amount of impurities or dopants present and on its size as well as shape of nanostructures [42- 44]. Materials based on tin oxide (SnO2) have also been proposed as alternative anode materials with high energy densities and stable capacity relation in lithium ion batteries [45-47]. Various SnO2-based materials have displayed extraordinary electrochemical behavior such that the initial irreversible capacity induced by Li 2 O formation and the abrupt capacity fading caused by volume variation could be effectively reduced when in nanoscale form [48-50]. Tin oxide has also been one of the first considered and still has shown very high sensitivity towards reducing gases such as H2, CO, hydrocarbon, and alcohol. Its sensitivity can be further improved by increasing the surface area. Therefore, the use of porous nanostructured SnO2 with large surface to volume ratio and small crystal size could lead to easy gas transport and interesting optical and electrical properties. When undoped, it behaves like n-type semiconductor due to oxygen vacancies and interstitial tin atoms. Since antimony (Sb) is a common n-type dopant in SnO2, so tin oxide doped with Sb have interesting electrochemical 45

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properties in different electrode processes, like low temperature electrochemical combustion of organic pollutants, ozone production and organic electro-synthesis. Antimony-doped tin dioxides possess interesting physical and chemical properties. These properties have a wide range of applications such as catalysis and optoelectronic devices. This is why such materials are intensively studied using a diverse range of analysis methods. Although there has been great interest in the effect of oxidation states of antimony on tin dioxide, the nature of the antimony sites in highly doped nanocrystalline tin dioxide is still not well understood [51]. However, it is widely accepted that antimony can and usually exist in both +III and +V oxidation states in the Sb-doped tin dioxide structures [51-53]. The +V oxidation state is in particularly tight association with sites inside the tin dioxide particle. This association is due to its slightly smaller ionic radii (60 pm) of antimony +V, which enables it to replace the tin ion (69 pm) more easily than does the lager antimony +III (76 pm) ion. On the other hand, the +III Sb ion tends to replace tin ions at the surface sites or at grain boundaries [52-55]. Antimony +V imparts n-type conductivity to nanocrystalline tin dioxide. In contrast, doping tin dioxide with antimony of oxidation state +III decreases its conductivity to that of an insulator [56]. SYNTHESIS OF TIN OXIDE (SnO 2 ) IN GENERAL (1) Thermal Evaporation Thermal evaporation is one of the simplest and most popular synthetic method, and it has been very success and versatile in fabricating nanostructured materials with various characteristics. The basic process of this method is sublimating the source materials in powder form at high temperature, followed by a subsequent deposition of the vapour in a particular temperature zone to form the desired nanostructures of the different materials [57-59]. (2) Sol-Gel Process Sol-gel process is a wet chemical route that involves synthesis of a colloidal suspension of solid particles or clusters in a liquid (sol) and 46

subsequently the formation of a dual phase material consisting of a solid skeleton filled with a solvent (wet gel) through the sol-gel transition (gelation). When the solvent is removed, the wet gel can be converted to various types of nanostructured materials through an appropriate drying or sintering process [60-64]. Numerous excellent reviews can be found in the literature concerning the sol-gel processing of materials. In this section, we would like to summarize the main features and to underline the major advantages in the view of producing scintillators. During the last 30 years, sol-gel processes have been widely used for the preparation of glasses and ceramics. Usually, starting with molecular precursors like alkoxides or acetates, the sol-gel process takes place in solution. This provides definitive homogeneity for multi component systems. In the particular case of doping, the sol-gel process provides an ideal way to control the level and the homogeneity of doping. For luminescent materials, this is crucial since the light emission is usually due to doping of ions like rare-earth or transition metals ions. Quenching concentrations are usually found higher for sol-gel-derived materials because of better dispersion of doping ions and thus higher average distance between emitting centers. Several authors have also developed heterometallic precursors associating different elements through chemical bonding and thus providing the highest homogeneity. As far as alkoxides chemistry is concerned, it is useful to distinguish the case of silicon alkoxides (Si being a semimetal) and the case of metal alkoxides. The sol-gel process involving silicon alkoxide can be described in two steps, the hydrolysis of the alkoxide and its polycondensation. Usually, silicon alkoxides are very stable against hydrolysis. Step 1 thus requires catalysis usually performed by using acids or bases. Contrary to silicon alkoxides, metal alkoxides react very quickly with water in absence of catalysts. In particular, transition metal alkoxides are very reactive because of the presence of highly electronegative or groups that stabilize the central atom in its highest oxidation state. This in turn makes the metal atom very susceptible to nucleophilic attack. An excellent www.ijsir.co.in

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review presents the chemical reactivity of metal alkoxides. In any case, both for silicon and metal alkoxides, the ongoing polycondensation process leads to the formation of a 3D network. The point where this network extends throughout the reactor is described by the percolation theory and named the gel point. The obtained wet gel can be dried in various conditions leading a xerogel with residual porosity. Further heating of the xerogel in controlled conditions allows obtaining the desired glass or ceramic. Before the gel point, the colloidal solution can be stabilized and used directly to coat various substrates by classical techniques like dip coating, spin coating, or spray. This provides a low cost and efficient way to produce nanometric thin films with good homogeneity. Furthermore, the temperatures required for the full densification and crystallization of the desired glass/ceramic are usually lower than the ones required by classical melting or solid-state processes. This can be interesting from an economical point of view but also because in some cases, the obtained phases can differ from the one obtained by classical procedures. By this way, new phases can be obtained or hightemperature phases can be stabilized at room temperature. Here, we mention the synthesis of antimonytin oxide. In the typical synthesis, 5-10 ml of hydrochloric acid was added in double distilled water. At the moment SnCl2. 2H2O and SbCl3 precursor solution was mixed to the above solution and stirred for 6 h. In addition, small amount (5-10 ml) of poly-ethylene glycol was added which works as capping agent. Vigorous magnetic stirring was done for 18-24 h to ensure complete and intimate reaction between the various components. The product was dried for 5 h at 80 °C in an oven and calcined at 400 °C for 3 h, resulting in complete crystallization to obtain antimony-tin oxide into powder form. (3) Vapor phase evaporation The vapor phase evaporation represents the simplest method for the synthesis of onedimensional oxide nanostructures. The syntheses were usually conducted in a tube furnace as schematically shown in Figure 6 [65]. The desired source oxide materials (usually in www.ijsir.co.in

the form of powders) were placed at the center of an alumina or quartz tube that was inserted in a horizontal tube furnace, where the temperatures, pressure, and evaporation time were controlled. Before evaporation, the reaction chamber was evacuated to <“ 1–3×10–3 Torr by a mechanical rotary pump. At the reaction temperature, the source materials were heated and evaporated, and the vapor was transported by the carrier gas (such as Ar) to the downstream end of the tube, and finally deposited onto either a growth substrate or the inner wall of the alumina or quartz tube. For the vapor phase evaporation method, the experiments were usually carried out at a high temperature (> 800 C) due to the high melting point and low vapor pressure of the oxide materials. In order to reduce the reaction temperature, a mixed source material, in which a reduction reaction was involved, was employed. (4) Hydrothermal Synthesis Hydrothermal synthesis appeared in 19th century and became an industrial technique for large size quartz crystal growth in 20th century [66]. Recent years, hydrothermal synthesis method has been widely used for preparation of numerous kinds of inorganic and organic nanostructures. Hydrothermal synthesis offers the possibility of one-step synthesis under mild conditions (typically < 300 ° C) in scientific research and industrial production [67]. It involves a chemical reaction in water above ambient temperature and pressure in a sealed system. In this system, the state of water is between liquid and steam, and called as supercritical fluid (Figure 7). The solubility to the reactants and transportation ability to the ions in the liquid of such a fluid is much better than that in water. Therefore, some reactions that are impossible to carry on in water in ambient atmosphere can happen at a hydrothermal condition. Normally, hydrothermal synthesis process is a one-step reaction. All the reactants with water are added into the autoclave. The reaction occurs in the sealed autoclave when the system is heated, and the nanostructures can be obtained after the autoclave cooled down. Formation of metal oxides through a hydrothermal method should follow such a principal mechanism: the metal ions 47

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in the solution react with precipitant ions in the solution and form precipitate, and the precipitate dehydrate or decompound in the solution at a high temperature and form crystalline metal oxide nanostructures [68]. Figure 7 shows a typical autoclave for synthesis of oxide nanostructure. Earlier the different nanostructures (nanorods, nanospheres, nanocubes, nanoribbons, nanocubes and nanowires etc.) of undoped and doped SnO2 has been reported by many authors by different methods. Some results are given below in a Table 2 [69-73]. Possible advantages of the hydrothermal method over other types of crystal growth include the ability to create crystalline phases which are not stable at the melting point. Also, materials which have a high vapor pressure near their melting points can also be grown by the hydrothermal method. The method is also particularly suitable for the growth of large goodquality crystals while maintaining good control over their composition. Disadvantages of the method include the need of expensive autoclaves, and the impossibility of observing the crystal as it grows.

Figure 6: Schematic experimental setup for the growth of one-dimensional oxide nanostructures via an evaporation-based synthetic method.

Figure 7: Phase Diagram of water (a); An autoclave for synthesis of oxide nanostructure (b) 48

Table 2: Reported different type of nanostructure of SnO2 by different method.

Method

Shape (Nano Range)

Reference

Chemical vapor deposition

Nanowires (size ranging from 70 to 150 nm)

[69]

Thermal evaporation

Polyhedron-shaped (200 to 1300 nm)

[70]

Wet chemistry technique

Nanospheres (diameters of∼30 nm)

[71]

Thermal evaporation technique

Tree branch, Flowerlike, Hollow Square

[72]

Hydrothermal technique

Nanorods (100–150 nm), [73] with lengths of the order of 1–2 µ m

TRANSPARENT CONDUCTING OXIDE FILMS One of the most important fields of current interest in materials science is the fundamental aspects and applications of conducting transparent oxide thin films (TCO). Transparent conducting films act as a window for light to pass through the active material beneath (where carrier generation occurs) and as an ohmic contact for carrier transport out of the photovoltaic. Transparent conducting oxide (TCO) thin films are semiconducting materials with large band gaps of energies corresponding to wavelengths which are shorter than the visible range (380 nm to 750 nm). As such, photons with energies below the band gap are not collected by these materials and thus visible light passes through. Thus TCO have not only high optical transmittance in the visible region but also have relatively high electrical conductivity and high reflectance in the IR region. However, applications such as photovoltaic’s (PV) may require an even broader band gap to avoid unwanted absorption of the solar spectra. This unique combination of physical properties i.e. transparency and electrical conductivity, makes them suitable for a variety of applications in optoelectronic devices. Consequently, various techniques for the growth of these films have been recently intensively investigated. The growth technique plays a significant role in determining the properties of these films, because the same material deposited by two www.ijsir.co.in

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different techniques usually may have different micro and macro properties. The simultaneous occurrence of high optical transparency (>80%) in the visible spectrum and low electrical resistivity (10-3 Ù-cm or less) is not possible in an intrinsic stoichiometric oxides, because of the large optical band gap (> 2.0 eV). Partial transparency and fairly good conductivity may be obtained in very thin (< 10 nm) films of metals. On the other hand, the only way to have transparent conductors is to populate the conduction band with electrons in spite of the wide band gap by controlled creation of nonstoichiometry or the introduction of appropriate dopants. These conditions are very conveniently obtained in oxides of cadmium (Cd), tin (Sn), indium (In), zinc (Zn) and their alloys in thin film form, prepared by a number of different deposition techniques. The first report of a transparent conducting oxide (TCO) was published in 1907, when Badeker [74] reported that thin films of Cd metal deposited in glow discharge chamber could be oxidized to become transparent while remaining electrically conducting. Since then, the commercial value of these thin films has been recognized, and the transparent and electrically conducting oxide films (TCO), e.g., In2O3:Sn (ITO), SnO2 (TO), ZnO and ZnO:Al (AZO), have been extensively studied owing to their variety of applications in optoelectronic devices and as gas sensors. The optoelectronic applications include the transparent electrodes for flat panel displays (FPD’s), solar cells, light emitting diodes and transparent heating elements for aircraft and automobile windows, heat reflecting mirrors for glass windows, and antireflection coatings [75-79]. In FPD’s, the basic function of ITO is as transparent electrodes. The volume of FPDs produced, (and hence the volume of ITO coatings) continues to grow rapidly. Specifically, for applications in the field of thin film solar cells, the TCO can serve as an electrode and protection layer of the p-n junction, which is the main part for the performance of solar cells. In terms of conductivity and transmission, each TCO varies. Therefore, choosing the type of TCO is a major issue for a new solar cell design. Beside the optoelectronic applications, transparent conductive oxide (TCO) films have found a wide range of applications in electric equipments and www.ijsir.co.in

coatings where transparency is required. This material constitutes an important commercial use in the manufacture of anti-frost windshields (nesa glass) and in the manufacture of thin film resistor. At present, and likely well into the future, tin-doped indium oxide (ITO) material offers the best available performance in terms of conductivity (~ 104 Ù cm) and transmission (8090%), combined with excellent environmental stability, reproducibility, and good surface morphology. However, the enormously high cost of indium, toxicity and the scarcity of this material create the difficulty in obtaining low cost TCO’s. Hence search for other alternative TCO materials has been a topic of research for the last few decades. It includes some binary materials like ZnO, CdO, SnO and ternary materials like 2

Zn 2 SnO 4 , CdSb 2 O 6 : Y, ZnSO 3 , GaInO 3 etc. However, the application of binary oxides e.g. ZnO and SnO2 thin films is sometimes limited because these materials could become unstable in certain chemically aggressive and/or elevated temperature environments. The introduction of multi -component oxide materials resulted in the design of TCO films suitable for specialized applications. This is mainly because one can control their electrical, optical, chemical and physical properties by altering the chemical compositions. But the major advantages of using binary materials are that their chemical compositions and depositions conditions can be controlled easily. Among the available TCO’s, SnO2 seems to be more appropriate because they are quite stable towards atmospheric conditions, chemically inert, mechanically hard and can resist high temperature. As reported [80-81] tin containing oxides are promising anode materials for secondary lithium ion batteries. Several studies [82-83] show that antimony (Sb) as well as zinc (Zn) doped tin oxide (ATO and ZTO) are a possible alternative to ITO because both are inexpensive as well as chemically and thermally stable. Antimony and zinc doped tin oxide was reported to behave as n-type semiconductor with wide band gap within 3.6-4.2 eV, displaying low resistivity, remaining transparent in wavelength that includes the visible region. On the other hand, a group has also reported that SnO2 films doped with fluorine or antimony are better suited 49

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in order to get low electrical resistivity and high transmittance for solar cell applications [84]. Tin oxide thin films are n-type semiconductors with high transparency (> 97% in visible range for films of thickness 0.1-1.0 ìm) and very good electrical conductivity (104-106 Ù1 cm -1 ). The films are chemically inert, mechanically hard and can resist high temperature. Owing to its low resistivity and high transmittance, tin oxide thin films are used in solar cells as a window material and as an electrode to collect the charge in CdS/Cu2S, CdS/ CdTe and amorphous silicon solar cells, heat reflectors in solar cells, various gas sensors, liquid crystal displays etc. [85-91]. In addition to solar cell technology, tin oxide has also been used in fabrication of gas sensors due to the sensitivity of its surface conductance to gas adsorption [92-93]. To increase the electrical conductivity and transparency of the SnO2 thin film various dopants were introduced. Since the appropriate doping can enhance the electrical conductivity and transparency of these films, thus the purpose of present work is to improve the electrical (conductivity) and optical (transparency) properties of the spray deposited un-doped SnO2 thin film by introducing different dopants (Sb and Zn) at different substrate (optical glass) temperature. BRIEF LITERATURE SURVEY ON TIN OXIDE THIN FILMS SnO2 is a perfect insulator in its bulk form. When these materials are prepared from spraying method, deviation from the stoichiometry occurs and hence the material becomes semi-metallic. The challenge is to produce coatings of this non-stoichiometric oxide, which are highly transparent and conducting. To conquer this problem, variants of the standard deposition techniques and precursors are being tried out. SnCl 4 has been used as the very common source of tin in spray pyrolysis technique and in few cases, organic tin compounds, and tin (II) fluoride have also been used [94-95]. Tin oxide is a crystalline solid with a tetragonal crystal lattice. It is a wide band gap, non stoichiometric semiconductor and behaves more or less as a degenerate n-type 50

semiconductor with a low n-type resistivity (H” 10 -3 &!-cm) [96]. Tin oxide can exist in two structures belonging to direct and indirect optical transitions, with different band gaps; a direct band gap that ranges from 3.6 to 4.6 eV [97] at room temperature and indirect band gap of about 2.6 eV. An important property of tin oxide is that it is the most chemically stable in atmospheric ambient [98] amongst the other metal oxides. Among the various transparent conducting oxides (TCO’s), SnO2 has been the subject of research over a number of years [99-100], because it is a naturally non-stoichiometric prototypical transparent conducting oxide. SnO2 thin films are transparent in the region above 400 nm which is the region of interest for electrochromic devices. SnO2 films were used extensively as transparent electrodes in display devices like LCDs, and as transparent active layers in SnO2/silicon solar cells, optical waveguides, ultra- sensitive gas sensors, transistors, organic light emitting diodes, thermoelectric energy conversions, transparent electrodes and electrically conductive glass [101107]. Among the variety of methods that have been proposed for depositing films of SnO 2, spray pyrolysis has been found to be attractive from the point of view of its simplicity and low cost. There are many techniques for fabrication of conductive thin film, including sputtering, thermal evaporation, dip coating and chemical vapour or spray deposition by which the SnO2 films may be deposited on glass substrates [108110]. In this study, tin oxide thin films were prepared by the spray pyrolysis technique. The spray pyrolysis technique is particularly attractive because of its simplicity. It is fast, inexpensive, vacuum less and suitable for mass production [111].

(1) Zn-doped SnO2 thin film (ZTO) Zinc-doped tin (IV) oxide (ZTO) is also a useful material for many reasons. First, it provides an amorphous nature and a low processing temperature compared to high processing temperatures of crystalline oxide channels. ZTO shows improved transistor performance because of its high electron mobility (30 cm2/Vs at 500°C) in spite of its amorphous character. It has many attractive properties as Minami et al. [76] concluded. ZTO film (ZnSnO3) showed superior www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 41-57, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

properties as compared with SnO2 and ZnO, such as the zinc-stannate films were more thermally stable in hydrogen environment than SnO2 films and are chemically stable in acidic and basic solutions than ZnO films [112]. ZTO shows extreme resistance to scratching and more importantly forms an exceedingly smooth surface in thin films[113-114] (2) Sb-doped SnO2 thin film (ATO) Antimony-doped tin oxide (ATO) possesses special electrical and optical properties and has applications in transparent electrodes, energy storage devices, print displays and heating elements. Antimony doped and un-doped SnO2 films have been prepared by electron beam evaporation and spray pyrolysis methods [115]. The optical band gap of the spray deposited film in the range of 4.07-4.11 eV has been reported [116]. ATO spray deposited films have shown a sharp decrease in the resistivity. The best conductivity of the films is achieved, when the dopant is in the range of 1-2 wt%. Doping with 5 wt% leads to a higher sheet resistance (e” 0.5 kÙ/cm2) compared to un-doped films (453 Ù/cm2) at one and the same temperature. This effect was explained by Sb addition to SnO 2 . The incorporation of Sb atoms into the Sn4+ sites of the SnO2 lattice is substitutional. In Sb doped SnO2 films, Sb can be present in two different oxidation states, Sb5+ and Sb3+. During the initial addition of Sb in the film, Sb5+ incorporated at Sn4+ sites acts as donor and creates excess electrons [117]. The mobility and the carrier concentration of the film are reported to be e” 1 cm2/V.s and 10x1020 / cm3, respectively. Spray pyrolysis techniques have been used to prepare ATO thin film [118]. Sb doping levels used were 1 to 4 wt%. The dependence of the crystallinity of the films on the Sb doping level is reviewed. Films doped with 1 wt% have large grains in contrast to those fabricated with higher doping levels [119]. PREPARATION OF PURE AND DOPED SnO2 THIN FILM IN GENERAL Thin film properties are strongly dependent on the method of deposition, the substrate materials, the substrate temperature, the rate of deposition, and the background pressure. Specific applications in modern technology demand such film properties as high optical www.ijsir.co.in

reflection/transmission, hardness, adhesion, non-porosity, high mobility of charge carriers, chemical inertness toward corrosive environments, and stability with respect to temperature. Somewhat less required properties are stoichiometric composition and high orientation in single crystal films. The need for new and improved optical and electronic devices stimulated, in addition, the study of thin solid films of single elements, as well as binary and ternary systems, with controlled composition and specific properties, and has consequently accelerated efforts to develop different thin film deposition techniques. Further, pure and doped tin oxides show significant sensitivity to humidity adsorption and thus may be challenging materials for humidity sensing point of view [120-124]. The thin film deposition techniques can be classified according to the scheme shown in Figure 8. The common techniques that have been used to grow TCO films include Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), Spray Pyrolysis, Sputtering, Reactive and Plasma Assisted Reactive Evaporation, Ion Beam Sputtering, Ion Plating and Filtered Vacuum Arc Deposition (FVAD). Each of these techniques has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, spray techniques are very cheap, deposition parameters are easily controllable but the produced films are not so stable. (1) Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) is a material synthesis method in which the constituents in the vapor phase react to form a solid film on a substrate. Gas precursors can be used directly, and liquid precursors can be used with a bubbler, in which a carrier gas is passed through the liquid. The chemical reaction is an essential part of this technique and should be well understood. Various types of chemical reactions are utilized in CVD (Figure 9) for the formation of solids. In one type of reaction, a vapor precursor that contains the material to be deposited is decomposed by reduction, e.g. using hydrogen at an elevated temperature. Decomposition is accomplished by thermal activation. Alternatively, plasma activation may be used to reduce or decompose the pre-cursor at a lower temperature than with thermal activation. 51

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CVD processes have numerous other names; such as: metal-organic CVD when plasma is used to induce or enhance decomposition and reaction; low pressure CVD when the pressure is less than ambient; and lowpressure plasma enhanced CVD PECVD when the pressure is low enough that ions can be accelerated to appreciable energies from the plasma. (2) Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) is an evaporation technique in which a laser pulse is used to ablate target material, producing a local plasma jet. The plasma also contains energetic molecular clusters and macro-particles. The emission of these macro-particles is a serious drawback. A solution to this problem is to use crossed laser induced evaporation plumes to discriminate macro-particles ejected from the target. The energy of the evaporated material The energy spectrum of the plasma particles consists of a major relatively low-energy component (1-100 eV) and a minor high-energy component (up to a few keV). As this energetic impact of the evaporated material is kept responsible for a layer growth with smooth surfaces, a choice of the proper laser pulse energy is required. Each laser pulse evaporates a well-defined amount of material. Multilayer films can be very accurately controlled by varying the number of laser pulses.

produce a vacuum environment, and give a sufficient amount of heat to the evaporant to attain the desired vapor pressure, and allow the evaporated material to condense on a substrate kept at a suitable temperature. The important process parameters are the substrate material, source and substrate temperatures, sourcesubstrate distance, and background gas composition and pressure. Evaporants with an extraordinary range of chemical reactivity and vapor pressures have been deposited. This variety leads to a large diversity of source designs including resistance-heated filaments, electron beams, crucibles heated by conduction, radiation, or rf-induction, arcs, exploding wires, and lasers. (4) Chemical Spray Pyrolysis (CSP) It is a process where a precursor solution, containing the constituent elements of the compound, is pulverized in the form of tiny droplets onto the preheated substrate, where upon the thermal decomposition of the precursor an adherent film of thermally more stable compound forms.

(3) Vacuum Evaporation Vacuum evaporation (including sublimation) is a physical vapor deposition (PVD) process where material is thermally vaporized from a source and reaches the substrate without collision with gas molecules in the space between the source and substrate. The trajectory of the vaporized material is â&#x20AC;&#x153;line-of-sight.â&#x20AC;? Typically, vacuum evaporation is conducted in a gas pressure range of 10-5 to 10-9 Torr, depending on the level of contamination that can be tolerated in the deposited film [125]. The basic system and evaporator source configurations are shown in Figure 10. Deposition of thin films by evaporation is very simple and convenient, and is the most widely used technique. One merely has to 52

Figure 8: A schematic diagram of thin film deposition techniques.

Spray pyrolysis involves several stages: (1) generation of micro sized droplets of precursor solution, (2) evaporation of solvent, (3) condensation of solute, (4) decomposition of the precursor or solute and (5) sintering of the solid particles. www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 41-57, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

Figure 9: A schematic drawing of the CVD technique.

Figure 10: Schematic diagram of the pulsed laser deposition system.

Figure 11: Conventional vacuum evaporation system and evaporator source configurations.

The quality of films, when prepared by spray pyrolysis coating unit, depends on various parameters such as spray rate, substrate temperature and the ratio of the various constituents in the solutions [126]. Since the deviation from stoichiometry due to oxygen vacancies makes thin films to possess semiconducting nature, it is necessary that the complete oxidation of the metal should be avoided in order to obtain films with good conductivity. This is generally achieved by adding appropriate reducing agents. Methanol www.ijsir.co.in

can be used as the reducing agent .Generally SnCl 2 .2H 2 O dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid by heating at 90Â°C for 10 min. The addition of HCl rendered the solution transparent, mostly, due to the breakdown of the intermediate polymer molecules. The transparent solution thus obtained and subsequently diluted by methanol, served as the precursor. To achieve Sb doping, antimony trichloride (SbCl3) was dissolved in isopropyl alcohol and added to the precursor solution. The amount of SbCl3 to be added depends on the desired doping concentration. Microscope glass slides, cleaned with organic solvents, were used as substrates. CSP is a convenient, simple and low-cost method for the deposition of large-area thin films, and it has been used for a long time. Additionally it is a low cost method i.e., the device does not require high quality targets or vacuum. Also the composition and microstructure can easily be controlled and the deposition takes place at moderate temperatures of 100-500 ÂşC. Furthermore, it offers the possibility of mass production. However as every other method, CSP has some disadvantages such as the possibility of oxidation of sulfides when processed in air atmosphere, difficulties regarding the growth temperature determination. Apart from that after a long processing time the spray nozzle may become cluttered. Finally the films quality may depend on the droplet size and spray nozzle. This method is useful for the deposition of oxides and is also a powerful method to synthesize a wide variety of high purity, chemically homogeneous ceramic powders. CONCLUSION Metal nanoparticles of varying sizes can be prepared by physical as well as chemical methods. They exhibit many fascinating properties, the size-dependent metal to nonmetal transition being an important one. The quest for nanoscale architecture has demanded newer synthetic methodologies for forming and organizing metal particles. We have discussed some properties of bulk and nanosized tin oxide. The synthesis methods of SnO2 and doped SnO2 have been discussed. In addition the fabrication techniques of thin/thick film have been described. 53

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 41-57, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971 semiconductors SnO and SnO2. Physica B, 2007, 389, 140-144.

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 58-66, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

MINIMIZATION OF CONTACT TIME FOR TWO-STAGE BATCH ADSORBER DESIGN USING SECOND-ORDER KINETIC MODEL FOR ADSORPTION OF METHYLENE BLUE (MB) ON USED TEA LEAVES S.P. SHUKLA 1*, A. SINGH2, LALJI DWIVEDI6, K J. SHARMA6, D.S. BHARGAVA3, R. SHUKLA4, N.B. SINGH1, V.P. YADAV5, MARKANDEYA1 1 Institute of Engineering and Technology ,Lucknow, India 2 Lucknow Model Institute of Technology and Management, Lucknow, India 3 Bhargava Lane, Devpura, Haridwar, India 4 Babu Banarasi Das National Institute of Technology and Management, Lucknow, India 5 Central Pollution Control Board Delhi, India 6 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

*Address for correspondence :Dr. S. P. Shukla, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, e-mail: sps.iet@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The adsorption of Methylene Blue (MB) dye on used tea leaves has been studied in a batch adsorber. The equilibrium data fit well in the Langmuir isotherm. Three simplified kinetic models based on pseudo first-order equation, pseudo second-order equation and intra particle diffusion equations were selected to study the adsorption process. Kinetic parameters, rate constants, equilibrium adsorption capacities and related correlation coefficients for each kinetic model are presented in this paper. Adsorption of MB dye on used tea leaves is found to be described best by the pseudo second-order equation and the same has been used for the design of a twostage batch adsorber. The model has been optimized to minimize total contact time for MB dye removal. The optimum contact time for the 99% removal of MB dye has been found as 28.1 minute. Keywords: Two-stage batch adsorber, Contact time, Adsorption kinetics, Methylene Blue, Used tea leaves INTRODUCTION Dyes used in various industries (such as textile, tannery, food, pulp and paper) to color their products are an important source of environmental contamination. Color is a visible pollutant and the presence of even very little amount of coloring substance makes it undesirable due to its appearance (Hamdaoui et al., 2008). The presence of dyes in waste water offers considerable resistance to their biodegradation and thus upsetting aquatic life (Wong and Yu, 1999). Some of the dyes are carcinogenic and mutagenic (Sivaraj et al., 2001).Many investigations have been conducted on physico - chemical methods for removing color 58

from textile effluent such as, coagulation (Bazodogan and Goknil, 1987; Lee et al., 2006), oxidization (Brower and Reed, 1985), ultra filtration (Lee et al., 2006; Nowak, 1989), electrochemical (Shendrik, 1989; Shen et al., 2001), adsorption (Lee et al., 2006; Ahlman and Groff , 1990) and combined electro-chemical and adsorption (Wang et al., 2005; Fan et al., 2008) techniques. Activated carbon is the most widely used adsorbent in the industrial applications but it is costly. To reduce the cost, alternative low cost commercially available adsorbents (including natural materials) have been tried for the treatment of dyes in recent years (Ozacar and Sengil, 2004). These alternative adsorbents www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 58-66, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

include papaya seed (Hameed, 2009), fly ash (Wang and Wu, 2006; Matheswaran and Karunanithi, 2007; Pengthamkeerati et al., 2008), oil palm empty fruit bunch (Tan et al., 2008), spent tea leaves (Hameed, 2009), pristine and acidactivated clays (Lin et al., 2004), bagasse and rice husk (Kalderis et al., 2008; Han et al., 2008), plane tree leaves (Hamdaoui et al., 2008), hazelnut shells and wood sawdust (Ferrero, 2007), orange peel (Kumar and Porkodi, 2007), bentonite clay (Bastaki and Banat, 2004; Bulut et al., 2008), beech sawdust (Batzias and Sidiras, 2007). Most previous optimization models for batch adsorbers (Ozacar and Sengil, 2004; Demirbas et al., 2002; Ozer et al., 1997; Tseng and Wu, 2009) are based on minimizing the mass of adsorbent (such as activated carbons, activated alumina, zeolites, silica and resins) required to remove a certain amount of pollutant from a fixed volume of waste water without any consideration to operating time (Ozacar and Sengil, 2006). Optimizing the rate of treatment of a fixed volume of waste water is crucial as industries face the problem of space management as a major challenge in many countries. Therefore, using economical adsorbents with minimum operating time for pollutant removal will enable the treatment of more batches of polluted waste water per day, thereby reducing the size of the process plant which will result in decreasing the plant capital costs. This paper describes the adsorption of MB dye by used tea leaves (low cost adsorbent available as a waste product) and development of a two-stage batch adsorber design model. The model predicts the optimum contact time (CT) required to remove a fixed percentage of MB, from a given volume of waste water effluent containing specified dye concentration, using a fixed mass of used tea leaves. MATERIALS AND METHODS Adsorbate The basic MB dye used in this study was product of HFCL Limited, New Delhi and was chosen for this study due to its known strong adsorption onto solids. The chemical formula and molecular weight of selected dye are C16H18ClN3S.2H2O and 319 respectively. The maximum absorbance wave length for MB dye was found as 675 nm using double beam UV www.ijsir.co.in

Spectrophotometer, (Model: SP-3000 Plus, Make – OPTIMA). The structure of MB dye is shown in Fig.1. N

(CH3)2N

S + Cl

N(CH3)2

Figure 1: Chemical structure of MB dye

Adsorbent Used tea leaves, collected from tea shops, used in this study were repeatedly boiled with water until the filtered water has been cleared and dried at 60°C for 48 hours. Dried sample was grounded in mixer grinder for 5 minutes and sieved. The material passing through 500 micron sieve and retained on 300 micron sieve was used as adsorbent in the present study. The adsorbent was stored in the plastic bottles (Hameed, 2009). Equilibrium and kinetic study Adsorption experiments were carried out by adding a fixed amount of adsorbent (1.75g used tea leaves) in 1 L glass flasks containing 500 ml of dye solution of different initial concentrations (50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 mg/L) without changing the solution pH at room temperature (~ 30ºC). The flasks were placed in a Jar Test Apparatus and agitated at 150 rpm for 200 minutes to ensure that equilibrium was reached. The amount of adsorption (qt) at time t in mg/g was calculated using equation 1.

qt =

( C0 − Ct ) *V W

(1)

Where, C0: liquid-phase initial concentration of dye in mg/L. Ct: liquid-phase remaining concentration of dye in mg/L at time t. V: volume of the solution in L. W: mass of dry adsorbent used in g.

The amount of adsorption at equilibrium (qe) 59

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 58-66, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

in mg/g was calculated using equation 2.

( C − Ce ) *V = 0

temperature.

(2)

Where Ce: Remaining liquid-phase concentration of dye in mg/ L at equilibrium.

The dye removal percentage at equilibrium was calculated using equation 3.

 ( C0 − Ce )   *100 C0  

Removal percentage = 

(3)

Kinetic Models

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Equilibrium model The Langmuir isotherm is generally the preferred choice for most models of adsorption, and has many applications in surface kinetics and thermodynamics. Langmuir isotherm is expressed as shown in equation 4.

qe =

α β Ce (1 + α Ce )

(4)

A linear form of this expression is given in equation 5.

1 1  1 = + qe β  α β

  1   *    Ce 

For Langmuir isotherm plot, the dye adsorbed at equilibrium for different initial concentration was plotted with respect to remaining concentration at equilibrium. The data are best fitted for straight line with high degree of correlation factor (0.996) gives adsorption capacity 166.67 mg/g. The good fit to the Langmuir model suggests that MB adsorption is limited with monolayer coverage and the surface is relatively homogeneous in terms of functional groups and there is no significant interaction among the MB molecules (Ozacar and Sengil, 2006).

Adsorption kinetic study was performed with the objective to investigate (i) the possible mechanisms for the adsorption process and (ii) to determine the time required to attain equilibrium. The amount of MB dye adsorption increases with time (Fig. 3) and it remains almost constant after an operating time of 60 min (i.e. the equilibrium time). The equilibrium time does not vary with the variation of initial dye concentration. Figure 3: Effect of contact time and initial concentration on MB adsorption

(5)

The constant â is the monolayer (maximum) capacity of the adsorbent (mg/g) and á is the adsorption equilibrium constant (L/mg). Fig. 2 shows the adsorption equilibrium linearization plot of MB dye on used tea leaves at room

For studying the kinetics of the MB adsorption on used tea leaves, several kinetic models were tried as given below: Pseudo first-order equation Figure: 2 Langmuir isotherm plots for MB adsorption

A simple kinetic of adsorption is the pseudo first-order equation (equation 6) (Ozacar and www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 58-66, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

Sengil, 2005, 2004, 2003; Ozacar, 2003; Wu et al., 2001):

dqt = k1 ( qe − qt ) dt

(6)

Integrating equation (6) and applying the initial conditions qt = 0 at t = 0, we get

1 t 1 = +   *t qt ( k2 * qe 2 )  qe 

(10)

Where k2 is the rate constant of pseudo second-order adsorption (g/mg.min). Figure 5 shows a plot of Eq. (10) for the adsorption of dye MB on used tea leaves. Figure 5: Fitting of pseudo-second order model for MB

 k  log ( qe − qt ) = log qe −  1  * t  2.303  (7) Where qe and qt are the amounts of MB adsorbed at equilibrium and time t (mg/g), respectively, and k1 is the rate constant of pseudo first-order adsorption, (min-1). Figure 4 shows a plot of Eq. (7) for the adsorption of dye MB on used tea leaves.

Intra particle diffusion model

Figure 4: Fitting of pseudo-first order model for MB

Pseudo second-order equation The adsorption kinetic may also be described by a pseudo second-order equation (equation 8) (Ozacar and Sengil, 2005, 2004, 2003; Ozacar, 2003; Wu et al., 2001; Ho and Mckay, 1999).

dqt 2 = k2 ( qe − qt ) dt

(8)

After integration and applying the boundary conditions, for qt = 0 at t = 0 and qt = qt at t = t, the integrated form of equation (8) becomes:

1 1 = + k2 * t ( qe − qt ) qe

(9)

Equation (9) can be rearranged to obtain a linear form:

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The fraction of adsorbate adsorbed ((Co – Ct) / Co) changes according to a function of (Dt / r2)1/2, where r is the particle radius and D the diffusivity of solute within the particle. The rate parameters for intra particle diffusion (k p) at different initial concentrations are determined using the following equation (Ozacar and Sengil, 2005, 2004; Ozacar 2003; Wu et al., 2001): 1

qt = k p * t 2

(11)

Where kp is the intra particle diffusion rate constant, (mg / (g min1/2)). If intra particle diffusion occurs, then q t versus t1/2 will be linear and if the plot passes through the origin, then the rate limiting process is only due to the intra particle diffusion. In this study intra particle diffusion is not happening as qt versus t1/2 is not linear. The different stages of rates of adsorption observed indicated that the adsorption rate was initially faster and then slowed down when the time increased (Fig. 6).

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 58-66, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

Table 1 shows comparison of the pseudofirst-order and pseudo-second-order adsorption rate constants; and calculated and experimental q e values obtained at different initial MB concentrations. The Fig. 4, Fig. 5 and Table 1 reveal that pseudo second order equation best fit for adsorption of MB on the used tea leaves. The results demonstrate a highly significant linear relationship between adsorbed dye MB, t/qt, and t in these studies with high correlation coefficients.

Figure 6: Intra particle diffusion model for MB adsorption on used tea leaves Initial

qe exp

Table 1: Comparison of the pseudo-firstorder, pseudo-second-order adsorption rate constants and calculated and experimental qe values obtained at different initial MB concentrations

Pseudo-first- order Kinetic model

Pseudo-second-order kinetic model

k2*10-3

3.92

0.795

70.014

14.08

0.099

11.14

0.876

27.841

28.57

41.09

0.094

19.59

0.903

12.902

43.48

200

54.20

0.092

33.57

0.952

6.149

58.82

250

67.19

0.101

46.88

0.994

3.920

71.43

0.999

300

80.41

0.085

63.28

0.992

2.161

84.91

0.999

conc.

(mg/g)

13.80

0.101

100

27.59

150

cal

(mg/L)

Initial conc. (mg/L) qe exp (mg/g) Pseudo-first- order Kinetic model Pseudo-second-order kinetic q0 W1

q0 W2

L ( C n-1 − Cn ) = W ( qt ,n − q0 )

C1 Stage 1

q1 W1

0 mg dye/g used tea leaves) and the dye concentration on the used tea leaves increases from q0 to qt,n mg/g . The mass balance equation can be written as equation 12.

C2 Stage 2

q2 W2

Figure 7: Two stage crosscurrent batch adsorption process

The solution to be treated contains L Liter solution and the dye concentration is reduced for each stage from C0 to Cn mg/L. Initially at t = 0, the amount of adsorbent added is W g with a solid phase dye concentration on it of q0, (usually q0 = 62

(12)

When fresh adsorbents are used at each stage and the pseudo second-order equation is used to describe equilibrium in the two-stage adsorption system, then the mass balance equation may be obtained by combining equation (10) and equation (12).

Cn = Cn −1 −

2 e ,n

(W k q t )

(13)

L (1 + k qe ,n t )

The total amount of dye removal can be calculated analytically using equation 14. m

∑C n =1

n −1

− Cn = ∑ n =1

2 e ,n

(W k q t ) L (1 + k qe ,n t )

(14)

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Where n is the adsorption system number (n = 1, 2, 3…………, m). The percentage dye removal, Rn, in each stage can be evaluated from the equation 15. (15) The total removal of dye can be determined analytically using equation 16.

 100 W  m Rn =  ∑ ∑ n =1  L C0  n =1 m

 k qe2,n t    (16)  (1 + k qe ,n t ) 

It is further considered that k and qe can be expressed as a function of C0 for MB as follows:

k = X k C0YkYq qe = X q C0

(17) (18)

Substituting the values of k and qe from equations (17) and (18) into equation (16) gives; Yk Yq  100 W  m  ( X k C0 ) ( Xq C0 t  Rn =   ∑ ∑ Yk Yq (19) n =1  L C0  n =1 1 + ( X k C0 )( Xq C0 t  m

Equation (19) can be used for predicting the removal of dye at any given initial dye concentration and the reaction time for multistage systems can be determined (Ozacar and Sengil, 2006). Figure 8: qe and initial concentrations of MB

The application of the CT model to the design and time optimization of a batch adsorber was undertaken. The corresponding plots of the values of qe and k against initial MB concentration were regressed to obtain expressions for these values in terms of the initial dye concentration. High correlation coefficients were obtained as shown in Table 2. Table 2: Empirical parameters for predicted qe and k from C0 Xk

162.2

-1.88

0.983

0.282

1.002

0.999

Used Tea Leaves

A series of CTs from 10 min up to 60 min in 2 min increments has been considered in Stage 1 of a two stage batch adsorber system. Then there are twenty six system number of 2 min increments. Therefore, in Figs. 10 and 11, each system number (1 to 26) is based on a 2 min CT interval in Stage 1 of the two stage system. For example, in the first adsorber, system number 10 implies; 10 min + (10-1) x 2 min = 28 min, because system number 1 represents 10 min CT in adsorber number 1. Therefore, the time required to achieve a total 99% MB removal is T min, and the CTs in the first and second adsorbers are t1 and t2 min, respectively: T = t1 + t2

(20)

t1 = 10 + (N-1) * 2min

(21)

and the total batch operating time, T, is T = 10 + (N-1) * 2 min + t2

(22)

Figure 10: CT of each stage in two-stage MB (initial MB concentration 300 mg/L) Figure 9: k2 and initial concentrations of MB

Similar graphs were obtained for different initial MB dye concentrations (such as 400mg/L, www.ijsir.co.in

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500mg/L). The total CT is calculated for each system number, N = 1 to N = 21 (based on the fixed t1 values), for 99% MB removal. The CT values are plotted against the system number, N, as shown in Fig 10. Fig 10 shows a comparison of the time for 99% MB removal for

each stage and the total CT of the two stage batch adsorption process. Table 3 shows the CT for each individual stage and the minimum total CT for various initial dye concentrations removal in the two stage process, evaluated from equation (19) for each system.

Table 3: Minimum contact time to achieve 99% MB removal

Adsorbent

Two stage adsorber

Initial MB concentration (mg/L)

CT (min)

System no.

Stage 1 t1

Stage 2 t2

Total t1+t2

Spent tea

99%

300

10.1

28.1

leaves

removal

400

13.9

35.9

500

17.5

43.5

From the design criteria, the percentage MB removal by the adsorber system is defined as 99%. In the two stage system in Table 3, three calculations have been shown, namely, 300, 400 and 500 mg/L initial MB concentrations. The total CT, to achieve 99% MB removal can be determined based on the fixed CT assigned to stage 1, t1. The data can then be plotted for the 26 systems at 99% MB removal for Stage 1, Stage 2 and Stage 1+ Stage 2 as shown by the three curves in Fig. 10. The minimum CT for 99% MB removal can be found, using Eq. (19) or by plotting graphs analogous to Fig. 10. For 99% MB removal, the minimum CT is 28.1 min for used tea leaves as shown by system 5 with CTs of 18 min for Stage 1 and 10.1 min for Stage 2 for initial MB concentration 300 mg/L. If we plot the graph between 1st stage CT (t1), 2nd stage CT (t2) and total CT (t1+t2) for 99% MB removal against different initial concentration of MB by spent tea leaves, this gives linear trends lines with high correlations coefficient as shown in Fig.11. The initial MB concentration, where 2nd stage CT cut the abscissa or concentration coordinate line, shows that below this initial concentration of MB, there is no need of 2nd stage process. From the Fig. 11, this initial MB concentration comes out to be 22 mg/L.

Fig. 11: CTs for different initial concentration of MB dye for overall removal of 99%

CONCLUSION The results show that the used tea leaves, an abundantly available waste, can be used for the removal of MB from aqueous solution. The equilibrium data were best fitted to linear models of Langmuir, with maximum monolayer adsorption capacity of 166.67 mg/g of used tea leaves at room temperature. The design model presented is based on a pseudo second-order equation and this has been used for minimizing the CT in a two stage crosscurrent system. The minimum CT, to achieve 99% of MB removal from wastewater by adsorption using a fixed mass of used tea leaves has been predicted as 28.1 min (stage 1 = 18 min and stage 2 = 10.1 min). To www.ijsir.co.in

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obtain same removal in single stage process requires more time for MB with respect to removal in two-stage process. REFERENCE 1.

Ahlman S. C., Groff K.A., Textile wastes, Res. J. Water Pollut. Control Federal 62 (1990) 473–478.

Bastaki N. A., Banat F., Combining ultrafiltration and adsorption on bentonite in a one-step process for the treatment of colored waters, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 103–113.

Batzias F.A., Sidiras D.K., Dye adsorption by prehydrolysed beech sawdust in batch and fixed-bed systems, Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1208–1217

optimized design for dye removal to minimize contact time, Trans. IchemE 76B (1998) 313–318. 16. Ho Y.S., McKay G., A multi-stage batch adsorption design with experimental data, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol. 17 (1999) 233–243. 17. Ho Y.S., McKay G., Batch sorber design using equilibrium and contact time data for the removal of lead, Water Air Soil Pollut. 124 (2000) 141–153. 18. Kalderis D., Bethanis S., Paraskeva P., Diamadopoulos E., Production of activated carbon from bagasse and rice husk by a single-stage chemical activation method at low retention times, Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 6809–6816. 19. Kumar K. V., Porkodi K., Batch adsorber design for different solution volume/adsorbent mass ratios using the experimental equilibrium data with fixed solution volume/adsorbent mass ratio of malachite green onto orange peel, Dyes and Pigments 74 (2007) 590-594.

Bazodogan A., Goknil H., The removal of the color of textile dyes in wastewater by the use of recycled coagulant, MU Fen Billimeri Dergisi Sayi 4 (1987) 83– 90.

Brower G.R., Reed G.D., Economical pre-treatment for color removal from textile dye wastes, Proceedings of the 41st Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University,West Lafayette, Indiana, 1985, p. 612.

20. Lee J.W., Choi S.P., Thiruvenkatachari R., Shim,H.Moon W.G., Submerged microfiltration membrane coupled with alum coagulation/powder activated carbon adsorption for complete decolorization of reaction dye, Water Res. 40 (2006) 435–444.

Bulut E., Ozacar M., Sengil I. A., Equilibrium and kinetic data and process design for adsorption of Congo Red onto bentonite, Journal of Hazardous Materials 154 (2008) 613–622.

21. Lin S.H., Juang R.S., Wang Y.H., Adsorption of acid dye from water onto pristine and acid-activated clays in fixed beds, Journal of Hazardous Materials B113 (2004) 195–200.

Demirbas O., Alkan M., Dogan M., The removal of victoria blue from aqueous solution by adsorption on a low-cost material, Adsorption 8 (2002) 341–349.

22. Matheswaran M., Karunanithi T., Adsorption of Chrysoidine R by using fly ash in batch process, Journal of Hazardous Materials 145 (2007) 154–161.

Ding Z., Min C.W., Hui W.Q., A study on the use of bipolar particles- electrode in the decolorization of dying effluents and its principle,Water Sci. Technol. 19 (1987) 39–44.

23. Nowak K. M., Effect of flow conditions on ultra-filtration efficiency of dye solutions and textile effluents, Desalination 71 (1989) 127–132.

Fan L., Zhou Y., Yang W., Chen G., Yang F., Electrochemical degradation of aqueous solution of Amaranth azo dye on ACF under potentiostatic model, Dyes Pigments 76 (2008) 440–446.

24. Ozacar M., Adsorption of phosphate from aqueous solution onto alunite, Chemosphere 51 (2003) 321–327. 25. Ozacar M., Sengil I.A., Adsorption of acid dyes from aqueous solutions by calcined alunite and granular activated carbon, Adsorption 8 (2002) 301–308.

10. Ferrero F., Dye removal by low cost adsorbents: Hazelnut shells in comparison with wood sawdust, Journal of Hazardous Materials 142 (2007) 144–152.

26. Ozacar M., Sengil I.A., Adsorption of reactive dyes on calcined alunite from aqueous solutions, J. Hazard. Mater. B98 (2003) 211–224.

11. Hamdaoui O., Saoudi F., Chiha M., Naffrechoux E., Sorption of malachite green by a novel sorbent, dead leaves of plane tree: Equilibrium and kinetic modeling, Chemical Engineering Journal 143 (2008) 73–84.

27. Ozacar M., Sengil I. A., Equilibrium data and process design for adsorption of disperse dyes onto alunite, Environ. Geol. 45 (2004) 762–768.

12. Hameed B.H., Salman J.M., Ahmad A.L., Adsorption isotherm and kinetic modeling of 2,4-D pesticide on activated carbon derived from date stones, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2008). 13. Hameed B.H., Spent tea leaves: A new nonconventional and low-cost adsorbent for removal of basic dye from aqueous solutions, Journal of Hazardous Materials 161 (2009) 753–759. 14. Han R., Ding D., Xu Y., Zou W., Wang Y., Li Y., Zou L., Use of rice husk for the adsorption of congo red from aqueous solution in column mode, Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 2938–2946. 15. Ho Y.S., McKay G., A two-stage batch sorption

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28. Ozacar M., Sengil I. A., A two stage batch adsorber design for methylene blue removal to minimize contact time, Journal of Environmental Management 80 (2006) 372–379. 29. Ozer A., Ekiz H. I., Ozer D., Kutsal T., Aglar A. C., A staged purification process to remove heavy metal ions from wastewater using Rhizopus arrhizus, Proc. Biochem. 32 (1997) 319–326. 30. Pengthamkeerati P., Satapanajaru T., Singchan O., Sorption of reactive dye from aqueous solution on biomass fly ash, Journal of Hazardous Materials 153 (2008) 1149–1156. 31. Shen Z., Wang W., Jia J., Ye J., Feng X., Peng A.,

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 58-66, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971 Degradation of dye solution by an activated carbon fiber electrode electrolysis system, J. Hazard. Mater. B 84 (2001) 107–116. 32. Shendrik O.R., Electro membrane removal of organic dyes from wastewater, Kimiyi Technol. Vody 11 (1989) 467–472. 33. Sivaraj R., Namasivayam C., Kadirvelu K., Orange peel as an adsorbent in the removal of acid violet 17 (acid dye) from aqueous solutions, Waste Manage. 21 (2001) 105–110. 34. Tan I.A.W., Ahmad A.L., Hameed B.H., Adsorption isotherms, kinetics, thermodynamics, and desorption studies of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol on oil palm empty fruit bunch-based activated carbon, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2008). 35. Tseng R. L., Wu F. C., Analyzing a liquid–solid phase countercurrent two- and three-stage adsorption process with the Freundlich equation, Journal of Hazardous Materials 162 (2009) 237–248.

36. Wang A., Qu J., Ru J., Liu H., Ge J., Mineralization of an azo dye Acid Red 14 by electro-Fenton’s reagent using an activated fiber cathode, Dyes Pigments 65 (2005) 227-233. 37. Wang M., Qu J., Ru J., Liu H., Ge J., Mineralization of an azo dye Acid Red 14 by electro-Fenton’s reagent using an activated fiber cathode, Dyes Pigments 65 (2005) 227–233. 38. Wang S., Wu H., Environmental-benign utilisation of fly ash as low-cost adsorbents, Journal of Hazardous Materials B136 (2006) 482–501. 39. Wong Y., Yu J., Laccase catalysed decolorisation of synthetic dyes, Water Res. 33 (1999) 3512–3520. 40. Wu F. C., Tseng R. L., Juang R.S., Adsorption of dyes and phenols from water on the activated carbons prepared from corncob wastes, Environ. Technol. 22 (2001) 205–21

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PROBLEM ANALYSIS DIAGRAM DECLARATIONS OF COMPILER TECHNIQUE FOR APPLICATIONS OF C/C++ PROGRAMMING ROHIT SAXENA1, DEEPAK SINGH1, *AMOD TIWARI2 Rama Institute of Engineering and Technology, 2Bhabha Institute of Technology, Kanpur Dehat, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh ,India

*Address for correspondence: Dr. Amod Tiwari, Director- Professor , Bhabha Institute of Technology, Kanpur Dehat, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh ,India, e mail : amodtiwari@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Language transformation is challenged part of programming into runtime verification tools. To increase the idea during the writing concept that these runtime verification tools can be used for testing realworld programs, the paper uses compiler technique, a subset of the C and C++ programming language, which can be used to execute and test real programs. Compiler technique is extended with threads and synchronization construction, and two concurrent semantics are derived from its sequential semantics. First one is defining a sequentially consistent memory model can be easily transformed into a runtime verification tool for checking datarace and deadlock freeness. Second one is relatively minimal fashion a relaxed memory model. The paper increased the efficiency of the programming language like C and C++ for using above Programming Analysis Design (PAD) technique. Keywords: Pseudo-code, Structured programming chart, Top down analysis, Compiler tool. INTRODUCTION Problem analysis design (PAD) process of using formal definitions of programming languages as testing and analysis tools. We argue here that variable K [7, 8] definitions can be used to test and analyze executions of programs written concept in real-life languages either directly or by extending them to become runtime analysis tools.The rewriting logic representation of K definitions gives them access to the arsenal of generic tools for rewriting logic available through the Maude rewrite engine [9] state space exploration. This collection of analysis tools is by itself enough to provide more information about the behaviors of a program than one would get by simply testing the program using an interpreter or a compiler for that language. Nevertheless, the effort of defining the semantics pays back in more than just one way: by relatively few alterations to the definitions, one can use the same generic tools to obtain type checkers and type inferencers [9], static policy www.ijsir.co.in

checking tools [10,11], runtime verification tools [13], and even Hoare-like program verification tools.[12]. It is well known that several charts like NS chart [1], Jacksonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s chart [2], and Problem Analysis Diagram (PAD) [3] are much more effective to teach structured programming than a classical flow chart, since each stepwise refinement process by top down should be either concatenation, selection or repetition. Especially PAD is suitable to describe complicated programs directly. However, these charts do not contain declaration. It is important in object oriented programming to see how classes are declared. Then we propose a modified PAD including declaration. INSERTING DECLARATION In order to introduce PAD, consider the following C program containing pseudo-codes which finds the maximum and the second maximum number from ten input numbers.

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//Program 1 #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int x[10],x1,x2; <* input x *> <* (x1, x2) from (x[0], x[1]) *> for(i=2; i<10; i++) <* (x1, x2) from (x1, x2, x[i]) *> <* output x1, x2 *> return 0; } <* (x1, x2) from (x[0], x[1]) *>:={ if(x[0]<x[1]){x1=x[1]; x2=x[0];} else {x1=x[0]; x2=x[1];} } <* (x1, x2) from (x1, x2, x[i]) *>:={ if(x2<x[i]){x2=x1; x1=x[i];} else if(x1<x[i]){x1=x[0];} }

blocks, Pseudo-codes are explicitly distinguished and Easy to draw with popular application software, we propose a chart as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2: Declaration and definition of Program

The corresponding PAD is shown in Figure 1, where B1= {x1=x[1]; x2=x[0];}, etc. Figure 3: A class and its member function

Figure 4: A derived class and its constructor

Figure 1: Problem analysis diagram of Program 1

In Figure 1, declarations are not contained in PAD. In order to discuss how to include declaration in a structured programming chart, consider the following program.

The chart of derived classes is shown in Figure 5.A sample of member functions is phasor::sequence (FILE*) which outputs the timesequence of the sinusoidal wave.

//Program 2 #include <stdio.h> int sum(int u, int v){return u+v;} void add(int* p, int* q){*p += *q;} int main(){ int x,y; <* input x,y *> add(x, y); <* output x,sum(&x,&y) *> return 0; } There are some design policies of the compiler program using with application of C and C++, All of the necessary information is included, Declaration blocks are not similar to execution 68

Figure 5 shows a declaration of a class cmpl and the definition of its member function add (cmpl*). www.ijsir.co.in

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EFFECT OF MODIFICATION The advantage to use a chart compared with a colored text is reduction of reserved words as shown in fig. 5, which implies large characters can be used in a lecture using MS Power Point slides.

Figure 8: code

Alternatives for compound statements

Figure 9: Program

An example of input and output for

Figure 6: Effect of eliminating reserved words

Although PAD is a compact expression of an algorithm as shown in Figures 1 and 5, alternative expression in Figure 6 is more compact and easy to draw, since every chart can be drawn by superposing polylines on a uniformly spaced plain text. Remark <* input x *> in Program 1 represents each x[i](0 <= i < 10) should be filled by an integer using a certain method. An example of specified input/output is shown in Figure 7 which correspond to <* input (fscn): x *> and <* printf (“%8d\n”): x1, x2 *>.

CONCLUSION We have shown how K definitions of programming languages can be turned (with negligible effort) into runtime analysis tools for testing and analyzing executions of concurrent programs. We do not claim here that the tools one obtains almost for free within the K framework completely eliminate the need of writing dedicated analysis tools in “real” programming languages. The proposed chart is an object oriented programming chart rather than a structured programming chart i.e. (C ,C++). Since reserved words are reduced in such a chart, it is easier than a colored text to see how the algorithm is implemented. REFERENCES

Figure 7: Alternatives for compound statements chart with error

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Weiss, E. H., Visualizing a Procedure with NassiSchneiderman Charts. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 1990 ; 20(3) : 237-254.

http://www.cbu.edu/~lschmitt/I351/ Nassi%20Schneiderman.htm (Mark Kelly, Structured Design with Nassi-Schneiderman Charts)

Jackson, M. A., Principle of Program Design, Academic Press, 1975.

http://www.informingscience.org/proceedings/ IS2003Proceedings/docs/091Ourus.pdf (N. Ourusoff, Using Jackson Structured Programming (JSP) and Jackson Workbench to Teach Program Design)

Futamuta, Y., Kawai, T., Tsutsumi, M., and Horikoshi,

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 67-70, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971 H., Development of computer programs by Problem Analysis Diagram (PAD). In the Proc. 5th Int’l Conf. on Software Engineering, New York, IEEE Computer Soc., 1981, pp.325-332. 6.

http://fi.ftmr.info/PapersToRead/PAD-JARECT.PDF (Y. Futamura and T. Kawai, Problem Analysis diagram)

10. Hills, M., F. Chen and G. Rosu , A rewriting logic approach to static checking of units of measurement in C, in: RULE’08, 2008, pp. 76–91, Tech. Rep. IAITR-08-02, Institut für Informatik III, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelm-Universität Bonn. 11.

Hills, M. and G. Rosu, A rewriting logic semantics approach to modular program analysis, in: RTA’10, LIPIcs 6 (2010), pp. 151–160.

Rosu G. K Overview and SIMPLE Case Study. Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science. 2014; 304: 3–56.

12.

Rosu, G. and T. F. Serbanuta. An overview of the K semantic framework. Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming 2010 ; 79: 397–434.

Rosu, G., C. Ellison and W. Schulte, Matching logic: An alternative to Hoare/Floyd logic, in: AMAST ’10, LNCS 6486, 2010, pp. 142–162.

13.

Rosu, Runtime veriûcation of C memory safety, in: RV’09, LNCS 5779, 2009, pp. 132–152.

Clavel, M., F. Durán, S. Eker, J. Meseguer, P. Lincoln, N. Martí-Oliet and C. Talcott. All About Maude, A HighPerformance Logical Framework, LNCS 4350, Springer, 2007.

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A HIGH FIDELITY VERSION OF A THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL USING MATLAB/SIMULINKS 1

HARISH KUMAR MISHRA1, *ANURAG TRIPATHI2 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 2Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Engineering & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for correspondence : Dr. Anurag Tripathi , Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Engineering & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India , email: anurag.tripathi.aparna@gmail.com

ABSTRACT For a long time, purely electric locomotives fed from an overhead electric supply utilized DC series motors to propel them. As the running cost involved is high and also the frequent maintenance (both scheduled as well as the breakdown) is required, the need for an integrated self contained system had become obvious and this led to the concept of a diesel electric locomotive. It was also thought that since there is a rapid augmentation in the field of power electronic converters both in terms of the current carrying capabilities as well as the overall power handling capacities, it would be prudent to utilize the three phase induction motor drive in the locomotives. A great amount of work is being done on the improvement of control through simulation of the electric drives used for various high-power traction purposes. The legitimacy of the simulated results is based on the accurate modelling of the various parts of the electric drive system. Three–phase Induction motors form an extremely important part of the modern day electric drive system and their usage is continuously on a rise owing to their inherent properties of ruggedness, minimum maintenance requirements and continually increasing efficiencies. Usually the three-phase induction motor model used in various research works does not integrate stator and rotor core losses, stator and rotor stray load losses and magnetizing saturation and rotor conductor skin effects. The present paper aims at developing a threephase induction motor model taking the above losses and effects into account. The dynamic linking of the model to a thermal model considering the temperature dependent resistive elements is an added feature. The motor model described in this paper is the extension of the conventional 2-phase lumped-parameter induction motor model. The biggest advantage is that the model is user-programmable in MATLAB environment and can be used for system level transient studies. The simulation results of the developed model, with various parameter variations taken into account and subjected to sudden changes in load, show better torque and speed performances of the motor both in steady state and dynamic conditions. Keywords: Mathematical modelling, AC propulsion system, Three phase induction motor drive. INTRODUCTION System Description A simplified schematic of the AC propulsion system is shown below in fig 1.1. The Diesel engine drives the alternator that has multiple stator (secondary) windings that generates power for traction, field excitation and also for the auxiliaries. The ‘locomotive propulsion system’ considered for modeling and simulation for the www.ijsir.co.in

stated purpose comprises Traction Alternator, Diode Rectifier, Voltage Source Inverters, 3phase induction machines. The Diesel engine drives the alternator that has multiple stator (secondary) windings that generates power for traction, field excitation and also for the auxiliaries. For the purpose of this report, only the traction power is considered. A 3-phase diode rectifier with a DC link capacitor rectifies this power. This forms the source for the 6 Voltage 71

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Source Inverters that supply controlled power to the 6 induction machines driving 6 axles of a

locomotive.

Figure 1.1: Schematic of the AC propulsion system.

Six inverter-motor drives run the six axles of the locomotive , simplified mechanical load is connected to each motor. The propulsion controller controls the inverters and also the field control rectifier of the alternator. The model is systematically developed in MATLAB/ SIMULINK and tested at each stage. This is presented in the following sections. Finally, the integrated model representing the AC propulsion system is also presented. The model is user-programmable in MATLAB and can be used for system level transient studies. The model is a detailed transient electrical model [1] based on the conventional two-axis lumped parameter d-q equivalent circuit of the induction machine. Extensions of the conventional motor model include: stator and rotor core loss, stator and rotor stray load loss, magnetizing saturation and rotor conductor skin effects. The electrical model can be dynamically linked to a thermal model to add temperature dependencies of all resistive elements. MODEL FEATURES AND ASSUMPTIONS The motor models described in this paper are extensions of the conventional 2-phase (dq) lumped-parameter induction motor model. The following features are included in the models described in this paper: 1. Transient and dynamic multi-reference frame model

2. Skin effects: 3-Z rotor circuit in rotor frame, rr1, Llr1, rr2, Llr2 3. Main path (magnetizing) saturation with spatial dependency 4. Separate stator and rotor core loss consisting of iron eddy, hysteresis, and copper eddy losses. 5. Temperature dependencies on all resistive elements 6. Stator stray load loss 7. Friction and wind age loss NOMENCLATURE FRAMES

AND

REFERENCE

To facilitate the correct modeling of machine features, such as rotor conductor skin effects, the model is implemented in multiple reference frames. The following nomenclature is utilized to distinguish reference frame: In the development of each motor model, the machine equations are initially derived in complex vector notation, where s f qds = f qss − jf dss

Superscripts denote the frame of reference; e.g., s f qds = f qss − jf dss Þ Stator (stationary) frame

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 71-77, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971 r f qds = f qsr − jf dsr Þ Physical rotor frame (¹ rotor

Reference frame transformations in complex vector notation are:

flux frame) m f qds = f qsm − jf dsm Þ Magnetizing (air gap flux)

e − jθ m = cosθ m − j sin θ m

frame

e jθ m = cosθ m + j sin θ m

The direction of vector rotations is as shown in fig 1.2.

The variable p is defined as the derivative operator; i.e. Frame Transformation Equations: Due to the presence of multiple reference frames, the following transformation equations are required: Flux:

Current:

TRANSIENT MODEL WITH INTERNAL CORE AND STATOR STRAY LOAD LOSS Fig1.2: Reference direction for vectors

Equivalent Circuit

The equivalent circuit of the motor electrical model is shown in fig. 1.3 in complex vector notation, and in Figure 1.4 in real variable notation.

Figure 1.3: Equivalent circuit in complex vector notation with internal core and stator stray load loss

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Figure 1.4: Equivalent circuit in real variable notation with internal core and stator stray load loss

State Variables The following complex state variables are chosen for formulation of the motor model equations:

Rotor Voltages:

=stator flux in stator frame =magnetizing flux in stator frame =rotor flux in rotor frame =rotor leakage flux component in rotor frame =rotor leakage flux component in rotor frame

Flux Equations

Note that the magnetizing core loss adds one additional complex state, and rotor skin effects at two additional complex states.

In addition to the voltage equations, flux linkage equations can be written for each state variable as follows:

Voltage Equations

Stator Flux:

Each state variable defined in Section 0 can be described by a voltage equation in the form of an ordinary differential equation as follows: Stator Voltage:

Air Gap Flux:

Rotor Flux: Air Gap Voltage: 74

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Node (Current) Equations The following node equations relating the currents can be written:

Equation Solution - Complex Variable Notation

Solve for state derivatives:

Currents via Flux Equations Rewriting equations to solve for currents:

Equation Solution - Real Variable Notation

Currents via Node Equations:

The complete solution procedure at each integration time step in real variable notation with reference frame transformations and saturable inductances is as follows:

Transform reference frames:

Equation Summary for Solution The above equations are now summarized in order for solution in complex and in real variable notation. Complex Variable Notation From the above solutions, the motor model equations can be solved in the following order:

Updated saturable d-axis magnetizing inductance:

Solve for currents given fluxes: (Reference frame transformations not listed)

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Solve for Currents:

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Updated saturable component of rotor leakage inductance:

Locate magnetizing reference frame:

INDUCTION MACHINE MODEL The machine model in MATLAB environment is built using the above discussed equations and is shown in fig. 1.5.

Transform reference frames:

STEADY STATE PERFORMANCE COMPARED AGAINST PUBLISHED RESULTS As a first step, the transient machine model built in MATLAB/SIMULINK was checked to work for steady state. For this purpose, the model was tested on cases shown in the text â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Analysis of Electrical Machineryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Paul Kraus and the results were found to match. The model was fed with the steady state 76

Figure 1.5: MATLAB/SIMULINK model of the induction machine with features listed in Section 2. The top-level block is shown at the top left corner.

equivalent circuit parameters. The machine was supplied with pure sine wave 3 phase voltages. The torque and current values obtained by running the model for the operating point defined by the voltage, frequency and speed are compared with that obtained by simple calculation in the table below. This was repeated for all the four 4-pole machines. The following charts show the waveforms obtained for 2250 hp machine. www.ijsir.co.in

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Figure 1.6: Torque and Current-Steady State validation for 2250 hp machine.

S.No Machine Details 1 2 3 4

3hp, 220V , 1710RPM 50hp,460V ,1705RPM 500hp,2300V ,1773RPM 2250hp,2300,1786RPM

r1 Xl1 0.435 0.754 0.087 0.302 0.262 1.206 0.029 0.226

Parameters Torque (Nm) Stator Current (A ) Xm Xl2' r2' calculation model calculation model 26.13 0.754 0.816 14.02 14.00 8.84 8.79 13.08 0.302 0.228 234.60 234.55 62.80 62.80 54.02 1.206 0.187 1999.40 2000.00 105.21 105.10 13.04 0.226 0.022 9173.50 9170.50 469.56 469.45

The initial decaying transients seen in the electromagnetic torque developed are due to the transient offset in the stator currents. The transient offset depends upon the values of the source voltages at the time of application. For the case of steady state evaluation run that was attempted here, these transients can be regarded as simulation transients. The steady state values seen on these charts are also tabulated above. The model was given pure sine-wave 3 phase voltages. The results obtained from the model were compared with those given in the text ‘Analysis of Electrical Machinery’, Paul Kraus and were found to match. CONCLUSION The swift control of torque in ac drives has always been a topic of investigation despite of its preference over dc drives in industry. The induction machine model developed in this paper shows better torque and speed response during both the steady state and dynamic conditions even with the incorporation of effects of various parameters like rotor skin effects, temperature dependent resistive elements and magnetic saturation. The model also takes into account stator and rotor core losses including the iron hysteresis loss, iron eddy current loss and copper eddy current loss. Some features viz. saturation of stator leakage inductance due to stator flux, temperature dependency on skin depth and winding and saturation spatial harmonics that are not incorporated in the model, if pursued, may www.ijsir.co.in

form the future work and the model can further be improved for its application in high power applications. REFERENCES 1.

P.L. Jansen, Y.Liao, Y. Zhao, J. Law “Detailed Transient Electrical Model for Polyphase Induction Machines”, Report, 1997.

Y.-K. He, T.A. Lipo, “Computer Simulation of an Induction Machine with Spatially Dependent Saturation”, IEEE-PAS Trans., Vol. PAS-103, No. 4, April 1984, pp. 707-714.

J. Moreira, T.A. Lipo, “Modeling of Saturated AC Machines Including Airgap Flux Harmonic Components”, Proc. of IEEE-IAS Annual Meeting, Oct. 1990.

P.L. Cochran, Polyphase Induction Motors Analysis, Design, and Application, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1989.

M.R. Udayagiri, T.A. Lipo, “Simulation of Inverter Fed Induction Motors Including Core Losses”, Proc. IEEE Industrial Electronics Conference, Sept. 1989, pp. 232-237.

J.M.D. Murphy, V.B. Honsinger, “Efficiency Optimization of Inverter-Fed Induction Motor Drives”, Proc. IEEE-IAS Annual Meeting, 1982, pp. 544-552.

J.-W. Choi, D.-W. Chung, S.-K. Sul, “Implementation of Field Oriented Induction Machine Considering Iron Losses”, APEC, 1996, pp. 375-379.

E.Levi, “Impact of Iron Loss on Behaviour of Vector Controlled Induction Machines”, Proc. of IEEE-IAS Annual Meeting, 1994, pp. 74-80.

N. Retiere, D. Roye, P. Mannevy, “ Vector based Investigation of Induction Motor Drive under inverter fault operations”, IEEE, 1997, pp. 12881294.

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GREEN WALL: A METHODOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT USING GREEN COMPUTING ANKIT KUMAR SRIVASTAVA, *NEERAJ KUMAR TIWARI, BINEET KUMAR GUPTA Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow-Deva Road, Hadauri, Tindola, Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India *Address for Correspondence : Dr. Neeraj Kumar Tiwari, Assistant Professor ,Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow-Deva Road, Hadauri, Tindola, Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India,email: neerajmtech@gmail.com, neeraj.cs@srmu.ac.in/

ABSTRACT The modern computing has been a blessing to all human beings and exponential advancement of these technologies has been created a big issue regarding with the environment. The aim of the green wall methodology in sustainable development is to overcome the environmental damage causing by the development of technologies and process of informatization from the beginning phase. Our study has trends of “green wall” that can be considered as a methodology for sustainable development. In this paper, sustainable development qualities such as entourage effect, curtailment, social impact and performance are described well and whether these qualities can be adopted in software engineering. Further, we tried approaching to develop the green and sustainable software that may contain low cost and low energy consumption during development process and how environmental risk can be minimized. Keywords: Sustainable software development, Green computing, ICT. INTRODUCTION The modern computing technology has been a blessing to all human beings and exponential advancement of these technologies has been created a big issue regarding the environment. With the development of technology and the process of informatization, various types of computer systems have been widely used. Whenever computers are discussed it is generally with reference to operational power management, rather than how IT can help a business as well as achieve its environmental goals [1]. The environmental damage can be overcome by adopting green computing because by the help of green computing, technology can be developed in a sustainable way. Development in sustainable way means usage of optimized material flows or to substitute material products with their virtual counterparts, which reduce energy and resource consumption [2]. From the past decade to the present generation, ICT which is also called as information and communication technology adopting the approaches of green 78

computing so that we can reduce the cost and power consumption of IT system and maximize energy efficiency during the system’s lifetime. “THE GREEN WALL Model” is a model for developing green and sustainable software and computing approach that addresses both the qualities of sustainable software and profiling of energy consumption. BACKGROUND Until now, there are many publications available discussing the relationship between sustainable development and green computing. David Tebbutt [1] describes the green computing, according to that simplistic view the Green IT is about power management and recycling. Stefan Naumann [2] described the model known as Green soft Model that contains the product life cycle model for software products that helps in developing the sustainable software. Sarah [3] introduces the very technologies that help in carbon free computing such as via technologies and the advantages of green computing in human www.ijsir.co.in

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life. Anderberg [4] relates the industrial development process with environmental problems and solutions. These problems are related with the industrial development and solutions of these problems have been described by sustainable computing which means a way of development in which resources are used and managed in such way that new product will be suitable for nature and also helpful for future use. The concept of Green Computing system is originated by reviewing the approaches of the Green Computing [5]. The study reveals that there is a way that can suppress the worsening problem about misuse and abuse in the use of the computing resources [6]. Four aspects: hardware design, software technology, virtual machine are the strategies of green energy saving for cloud computing platform manager and network environment [7]. MATERIALS AND METHODS This research design gives a brief introduction to the new and the budding concept of Green Computing and Green IT for developing the sustainable software and qualities of sustainable development. These qualities will be divided into four subcategories as shown in Figure 1. The detailed explanation of sustainable development qualities are: Entourage effect: The entourage effect word means environmental effect and the sustainable development poses the quality of low environment effect. Environmental sustainability demands that developing designs activities to meet human needs while indefinitely preserving the life support systems of the planet [8]. Bionomious impact: The sustainable development result us a bionomious effect in a positive way. Bionomious effect means the effect on the ecology and due to the sustainable development we are creating fully recyclable products, reducing pollution, proposing alternative technologies in various fields, and creating a center of economic activity around technologies that benefit the environment [3]. Pernicious effect: The sustainable development also results low pernicioustivity or very low or zero toxicity. By sustainable development we are building materials and www.ijsir.co.in

studying chemical processes to reduce the use and generation of hazardous substances for example use of toxic materials like lead can be replaced by silver and copper making recycling of computers more effectively [10] and that will not generate any toxic agent. Low vitiation: Due to sustainable development the problem of vitiation or pollution is also reduced. By this vision, the organizations have been focusing on power efficiency throughout the design and manufacturing process of its products and their environmental friendly products are manufactured using a range of green-computing strategies, such as replacing petroleum-filled plastic by bio-plastics or plantbased polymers [4]. Extravagance: Sustainable development focuses on sustainable use of materials and has targeted the idea of dematerialization, converting the linear path of materials that reuses materials [4].

Use renewable energy: Sustainable development encourages the usage of renewable energy sources resulting in the lowcarbon energy , which is sustainable only in the sense that it does not add to CO 2 or any hazardous matter in the atmosphere such as introducing VIA technologies (carbon free computing) [3]. Curtailment: The curtailment means economy. Sustainable development is also very beneficial in the economic point of view. By the help of sustainable development we can reduce the overall development cost of the product. Low elementary cost: In the sustainable development the elementary cost or initial cost of the product is very low because we use such resources which are cheaper and easily available such as we use pre developed product for guidance. Less raw material cost: In the sustainable development the cost of raw material is very low because we use the green material as the raw material e.g. for electricity and heating we can use solar panel or solar thermal equipments [3]. Low ontogeny: The sustainable development also contains the low ontogeny 79

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because the overall development cost will be low due to using green resources. Low breakdown cost: Due to sustainable development process the disposal cost of any product becomes very low because discarding will not only control e-waste out of dumps but also save energy and materials needed for a whole new computer [10].

Sustainable development also helps in time saving and money saving during the product building so that high performance can be achieved. PROPOSED MODEL

Social impact: The sustainable development has the positive social impact on the surroundings. This impact can be explained by following: Inclinated: Sustainable development is inclinated means of motivation. It encourages how to find the new ways and techniques of energy consumption and resource efficiency, for example EPA produced an energy star plan for reduced energy consumption [5]. Use provincial material: Sustainable development also focuses on the use of local material because by use of local material the product becomes cheaper and easy to be developed, for example we can use wireless sensor networks for monitoring [10]. Less use of energy: Sustainable development also helps in the less energy consumption, for example use of green cloud computing environment.

Figure 1: Sustainable development qualities

Safe and secure: Sustainable development is safe and secure because it has no side effects and has only positive effects [6]. Externalize energy: The embodied energy in sustainable development is very low [7]. Performance: The performance of the product is increased via following way: Ease to build: Product becomes easy to build because the every objective becomes clear. Long life: The product life increases due to including updating options, for example by using a NCP technology the network got the long life. Use of green energy sources: Sustainable development focuses on the usage of green energy source [10]. Less chance to decay: The product developed has less chance to decay [2]. 80

Figure 2: Green wall model

This model is a conceptual reference model for sustainable development and for supporting the green development. The purpose is to define the environmentally suitable infrastructure and the usage of computer equipments and internet technologies for the developers, controllers and the users of the systems, so that the energy www.ijsir.co.in

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efficient processing and reduced resource consumption as well as the disposal of the IT waste (e-waste) done in a proper manner. This model contains six basic phases of development: Requirement collection, Analytical summarization, Design, Processing, Testing, and Maintenance, which are briefly explained in Figure 2. Green wall model In this green wall, which works like a firewall and focuses majorly on the information flowing from one phase to another phase during development whether the past information is feasible for sustainable development or not? The green wall works in the following way: On requirement collection: Requirement collection takes place then all requirements are passed to analysis phase. The requirements or data will be filtered by green wall and such requirements, which have the negative impact on ecology and users, will be discarded for example excess use of raw material. On analytical summarization: In this phase the green wall works in such way, suppose any analyzed requirement that contains a bad result such as resultant is a toxic element which either will be changed or replaced by non toxic element or will be discarded for example any requirement results lead in its product then if it can replaced by other polymers or materials such as silver then that will be replaced by that otherwise it will be discarded. On Design: On this phase it checks that developed design is compatible to ecological system and ensures that overall development cost of the particular product must be low. On processing phase: On processing phase, the green wall filters the developed product by ensuring that the developed product must be safe and secure and checks whether the product is motivated or not. On testing phase: On the testing phase, the green wall covers the parameters of social impact and performance such as the creation of vitiation (pollution) by that product, if it is very high then it will be justified and ensures that the developed product must have long life or chance to decay. www.ijsir.co.in

On maintenance phase: On maintenance phase if any maintenance is needed then the need of that maintenance will be filtered by green wall . If that is not feasible according to the four parameters of sustainable development qualities then that need will be discarded or if that is suitable then the maintenance will be done. Advantages of green wall model The advantages of adopting green wall methodology are (1) it promotes green IT and green computing (2) It encourages IT reuse and reduces IT complexity. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The main objective of our proposed GREEN WALL ( GW ) MODEL is to inherit the concept, procedure and phenomena of green computing during the development process of software as well as hardware. GW model may play as a role of reference model in order to protect and enhance natural capital. It may also promote resource efficiency and may develop product life cycle for developer, administrators and users. Additionally, this model also suggests how we can make the product in more sustainable way. Consequently, at first we have described the qualities of sustainable development. We showed that if we involved these qualities during the product engineering then we can develop the software in the sustainable direction. This GW Model offers a number of benefits over existing model for the sustainable development. Firstly, it configures the product in such a way that is beneficial for the environment also. Secondly, it is a new methodology that offers technique for better utilization of resources and power consumption. So, in above discussion regarding the sustainable product we can say that our green wall model helps to develop the sustainable software product that may reduce the environmental risk. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to Prof. Vinodani Katiyar, Dean, Faculty of Computer Science & Engineering, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University ,Lucknow-Deva Road, Hadauri, Tindola, Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, India for her continued motivation and support to complete this study. 81

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REFERENCES 1.

Tebbutt, D.: The role of IT in the push towards environmental sustainability. Green Computing Report (2008).

Naumann, S., Dick, M., Kem, E., Johan, T.: The GREENSOFT Model: A reference model for green and sustainable software and its engineering. Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems. Vol. 1, Issue 4, pp 294—304 (2011).

Partidario, Rita C.: Gomes Ecosystem services inclusive strategic environmental assessment Original Research Article. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 40, pp.36-46April (2013).

Kamdar, R.M.: Literature Review: Green Computing – Implementation Procedures for Energy Efficiency. Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur (2010)

Gingichashvili S.: Green Technology. Green Computing (2007).

Harris, J.: Green computing and green IT best practices On Regulations and Industry Initiatives, Virtualization, Power Management, Materials Recycling and Telecommuting. Emereo Pty Ltd, London (2008).

Yamini, R.: Power Management in Cloud Computing Using Green Algorithm. IEEEInternational Conference on Advances in Engineering, Science and Management (ICAESM2012).

Zhang, X.: Gong, L., Li, J.: Research on Green Computing Evaluation System and Method. 7th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA) (2012).

Gong, L., Xie, J., Li, X., Deng, B.: Study on Energy Saving Strategy and Evaluation Method of Green Cloud Computing System. IEEE (2013).

10.

Anderberg: Industrial metabolism and linkages between economics, ethics, and the environment. Ecological Economics, pp 311—320 (1998). Maria Rosario

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BIOCONTROL : AN OVERVIEW KALPANA SINGH* Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for Correspondence : Dr. Kalpana Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India email- drkalpanasingh@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Agriculture constitutes one of the most important sectors of any economy. Sustenance of 45% of world’s population depends on agriculture only. The proportion of population involved in agriculture ranges from about 2% in United States to 80% in some parts of Asia and Africa. In Asia, Indian economy is concentrated around agriculture mostly where about 72% of population is engaged in agriculture. Every year huge losses occur in agricultural production due to various climatic and biotic factors. Of biotic factors, pests alone are responsible to cause major damage to agriculture thus affecting total harvest. They continue destroying agricultural produce even after harvesting when it is stored in storages. Generally chemical pesticides have been in use to suppress pest populations. These provide immediate relief but have proved to be hazardous in long run. Their indiscriminate and continuous use has resulted in immeasurable deterioration of our environment and health problems to secondary and tertiary members of food chain due to bioaccumulation. Thus there is a need for effective eco-friendly alternative that should also be cost-effective. Biological control or bio-control is one such option that involves manipulation within the ecosystem by the agency of man to suppress harmful species by a superior and beneficial one. This process goes on in nature as ‘natural control’ where one animal feeds on another thereby keeping its population under check. Biological control may be of two types; natural biological control and applied biological control. Applied biological control is further classified into five subcategories, classical biological control, new-association biological control, conservation biological control, augmentation biological control, and bio-pesticides. Out of these classical and new-association biological control is for permanent control over large areas whereas conservation and augmentation biological control and bio-pesticides is for temporary pest suppression.Biological control is likely to be more successful in long-term rather than shortterm crops, vegetables rather than ornamentals, crops having few pests other than the one targeted for biological control, crops in which the target pest does not attack the part of the plant that is sold, crops in which the targeted pest does not transmit plant diseases, and well-screened green houses in regions with cold winters.The biological control is used on 5% (excluding China) of 40,000 ha of greenhouses worldwide, in vegetable crops-30,000 ha mostly in north temperate areas, on 1000 ha of ornamental crops and a small amount of warm-region vegetable crops. The number of natural enemies reared commercially has increased from one in 1968 to more than 100 by 2006.There are many advantages of biological control as it is eco-friendly, cost effective, self-perpetuating and bereft with harmful effect of pesticides. Disadvantages are : it is species specific, takes long time and alone cannot be effective if applied in large agricultural fields. Key words: Bio-control, Agriculture, Eco-friendly, Bio-pesticides INTRODUCTION In many countries agriculture constitutes one of the most important sectors of its economy. Our basic need of food and clothing are almost www.ijsir.co.in

entirely dependent on agriculture sector. 45% of world’s population depends on agriculture for its sustenance. The proportion of population involved in agriculture ranges from about 2% in 83

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United States to 80% in some parts of Asia and Africa. In India about 72% of population is engaged in agriculture and Indian economy is concentrated around agriculture mostly (Internet 1). Huge losses occur in agricultural production due to various climatic and biotic factors every year. Of all the biotic factors, pests alone are responsible to cause major damage to agriculture and affect total harvest. Pests continue to destroy agricultural produce even after harvesting when it is stored in store houses. Chemical pesticides have been in use to suppress pest populations in general. They provide immediate relief but have proved to be hazardous in long run. Their indiscriminate and continuous use has resulted in immeasurable deterioration of our environment and health problems.They cause irreparable damage to secondary and tertiary members of food chain due to bioaccumulation. They also add to and cause environmental pollution thus damaging our ecosystem. Therefore, there is a need for effective eco-friendly alternative that should also be cost-effective (Smith & Secoy 1975) . Pest is an living organism whose population increases to such an extent so as to cause economic damage to crops and stored products, causes nuisance and health hazards to an and his livestock. They may be of three types, key pests, occasional pests or potential pests depending upon whether their population is kept under control naturally or not. Most pests that we encounter are mostly insects. Insects have existed on this earth for over 200 million years in comparison to manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s existence of half a million ago. Many ancient accounts are available in writing. Rig veda, in its hymns mentions grain destroying insects. Bible lists at least 11 insect pests. Dead human lice are discovered in the hair of Egyptian mummies. Many ancient letters and travelogues mentioned insect pests in their writings (Srivastava, 2008). When man became civilized it settled down around rivers and started to cultivate crops. He formed societies and started to domesticate animals and large scale breeding of livestock. He started to store grains that come out due to the large scale cultivation of crops. All these factors favored insects to turn into pests. 84

Whenever there are favorable weather conditions, large scale monoculture of crops or of stock animals and accidental introduction of an insect by travelers or transport into a new area or country, the pest outbreak occurs. Many methods have been adopted to minimize these insect pests. Cultural methods, mechanical method, physical methods and legal control are some general methods. Special methods such as use of insecticides, antifeedents, insect attractants and insect repellents are also adopted. Some more are biological control, bahavioural control, hormonal control, chemosterilents, genetic methods, and use of radioactive isotopes and ionizing radiations (Srivastava, 2008). Among all these methods biological control is now receiving the attention the world over specially in USA, Canada and some part of the Europe because of its eco-friendliness. Biological control or bio-control is the method of controlling pests whether of plants, animals or man by exposing them to their natural enemies by the agency of man. The natural enemies are also known as biological control agents. They are fundamental resource in any biological program. They may either be pathogen, parasite, parasitoid or predator. Pathogens are disease causing organisms. They may be bacteria, virus, algae, protozoa or rickettsiae. Parasites are smaller than host. Both adult and larvae feed without killing. They may be nocturnal or diurnal. They must be able to function at low host density. They are very efficient as biocontrol agents. Parasitoids are of same size as that of host. Only their larvae feed on host adult may be free living and vegetarian. They paralyze the host to oviposit and complete their development on a single host whereas predators kill and devour their prey. They are larger than the organisms they prey upon. They are crepuscular. They are highly suitable for biological control. Among these parasitoids followed by predators and pathogens are best suited to carry out a biological control program(Coppel&Mertins, 1976; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). HISTORY Known history of bio-control traces back to Egypt where Egyptians used to worship cats as www.ijsir.co.in

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they preyed upon rats and mice. Rats and mice are carriers of causative agent of plague that is asiphnopteran named Xynopsylla commonly known as rat flea. An ancient Chinese text dating back to 900 AD from South China reveals that nests of large yellow ants with long legs (Oecophyllasmaragdina) were sold in market to protect citrus crop from insect pests. In 1841 date growers of the Mideastern country of Yemen moved colonies of beneficial ants to their groves from the mountains each year for insect pest suppression(Liu, 1939; Coppel&Mertins, 1976; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). Italian Francesco Redi described attack of the gregarious braconid parasitoid, Apantelesglomeratus, on the cabbage butterfly, Pierisrapae and also parasitism of aphids by an ichneumon ‘fly’ (1668).Carolus Linnaeus proposed controlling orchard pests with the introduction of the predaceous ground beetle, Calosomasycophanta (L.). Mynah bird (Acridotherestritis) was introduced from India to Mauritius for controlling populations of red locust, (Nomadacrisseptemfasciata) in 1762 AD. Eleven-spotted ladybird, Coccinellaunde-cimpunctata imported in New Zealand from Britain in 1874 and used against aphid pests (Dixon, 2000).A Californian entomologist Albert Koebele was sent to Australia for searching bio-control option for controlling cotton cushion scale, Icerapurchasi. From where Vedalia Ladybeetle, Rodoliacardinalis was sent back to California. It became the most successful bio-control example world over and saved America a million dollars (Coppel & Mertins, 1976; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). TYPES OF BIOCONTROL Bio-control may be of mainly two types; natural bio-control and applied bio-control. Applied bio-control is further classified into five subcategories (i) classical bio-control (ii) newassociation bio-control (iii) conservation biocontrol (iv) augmentation bio-control and (v) biopesticides. Out of these, classical and newassociation bio-control is for permanent control over large areas whereas conservation and augmentation bio-control and bio-pesticides is for temporary pest suppression. In classical biological control targeted pest is an invasive species and introduced natural www.ijsir.co.in

enemies are species from its native range. It is an applied ecological process that re-associates pests with their missing natural enemies by importing and introducing them in the affected area. Since many invasive species, at high densities harm the communities they invade, their suppression is ecologically beneficial to a broad range of native species. It is more economical in terms of feasibility, efficiency, and permanence. It is also less damaging to the environment. Its key features are permanency, spread to the ecological limits of agents, potential for high level of control, speed of impact on pests and its safety compared to chemical control (Coppel & Mertins, 1976; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). All classical control programs move through similar steps as suggested by Van Driesche and Bellows in 1993. Step one comprises choosing appropriate targets and generating support. Pests selected as target should be important economically and ecologically. They should be species that have persisted as pests for several years or more. There should be broad agreement. Second step is obtaining correct pest identification. There are many organizations that facilitate this such as Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata; Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London and others that provide free service of taxonomic identification of insects and other pests. Step three involves surveys of the pest’s natural enemies in the invaded area so as to avoid introducing natural enemies that are already present or cannot be distinguished from those already present. The pest in the invaded region should be surveyed and its natural enemies inventoried. In some cases, molecular markers may have to be developed to ensure the demarcation of already present species from any new species to be introduced. Step four is to identify the pest’s native range. To collect natural enemies for a classical biological control project, foreign populations of the target pest have to be located. The native range of a pest might be inferred form records of occurrences of the pest or its relatives, communication with scientists where the pest is believed to be present, examination of specimens in collections of world museums, study of genetic variation in populations of the pest from different locations, and actual surveys in potential locations. Step five is collecting natural enemies in targeted 85

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locations. Foreign collecting is either done through, short trips made by scientists from the country importing the natural enemy species, by hiring local scientists, or/and deploying staff to the collecting region for extended periods of time. Step six involves judging the potential of candidate natural enemies to suppress the pest. Predictions needed to choose a best agent would have to be based on either laboratory data or information gained from the native range. A different approach to choosing natural enemies to introduce may be to look for vacant attack niches in the life system of the pest in the invaded area compared with that in the native range (Coppel & Mertins, 1976; Hall & Ehler1979; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). Step seven is creating colonies of natural enemies in quarantine. The United Nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Food and Agriculture Organization has published guidelines for quarantine procedures suitable for use during introductions of biological control agents. Step eight comprises estimating each natural enemyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s host range. For herbivorous insects and plant pathogens, host-range estimation has been a routine part of classical biological control for more than 75 years. Initially, such testing focused on testing crops, ornamentals, and other valuable plants to ensure that herbivore or pathogen introductions would not introduce a new plant pest. Step nine entails petitioning for release. For most countries, the decision to release a new biological control agent into the environment, with the intent that it establish, is regulated by law. Although details vary country by country, such laws should seek to ensure that no important damage is inevitable, that it is judged acceptable before release in view of the important harm done by the pest whose control is being sought. Step ten leads to release and establishment. Establishment of the natural enemy is assessed by sampling, either directly for the released agent or indirectly (for parasitoids) by collecting hosts and rearing to detect parasitism (Anon, 1992, Van Driesche & Bellows 1993). The historical record shows that 34% of attempts to colonize natural enemies succeed. Step eleven demands assessing impacts on the pest and non-target species. If feasible, pest densities should be measured in control plots before natural enemies are released, as such pre-release information is 86

valuable in establishing the pest density baseline to which future densities are compared. Evaluations done as the biological control project unfolds provide guidance on agent effectiveness, allowing mass rearing to support future releases to concentrate on the best species. Final step stipulates assessing the programâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s completeness and economic value. For this a benefit /cost ratio for the project should be calculated to provide to government agencies to whom requests for support of new projects must be justified. Economic and ecological benefits are also assessed (Coppel&Mertins, 1976; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). In new-association biological control new combinations of natural enemies and pests are brought together. It involves the use of one organism for the biological control of another with which the biological control agent has had no previous evolutionary connection. For such projects, the potential source of natural enemies would be closely related (same genus or tribe) species or those that are ecologically similar to the target pest but found in separate bio geographic areas (other continents) with similar climates. In other cases, a pest may be invasive, but its origin unknown. Plans to collect natural enemies from species taxonomically related to the invader may be considered. For newassociation projects, sources of natural enemies are not necessarily obvious. The general approach is to search on congeneric species, or on less-related species that have similar life histories or ecology, in regions with similar climate. For insect targets, it is also useful to collect natural enemies from hosts on the plants on which the target pest feeds. The feeding habits and plant association of the pest insects, rather than taxonomic affinity per se, is, sometimes basis for finding new-association parasitoids (Coppel&Mertins, 1976; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). Conservation biological control works in two ways, protecting natural enemies from pesticides and enhancing crops as natural enemy environments. Augmentative biological control works for both the greenhouse and outdoor crops. Green houses were amongst the first environments in which the idea of artificially releasing natural www.ijsir.co.in

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enemies was proposed. Kirby and Spence (1815) advocated rearing ladybird beetles for aphid control. The insectary industry, started earlier in European green houses, aims to produce large numbers of natural enemies for release where they are absent or too scarce to provide effective pest control. Two release approaches were developed. Inoculative release meant only to seed the crop with the natural enemy, with control being provided later after the natural enemies reproduce for several generations. Inundative or mass release, If natural enemies are not expected to reproduce and control is expected from releases of large numbers of the agent (Coppel & Mertins, 1976; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). TOOLS OF BIOCONTROL Members of following groups may act as biocontrol agent or biopesticide: Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses , Nematodes . Following factors make a pathogen a likely bio-pesticide: Ease and cost of rearing, Degree of host specificity and pathogenicity, Suitability of the pathogen for the intended site of application. There are two options for rearing pathogens; in live hosts, fermentation media or cell lines. To ensure agent’s quality there are three steps involved; finding, keeping and improving. Measuring the efficacy of microbial pesticides is done either by comparisons among agents and formulations or by estimating the effects of environmental factors and persistence of agent impact due to agent reproduction. To be a good biological control agent any organisms must fulfill certain criteria. It must be a natural enemy of that pest against which it is going to be used. It should be able to adapt itself to the environment in which it is going to be released. Its population should be able to synchronize itself with that of the prey. It should be able to disperse itself over the affected area. Natural enemies are the fundamental resource of biological control. The main categories are: Parasitoid, predator and pathogens. Parasitoids kill their hosts and complete their development on a single host. Only larvae feed on host, adults are free living and vegetarian. Of www.ijsir.co.in

some 26 families of parasitoids, the groups used most frequently are: Braconidae, Ichneumonidae, Eulophidae, Pteromalidae, Encrytidae, Aphelinidae, and Tachinidae. There are egg parasitoids like trichogrammatids wasps that attack eggs. Larval parasitoids species attack caterpillars. They may be of two types: endoparasitoids and ectoparasitoids (Coppel&Mertins, 1976, Dixon, 2000; Driesche, et al. 2008). Predators kill their prey to devour. Predaceous insects of potential use in biological control are found in: Dermaptera Mantodea Hemiptera Thysanoptera Coleoptera Neuroptera Hymenoptera and Diptera. More than 30 families of insects are predaceous, the important ones are: Anthocoridae, Nabidae, Reduviidae, Geocoridae, Carabidae, Coccinellidae (Coleoptera), Nitidulidae (sensu Cybocephalidae), Staphylinidae, Chrysopidae, Formicidae (Hymenoptera), Cecidomyiidae, and Syrphidae (Diptera) (Coppel&Mertins, 1976, Dixon, 2000; Driescheet al., 2008). Pathogens are disease causing organisms. Following group of organisms are potent biocontrol agents: (1) Bacteria (Schizomycetes: Eubacteriales) e.g. Coccobacillusacridiorumd’ Herelle for locust suppression (d’Herelle 19111914). The discovery and description of milky disease in the Japanese beetle caused by B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis Berliner (19201945), and the commercial availability of the same for testing in the USA (1958), and others. Commercial production of B. popilliae and B. lentimorbus Dutky, in combination, and B. thuringiensis, by itself, illustrate the successful development of both in vivo and in vitro technology (2) Virus (Microtatobiotes: Virales) is the most exciting and promising group. More than 450 viruses from approximately 500 arthropod species have been described (Ignoffo, 1974). Viruses are associated with all major insect orders, majority have been found in the Lepidoptera (83%), Hymenoptera (10%) and Diptera (4%). Following virus group hold the promise: Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) that account for 41% of the described arthropod viruses and show great promise for practical use in pest suppression. Granulosis viruses (GV), Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses (CPV), Entomopox viruses (EPV), Nonoccluded 87

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iridescent viruses (IV) (3) Protozoans: The protozoan subphyla Sporozoa and Cnidospora contain not only the most numerous entomophilic protozoans, but also those with the most promise in biological insect pest programs. Sporozoanneogregrines like Mattesiagrandis McLaughlin is an important pathogen of the boll weevil, Anthonomousgrandis Boheman, and current field trials are showing considerable promise (McLaughlin, 1971, 1973). Similarly, various genera of Cnidosporan Microsporida are promising potential biocontrol agent (4) Fungi: Of the two fungal classes viz. Deuteromycetes and Phycomycetes four genera are involved in pest suppression namely Beuveria, Metarrhizium, Entomophthora and Coelomo-myces (5) Rickettsiae (Microtatobiotes: Rickettsiales) are often discussed along with viruses because of their small size (0.2-0.3x0.3-3.0 µm and obligate intracellular development; however, their susceptibility to antibiotics indicates similarities to bacteria. Rickettsiella spp. have been found in Coleoptera, Diptera and Orthoptera, in Europe and the USA (Coppel &Mertins, 1976, Dixon, 2000; Driescheet al., 2008). CURRENT STATUS The biological control is currently applied on about 5% (excluding China) of 40,000 ha of greenhouses worldwide, in vegetable crops30,000 ha mostly in north temperate areas, on 1000 ha of ornamental crops and a small amount of warm-region vegetable crops. The number of natural enemies reared commercially has increased from 01(one) in 1968 to more than 100 (one hundred) by 2006 (Internet 2). Global biopesticide market is expected to increase double or triple fold by the end of this decade. CONCLUSION Bio-control agent once established needs time to adjust to new environment thus to establish itself. Therefore , bio-control is likely to be more successful in long-term rather than short-term crops. It is more effective in case of vegetables rather than ornamentals, crops having few pests other than the one targeted for biological control, crops in which the target pest does not attack the part of the plant that is sold, crops in which the targeted pest does not transmit plant diseases, and well-screened green houses 88

in regions with cold winters. Bio-control is ecofriendly since it uses nature’s own device i.e. natural enemies against the pests. It is cost effective also in the long run since once natural enemies are introduced and established in the desired area they require no maintenance cost. It is self-perpetuating since natural enemies reproduce again and again and maintain their population over time. It is bereft with the harmful effect of pesticides such as it does not cause pollution and does not release chemicals that are hazardous to the environment etc. Its disadvantages are that it is species specific since natural enemies applied in biocontrol are very specific for a particular kind of pest that’s how they effectively manage the population of desired pest. Sometimes, it takes long time as in classical bio-control where natural enemies are introduced then they take some time to acclimatize to the new environmental conditions and reproduce over time thus may take long time initially. In case of large agricultural fields where a complex of pests may be there bio-control alone cannot be fully effective and it may need some other types of pest management methods to be applied there such as physical control, cultural control, genetic control or even chemical control (Coppel & Mertins, 1976; Bellows & Fischer, 2005). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Author is thankful to Head, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India for providing necessary laboratory space. Author is also grateful to Prof. Omkar , Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India for motivation and valuable suggestions. REFERENCES 1.

Anon (1992): Expert Consultation on Guidelines for Introduction of Biological Control Agents. Biocontrol News and Information. 18 (4), 119N24N.

Bellows, T. S. & Fisher, T. W. (2005): Handbook of Biological Control. Academic Press, Elsevier. P 1046.

Coppel, H. C. &Mertins, J. W. (1977): Biological pest suppression (Advanced series in agricultural sciences 4). Springer-Verlag Berlin. Heidelberg. P 314.

Dixon, A.F.G. (2000). Insect Predator- Prey Dynamics, Ladybird Beetles and Biological Control.Cambridge University Press.P 257.

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Driesche, R. V., Hoddle, M. & Center, T. (2008): Control of pests and weeds by natural enemies: An introduction to biological control. Blackwell Publishing.P 473.

Hall, R.W., &Ehler, L.E, (1979): Rate of establishment of natural enemies in classical biological control. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America.26, 111-14.

Internet1:http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/ EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/ E X T S A R E G T O P A G R I / 0,contentMDK:20273764~menuPK:548214~ p a g e P K : 3 4 0 0 4 1 7 3 ~ p i P K :34003707~theSitePK:452766,00.html

Internet2 :http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/ landis.htm

Kirby, W., & Spence, W. (1867): An Introduction in Entomology, 7th ed. London: Lonmans, Green.

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Liu, G (1939): Some Extracts from the history of entomology in China. Psyche. 46, 23-28.

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McLaughlin, R.E. (1971): Use of protozoans for microbial control of insects. In. Microbial Control

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of Insects and Mites. Burges, H.D., Hussey, N.W. 9eds.). London-New York: Academic Press. P 151172. 12.

McLaughlin, R.E. (1973): Protozoa as microbial agents. In: Some Recent Advances in Insect Pathology. Roberts, D.W., Yendol, W.G. (eds). Miscellaneus Publication of Entomological Society of America. 9, 95-98.

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Smith, A. L., &Secoy, D.M. (1975): Forerunners of pesticides in Classical Greece and Rome. Journal of Agriculture, Food and Chemistry. 23, 1050-1055

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Srivastava, K. P. (2008): Text book of applied entomology (vol I). Kalyani publishers. P 321

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Van Driesche, R.G. & Bellows, Jr., T.S. (1993): Steps in Classical Arthropod Biological Control. Proceedings of the Thomas Say Publications in Entomology.Entomological Society of America, Lanham, MD.

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ECO-DEVELOPED SOCIETIES: A HOPE FOR THE FUTURE GENERATION MONIKA RAGHUVANSHI* Pacific Academy of Higher Education and Research University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India E-mail: monikaraghuvanshi07@gmail.com

*Address for Correspondence : Monika Raghuvanshi, Pacific Academy of Higher Education and Research University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India E-mail: monikaraghuvanshi07@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Society in a layman language comprises of a group of people coming together for a purpose and are bounded by common beliefs as well as culture or in other words itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a group of people separated by geographical boundaries which are similar in various characteristics and as we all know environmental issues are burning and drew attention of common masses and various class of people come together to tackle such problems in their own ways. This gave rise to ecodeveloped societies which although exist but are yet to be discovered to have scope of future. Such societies make use of renewable resources of energy and energy efficient process with life cycle assessment to utilize environmental services along with eco-friendly applications. They have their own innovative ways like recycling points and power rating system and hence set global trend. Eco-developed societies understand the need of current generation and work towards building a healthy environment for future generations. Benefit of sustainable thinking and practices is that if they become habits now they will continue to have existence in the future generation thus fosters sustainable life style in future generations. Green marketing can also be inclined towards scientific approaches which maintain proper balance between eco-system and man and can have technology to check diversion from ideal practices so that corrective measures can be taken on time so this leads to development of eco-scientific societies. There can be section of society which is sensitive to environmental issues like they are sensitive to biodiversity as they believe that earth is mother of so many living creatures and all of us have equal rights on it so we humans should not be cause of loss of other species and hence can be called as eco-sensitive society. The uses of green products give rise to futuristic societies. Transformational societies are already established and settled but believe in changes as per need of time to progress fast. Motivational society believes in creating awareness as they believe in united efforts and bringing huge changes. Eco-focused societies comprise of advanced educated classes of people who develop goals and work on them as per guidelines and remain updated with percentage of target achieved. Pure base societies believe nature is the lifeline of everything. So they are more inclined towards use of Ayurvedic therapies and nature- based products. This can be a society which utilizes green practices and makes use of green products from every ecological angle and hence will be called as green society. Keywords: Green products, Eco-developed societies, Future generations, Environment INTRODUCTION Society in a layman language comprises of a group of people coming together for a purpose and its modified version in simple terms is a group 90

of individuals which follow same culture and practices so why not to change ourselves for the benefit of society so that same thing would be practiced by everyone. Alone we can stand for change and together we can bring the change. www.ijsir.co.in

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Only one needs to understand that it is difficult to start and only starting needs more efforts but later on things which are beneficial will be adapted by people sooner or later so why not to adapt something which is good for all the livings and non- living elements of eco-system to drive the change towards betterment of human race in narrow term and whole universe in a broader aspect. So this can brought up a new concept that is concept of ecological society. Seems like a dream but no it is not, already there exists groups of people who are working for green marketing only thing is they are not called as ecological societies but the thing is they are the ecological societies of future. Such societies make use of renewable resources of energy and energy efficient process with life cycle assessment to utilize environmental services along with eco-friendly applications. They have their own innovative ways like recycling points and power rating system and hence set global trend. Eco-developed societies understand the need of current generation and work towards building a healthy environment for future generations. Benefit of sustainable thinking and practices is that if they become habits now they will continue to have existence in the future generation thus fosters sustainable life style in future generations. GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS INNOVATIVE SOCIETY Green logistics

Global sem ecosystem

Waste Wast Utilization

EcoEcofriendly Product frien

Better environmental Bette credentials r

Recycling Recy point

EnergyEner efficient

cling

Environmental policies

Renewable

Green marketing leads Gree n towards

New power New Generation pow

Environmental Envi Services

ronm

Innovative Society

develo New product pment Development

Life cycle t assessment

Energy/ Ener power rating gy system

Ecological Applications

Smar Smart packaging t

Eco profile Ecoof products profi

Gree Green channel n

Ecol Ecological Games ogic

Green marketing leads to innovation and www.ijsir.co.in

thus development of new products and practices which ultimately benefits the society. These include short term as well as long term benefits (http://company.nokia.com/en/about-us/peopleplanet). Green marketing helps to build global ecosystem as natural resources comprise our ecosystem and are distributed across the globe. Eco-friendly products give customers a new wonderful experience and satisfaction of ecological as well as health benefits. So companies are taking green marketing as opportunity and increasing their good will in the market and pose a positive image in the minds of people as being environmentally friendly as well as creating new agendas for entering market or increasing market share as well as getting benefits in the long run too. They follow environmental standards and thus increases ecofriendly features of their product and create a niche in the market. They also follow green process to improve energy efficiency of their product and to follow energy-efficient process by which they can save their investments and resources too. These dayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s companies are also reducing size of products as well as packaging to reduce waste and ensure better recycling. So this in turn reduces cost in terms of materials as well as transportation charges also go down. These days people are opting eco-friendly services to enjoy healthy life. Green marketing also ensures recycling so that waste materials, used products as well as energy lost are placed back into the life cycle as well as ecological cycle so all of us are benefited directly or indirectly. As green marketing has proved itself beneficial for the society, more and more number of companies are spending huge amount of money to rediscover more eco-friendly products and ideas and thus to keep pace with the changing time and need of society. Companies are improving environmental credentials of their products and are passionate to reach 100% level of recycling process. One more innovative result of green marketing is companies are using eco- friendly services to give life giving experience to customers as well as awareness creating applications have also been introduced in the market which along with fun creates interest in the users towards green marketing and its importance. So this is an amazing way of creating awareness with fun. Not only this to help kids 91

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understanding these games applications which teach green marketing and its benefits have also been introduced in the market to enhance experience of user. This not only generate interest in kids but can also teach them useful aspects of green marketing and its impact on society so that they start practicing from the very beginning. These days green channels have been introduced which reduce cost as well as bring positive change in the environment in which we live thus society in other words is benefited too on a large scale. These days products are also coming with eco- profile which informs customers before handed about its effect on environment in terms of efficiency, recycling etc. These days bio-plastics and recycled metals are coming into fashion to win the trust of customers and ensure recycling too. These days energy saving features have already been introduced in the product portfolios. Power rating system or we can say energy rating system has already been introduced and standards have been developed. It is a benefit to the society as it prevents false misleading marketing practices in the market so ensures less or no post dissonance purchase. New power generation sources are getting discovered for example, how power can be generated with solar energy which can reduce usage of electricity instead or coal etc. Companies are making eco- friendly policies and are practicing them which not only improve process but create awareness among employees too. Recycling points have always been there so old products, waste etc are taken there on cheap rates and are recycled. Many governments as well as non-government organization are coming up to take initiatives in the field of green marketing. It is responsibility of each and every individual of this society to use the power of green marketing for the development of society. Product life cycle assessment tools are being introduced and are getting widely used to calculate impact of their product on environment hence diversion from green marketing can either be corrected or brought back to flow. Companies are trying their best to reduce the emission of harmful green house gases as lot of environmental issues have been associated with this and there are international eyes also on such issues as this planet is for all of us and our future generation too have right to lead a healthy life. 92

Energy loss is also getting recovered by efficient processes and technology. Not only this in fact there are energy efficient offices too which offer ecological alternatives as of how space can be used effectively. GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY SOCIETY Green marketing, if practiced, increases sustainability of eco-system and thus set up an eco-friendly environment. Optimum utilization of green marketing along with talent can bring balance in eco-system as well as market driving forces too and this in turn leads towards sustainable society. In a society we do have silent commitments which include commitment towards society, commitment towards sustainability, and commitment towards each other. So green marketing provides leadership in thoughts and motivates people to act green, to go green. Sustainability is brought by immediate actions to key ecological issues for benefit of all (http:// www.wipro.com/about-ipro/sustainability/). Sustainable societies understand the needs of current generation and work towards building a healthy environment for future generations. Root cause of problem is understood and need efforts to remove it and the best way for it is to first induce green thoughts in us and inculcate green sustainable practices in our daily lives. Use of sustainable thinking and practices is that if they come into our habits now they will continue to have existence in our future generation thus fosters sustainable life style in future generations

Global ecofriendly environment Sustainable life style in future generations

Sustainable thinking and practices

Sustainable eco-system

Green marketing leads towards Sustainable Society

Optimum utilization of natural resources

Commitment for sustainability

Understanding of future generations

Actions for key ecological issues

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There are few practices in our daily lives which may bring sustainability in society or we can say which may be characterizing as features of sustainable society. There are already green communities to track every element of sustainable society and together can bring sustainability in the world. There can be development in the field of green marketing continuously involved in exploring environmentally driven systems to maintain sustainability. People can be engaged in energetic businesses and creating material value chain. Green marketing can also be inclined towards scientific approaches which maintain proper balance between eco-system and man and can have technology to check diversion from ideal practices so that corrective measures can be taken on time. There can be environment management system to check natural factors involved and to intimate on time before any disaster or loss. Such systems can either be used for business purposes so that when there is little diversion from eco- friendly practices or process it can be checked on time and corrective measures can be taken to prevent risks.

energy sources along with long term vision (http:/ /www.ril.com/html/aboutus/our_commitments.html). There can be risk analysis system too to avoid natural adversities in business houses as well as locality. There can be proper audit system with trained and qualified auditors; accompanied by visits from proper accreditation companies and have frequent visits from them to prove their credibility in the market. Such audits can be part of businesses or can be on locality to keep an eye on environment issues. There can be special economic zones like maintenance in coastal area, maintenance of green belt around offices, homes etc, and tree plantation to act as filters, vermi-compost pits , organic waste is recycled, harmful chemicals are treated all around. All these techniques are useful for commercial purposes as well as daily life. GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS ECO-SENSITIVE SOCIETY

GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS ECO- SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY Green marketing leads towards Eco-Scientific Society

Explore environmentally driven

Environment performance

systems

indicators

Maintain special economic zones

Quality management system

Audit system

Environment management

Risk analysis system

Scientific ecological approach

Material value chain

Energetic business

system

These can also be used on smaller scale like for research purposes or studies and can be part of home or locality too. There can be quality management system to guide proper procedure to be followed so as to be perfect in every aspect of marketing, can also have environment performance indicators to check water toxic level, green house gas emissions, recycling, waste treatment etc. to keep on working on new projects to enhance usage of environmental friendly www.ijsir.co.in

There can be section of society which is sensitive to environmental issues like they are sensitive to biodiversity as they believe that earth is mother of so many living creatures and all of us have equal rights on it so we humans should not be cause of loss of other species (http:// www.tata.com/ourcommitment/articlesinside/ Environment). They are proactive to conserve natural resources and they take initiatives for the same. There are certain normal rules followed like establishing factories in outer areas, not to ruin forests for commercial purposes, not to cut trees for useless purposes, to control emission of toxic gases due to industrial purposes or due to transportation or vehicles, harmful waste should be treated before disposal, water should be saved, harmful technology should be avoided, harmful chemicals should be banned, children should be informed 93

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about recycling and green practices. They believe in enrichment of nature as progressive step towards welfare of nature is a step ahead to them towards mankind. As a result of this ban of plastics and non-biodegradable substances came into lime light. They adhere to environmental procedures like conservation of flora and fauna to maintain proper balance in ecosystem. GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS FUTURISTIC SOCIETY

They fulfill the needs and want of green consumers and explore green marketing as an opportunity to increase market share and create positive image in the mind of customers. Businesses in such societies can inform customers about the benefits of eco-friendly products and use environmental declaration to meet the standards. GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS MOTIVATIONAL SOCIETY

Green marketing leads towards Futuristic Society

Building today for tomorrow

Future-oriented

Eco- growth (Sustainable progress)

There can be a group of people who are concerned about building today in the light of tomorrow. They are future oriented people. They work on their employees to go green. Then they work with their stakeholders; collaborate with clients and organizations to eco- growth. They believe in green thoughts with the view that success of tomorrowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s companies as well as society is closely linked with the health of ecosystem (http://www.infosys.com/sustainability/ Pages/index.aspx) GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS TRANSFORMATIONAL SOCIETY There is need to understand the need of time and take green marketing as an opportunity. Although such section of society is established and settled but they believe in changes as per need of time to progress fast (http:// www.hul.co.in/sustainable-living-2014/ourapproach/index.aspx). There is need to adapt with the time and hence not only survive well but progress fast.

This class of society believes in creating awareness as they believe in united efforts and bringing huge changes. They partner with government to bring changes on a large a scale as well as they partner with other local industries to be benefited on a noticeable scale. They work on bigger issues like checking carbon emissions, green house gas emissions and taking preventive measures for the same. To develop tools and techniques to work on issues like global warming and minimize its effects. They develop consciousness among people about environmental issues and develop go green thinking and green goals. There can be initiative to educate everyone about the green marketing and its impact on changing times. They launch campaigns based on increasing environmental consciousness. They may target all the school going kids to bring changes nation wide. They may include environments to work on various issues. They may work on tree plantation to filter air and bring pollution free environment. They may work on water conservation to have healthy living. They may work on waste recycle to have clean nature and society. Such people are source of inspiration for others (http://www. parleproducts.com/csr/green_planet.php) GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS ECO- FOCUSED SOCIETY There are the advanced educated classes of people who develop goals and work on them

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as per guidelines and remain updated with percentage of target achieved. They work on various environmental issues which can help them to grow and be efficient in their processes and maintain proper balance between various components of eco-system. Green marketing leads towards EcoFocused Society

Advance educated class

Develop goals and work

Have guidelines

Achieve targets

GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS GREEN SOCIETY

Keep track record

They have various targets at a time like reducing green house gas emissions, reducing waste etc so they will work as per guidelines and act in the progressive direction with accompanied goal of being benefited from it economically, socially and technologically. So work as per standards and try to work by comparing with ideal practices and the level they have achieved and as per standards. Their progress can be marked by others and they have full proofs of their achievements. They are surely towards the effective path of well-being and can give very good small advices to save eco-system (http:// www.hul.co.in/sustainable-living-2014/). GREEN MARKETING LEADS TOWARDS PURE- BASE SOCIETY Green marketing leads towards Pure-Base Society

Believes in sustainability from core

Believe nature is lifeline

Inclined towards Ayurvedic therapies

Nature based products

Conservation of energy

Technological absorption

Purity factor

Natural technology

This class of society believes in sustainability from the core. They believe nature is the lifeline of everything. So they are more inclined towards use of Ayurvedic therapies and nature- based products. They believe in conservation of energy and thus technological absorption to have health, safety and environment protection. They make use of biofuels, bio-gases etc for their process to have lower cost and purity factor. They have herbal preferences over synthetic base and thus ensure health and safety. They make use of natural www.ijsir.co.in

technologies like organic manure for enrichment of nature. Thus they have significant benefits like trust worthy image and technology ((http:// www.dabur.com/BR-Report). They use simple technologies like reverse osmosis for water treatment, rain water harvest etc. and thus have lower costs involved so in other words they win trust of people by bringing purity in them and nature. Although such simple techniques are trusted by people but this class is loosing its importance due to replacement by fast acting marketing tools.

Green marketing leads towards Green Society

Green marketing driven

Symbol of success in green marketing

Green behavior

Green buildings

Green practices

Care for earth

Zero waste

Sustainable solutions

Socio-environment norms

Green technology

Green process

Green values

Last stage of green marketing

There can be green marketing driven societies. As teaching and preaching or creating awareness is useful but actually having green marketing in behavior and practices is more significant. This can be a society which utilizes green practices and makes use of green marketing from every ecological angle (www.suzlon.com/). They will believe in caring for earth and make use of natural resources only to create renewable sources of energy which create zero waste or less waste and ensure bringing back of waste as well as energy back into the cycle. They will adhere to socioenvironment norms and practices. They would not only have green thinking and values but they wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know anything apart from green marketing and its practices. Not only this they will make use of green technology too like have ecofriendly buildings, natural sources of food, manpower health and safety, renewable energy usage and proper hygienic conditions to live in. They will be in the last stage to be achieved in the process towards green marketing and will be marked as success in the era of Green marketing. 95

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CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Man is a social animal and they have always come together to face various challenges of life for the goodness of society as a whole and green marketing is one such field where scope is present for mutual benefit of human race and environment so as per understanding various groups of people are formed and will form as well as progress having common belief and culture to inculcate eco-friendly thoughts as well practices and will be recognized by names and their living style.

www.nokia.com/in-en/ www.wipro.com/india/ www.ril.com/ www.tata.in/ www.infosys.com/pages/index.aspx www.lg.com/in www.microsoft.com/en-in/default.aspx www.parleproducts.com/ www.hul.co.in/ www.amul.com/ www.dabur.com/en/general/contactus.aspx www.britannia.co.in/ www.suzlon.com/

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GREEN MARKETING AS A SOCIETAL CONCEPT MONIKA RAGHUVANSHI* Pacific Academy of Higher Education and Research University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

*Address for Correspondence : Monika Raghuvanshi, Pacific Academy of Higher Education and Research University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India E-mail: monikaraghuvanshi07@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Humans are from nature so whatever we do to nature it comes back to us. It is an admitted fact that due to current harmful anthropological activities environment is under stress and the same is reflected in daily lives in form of depleting resources, economic fluctuations, natural devastations and unhealthy localities and lifestyle. So this drew attention of business houses to inculcate ecological thinking into every business angle and hence gave rise to the need of green marketing which although exists in our daily lives and is practiced from time to time but yet have to be made part of our daily lives to bring back the balance in eco-system and its components and hence to bring back life to our future generations with health and comfort. Today humans are surviving in money driven society. The use of renewable sources of energy will result in healthy lives and can be recycled bringing no damage to environment and have long run economic benefits too. Green marketing is the use of eco-friendly products, using green process and inculcating ecological thoughts for mutual benefit of environment and humans. Green marketing is optimum utilization of natural resources and thus enjoys unlimited tangible as well as intangible benefits and hence economically as well as ecologically justified. Green marketing involves green process so making use of neat and clean technologies can bring healthy life. Green marketing causes mutual benefits to humans as well as environment so ethically valuable and can be carried generations to generations. So if green marketing is valued there are possibilities of green societies with ecological sound practices and healthy lives with perfect environment. Green marketing if practiced brings intangible benefits of positive image in the society and acts as source of inspiration for others. Only little bit changes are needed in every class like if one is manufacturer they need to focus green products with green process, distributors need to have green communication to retailers and they need to create green awareness into consumers with green message, consumers need to have green purchase with green product choices and stakeholders need to have green behavior which drives us towards ecological or in other words green societies. Similarly green marketing mix is necessary to follow as it is urgent need of time. There is need to redesign products with value added renewable features as per ecological standards with little molding in physical evidences like biodegradable green packing with green labels and sustainable energy-efficient process is followed along with promotion associated with personal, economic, social and environmental benefits will make green marketing as solution to most of our problems. Key words: Green Marketing, Environment, Health, Ecological Thinking. INTRODUCTION Just imagine a picture of future societies all are fighting for their own survival and killing each other for scare natural resources as when men today are not leaving anything for them what www.ijsir.co.in

they will leave for each other. Heart is rendering but true climax of situation with this selfish attitude of man being only users of earth resources for own benefit neglecting not only future generations but other living species too. Can man 97

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survive alone on this earth so when it is not possible why killing other species for selfish benefit? Why men are exploiting natural resources which are causing death of living and non-living elements of eco-system? The fact is all know but never realize that slowly green marketing is becoming part of life and is an essential element for future. Human being is directly or indirectly using it but it remains hidden. Human being can be benefited from it directly if realizes its importance and indirectly because someone else would be doing so for the benefit of society as a whole. Green marketing is a thing which connects all the humans and not only humans together; it has also connected man with other living and non- living elements. Shocking but true only humans need to understand it and its importance in daily lives.

Association (AMA) held the first workshop on â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ecological Marketingâ&#x20AC;? in 1975 (Curtin 2006). The people were not only interested in using products which cause less harm to nature but were also concerned about their health. To their surprise, facts came up and proved that green products are not only good for eco system and indirectly them as they are also part of it, they realized that it has direct effect on them and their health also due to more element of purity (http:// forum.diit.info/index.php). Experts that time were aware of normal traditional products and its harmful effect on eco-system and in turn on future generations but a set of population also realized its importance which was aware of good effects of green products on them or in other words one can say better effect of green products.

There is no harm in changing thinking to ecological angles and bringing excellent results for the upliftment of human race as a whole. Problem is not using green marketing . Man only needs to educate himself of how to use it. Everything remains same only little bit of ecological thinking in minds and excellent change in society.

IMPORTANCE OF GREEN MARKETING

If we go to basics of society in layman language, it is a group of people coming together for a purpose and its modified version in simple terms is a group of individuals which follow same culture and practices so why not to change for the benefit of society so that same thing would be practiced by everyone (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Society). Alone we can stand for change and together we can bring the change. Only human being needs to understand that it is difficult to start and only starting needs more efforts but later on things which are beneficial will be adapted by people sooner or later so why not to adapt something which is good for all the livings and non- living elements of eco-system to drive the change towards betterment of human race in narrow term and whole universe in a broader aspect. There are several direct as well as indirect benefits of green marketing to society. GREEN MARKETING HISTORY The term Green Marketing came into prominence in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Dodds 2007). The American Marketing 98

Marketing starts with money and ends with money. Today most of human races are having money driving societies. In the economic run all are working hard to survive in the world as a whole or society in narrow terms. Today one of the important thing is in the competition to survive in the market, all are conscious about finances. So this creates an opportunity for green marketing although every opportunity comes with a negative aspect too. Opportunity in economic terms is in a long run green marketing set up which is beneficial but the drawback is its initial set up cost is high which although when seen in cumulative form is beneficial in every aspect. Although prices are high but man exists in a society where if action of one affects others,effects are stopped sooner or later so again sometimes damage is seen and sometimes it is unseen. Slowly, environmentalists started realizing that if man will think about economic benefits only there wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be any space left in future to further create any havoc as future generations will pay for present actions. So the same thing either pays today or tomorrow is a choice. Green marketing can be considered as optimum utilization of natural resources so definitely only economically sound men need to rediscover processes and mould it in ecological form to have economic benefits. Another benefit is green marketing is an intangible asset to every individual and society if www.ijsir.co.in

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they are part of it because benefits of it can’t be touched but can be sensed easily. So no doubt it creates good will for those practicing it and good health for those using it. In economic terms, it is thus beneficial for business classes which are using it as it creates good will for them and creates good health for not only society but for environment too of which man is a part of. Sometimes it is considered that green marketing is meant for a premium class of people but question now which arises is that only premium class which is benefited or is it whole society. Again twisting the brain and answer all know. When all humans are part of this ecosystem, all are equally benefited and hence it is whole sole responsibility of all the human being to maintain the proper balance of eco-system and this can be brought back by green marketing. Balance in eco-system is brought by green marketing as green marketing maintains balance between man and nature and as nature is balanced, lives of men are balanced too so ultimately balance in society. Healthy lives- healthy society is an attention drawing statement because it is naturally proven that green products are less harmful for nature as harmless products are still difficult because least harm can be in the form of energy loss during processing ( J. Ottmann, 1996). So when human beings are using eco-friendly products they bring healthy lives back too. Green products are more close to nature hence purity factor is closer to ideal products which actually do not exist. Return on investment is a financial tool most commonly used to calculate profits so here is return on investment and it is more than imagination if thought carefully. Sometimes it is economic need only which moulds time and business, sometimes it needs investment of time only and basic need of green marketing is this only. Instead of money, man needs investment of time to think positively and to educate itself about the need of green marketing and then it needs time to educate others and to make others aware why humans are using green marketing and why others should do the same. Time and tide wait for none and if this time goes humans can’t mend the damages www.ijsir.co.in

caused due to their own carelessness for not paying attention to environmental issues and not practicing green marketing. Humans were leading from healthy to unhealthy society and hence this drew attention towards green marketing. One more meaning of society is a group of people limited by geographical boundaries, sharing common values and culture so what kind of values human being is teaching to their future generation? To harm nature for self benefit, to live selfishly leaving nothing for future and causing harm to others in the society? Society exists because of some commitment towards each other but humans do have silent commitment for safety and health of others but this is not possible without taking into consideration the environment. Don’t you think when humans are born on this earth they have responsibility towards it also so this means there exists commitment for the betterment of ecosystem so can man fulfill commitment towards society without thinking of nature? Question will remain unanswered till ages. Is it necessary to use hazardous chemicals which not only harm nature but hamper health too? Can’t disposable material be used instead of non-renewable one? Can’t human being think of solar energy? These little changes in habit can not only preserve environment and health but can also save money, with little inconvenience today human being can have comfortable tomorrow. It is not only that this is the right way of using things it also gives feeling of confidence that humans are doing something good for the society as a whole. Only thing is do little well to the society and it will bring impressive changes to the nature. So it is worth spending time and money on green marketing to bring smiles to faces. It is something worth enjoying serving people with care to nature and nature will care for human being. Good deeds bring good ideas to mind and give a feeling of satisfaction. So isn’t it beneficial to practice ecological activities in daily lives. It only needs planning and understanding of eco-friendly practices and thus releases pressure from earth and thus in turn leads humans one step ahead towards the betterment of society. So if one is born as a 99

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businessman he only needs to introduce green product, if one is manufacturer he needs to follow green process, if one is a seller he needs to follow green communication, if one is retailer he needs to convey green messages and if one is a consumer he needs to be green consumer and thus completes green society so this completes green cycle and brings balance into the ecosystem. So what human being is looking for one only has to understand the role and behaves according to need of time. Green marketing also leads to optimum utilization of natural resources and as they are renewable, men will never have to face problem of shortage of raw material or scarce resources, only thing men can do is enjoy unlimited benefits of natural resources which are available free of cost and are unlimited. What a bonanza as this can rarely be possible in case of non-renewable resources. ASPECTS OF GREEN MARKETING

Economic aspect

Ecological aspect

Societal aspect

Green Marketing

Technological aspect

Ethical aspect

for betterment, still they are leaving an unhealthy environment for future generations. These days Corporate Social Responsibility is emerging as an amazing concept practiced in firms as part of their social responsibility not only towards society but towards nationwide development. Not only is this, it is being practiced on an international level. All the human beings are joining hands for achievement of a common goal of healthy life and secure future. Now, marketing is not just a profit making source like in past but these days, by posing a positive image by practicing green marketing, companies are gaining faith of customer and thus increasing their market share. Now, companies gain trust of people by making them believe that they are putting extra efforts for better and comfortable life. So now marketing is not just an activity driven by companies for the upliftment of society but green marketing in itself is a driving force gaining its position not only in companies but also in society. If it comes to technology, it is a boon or curse both ways. If it is used for the betterment of human race accompanied with ecological activities then only it can bring welfare of society otherwise there is no use of using it if it harms us and hampers our environment. When thought of advancement in technology there have been new inventions everyday but to give temporary happiness and comfort but green marketing draw attention of everyone to such technological advances which are boon to nature. GREEN MARKETING SOCIETAL SYSTEM

Since years people are becoming more and more conscious of environmental issues as a result of human activities and of course harmful activities cause irreparable damage to the environment. As resources are getting scares so prices move up and it harms nature so pressurize ecology also (https://www.google.co.in/search/ aspects+of+green+marketing). If think of ethical aspect also, humans for their own benefit are not only harming nature but also digging pitfalls for their future generation. Instead of being aware of negative consequences, human is not practicing green marketing in day to day life. When humans know green marketing is a must 100

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There is a connection between manufacturer, retailer, consumer and stakeholders but when it comes to green marketing there is a bond between all the human beings which directly connects whole race to a common cause that is nature. (https:// w w w. g o o g l e . c o . i n / s e a r c h = a s p e c t s + of+green+marketing&espv). Green products are based on fresh concept popping into few minds to draw attention of people thus we can say green marketing leads to innovation and innovation brings life to business. There are lots of success stories due to innovation. Green consumers are the aware citizens of society who are early adapter of ecological practices. They are the people ready to act to the environmental issues and act as role model to others. Green consumers are the leaders who lead others towards the path of clean society. Green marketing, as it is a concept, is still looking for its place in the minds of people. Companies are thinking of it even though many companies are spending huge amount on its research, nothing can be said clearly as green marketing is in its growth stage and some people are taking it as an opportunity rather others are more comfortable with following trends so not ready to invest into it. Green marketing manufacturers tries to follow process which results into less energy leakage and optimum utilization of natural resources which even though is higher in investment but in long term result into something better. Green marketing products are redesigned to be less harmful to nature hence are result of concerned mind and responsible thoughts. Green products are having higher prices and requirement is low so creates problems for distributors to work on them alone and when it comes to pricing issue normal products are readily available to replace them at comparatively cheaper prices. So itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a loophole in the system to be solved along with other issues but however more number of people are coming up as aware citizens of society and working in the direction of green marketing so human beings are leading from darkness of harmful activities to the light of healthy environment. www.ijsir.co.in

GREEN MARKETING MIX Physical evidence

Process

Green-labels Green-packaging (Biodegradable)

Product Eco-friendly Redesigned Acc. to standards Value-added Renewable

Sustainable Energy-efficient Healthy for workers

Green marketing mix

People (Green consumers) True blue greens Geen-back greens, Srouts, Gousers, Basic browns

Price Long-term economic benefit Little extra for healthy society

Promotion Associated with benefits Personal benefits Economic benefit Social benefit Environmental benefit

Place Leads to clean environment

Green marketing have brought changes to the marketing mix also, now 7 Ps are taking different shape and are molding as per need of green consumers and green companies (http:// www.cim.co.uk/files/7ps.pdf).Today men need to maintain a proper balance between nature and them. Modified 7 Ps of Green marketing Product Green products are less harmful due to their very features but one most important feature is less wastage of energy involved in its various stages. There is need to redesign products to meet the environmental standards and these standards should be carefully set after proper analysis and measurement. Green products are also modified to suit the requirement of ecosystem and society in turn. Price Green products are bit costly and a large set of people is of the opinion that they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t mind in buying green products over the other and they would have definitely preferred green products if they are available with other products at the same prices. So this is one of the hurdles in the growth of green products and its future and sooner or later our future too. Green product paves way for itself due to its exclusive property of less harm to nature. There are unique selling proposition by green products that they are more environmental friendly and thus draw attention 101

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of people towards it and society as a whole. Green consumers no doubt will not change their decision to buy green product as they are able to understand the bigger benefits in terms of little difference in features. Place Although in a positive light one can say that place is an essential element of nature so whatever human beings are doing are doing for healthy and clean environment so although green products may not seem to have a direct connection with place but in a broader sense why to restrict green products in terms of places. Promotion and its associated benefits Promotion strategies are focused on creating awareness and product benefits so need little extra efforts for green products as the message is not although new but still new for people (www.ecomarkproject.eu ). Promotion is the way by which one communicates the benefits of a product. Personal and individual benefits: If green products are considered, they always have this edge that they are fit for health and provide wellness. Indirect effects of using these products specially related to health are providing relaxation to senses and relieve stress on us as well as eco-system. Skill building promotional message can be- we care for you, you care for nature can be best benefits communicated through mind driving forces. Economic benefits: Ultimate aim of every business is economic well being, a most important force driving common masses too, so when it comes to green products as compared to other products, it is preventative measure for health as they consist of natural substances and natural process. However, if talked in profits terms one shouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t mind in paying extra for long term benefits either talking of seen benefits in terms of health or less wastage or unseen benefits in terms of balance eco-system. Social benefits: One of the most important social benefits of green products is it makes humans connected with nature and more socially responsible for betterment of society. It not only gives sense of morally as well as ethically 102

corrects but also motivates others to display the same behavior and being recognized as mature, sensible and responsible individual of society. It creates strong image and brings us among group of green consumers. So gives a sense of belonging to society also. Environmental benefit: Main theme of green products is conservation of eco-system and rehabilitation of environment so lowers energy costs also. These are the products which are less harmful for nature because even if it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t harm environment directly there is loss of energy involved in one or the other process as per J. Ottmann. So when proper modes of promotion are accompanied with correct benefit of green products, they definitely sound superior and appealing and if understood carefully draws everyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention. People When it comes to green consumers, no doubt they have different view towards environment and have deeper understanding of future issues and thus have a great impact on society. But still they can be differentiated on the basis of following criteria (Saxena ,2010): True-blue greens- They have highest level of commitment while changing their habits as per requirement of environment hence can be considered as most ethically and morally driven people who are ready to take initiatives and thus serve as role model for others. Green-back greens - They have understanding of need to take preventive steps for saving the environment and are ready to support the cause in financial terms but are still to adopt change in their behavior for the sake of nature. So although they are not initiators but are fast followers and morally driven too. Sprouts-They are in the learning phase to change their behavior and habits for the sake of environment so can be considered a neutral class of people and can be placed in mid of green and brown consumers. Grousers- They are the people who know the problem but are not ready to accept that they are also responsible for environmental issues www.ijsir.co.in

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and solely believe that being environmentally friendly is the responsibility of companies which are responsible for such issues. Basic brown- They are the people who are not able to understand their role in the environment issues and are carried away with traditional marketing as they don’t believe that their little efforts can bring the change to the environment. Process To follow the green process first there is need to have green approach and solutions which can bring back life to damaged eco-system and lethargic society. There should be green product designs as per standards followed by green manufacturing process which involve less wastage of energy. There should be international green quality standards followed to have proper base so process modification is also one of the alternative. There should be proper market research on the target green consumers which is also indirect process of green marketing to avoid wastage caused due to redesigning. Products should be modified as per target customers and the development in the field of green marketing as well as other related areas. There should be green supply chain to ensure reuse and sustainability and then proper green channels should be used for adequate green communication to the masses which should also include green technologies. Timely testing and consultation with internal and external knowledge workers can avoid green process turning into normal process. Physical evidences Green products are value added products and are identified by their labeling. Green packaging techniques either cost more or have shorter life span which result in early spoilage but side by side it facilitate recycling and reduce damage to ecosystem and help to maintain a proper balance between its various components. If one considers global trends now societies are paying attention to environmental sensitivity of packaging and in fact European countries have guidelines for packaging. Proper labeling is used to inform the customer and laws are made against malpractices. Warranty is also introduced to prevent losses to customer and hence lowers www.ijsir.co.in

post dissonance. Green communication Green communication needs extra efforts to make place in mind of customers. Proper green communication is required through green channels for recognizing green products when placed along with other products. CONCLUSION Awareness is a need in field of green marketing as if customers are aware none of the other factors can prevent the green marketing to take its place in the society. Only need is to realize the need of time and save the future. What human beings were doing in the past were mistakes due to unawareness about the negative consequences of marketing but what humans are doing now, instead of awareness about the negative consequences, is that humans are closing their eyes towards future generations which may even disappear due to irresponsible attitude towards nature and the thing is future generations are a far off thing by not using green marketing, humans are harming society at present. Time is precious but not at the cost of blank future so all need to do is pay little attention towards green marketing, do little efforts to create awareness in others and contribute little for a better future. REFERENCES 1.

Boztepe,A.(2012).’ Green Marketing and Its Impact on Consumer Buying Behavior’, European Journal of Economic and Political Studies, Vol.5, issue 1

Danciu,V.(Dec 2012),’ The Green Marketing at Work: The Push-Pull Effects of the Green Communication Strategies’, The Romanian Economic Journal, Year XV no. 46

Dodds, John (May 21, 2007).”Green Marketing 101". Retrieved January 2008.

Ghoshal,M.(Jan-June 2008").’Green Marketing- A Changing Concept In Changing Time’,IMR-MgtSpeak., Vol 2, India.

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Mohansundaram,V.(April 2012),’ GREEN MARKETING – CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES’, ZENITH International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, Vol.2 Issue 4, April 2012, ISSN 2231 5780

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Ottman, J.A (1996), Growing Greener Products: What We Can Learn from Pea Pods and Apple Peels in Stimulating Creativity in Environment-related Innovation. World Future Society Futurism Conference, July 15, 1996. Saxena, R. & Khandelwal, P. K.( 2010). ‘Sustainable development through green marketing: The industry perspective’, The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 59-79.

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Wiser,R. and Pickle,S.(Sep.1997).’ Green Marketing, Renewables, and Free Riders:Increasing Customer Demand for a Public Good’, Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, LBNL-40632 UC-1321 www.ecomarkproject.eu

Sudha,R.( Jan–June 2012),’ Green Marketing in India’ , Namex International Journal of Management

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FORENSIC INSECTS FACILITATE ECOLOGICAL RECYCLING *SUNITA RAWAT, REEMA SONKER AND KALPANA SINGH Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India *Corresponding Author: Sunita Rawat, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh, India, email: sunitamahi4@gmail.com

ABSTRACT An ecological cycle is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of living matter. A dead and decaying corpse is a rich source of nutrients for many organism chiefly insects and acts as an important ecosystem. Various groups of insects visit corpse during various stages of its decomposition and bring about breakdown of macromolecules with help of enzymes produced by them. This in turn returns the nutrients back to soil thus ecosystem and is utilized by many other organisms for their growth and reproduction. The insects involved in decomposition of a cadaver are known as forensic insects. Within minutes of the death, forensic insects are able to locate the dead body through the sense of smell. Flies are usually the insects that arrive first at the decomposing corpse, mainly blow flies and flesh flies. The female fly deposits eggs (calliphorid flies) or larvae (sarcophagid flies) on open wounds or natural orifices, such as the nose, mouth, and anus of the corpse. These larvae then feed on the decaying corpse. Other arthropods such as beetles, ants, moth, and butterflies arrive later and decompose the corpse. These include the beetles (family dermestidae and silphidae), wasps (family vespidae), ants (order hymenoptera) and mites (gamasid and oribatid mites).There are five stages in the process of decomposition of a corpse: fresh, bloat, active decay, advanced decay and skeletonization. Fresh stage starts from the moment of death to the first sign of bloating. In the fresh stage of decomposition, process of microbial proliferation occurs which is termed as putrefaction and leads to the second stage of decomposition, known as bloat. Blowflies and Flesh flies are the first forensic insects which arrive and oviposit on the corpse. In the bloated stage, the body becomes stretched like a balloon due to accumulation of gases within the body cavity and gives cadaver a bloated appearance. At this stage more and more blow flies attract on the corpse. Active decay is recognized by greatest mass loss, it includes ammonical fermentation of the body. In active decay a different cohort of insects are attracted. As a result of the feeding of maggots and the purging of decomposition fluids, cadaveric materials are rapidly introduced to below ground floral and faunal communities, which result in the formation of a highly concentrated island of fertility, or cadaver decomposition island (CDI). At advanced decay stage skin, cartilage and bones with some flesh are remaining. The biggest indicator of this stage is the increase in presence of beetles. Each CDI releases energy and nutrients to the wider ecosystem. Thus carbon and nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium etc increased in the surrounding soil. During the skeletonization/dry stage only hair and bones are left. Generally insects are not found at this stage, beetles of the family Nitidulidae may be present. Keywords : Forensic insects, Cadaver, Nutrients, Ecosystem INTRODUCTION The decomposition of vertebrate carrion, directly and indirectly, affects soil and enthic chemistry, as well as the local flora and fauna. A www.ijsir.co.in

Cadaver has recently come to be viewed as a source of sequestered nutrients and energy that can only be returned to the wider ecosystem upon decomposition. Nutrients diffuse from the carrion 105

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into the soil resulting in changes in pH, conductivity, and nutrient concentrations (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus). These nutrients are incorporated into the surrounding habitat leading to changes in the plant and arthropod communities, in both species composition (structure) and their activities (function). Most decomposers are bacteria or fungi, though scavengers also play an important role in decomposition if the body is accessible to insects. As vertebrate remains are ephemeral, typically lasting only a few days to a few weeks, and numerous necrophagous species feed on the same. The order in which the insects feed on the corpse is called the faunal succession. ROLE OF RECYCLING

FORENSIC

INSECTS

Insects which aid in legal proceedings are known as forensic insects. Various groups of insects visit a dead and decaying corpse in its various stages of decomposition. Flies (Order Diptera) are often first on the scene. They prefer a moist corpse for the maggots to feed on, as such a corpse is easier for them to chew. The most important families are: Blowflies (Family Calliphoridae), Fleshflies (Family Sarcophagidae), House Flies ( Family Muscidae), Cheese Flies (Family Piophilidae ), Coffin Flies (Family Phoridae), Lesser Corpse Flies ( Family Sphaeroceridae) , Lesser House Flies (Family Fanniidae), Black scavenger flies (Family Sepsidae) , Sun Flies (Family Heleomyzidae), Black soldier fly (Family Stratiomyidae).These mostly breakdown fatty and proteinaceous part of the dead body. Various liposases, proteases and peptidases found in their saliva are mostly responsible for this. Beetles (Order Coleoptera) are generally found on the corpse when it is more decomposed. In drier conditions, the beetles can be replaced by moth flies (Psychodidae). Rove Beetles (Family Staphylinidae),Hister Beetles (Family Histeridae), Carrion Beetles (Family Silphidae), Ham Beetles (Family Cleridae), Carcass Beetles (Family Trogidae) are forensically important beetle families. Skin/Hide

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Beetles (Family Dermestidae) are important in the final stages of decomposition of a carcass. Hide beetles are the only beetle with the enzymes necessary for breaking down keratin, a protein component of hair. Many mites also feed on a corpse. Macrocheles mites are common in the early stages of decomposition, while Tyroglyphidae and Oribatidae mites such as Rostrozetes feed on dry skin in the later stages of decomposition. Nicrophorus beetles often carry on their bodies the mite Poecilochirus which feeds on fly eggs. Clothes-moths (Family Tineidae) feed on mammalian hair during their larval stages and may forage on any hair that remains. They are amongst the final animals contributing to the decomposition of a corpse. In this way, insects play very important role in recycling the nutrients back into ecosystem and thus maintaining the balance of nature. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors are thankful to Head, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India for providing necessary laboratory facilities. REFERENCES 1.

Ackert, L. T. Jr. “The “Cycle of Life” in Ecology: Sergei Vinogradskii’s soil microbiology, 1885-1940". Journal of the History of Biology 40 (1): 109–145.

Benecke, M. (2001). A brief history of forensic entomology. Forensic Entomology International, 120.

Catts, E. P.; Goff , M. L. (January 1992). “Forensic Entomology in Criminal Investigations”.Annual Review of Entomology 37: 253–272.

Doran, J. W.; Zeiss, M. R. (2000). ”Soil health and sustainability: Managing the biotic component of soil quality.”. Applied Soil Ecology 15 (1): 3–11.

Odum, H. T. (1991). “Energy and biogeochemical cycles”. In Rossi, C.; E. Ecological physical chemistry. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 25–26.

Pape, Thomas. Catalog of the Sarcophagidae of the World. Memoirs on Entomology. Gainesville, FL: Associated, 1996. 288-289.

Scott, Michelle Pellissier (January 1998). “The ecology and behavior of burying beetles”.Annual Review of Entomology 43: 595–618.

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DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALGORITHM FOR ASSESSMENT OF THE LEARNING STYLE OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING STUDENTS 1

*ANKITA1, DR. K P YADAV2 Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Director, MIET, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for correspondence: Ankita, Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Software engineering courses are core elements of the computer science curricula. While the main aim of such courses is to give students practical industry-relevant “software engineering” in the large experience, often such courses fall short of this important target due to lack of industrial experience and support infrastructure. Therefore, it is necessary to design and develop better infrastructure support for teaching or learning such courses and this would benefit instructors and students world over. This aims to create a knowledge and tool infrastructure for the benefit of instructors and students in software engineering courses. Thus, the system embodies a teaching and learning environment that blends collaboration, simulation, knowledge sharing, and industrial software projects. This paper discusses the need for the learning style in software engineering education and proposes an algorithm for dynamically assessing the learning style of the learner and channels the learners to choose appropriate learning materials based on their learning style. Keywords: Software Engineering, Software Engineering Education, Learning Style, Learning Theory, Collaborative Learning, Teaching/Leaning Methods INTRODUCTION While the software production has had amazing triumph in emergent software that is of mounting degree and intricacy, it has also practiced a stable and noteworthy flow of collapses. The majority of these failures are well-known with open tragedy such as failed mars landings, rockets carrying satellites needing to be destroyed shortly after takeoff, or unavailable telephone networks, and many more “private” tribulations crop up that can be similarly disastrous or at least, problematic and infuriating to those occupied. Exploratory, one of the major forums documenting these failures, the risk forum, supplies an enlightening insight such as a considerable section of documented failures can be credited to software engineering process breakdowns [16]. This collapses range from individuals not following an approved www.ijsir.co.in

procedure such as not performing all required tests, not informing a colleague of a changed module interface, to group coordination problems such as not using a configuration management system to coordinate mutual tasks, not being able to deliver a subsystem in time, to organizations making strategic mistakes such as choosing to follow the waterfall process model where an incremental approach would be more appropriate, not accounting for the complexity of the software in budget estimate. As a result, it is estimated that billions of dollars are wasted each year due to ineffective processes and subsequent faulty software being delivered [1]. The root cause of the above said problems is fabrication in the software engineering education. Present software engineering education typically pays poor concentration to 107

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students being able to preparation the crises encircle the software engineering. The archetypal software engineering course consists of a series of lectures in which theories and concepts are discussed and make an effort to learn this knowledge into practice, for this a small piece of software engineering project must be developed by the students. Even though cooperation of these mechanisms is necessary because lectures are as a source to feed the basic knowledge of software engineering and the projects are the ways to acquire hands on experience with some of the techniques of software engineering, but this tactic is not succeeded to satisfactorily teach the complete software engineering education [1, 15, 17] . SOFTWARE ENGINEERING EDUCAION IT industry is an emerging industry, software development tools and technology bring up to date rapidly. Even now, the majority of the software educating organizations has been coaching graduates comparatively old knowledge systems. It is complicated to become accustomed to the speedy advancement of information technology requirements. However, there is continuously a ferocious loop in computer science graduates, that is, in one hand employers believe that the software talent deficiency, on the other hand a significant number of graduates cannot find a suitable position [16]. Principally the quality of software professionals cannot come across social necessities. Software engineering education consists of requirements: engineering, software design, validation and verification, others focused on the management of the complexity of products and processes. Frequency of project failure due to problems in software is significantly greater than that due to problems in other engineering disciplines. In too many cases the causes of failure originate in misunderstanding of requirements, mismatches in system design and implementation, unrealistic expectations, and bad project planning [28]. Aligning software engineering education with industry needs is a substantial defy because the relevance and depth o f the knowledge that software professionals had received as part of their 108

graduate education and a significant mismatch between software engineering education and industry in terms of the knowledge needed by software engineers to perform the tasks required by industry. Stop up this gap is one of the majority vital errands to be focused in software engineering education. This chore is knotty by a number of open queries; contain â&#x20AC;&#x153;What industrial practices are currently not being taught? Ho w effective are these practices? Which practices should be taught to undergraduates?â&#x20AC;? [16, 18, 32]. Various tactics are being occupied in an effort to response the above questions. A few higher education institutions perform with group of professionals composed of industry and education legislative body whose target is to assess the sharpness of their software engineering graduate or undergraduate programmes. To efficiently satiate this space, it would be essential, on one hand, to promise that the educational programmes provide the knowledge necessitate for the job profiles recommended by industry and also guarantee that this knowledge is educated in a manner facilitating future professionals to accurately gear the tribulations that they will face throughout their professional career [19, 30]. SOFTWARE ENGINEERING TEACHING/ LEARNING ISSUES Software engineering education has a number of issues and the underlying ones are the constraints of the academic environment. While relevant process theory can be typically presented in lectures, the opportunities for students to practically and comprehensively experience the presented concepts are limited [18, 30, 42] . Students assume that software engineering is a theoretical subject and it is humdrum and very little use in future [37]. Hence, they are not actively occupied in software engineering learning activities. Traditional based teaching software engineering and knowledgegaining process turns out to be monotonous and less interactive and instructor enlightens the concepts and the students grasp the facts, which they memorize and reproduce it in the examination [42]. In this method, students have been enforced to passively provide solutions instead of taking actions to cause changes to www.ijsir.co.in

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the solutions [42]. This method of education never produces the industry relevant software engineering knowledge to the students rather than it increases the gap between the software engineering education and the industry needs. Software engineering students ar e generally passive listener throughout the lectures and do not enthusiastically involved in the learning process [18]. Learning scientists and cognitive psychologists has proven that these kinds of learning is not effective and never achieve the goal of study [8, 13, 34]. Students could learn more effectively when they get actively engaged their learning process and they have more awareness and interest in programming languages than software engineering [18]. Most of the industry professionals are not educated in key portions of the software engineering body of knowledge such as requirements, architecture, testing, human factors and project management. They are merely skilled at programming in a few popular languages or at using specific technology products, such as database management and web development tools [23]. Software industry’s bigger problem is lack of talented software engineers, when industry employs the fresh graduates, they do not satisfy the industry’s needs because they are good in following the syntax, semantics logic and process but they are not well versed with software engineering concepts [19]. Higher educational institutions have difficulties in educating professional software engineers to satisfy the industry’s requirements. Software engineers must have the skills such as blended formal knowledge, problem solving, self-learning, professional communication, good judgment, experience, ability to work together and understand the client’s needs [23, 40]. But it is not easy to teach all of this within one or two courses. The contemporary software engineering education usually pays little or no attention to students being able to practice issues surrounding the software engineering. The curriculum mostly focuses on the phase of software development process such as requirements, analysis, specification, design and testing. Hence, most of the root problems in software engineering occurred in the www.ijsir.co.in

professional education [20, 23, 30]. SOF TWARE ENGINEERING TEACHING/ LEARNING METHODS Traditional teaching of software engineering is short of the relationship between theoretical mastery and practice skills development. In addition, software engineering is an important field, especially in the programming language, software development and design tools, software reuse technology, design patterns and other fields, but current materials and teaching content, knowledge structure and practice have so serious shortcomings, which restrict the effect of the teaching of software engineering [31, 33]. Software engineering researchers proposed numerous teaching/learning methods such as group project, case tools, educational game and web based learning to overcome these challenges even though still there is a lack in producing endowed software engineers to satisfy the industry’s needs using these methods. A. Group Project Most of the software engineering teaching model highlighted the magnitude of projects and wished for prototypes such as “Small Group Project” and “Large Project Team”. Students necessitate to work on projects supported by an external organization, deliberately employing real-world difficulties during the class project, such as changing requirements while the design is in progress, fit in multiple universities and branch of learning into the project, sustaining a major continuing project in that dissimilar cluster of students work on from semester to semester, and many others. All of these come up to share the identical objective that is to bridge the association between theories and practice. Moreover, students are set in an environment that highly simulates the real software development world and are assigned with jobs such as principle architect, project administrator and configuration manager. The advantages of this method are its intensive simulation of real projects and students are propelled to learn and do more than they would in traditional courses [5, 8, 12, 13, 21, 28, 29] .

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B. Case Tools An extensive assortment of positive hope has been credited to the professional use of CASE tools in software engineering education. This incorporates the thinking of the students in use of a CASE tool which will smooth the progress of the disciplined and standardized development process, enhance stability and fullness of the models that are developed, amplify the capability for quality assurance, transform the concentration of assessing away from mere correction of minor errors, make better project planning and management by providing general idea of the development process, cheer on reverse engineering, expand the capability to fabricate high-quality documentation, and bridge the gap between design and implementation [2, 11, 22, 23, 25]. C. Educational Game An educational game which is used in software engineering education to simulate the soft ware engineering p rocess fro m requirements specification to product delivery. This game provides students with an overall, high-level, practical experience of the software engineering process in a speedy enough method to be used continually in a limited amount of time. Educational game has a number of other traits that contribute to its learning efficiencies. Competition motivates students to play the game, b ut it also encourages collaborative learning, makes sure that all of the fundamental technicalities of the software engineering process being simulated are able to be seen and it has a fun and engaging nature, and quality that is known to be highly conducive to learning [3, 10]. D. Web-Based Learning Looking for mainly a complement and not a replacement to traditional education, a set of learning resources is particularly designed for the world-wide-web. As a complement to the lectures and printed material, the students had right of entry to the web-based courseware which contained an improved adaptation of the lessons material in electronic form and useful links to pertinent material on the internet. Furthermore, asynchronous communication 110

amenities were presented via a web-based discussion forum and class management was included in the web-based software engineering learning environment. Information procedures are computerized by software systems and this kind of automation is precious, since such procedures are monotonous, tiring and disagreeable and time consuming. Software engineering is the technological branch anxious with the creation of software systems, which can always be thought of as gears of larger artificial systems. The enriched instructional delivery mode has several advantages over the traditional mode such as students can progress at their own pace and study the instructional material in the order that best look good on their skills or preferences. The learning material is stored online and the course is open at any time and from anywhere for the students registered in it and the teacher plays the function of a facilitator and helps out the learning procedure [20, 24, 26]. IMPORTANT TO ASSESS THE LEARNING STYLE Individual learners perform a most impo r tant part in traditional as well as technology enhanced learning. Each learner has individual needs and personality such as various preceding knowledge, cognitive skills, learning styles and motivation. T hese personality variances influence the learning process and are the cause why some learners find it easy to learn in a specific module, while others discover the same module tough. Prior knowledge is one of the greatest and reliable personal variance forecasters of triumph [14]. While previous knowledge give the impressions to account for further variance in learning than other individual differences, more recently educational researchers have paying attention on features of individual characteristics such as learning styles, their effect on learning and also how they can be integrated in technology improved learning. Considering learning styles, researches are provoked by educational and psychological theories, which claim that learners have dissimilar ways in which they wish to gain the knowledge. Learners with a strong preference for a specific learning style may have difficulties www.ijsir.co.in

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in learning if the teaching style does not match with their learning style [9]. From theoretical point of view, inference can be drawn that assimilate learning styles of students in the learning environment formulate learning easier for them and improve their learning effectiveness. On the other hand, learners whose learning styles are not supported by the learning environment may experience problems in the learning process. Adaptive educational methods address exactly this issue and intention to offering learners with program that fit their individual needs and characteristics such as their learning styles. While supporting adaptively is a big advantage of these systems, they also have strict limitations such as adaptive systems lack integration, supportingonly few functions of web-enhanced education, and the content of courses is not available for reuse [4]. Although educational and psychological theories suggest incorporating individual differences of learners, different learning methods provide only little or, in most cases, no adaptive for them. However, the learning style plays a vital role in software engineering education too. Previous research shows that software engineering class contains different types of learner nearly equal strength and also suggests that if the knowledge delivery satisfies all the learning groups then it improves the knowledge gathering capabilities of the students [27]. The learning style models that exist in literature are majorly classified into five families which are based on some overarching ideas behind the models, attempting to reflect the views of the main theorists of learning styles [6] . The first family relies on the idea that learning styles and p references are largely constitutionally based including the modalities: visual, auditory and kin aesthetic. The second family deals with the idea that learning styles reflect deep-seated features of the cognitive structure, including patterns of abilities. A third category refers to learning styles as one component of a relatively stable personality type and fourth family learning styles are seen as flexibly stable learning preferences. The last category moves on from learning styles to learning approaches, strategies, orientations and conceptions of learning [6, 7]. www.ijsir.co.in

First family of learning style has been chosen for this research because it relies on the idea that learning styles and preferences are largely constitution based including the modalities but other families have their own limitations. Visual learners have a preference for seen or observed things, including pictures, diagrams, demonstrations, displays, handouts, films and flip-chart. Auditory learners have a preference for the transfer of information through listening: to the spoken word, of self or others, of sounds and noises. Kin aesthetic learners have a preference for physical experience - touching, feeling, holding, doing, and practical hands-on experiences [6]. AN ALGORITHM TO DYNAMICALLY ASSESS THE LEARNING STYLE The proposed learning style algorithm uses the structured questionnaire developed by V. Chislett and A. Chapman (2005) under the first family of lear ning style. A structured questionnaire has been used to identify the type of learners such as visual, auditory and kin aesthetic using thirty questions. Fig. 1.

Algorithm to Find the Learning Style

Fig.1 shows an algorithm to dynamically

find the learning style of the learner. Learner has to login the system with their username and password. Once the learner logs in, he/she must answer the thirty questions that help to measure the style. Each question consists of three choices which represent the learning style and is uploaded randomly from the database. Among the answers, the system calculates the statistical mode, finds the learning style of the respective user and shows his/her learning style

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and guides them to the appropriate lessons, in line with their learning style. Even when the student gets low grade in individual online examinations of various modules, the system their guides them to make sure about learning style. Learning style is a psychological factor and it differs from person to person, time to time and environment to environment. Therefore individual learning styles are ascertained and stored in the database with respect to the user and it can be used for future analysis.

student’s learning style which motivates the students to study software engineering. Fig 3.Screenshot for Suggestion of Learning Materials

DEVELOPMENT OF DYNAMICALLY ASSESS THE SOFTWARE ENGINEERING STUDENTS’S LEARNER LEARNING This has b een originated using the algorithm, which is mentioned in Fig.1 and learning analytics concepts. “Keller ARCS Theories”, “Learning Through Dialog Fig. 2: Screenshot for Measure the Learning Style

Theory” and “Aptitute–Treatment Interaction

Theory” learning theories are assumed for the formulation of this module. Fig.2 exhibits dynamically measure of the learning style of the user. This consists of thirty learning style questions and the user compulsorily answers all the questions. Once the user submit the answer for the questions, it finds the learning style of the respective user and it has been stored in database with the user name and displays the learning style and guides the user to choose the right learning materials according to their learning style. Fig.3 shows the sample screenshot for the suggestion of the learning materials. This helps the teacher to provide the learning materials inline with the 112

CONCLUSION Software engineering education has been practiced through several teaching and learning methods but these methods do not produce enough talented software engineers to the industry’s expectations since these methods satisfy a specific learning style. Previous research provides evidence that software engineering class contains all types of learner categories such as visual, auditory and kin aesthetic, in nearly equal in strength. Therefore, it is important to check the learning style of the learner and provides the learning materials according to his/her learning style that would motivate the knowledge gathering process. The proposed algorithm discovers the leaner style and leads the student to easily pick the learning materials in line with their learning style. Therefore, students are motivated to learn software engineering concepts enjoyably than the other teaching and learning methods and this model also stimulates collaborative learning environment. This environment encourages the students to study software engineering in depth and become a knowledgeable software engineer. REFERENCES 1.

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Varma, V., and Garg, K., “Case Studies: The Potential Teaching Instruments for Software Engineering Education”, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Quality Software, Melbourne, 2005, pp.279-284.

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Wang Zhi-he, Yuan Fei-yong, “Study on Teaching Reform of Course Software Engineering”, Computer knowledge and technology, 23, 2006, pp.219-220.

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 115-122, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

A STUDY OF VARIOUS WORMS AND THEIR DETECTION SCHEMES 1

*SUCHETA1, K P YADAV2 Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Director, MIET, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for correspondence: Sucheta, Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Computer worms have a behavior of self-propagation over the host machines and have been terrorizing the Internet for the last several years. This is due to the ability of worms to propagate in automated fashion as they continuously compromise computer on the internet. At the same time, being fully automated, it makes their behavior repetitious and predictable. This article presents a survey on the behavior and detection schemes of Internet worms. We first identify worm characteristics through their behavior, and then classify worm detection algorithms based on the parameters used in the algorithms. Furthermore, we analyze and compare different detection algorithms with reference to the worm characteristics by identifying the type of worms that can and cannot be detected by these schemes. Keywords: Self-Propagation, Behavior, Detection, Vulnerability, Algorithms INTRODUCTION Self-propagating malicious codes known as computer worms spread themselves without any human interaction and launch the most destructive attacks against computer networks like launching massive Distributed D e n i a l - o f Service (DDoS) attacks that disrupt the Internet utilities, access confidential information that can be misused through large-scale traffic sniffing, key logging etc. They destroy data that has a high monetary value, and distribute large-scale unsolicited advertisement emails (as spam) or software (as malware). These worms include Camouflaging worm (C-Worm in short)[2], CodeRed worm [3], Slammer worm [4], Witty/Sasser worms [8] and Morris Worm [6] . Being fully automated, a w ormâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior is usually repetitious and predictable, making it possible to be detected. A wormâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life consists of the following phases: target finding, transferring, activation, and infection. Since worms involve network activities in the first two phases, their behaviors in these two phases are critical for developing detection algorithms. Therefore, this www.ijsir.co.in

paper first focuses on worm characteristics that facilitate their detection. Many algorithms have been proposed in the past to try to catch and stop the spread of Internet worms. Most research papers discuss efforts that are related to their proposed work, but none of these papers gives a comprehensive classification of the existing modeling and detection schemes. This paper contains a complete study of some active worms with their behavior and identified various modeling and detection schemes. Overview After an introductory terminology is presented, worm characteristics during target finding and worm transferring phases are identified. This is followed by an overview of worm defense mechanisms: modeling and detection. The modeling of various worms and detection schemes are presented next. Depending on where the detection is implemented, they may construct different views of worm propagation behaviors, so there may be differences in the scope of their defenses. 115

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Virus

A virus is a malicious piece of code that attaches to other programs to propagate. It cannot propagate by itself, and normally depends on a certain user intervention, such as opening up an email attachment or running an executable file, to be activated. J.

Fig 1: Categorization of worm characteristics

TECHNOLOGY A. Activation Activation is when a worm starts performing its malicious activities. Activation might be triggered on a specific date or under certain conditions. B. False alarm A false alarm is an incorrect alert generated by a worm detection system. C. False Positive A false positive is a false alarm where an alert is generated when there is no actual attack or threat. D. False negative False negative means the detection system missed an attack. It is false negative if no alert is generated while the system is under an attack. E. Infection Infection is the result of the worm performing its malicious activities on the host. F. Target Finding Target finding is the first step in the wormâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life to discover the victims (vulnerable hosts). G. Threshold Threshold is a predefined condition that, if met, indicates the existence of specious traffic or a worm attack. H. Transfer Transfer refers to sending a copy of the worm to the target after the victim (target) is defined.

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Worm

A worm is a malicious piece of code that selfpropagates, often via network connections, exploiting security flaws in computers on the network. In general, worms do not need any human intervention to propagate; however, a category of worms called passive worms require certain host behavior or human intervention to propagate. For example, a passive worm only propagates itself until it is contacted by another host. EXISTING INTERNETWORMS In this section we look at one of the first Internet worms, the Morris worm, which gained extensive media coverage, then discuss five more recent Internet worms: Morris, Code Red, Slammer, and Witty based on their characteristics. 1. Morris Worm The Morris worm was one of the first Internet worms whose devastating effect gained the wide attention of the media. Morris worm was launched in November 1988 by Robert Tappan Morris, who was a student at Cornell University at the time. It is the first known worm to exploit the buffer overflow vulnerability. It targeted sent mails and finger services on DEC VAX and Sun 3 hosts. Based on the creatorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s claim, the Morris worm was not intended to cause any harm, but was designed to discover the number of the hosts on the Internet. The worm was supposed to run a process on each infected host to respond to a query if the host was infected by the Morris worm or not. If the answer was yes, the infected host should have been skipped; otherwise, the worm would copy itself to the host. However, a flaw in the program caused the code to copy itself multiple times to already infected machines, each time running a new process, slowing down the infected hosts to the point that they became unusable. www.ijsir.co.in

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• Behaviour The Morris worm was a mixture of sophistication and naivety. It had a simple overall design: look at a computer’s system configuration to find potential neighbors, invade them, and try to minimize the number of invasions on any machine. The worm used heuristic knowledge about Internet topology and trust relationships to aid its spread, and it targeted two different machine architectures. Its cleverness in finding potential attack targets made it especially effective, but it also took on the time consuming task of guessing passwords on individual user accounts, which gave it an “attack in depth” aspect. Nonetheless, it became a victim of its own success as it was unable to control its exponential growth. With no global information and no point of control, the Morris worm ran rampant. •

It attacked one operating system, but two different computer architectures.

•

It had three distinct propagation vectors.

•

It had several mechanisms for finding both potential nodes to infect, particularly information about the local system’s IP connectivity (its network class and gateway), and information found in user accounts.

•

It traversed trusted accounts using password guessing.

•

It installed its software via a two-step “hook and haul” method that required the use of a C compiler, link loader, and a call back network connection to the infecting system.

•

It evaded notice by obscuring the process parameters and rarely leaving files behind.

•

It attempted to limit the re- infection rate on each node (but not the total number).

•

It attempted to run forever on as many nodes as possible.

• Detection Scheme The Morris worm also contained some note -worthy design flaws: • It was overly aggressive. Although it did have a way to notice multiple infections, its ratewww.ijsir.co.in

limiting behavior was not effective, and a hundred or more copies could be running on a single machine. Even uninfected machines were vulnerable to assault through multiple infection attempts coming from many independent sources. •

As the number of infections increased, the worm’s ability to limit itself decreased. Race conditions in its detection method actually caused the infection rate to increase.

•

It could not trace its progress or control it.

•

Log files, particularly send mail logs, contained information about the worm’s usage. Some log files filled up with the information, and the machines’ I/O load increased.

•

Its infection method depended on the C compiler, thus preventing access to some major sites that had already established machines that acted as bastions, limiting network access. These machines might not have had C compilers.

•

A variety of resource failures left many copies of the “hook” program on the attacked machines.

The intensity of the attacks on machines running the SMTP protocol, particularly those running the Unix send mail program, resulted in denial of email service to large portions of the Internet. This was the Morris worm’s most disruptive aspect. Like many human infections, it was not the worm itself that was harmful, but its secondary effects on resources. 2. Code-Red Worm Code Red I was first seen in July 2001 affecting computers running Microsoft’s Internet Information Server (IIS) Web service. In the first 20–25 days after getting into the machine, Code Red I uses a blind scan scheme that scans port 80 on random IP addresses to find other vulnerable machines, and then it launches a denial-of-service (DoS) attack targeting a set of IP addresses. The infected websites will display: “HELLO! Welcome to http://www.worm.com! Hacked By Chinese!” Code Red II was released one month later. It is a variant of the original Code Red. Code Red II no longer launches a 117

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DoS attack against predefined IP addresses; instead, it installs a backdoor into the infected systems. It still employs blind scan but focuses more on the local subnet, and targets mainly systems with Chinese language settings. Code Red I sends its payload in monomorphic format and has a signature starting with “GET /default .ida?NNNNNNN.” Code Red II has a similar signature, but replaces N with X. Both versions of Code Red are self-carried and transfer via TCP connections.

which became the name of the new worm. Ryan Permeh and Marc Maiffret analyzed CodeRed II to determine its attack mechanism. When a worm infects a new host, it first determines if the system has already been infected. If not, the worm initiates its propagation mechanism, sets up a “backdoor” into the infected machine, becomes dormant for a day, and then reboots the machine. Unlike Code-Red I, Code Red II is not memory resident, so rebooting an infected machine does not eliminate Code Red II.

Behavior

After rebooting the machine, the Code Red II worm begins to spread. If the host infected with Code Red II has Chinese (Taiwanese) or Chinese (PRC) as the system language, it uses 600 threads to probe other machines. On all other machines it uses 300 threads. Code Red II uses a more complex method of selecting hosts to probe than Code-Red I. Code Red II generates a random IP address and then applies a mask to produce the IP address to probe. The length of the mask determines the similarity between the IP address of the infected machine and the probed machine.

On July 12, 2001, the Code-Red I worm began to exploit the aforementioned buffer overflow vulnerability in Microsoft’s IIS web servers. Upon infecting a machine, the worm checks to see if the date is between the first and the nineteenth of the month. If so, the worm generates a random list of IP addresses and probes each machine on the list in an attempt to infect as many computers as possible. However, this first version of the worm uses a static seed in its random number generator and thus generates identical lists of IP addresses on each infected machine. On the 20th of every month, the worm is programmed to stop infecting other machines and proceed to its next attack phase in which it launches a Denial-of-Service attack a g a i n s t www.whitehouse.gov from the 20th to the 28th of each month. The worm is dormant on days of the month following the 28th. The worm defaces some web pages with the phrase “Hacked by Chinese”. There is no evidence either supporting or refuting the involvement of Chinese hackers with the CodeRed I worm. The first version of the Code-Red worm (Code-Red I v1) caused little damage. Although the worm’s attempts to spread itself consumed resources on infected machines and local area networks, it had little impact on global resources. On August 4, 2001, an entirely new worm, Code Red II began to exploit the buffer-overflow vulnerability in Microsoft’s IIS web servers. Although the new worm is completely unrelated to the original Code-Red I worm, the source code of the worm contained the string “Code Red II” 118

The Code Red II worm is much more dangerous than Code-Red I because Code Red II installs a mechanism for remote, administratorlevel access to the infected machine. Unlike Code-Red I, Code Red II neither defaces web pages on infected machines nor launches a Denial-of-Service attack. However, the backdoor installed on the machine allows any code to be executed, so the machines could be used as “zombies” for future attacks (Denial-of-Service or otherwise). • Detection Scheme In this section, we first characterize the spread of the Code Red I and Code Red II worms, then examine the properties of the infected host population, and finally determine the rate at which infected hosts are repaired. To determine the rate of host infection, we recorded the time of the first attempt of each infected host to spread the worm. • Deactivation Rate During the course of a particular day, a few initially infected machines were p atched, www.ijsir.co.in

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rebooted, or filtered and consequently ceased to probe networks for vulnerable hosts. We consider a host that was previously infected to be inactive. The majority of hosts stopped probing in the last hour before midnight UTC. At midnight, the worm was programmed to switch from an “infection phase” to an “attack phase”, so the large rise in host inactivity is due to this design. The end of day phase change can be seen clearly, which shows the number of newly inactive hosts per minute. Because the Code Red II worm infects the same host population as Code-Red I v2, we neither expected nor measured an increase in the number of hosts probing our network once the Code Red II worm began to spread.

Fig 2: Cumulative total of deactivated Code-Red I infected hosts.

We also monitored no significant difference in the overall number of unsolicited TCP SYNs. No change in probe rate is apparent following the spread of Code Red II. Although Code Red II uses six times as many threads to spread as Code-Red I .Because our /8 network contained no susceptible hosts, the net probe rate we observe from Code Red II is the same as that of Code-Red I. Thus, we cannot distinguish hosts infected with Code Red II from those infected with Code-Red I. In their October 2001 study, Arbor Networks measured the ratio between Code-Red I and Code Red II probes to be 1:3.This 1:3 ratio may indicate the ratio between hosts infected with Code Red II versus Code Red I.

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Fig 3: Rate of infected host deactivation in one minute periods.

3. Slammer Worm Slammer, also known as Sapphire, was one of the smallest worms ever seen. It was found in January 2003 targeting Microsoft SQL Server 2000 or MSDE 2000. Slammer uses UDP port 1434 to exploit a buffer overflow in an MS SQL server. The code size is 376 bytes. Adding the UDP header makes the worm 404 bytes long in total. It uses a blind scan scheme where randomly generated numbers are used as IP addresses in searching for vulnerable hosts. To initialize the random number generator, Slammer uses the GetTickCount() function from Win32 API. Sometimes the random generator returns values that are broadcast addresses, such as a.b.c.255, and causes all the hosts in that network to receive the worm packets, making the spread of the Slammer worm more rapid. Like most UDP worms, Slammer is self-carried and has a monomorphic payload. Slammer does not write to the disks of infected machines, it only overloads the victim systems and slows down traffic. • Behaviour The worm’s spreading strategy uses random scanning .It randomly selects IP addresses, eventually finding and infecting all susceptible hosts. Random-scanning worms initially spread exponentially, but their rapid newhost infection slows as the worms continually retry infected or immune addresses. Thus, as with the Code Red worm, Slammer’s infectedhost proportion follows a classic logistic form of initial exponential growth in a finite system. 119

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• Detection Scheme While Slammer spread nearly two orders of magnitude faster than Code Red, it probably infected fewer machines. Both worms use the same basic scanning strategy to find vulnerable machines and transfer their exploitive payloads. However, they differ in their scanning constraints. While Code Red is latency-limited, Slammer is bandwidth-limited, enabling Slammer to scan as fast as a compromised computer can transmit packets or a network can deliver them. For a random-scanning worm to be effective, it needs a good source of random numbers to select new attack targets. Slammer’s randomnu mber gen erator has so me interesting deficiencies that make our analysis difficult and, perhaps, have implications for future worms. Slammer uses a linear congruent or power residue, pseudo random number generation (PRNG) algorithm. These

algorithms take the form: x' = (x × a + b) mod m, where x’ is the new pseudo random number to be generated, x is the last pseudo random number generated, m represents the range of the result, and a and b are carefully chosen constants. Linear congruent generators are very efficient and, with appropriate values of a and b have reasonably good distributional properties (although they are not random from a sequential standpoint). Slammer’s author intended to use a linear congruent parameterization that Microsoft popularized, mod 232. However, we found two implementation mistakes. First, the author substituted a different value for the 2531011 increment value: hex 0xFFD9613C. This value is equivalent to – 2531012 when interpreted as a two’scomplement decimal. So, it seems likely that the conversion to a negative number was an error (the author seems to have forgotten that creating a negative number in twos complement requires inverting and adding 1, not simply inverting), and probably that the author intended to use the SUB instruction to compensate for the resulting negative number, but mistakenly used ADD instead. The negative constant would be more desirable in the code, as this would eliminate any null (all zero) characters from the worm’s code. The result is that the increment is always 120

even. The author’s second mistake was to misuse the OR instruction, instead of XOR, to clear an important register. This error left the register’s previous contents intact. These mistakes significantly reduce the generator’s distribution quality. Because b is even and the salt is always 32-bit aligned, the leastsignificant two bits are always zero. Interpreted as a big-endian IP address (the most significant value in the sequence is stored at the lowest storage address), this ensures that the 25th and 26th bits in the scan address (the upper octet) remain constant in any worm execution instance. Similar weaknesses extend to the 24th bit of the address, depending on the un cleared register’s value. Moreover, with the incorrectly chosen increment, any particular worm instance cycles through a list of addresses significantly smaller than the actual Internet address space. Thus, many worm instances will never probe our monitored addresses because none of them are contained in the worm’s scan cycle. Combined with the size of our monitored address space, 3 these mistakes prevent us from accurately measuring the number of infected hosts during the first minutes of the worm’s x' =spread. (x ×214013 + 2531011) Slammer will or will not include entire /16 address blocks (large contiguous address ranges) in a cycle, because the last two bits of the first address byte never change. We were able to assemble lists of the address blocks in each cycle for each value of the salt (cycle structure depends on salt value). Fortunately, the probability of choosing a particular cycle is directly proportional to the size of the cycle if the initial seed is selected uniformly at random. If we looked at many randomly seeded worms, it is likely that all Internet addresses would be probed equally. Thus, we can accurately estimate the worm’s scanning rate during the infection process by monitoring relatively small address ranges. We can estimate the percentage of the Internet that is infected because the probing will cover all Internet addresses. If not for the higher-quality numbers in the initial seed, these flaws would prevent the worm from reaching large portions of the Internet www.ijsir.co.in

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address space, no matter how many hosts were infected. For the same reason, these flaws also could bias our measurements because even though our data come from several different networks, there is a small chance that those particular networks were disproportionately more or less likely to be scanned. 3. Witty Worm The Witty worm was released in March 2004, targeting buffer overflow vulnerability in several Internet Security Systems (ISSs), including Real Secure Server Sensor, Real Secure Desktop, and Black ICE. Witty took advantage of a vulnerability of the ISS Protocol Analysis Module (PAM) used for ICQ instant messaging. Witty is a self-carried monomorphic UDP worm that employs a blind target finding scheme. It sends out UDP packets to 20,000 random generated IP addresses on random destination ports from source port 4000, with a random packet size ranging between 768– 1307 bytes. The code size of Witty is only 637 bytes, and the rest of the payload is padded with data from system memory. This padding does not change the monomorphic format of Witty. The payload contains the text “(^.^) insert witty message here (^.^),” which is why it is named Witty. Witty randomly writes data onto the disk of infected machines. It is harder to detect Witty worms than worms with fixed size packets targeting fixed destination port numbers because of its random characteristics. The size of Witty worms is larger than Slammer worms, but they spread faster than Slammer. This proves that size is not always the bottleneck for the spreading of UDP worms. Another significance of the Witty worm is that it was the first known worms distributed using botnets. Behavior •

It was the first widely propagated Internet worm to carry a destructive payload.

•

It started in an organized manner with an order of magnitude more ground-zero hosts than any previous worm.

•

It represents the shortest known interval between vulnerability disclosure and worm release. It began spreading the day after the ISS vulnerability was publicized.

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•

It spread through a host population in which every compromised host was proactive in securing its computers and networks.

•

It spread through a population almost an order of magnitude smaller than that of previous worms, demonstrating worms’ viability as an automated mechanism to rapidly compromise machines on the Internet, even in niches without a software monopoly.

Detection Scheme In this section, we in detail explain the technical aspects of monitoring Witty worm. Network telescope Because Internet worm victims span diverse geographic and topological locations, the overall impact of a worm is difficult to measure from a single viewpoint. The University of California, San Diego (UCSD) Network Telescope consists of a large piece of globally announced IPv4 address space that we have instrumented to monitor network security events. The telescope contains almost no legitimate hosts, so inbound traffic to nonexistent machines is always anomalous in some way. Because the network telescope c o n t a i n s approximately 1/256th of all IPv4 addresses, we receive roughly one out of every 256 packets sent by an Internet worm with an unbiased random number generator. Because we are uniquely situated to receive traffic from every worm-infected host, we provide a global view of the spread of many Internet worms. ISS vulnerability Several ISS firewall products contain a protocol analysis module (PAM) to monitor application traffic. The PAM routine in version 3.6.16 of isspam1.dll analyzed ICQ server traffic and assumes that incoming packets on port 4000 are ICQv5 server responses and that this code contains a series of buffer overflow vulnerabilities. eEye discovered this vulnerability on 8 March 2004 and announced it with ISS 10 days later. ISS released an alert, warning users of a possibly exploitable security hole and providing updated software versions that were not vulnerable to the buffer overflow attack. 121

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Witty worm details Once Witty infects a host, the host sends 20,000 packets by generating packets with a random destination IP address, a random size between 796 and 1,307 bytes, and a destination port. The packets’ small size ensures fast transmission; as well, they are unlikely to be too big, for any network segment that they traverse , if they were too big, they would be broken into smaller pieces in the network, which could slow the spread of the worm. Because the Witty packets sizes are random, they are more difficult to filter than fixed sized packets and complicate simple blocking measures that limit or prevent the worm’s spread. If they had been a fixed size, it would have been easier to quickly block Witty traffic to limit or prevent the worm’s spread. The worm payload of 637 bytes is padded with data from system memory to fill the random size, and a packet is sent out from source port 4000. After Witty sends the 20,000 packets, it seeks out a random point on the hard disk and writes 65kbytes of data from the beginning of isspam1.dll to the disk. After closing the disk, Witty repeats this process until the machine is rebooted or it permanently crashes.

comparison with existing representative detection schemes. An ideal system should use a combination of schemes to have more comprehensive coverage. Different detection schemes are useful at different levels of implementation. This paper lays the foundation for ongoing studies of “smart” worms that intelligently adapt their propagation patterns to reduce the effectiveness of countermeasures. REFERENCES 1.

Pele Li, Mehdi Salour, And Xiao Su, San Jose State Uuniversity, “A Survey of Internet Worm Detection and Containment 1ST QUARTER 2008, VOLUME 10, NO. 1

Wei Yu, Xun Wang, Prasad Calyam, Dong Xuan, and Wei Zhao, Fellow, IEEE Transaction on Dependable and Secure Computing, Vol 8, No. 3, May/June 2011 – “ Modeling and Detection of Camouflaging Worm.

D. Moore, C. Shannon, and J. Brown, “Code-Red: A Case Study on the Spread and Victims of an Internet Worm,” Proc. Second I n t e r n e t Measurement Workshop (IMW), Nov. 2002.

D. Moore, V. Paxson, and S. Savage, “Inside the Slammer Worm,” Proc. IEEE Magazine of Security and Privacy, July 2003.

E. Spafford, “The Internet Worm Program: An Analysis,” Comp.Commun. Rev., 1989.

“Morris (Computer Worm),” retrieved July 2007, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_wormM. Young, The Technical Writer’s Handbook. Mill Valley, CA: University Science, 1989.

G. P. Schaffer, “Worms and Viruses and Botnets, Oh My! Rational Responses to Emerging Internet Threats,” IEEE Sec. & Privacy, vol. 4, 2006, pp. 52– 58.

Table 1: Existing Internet Worm Implementations

Worm

Target Findin g Schem e Blind

Propagatio n Scheme

Transmissio n Scheme

Morris Self-carried TCP CodeBlind* Self-carried TCP Red Slamme Blind Self-carried UDP r Witty Blind Botnet UDP *Code-Red II focused on local subnet scan

CONCLUSION We studied a new class of worms, which has the capability of self-propagation and further avoid them by detection. Our investigation showed that worms successfully propagate in the time domain as well as frequency domain. Based on observation, we identified various detection schemes to detect them. Our evaluation data showed that our schemes achieved superior detection performance against the worms in 122

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SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT WEB USAGE MINING SYSTEM AND TECHNOLOGIES *VIGNESH V.1, K KRISHNAMOORTHY2 Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Professor & Head, Department of Computer Science & Engineering , Sudarshan Engineering College, Pudukkottai, Tamilnadu, India 1

*Address for correspondence: Vignesh V., Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT The paper discusses about web usage mining which involves the automatic discovery of user access patterns from one or more Web servers. This article provides a survey and analysis of current Web usage mining systems and technologies. The paper also confers about the procedure in which the web usage mining of the data sets is carried out. Finally the paper concludes with the areas in which web usage mining is implemented. Keywords: User/Session identification, Web Recommender, Web log, Server log INTRODUCTION Web mining is the application of data mining techniques to discover patterns from the Web. According to analysis targets, web mining can be divided into three different types, which are Web usage mining, Web content mining and Web structure mining. Web Mining is the extraction of interesting and potentially useful patterns and implicit information from artifacts or activity related to the World Wide Web. According to the differences of the mining objects, there are roughly three knowledge discovery domains that pertain to web mining : web content mining, web structure mining, and web usage mining. Web content mining is the process of extracting knowledge from the content of documents or their descriptions. Web content mining is the process to discover useful information from text, image, audio or video data in the web. Web content mining sometimes is called web text mining, because the text content is the most widely researched area. Web document text mining, resource discovery based on concepts indexing or agent based technology may also fall in this category. Web structure mining is the process of inferring knowledge from the World Wide Web Organization and links www.ijsir.co.in

between references and referents in the Web. Finally, web usage mining, also known as Web Log Mining, is the process of extracting interesting patterns in web access logs. WEB USAGE MINING Web usage mining is the type of web mining activity that involves the automatic discovery of user access patterns from one or more web servers. Organizations often generate and collect large volumes of data in their daily operations. Most of this information is usually generated automatically by web servers and collected in server access logs. Other sources of user information include referrer logs which contains information about the referring pages for each page reference, and user registration or survey data. Web Usage Mining is to mine data from log record on web page. Log records lots of useful information such as URL, IP address and time and so on. Analyzing and discovering Log could help us to find more potential customers and trace service quality and so on. The web usage mining is the process of applying the data mining technology to the web data and is the pattern of extracting something that the users are interested 123

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in their network behaviors. When people visit one website, they leave some data such as IP address, visiting pages, visiting time and so on, web usage mining will collect, analyze and process the log and recording data. Through these, utilize some mathematical method to establish users’ behavior and the interest models, and use these models to understand the user’s behavior, thus to improve the website structure. Then it finally provides a better characteristic information service for the user. The content and structure of a Web site are used as inputs to every major step of the process. 1. Content The real data in the Web pages, that is, the data the Web page was designed to convey to the users. This usually consists of, but is not limited to, text and graphics. 2. Structure Data that describes the organization of the content. Intra page structure information includes the arrangement of various HTML or XML tags within a given page. The principal kind of inter page structure information is hyperlinks connecting one page to another. 3. Usage Data that describes the pattern of usage of Web pages, such as IP addresses, page references, and the date and time of accesses. Typically, the usage data comes from an Extended Common Log Format (ECLF) Server log. log file line has the following fields as shown in figure APPROACH OF WEB USAGE MINING 1. Requirement Analysis

cal order. The most popular log file formats are the Common Log Format (CLF) and the extended CLF. A common log format file is created by the web server to keep track of the requests that occur on a web site. A standard log file has the following format as shown in figure Remotehost Logname Username

Date

Request

Status

Bytes

Format of Standard Log File i.

remote host is the remote host name or its IP address,

ii. log name is the remote log name of the user, iii. user name is the username as which the user has authenticated himself, iv. date is the date and time of the request, v. request is the exact request line as it came from the client, vi. status is the HTTP status code returned to the client, and vii. bytes is the content-length of the document transferred. (b) Extended log file format An extended common log format file is a variant of the common log format file simply adding two additional fields to the end of the line, the referrer Universal Resource Locator (URL) and the user agent fields: i.

Referrer URL is the page the visitor was on when they clicked to come to this page.

ii. User Agent is whatever software the visitor used to access this site. It’s usually a browser, but it could equally be a web robot, a link checker, a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) client or an offline browser. The format of the extended common log file line has the following fields as shown in figure Format of Extended Log File

Web access logs are the files that record the users’ browsing information on the server. Many kinds of formats are available for web log files. Format of Extended Log File (a) Common web log format A web server log file contains requests made to the web server, recorded in chronologi124

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(2) Data preprocessing Some databases are insufficient, inconsistent and including noise. The data pretreatment is to carry on a unification transformation to those databases. The result is that the database will to become integrate and consistent, thus establish the database which may mine. In the data pre-treatment work, it mainly include data cleaning, user identification, session identification and path completion. i. Data Cleaning The purpose of data cleaning is to eliminate irrelevant items, and these kinds of techniques are of importance for any type of web log analysis not only data mining. According to the purposes of different mining applications, irrelevant records in web access log will be eliminated during data cleaning.

Apache Log File Format

An example of a record in web access log stored in Apache log format is: 219.144.222.253 - - [16/Aug/2004:15: 36: 11+ 0800] “GET/images/1_r3_c2.jpgHTTP/1.1” 200 418 “http://202.117.16.119:8089/index.html” “Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0; Windows NT 5.1)” STEPS IN WEB USUAGE MINING (WUM) The web usage mining generally includes the following several steps: data collection, data pre-treatment, and knowledge discovery and pattern analysis. (1) Data collection Data collection is the first step of web usage mining, the data authenticity and integrity will directly affect the following works smoothly carrying on and the final recommendation of characteristic service’s quality. Therefore it must use scientific, reasonable and advanced technology to gather various data. At present towards web usage mining technology, the main data origin has three kinds: server data, client data and middle data (agent server data and package detecting). www.ijsir.co.in

Since the target of Web Usage Mining is to get the user’s travel patterns, following two kinds of records are unnecessary and should be removed: 1) The records of graphics, videos and the format information- The records have filename suffixes of GIF, JPEG, CSS, and so on, which can found in the URI field of the every record 2) The records with the failed HTTP status code- By examining the Status field of every record in the web access log, the records with status codes over 299 or under 200 are removed. It should be pointed out that different from most other researches, records having value of POST or HEAD in the Method field are reserved in present study for acquiring more accurate referrer information.

Fig. 1: High level Web Usage Mining process

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ii. User and Session Identification

(4) Pattern Analysis

The task of user and session identification is to find out the different user sessions from the original web access log. User’s identification is, to identify who access web site and which pages are accessed. The goal of session identification is to divide the page accesses of each user at a time into individual sessions. A session is a series of web pages user browse in a single access. The difficulties to accomplish this step are introduced by using proxy servers, e.g. different users may have same IP address in the log. A referrer-based method is proposed to solve these problems in this study. The rules adopted to distinguish user sessions can be described as follows:

Challenges of Pattern Analysis is to filter uninteresting information and to visualize and interpret the interesting patterns to the user. First delete the less significance rules or models from the interested model storehouse; Next use technology of OLAP and so on to carry on the comprehensive mining and analysis; Once more, let discovered data or knowledge be visible; Finally, provide the characteristic service to the electronic commerce website.

(a) The different IP addresses distinguish different users; (b) If the IP addresses are same, the different browsers and operation systems indicate different users; (c) If all of the IP address, browsers and operating systems are same, the referrer information should be taken into account. The Refer URI field is checked, and a new user session is identified if the URL in the Refer URI field hasn’t been accessed previously, or there is a large interval (usually more than 10 seconds) between the accessing time of this record and the previous one if the Refer URI field is empty; (d) The session identified by rule 3 may contains more than one visit by the same user at different time, the time-oriented heuristics is then used to divide the different visits into different user sessions. After grouping the records in web logs into user sessions, the path completion algorithm should be used for acquiring the complete user access path. or the user community’s interests then construct interest model. At present the usually used machine learning methods mainly have clustering, classifying, the relation discovery and the order model discovery. Each method has its own excellence and shortcomings, but the quite effective method mainly is classifying and clustering at the present. 126

Fig. 2: Preprocessing of Web usage data

iii. Path completion Another critical step in data preprocessing is path completion. There are some reasons that result in path’s incompletion, for instance, local cache, agent cache, “post” technique and browser’s “back” button can result in some important accesses not recorded in the access log file, and the number of Uniform Resource Locators (URL) recorded in log may be less than the real one. Using the local caching and proxy servers also produces the difficulties for path completion because users can access the pages in the local caching or the proxy servers caching without leaving any record in server’s access log. As a result, the user access paths are incompletely preserved in the web access log. To discover user’s travel pattern, the missing pages in the user access path should be appended. The purpose of the path completion is to accomplish this task. The better results of data pre-processing will improve the mined patterns’ quality and save algorithm’s running time. It is especially important to web log files, www.ijsir.co.in

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in respect that the structure of web log files are not the same as the data in database or data warehouse. They are not structured and complete due to various causations. So it is especially necessary to pre-process web log files in web usage mining. Through data preprocessing, web log can be transformed into another data structure, which is easy to be mined. (3) Knowledge Discovery Use statistical method to carry on the analysis and mine the pre-treated data- We may discover the user WUM TOOLS In the past, several WUM projects have been proposed to foresee users’ preference and their navigation behavior, as well as many recent results improved separately the quality of the personalization or the user profiling phase. (1) Speed Tracer In Speed Tracer, a usage mining and analysis tool is described. Its goal is to understand the surfing behavior of users. Also in this case, the analysis is done by exploring the server log entries. The main characteristic of Speed Tracer is that it does not require cookies or user registration for session identification. In fact, it uses five kind of information: IP, Time stamp, URL of the requested page, Referral, and Agent to identify user sessions. Advanced mining algorithms uncover user’s movement through a Web site. The final result is a collection of valuable browsing patterns which help web masters better understand user’s behavior. Speed Tracer generates three types of statistics: user based, path based and group based. User based statistics pinpoint reference counts and durations of accesses. Path based statistics identify frequent traversal paths in Web presentations. Group based statistics provide information on groups of Web site pages most frequently visited. (2) Suggest 3.0 SUGGEST 3.0 is a recommender system aimed to provide the users with useful information about pages they may find of their interest. The personalization is achieved by means of a set of dynamically generated page links. Differently www.ijsir.co.in

from the recommender systems proposed so far, SUGGEST 3.0 does not make use of any offline component, and is able to manage Web sites made up of pages dynamically generated. To this purpose SUGGEST 3.0 incrementally builds and maintains historical information by means of an incremental graph partitioning algorithm, requiring no off-line component. (3) Collaborative filtering Collaborative filtering is the most successful technology for building personalized recommendation system and is extensively used in many fields. Most web personalization recommendation system adopt two types of techniques: a content-based approach and a collaborative filtering (CF) approach. In the content-based approach, it recommends web objects that are similar to what the user has been interested in the past. In the collaborative filtering approach, it finds other users that have shown similar tendency to the given users and recommends what they have liked. The collaborative filtering recommendation acts according to other users’ viewpoint to produce recommendation tabulates to the goal user. Its basic thought is based on a supposition: If user grade to some product quite similarly, then they grade to other product also similar. (4) Web Personalizer System which provides dynamic recommendation, as a list of hyperlinks to users. Analysis is based on the usage data combined with structured data formed by hyperlinks of site. Aggregated usage profile is obtained by applying data mining technology in preprocessing phase. The online phase considers the active user session in order to find match among user activities and discover usage profile. Matching entries are then used to compute a set of recommendations which will be inserted into last requested page as a list of hypertext links. This system helps in personalization. (5) Classifying User Navigation Patterns Using Longest Common Subsequence Algorithm Prediction of user future movements and intentions based on the users’ click stream data 127

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is a main challenging problem in Web based recommendation systems. Web usage mining based on the users’ click stream data has become the subject of exhaustive research, as its potential for web based personalized services, predicting user near future intentions, adaptive Web sites and customer profiling is recognized. This model provides online prediction through web usage mining system and propose a novel approach for classifying user navigation patterns to predict users’ future intentions. The approach is based on using longest common subsequence algorithm to classify current user activities to predict user next movement.

REFERENCES 1.

2. Discovering Task-Oriented Usage Pattern for Web Recommendation, Guandong Xu, Yanchun Zhang, Xiaofang Zhou, Proceedings of 17th Australasian Database Conference (ADC2006). 17th Australasian Database Conference (ADC2006), Tasmania, Australia, (167-174). 16-19 January, 2006. 3.

An Online Recommender System for LargeWeb Sites, Ranieri Baraglia and Fabrizio Silvestri

Mehrdad Jalali , Norwati Mustaphan ,Ali Mamat,Nasir B Sulaiman “ A Recommender System Approach for Classifying User Navigation Patterns Using Longest Common Subsequence Algorithm “, American Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-223X Issue 4 (2009), pp 17-27 © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009

Subhash K Shinde, Dr U V Kulkarni “A New Approach for Online Recommender System in Web Usage Mining”, International Conference on Advance Computing Theory and Engineering of IEEE, 2008.

Research on Personalized Recommendation Based on Web Usage Mining using Collaborative Filtering Technique, Taowei Wang, Yibo Ren

“Page Interest Estimation Based on the User’s Browsing Behaviour”, Bo-qin FENG, Feng WANG

CONCLUSION Web Usage Mining (WUM) systems are specifically designed to carry out the task by analyzing the data representing usage data about a particular Web Site. WUM can model user’s behavior and, therefore, to forecast their future movements. Online prediction is one web usage mining application. Web usage mining model is a kind of mining to server logs and its aim is to get useful users’ access information in logs to make sites that can perfect themselves with pertinence, serve users better and get more economical benefit.

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R.Lakshmipathy, V.Mohanraj, J.Senthilkumar, Y.Suresh, “ Capturing Intuition of Online Users using Web Usage Mining”, International Conference on Advance Computing of IEEE,2009.

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STUDY OF DATA MINING ALGORITHM IN CLOUD COMPUTING USING MAP REDUCE FRAMEWORK 1

*E. GAJENDRAN1, K P YADAV2 Research Scholar, Sunrise University, Alwar, Rajasthan, India 2 Director, MIET, Greater Noida , Uttar Pradesh, India *Address for correspondence : E. Gajendran, Research Scholar, Sunrise University, Alwar, Rajasthan, India

ABSTRACT Today’s Cloud Computing Technology has been emerged to manage large data sets efficiently and due to rapid growth of data, large scale data processing is becoming a major point of information technique. The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) is designed for reliable storage of very large data sets and to stream those data sets at high bandwidth to user applications. In a large cluster, hundreds of servers both host directly attached storage and execute user application tasks. By distributing storage and computation across many servers, the resource can grow on demand while remaining economical at every size. Map Reduce has been widely used for large-scale data analysis in the Cloud. Hadoop is an open source implementation of Map Reduce which can achieve better performance with the allocation of more compute nodes from the cloud to speed up computation; however, this approach of “renting more nodes” isn’t cost effective in a pay-as-you-go environment. Keywords: Cloud Computing, Distributed Data Mining, Hadoop, Hadoop Distributed File System, Map Reduce INTRODUCTION These days large amount of data is created every day so with this rapid explosion of data we are moving towards the terabytes to petabytes. This trend creates the demand for the advancement in data collection and storing technology. Hence there is a growing need to run data mining algorithm on very large data sets. Cloud computing is a new business model containing pool of resources constituting large number of computers. It distributes the computation task to its pool of resources so that applications can obtain variety of software services on demand. Another feature of cloud computing is that it provides unlimited storage and computing power which leads us to mine mass amount of data. Hadoop is the software framework for writing applications that rapidly process large amount of data in parallel on large clusters of compute nodes. It provides a distributed file system and a framework for the analysis and transformation www.ijsir.co.in

of very large data sets using the Map Reduce paradigm. The volume of data, collectively called data-sets, generated by the application is very large. So, there is a need of processing large data-sets efficiently. Map Reduce is a generic execution engine that parallelizes computation over a large cluster of machines. An important characteristic of Hadoop is the partitioning of data and computation across many hosts, and executing application computations in parallel close to their data. A Hadoop cluster scales computation capacity, storage capacity and IO bandwidth by simply adding commodity servers. Big data has been used to convey the all sorts of concepts, including huge quantities of data (with respect to volume, velocity, and variety), social media analytics, next generation data management capabilities, real-time data, and much more. Now organizations are starting to understand and explore how to process and analyze a vast array of information in new ways. 129

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Data mining is the process of finding correlations or patterns among fields in large data sets and building up the knowledge-base, based on the given constraints. The overall goal of data mining is to extract knowledge from an existing dataset and transform it into a human understandable structure for further use. This process is often referred to as Knowledge Discovery in data sets (KDD). It encompasses data storage and access, scaling algorithms to very large data sets and interpreting results. The data cleansing and data access process included in data warehousing facilitate the KDD process. Based on the increasing demand for parallel computing environment of cloud and parallel mining algorithm, we study different mining algorithms. Association rule based algorithm, Apriori algorithm, is improved in order to combine it with the Map Reduce programming model of cloud and mine large amount of data. With emerging trends in Cloud Computing, data mining enters a new era, which can have a new implementation. We can use cloud computing techniques with data mining to reach high capacity and efficiency by using parallel computational nature of the cloud. As Map Reduce provides good parallelism for the computation, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s very suitable for us to implement data mining system based on Map Reduce. In a distributed computing environment, bunch of loosely coupled processing nodes are connected by the network. Each node contributes into the execution or distribution / replication of data. It is referred as a cluster of nodes. There are various methods of setting up a cluster, one of which is usually referred to as cluster framework. Such frameworks enforce the setting up processing and replication nodes for data. Examples are Aneka and Apache Hadoop (also called Map / Reduce). The other methods involve setting up of cluster nodes on ad-hoc basis and not being bound by a rigid framework. Such methods just involve a set of API calls basically for remote method invocation (RMI) as a part of inter-process communication. The method of setting up a cluster depends upon the data densities and upon the scenarios listed below: 130

1. The data is generated at various locations and needs to be accessed locally most of the time for processing. 2. The data for processing is distributed to the machines in the cluster to reduce the impact of any particular machine being over loaded that damages its processing. RELATED WORK Distributed Data Mining in Peer-to-Peer Networks (P2P) [1] offers an overview of the distributed data-mining applications and algorithms for peer-to-peer environments. It describes both exact and approximate distributed data-mining algorithms that work in a decentralized manner. It illustrates these approaches for the problem of computing and monitoring clusters in the data residing at the different nodes of a peer- to-peer network. This paper focuses on an emerging branch of distributed data mining called peer-to-peer data mining. It also offers a sample of exact and approximate P2P algorithms for clustering in such distributed environments. Architecture for data mining in distributed environments [2] describes system architecture for scalable and portable distributed data mining applications. This approach presents a document metaphor called \e mph {Living Documents} for accessing and searching for digital documents in modern distributed information systems. The paper sdescribes a corpus linguistic analysis of large text corpora based on collocations with the aim of extracting semantic relations from unstructured text. Distributed Data Mining of Large Classifier Ensembles [3] presents a new classifier combination strategy that scales up efficiently and achieves both high predictive accuracy and tractability of problems with high complexity. It induces a global model by learning from the averages of the local classifiers output. The effective combination of large number of classifiers is achieved this way. Map-Reduce for Machine Learning on Multi core [4] discusses the ways to develop a broadly applicable parallel programming paradigm that is applicable to different learning algorithms. By taking advantage of the summation form in a www.ijsir.co.in

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map-reduce framework, this paper tries to parallelize a wide range of machine learning algorithms and achieve a significant speedup on a dual processor cores. STUDY OF DATA MINING ALGORITHMS A. K-Means Clustering The K-mean clustering algorithm [7] is used to cluster the huge data set into smaller cluster. In data mining, k-means clustering is a method of cluster analysis which aims to partition observations into k clusters in which each observation belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean. The problem is computationally difficult (NP-hard), however there are efficient heuristic algorithms that are commonly employed and converge fast to a local optimum. These are usually similar to the expectation-maximization algorithm for mixtures of Gaussian distributions via an iterative refinement approach employed by both algorithms. Additionally, they both use cluster centers to model the data, however kmeans clustering tends to find clusters of comparable spatial extent, while the expectationmaximization mechanism allows clusters to have different shapes. The most common algorithm uses an iterative refinement technique. Due to its ubiquity it is often called the k-means algorithm; which is also referred to as Lloyd’s algorithm, particularly in the computer science community. 1. Algorithm Given an initial set of k means m1 (1)… mk (1), The algorithm proceeds by alternating between two steps: 1. Assignment step: Assign each observation to the cluster with the closest mean. 2. Update step: Calculate the new means to be the Centroid of the observations in the cluster. In the beginning we determine number of cluster K and we assume the centroid or center of these clusters. We can take any random objects as the initial centroids or the first K object in sequence can also serve as the initial centroids. www.ijsir.co.in

Then the K means algorithm will do the three steps below until convergence. Iterate until stable: 1. Determine the centroid coordinate 2. Determine the distance of each object to the centroids 3. Group the object based on minimum distance 2. Euclidean distance: In mathematics, the Euclidean distance or Euclidean metric is the “ordinary” distance between two points that one would measure with a ruler, and is given by the Pythagorean formula. By using this formula as distance, Euclidean space (or even any inner product space) becomes a metric space. The Euclidean distance between points p and q is the length of the line segment connecting them. In Cartesian coordinates, if p = (p1, p2, ... pn) and q = (q1, q2... qn) are two points in Euclidean n- space, then the distance from p to q or from q to p is given by: 2

d(p,q) = d(q,p) = v(q1-p1) + (q2-p2) +

…..

+(qn-pn)

B. Apriori Apriori [7] is one of the key algorithms to generate frequent item sets. Analyzing frequent item set is a crucial step in analyzing structured data and in finding association relationship between items. This stands as an elementary foundation to supervised learning Association – It aims to extract interesting correlations, frequent patterns associations or casual structures among sets of items in the transaction databases or other data repositories and describes association relationship among different attributes. Finding Frequent Item set by using Apriori data mining algorithm: Require: Items I = {i1, i2, . . . , in}, dataset D, user-defined support threshold Ensure: F(D_) := Frequent sets from D w.r.t. that particular threshold 1: 2: 3:

C1 := {{i}| i 2 I} //Start with singleton sets k := 1 while Ck 6= {} do 131

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4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9: 10: 11:

//Pruning Part for all transactions (tid, I) 2 D do for all candidate sets X 2 Ck do if X _ I then support(X) + + end if end for end for //Computes the supports of all candidate sets 12: Fk := {X|support(X) _ _} //Extracts all frequent sets 13: //Generating Part 14: for all X, Y 2 Fk,X[j] = Y [j] for 1 _ j _ k “ 1, and X[k] < Y [k] do 15: I = X [ {Y [k]} //Join step 16: if 8J _ I, |J| = k : J 2 Fk then 17: Ck+1 := Ck+1 [ I //Prune step 18: end if 19: end for 20: k + + 21: end while In short we are trying to perform following steps: 1. Generate Ck+1, candidates of frequent item sets of size k +1, from the frequent item sets of size k. 2. Scan the database and calculate the support of each candidate of frequent item sets. 3. Add those item sets that satisfy the minimum support requirement to Fk+1. A. Apriori: The Apriori algorithm is shown above in line 13 generates Ck+1 from Fk in the following two step process: a. Join step: Generate RK+1, the initial candidates of frequent item sets of size k + 1 by taking the union of the two frequent item sets of size k, Pk and Qk that have the first k—1 elements in common. Qk = {item l, . . . , itemk”1, item k , RK+1 = Pk temk_ }

Qk = {i teml , i tem2, . . . , i temk”1, i temk_ } b. Prune step: Check if all the item sets of size k in Rk+1 are frequent and generate Ck+1 by removing those that do not pass this requirement from Rk+1. This is because any subset of size k of Ck+1 that is not frequent cannot be a subset of a frequent item set of size k + 1. Function subset in line 5 finds all the candidates of the frequent item sets included in transaction t. Apriori, then, calculates frequency only for those candidates generated this way by scanning the database. It is evident that Apriori scans the database at most kmax+1 times when the maximum size of frequent item sets is set at kmax . The Apriori achieves good performance by reducing the size of candidate sets. However, in situations with very many frequent item sets, large item sets, or very low minimum support, it still suffers from the cost of generating a huge number of candidate sets. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Cloud computing It consists of shared computing resources which are opposed to local servers or devices. Users [6] can pay on the basis of resource usage as timely basis. The major goal of cloud computing is to provide easily scalable access to computing resources and IT(Information Technology) services for achieving better performance. Cloud computing basically provides three different types of service based architectures are SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS. i. SaaS (Software as-a-service): It offers application as a service on the internet. ii. PaaS (Platform as-a-service): This is to be used by developers for developing new applications. iii. IaaS (Infrastructure as-a-service): It basically deals by providers to provide features on-demand Utility. Table 1 : Feature Comparison of Commercial

Pk = {i teml , i tem2, . . . , i temk—1, i temk }

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Properties

Amazon EC2

Service Type

IaaS

Support for (value offer)

Compute/ Storage

Value added service provider

Yes

User Access Interface Virtualization Platform (OS & runtime)

Google App

Engine IaaS – PaaS Compute (web applications)

Microsoft Manjras oft Azure Aneka IaaS - PaaS

PaaS

Compute

Yes

Web API Command Line Tool OS on Xen Hypervisor

Web API Command Line Tool

Azure Web Portal

Application Container

Service Container

Linux, Windows

Linux

.NET on Windows

Web apps Deployment model Customizabl (Python, VM Java, Ruby) If PaaS, ability to deploy on 3rd party N.A. No IaaS

Azure Services

Web APIs, Custom GUI Service Container .NET on Window s, Mono Linux Applicatio ns (C#, C++, VB)

Yes

1) “Map” step : The master node takes the input, divides it into smaller sub-problems, and distribute them to worker nodes. A worker node may do this again, leading to a multi-level tree structure. The worker node processes the smaller problem, and passes the answer back to its master node. 2) “ Reduce” step : The master node then collects the answers to all the sub-problems and combine them in some way to form the output – the answer to the problem it was originally trying to solve.

B. Map Reduce Map Reduce [5] is a programming model for processing large data sets, and the name of an implementation of the model by Google. Map Reduce is typically used to perform distributed computing on clusters of computers. The model is inspired by map and reduces functions commonly used in functional programming, although their purpose in the Map Reduce framework is not the same as their original forms. Map Reduce libraries have been written in many programming languages. A popular free implementation is Apache Hadoop. Map Reduce is a framework for processing the parallelizable problems across huge datasets using a large number of computers (nodes), collectively referred to as a cluster (if all nodes are on the same local network and use similar hardware) or a grid (if the nodes are shared across geographically and administratively distributed systems, and use more heterogeneous hardware). Computational processing can occur on data stored either in a file system (unstructured) or in a database (structured). Map Reduce can take advantage of locality of data, processing data on or near the storage assets to decrease transmission of data. www.ijsir.co.in

Fig. 1: EXE CUTION OVER VIEW

Data flow of the system is given below; the frozen part of the Map Reduce frame work is a large distributed sort. The above figure consists of Following parts: a) Input reader: It divides the input into appropriate size (in practice typically 64 MB to 5 12 MB as pe HDFS) and the framework assigns o e split to on Map function. The input reader reads the data from stable storage (typically a in our case Hadoop distributed file system) and generates key/value pairs b) Map function : Each Map function takes a series of key/value pairs, processes each, and generates zero or more output key/value pairs. The input and output types of the map can be and often are) different from each other. c) Partition function: Each Map function output is allocated to a particular reducer by the application’ partition function for sharing purposes. The partition function is given the key 133

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and the number of reducers and returns the index of desired reduce. d) Comparison function: The input for every Reduce is fetched from the machine where the Maprun and sorted using the applicationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s comparison function. e) Reduce function: The framework cal ls the applicationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Reduce function for each unique key in the sorted order. It also iterates through the values that are associated with that key and produces zero or more outputs. f)

Output writer: It writes the output of the Reduce function to stable storage, usually a Hadoop distr ibuted file system.

As an example, the illustrative problem of counting the average word length of every word occurrences in a large collection of documents in Map Reduce is represented as following: The input key/value to the Map function is a document name, and its contents. The function scans through the document and emits each word plus the associated word length of the occurrences of that word in the document. Shuffling groups together occurrences of the same word in all documents, and passes them to the Reduce function. The Reduce function sums up all the word length for all occurrences. Then divides it by the count of that word and emits the word and its overall average word length of every word occurrences. Example: Consider the problem of counting the average word length in a large collection of documents. The user would write code similar to the following pseudo-code:

Here, each document is split into words, and each word length is counted by the map function, using the word as the result key. The framework puts together all the pairs with the same key and feeds them to the same call to reduce, thus this function just needs to sum all of its input values to find the total appearances of that word. Then for finding average word length we divide the sum by the count of that word.

CONCLUSION There are many new technologies emerging at a rapid rate, each with technological advancements and with the potential of making ease in use of technology. However, one must be very careful to understand the limitations and security risks posed in utilizing these technologies. Neither Map Reduce-like software, nor parallel databases are ideal solutions for data analysis in the cloud. Hybrid solution that combines the fault tolerance, heterogeneous cluster, and ease of use out-of-the-box capabilities of Map Reduce with the efficiency, performance, and tool plug ability of sharednothing parallel systems could have a significant impact on the cloud market. We will work on bringing together ideas from Map Reduce and data mining algorithms, also to combine the advantages of Map Reduce-like software with the efficiency and shared work advantages that come with loading data and creating performance enhancing data structures. REFERENCES 1.

SouptikDatta, KanishkaBhaduri, Chris Giannella, Ran Wolff, and HillolKargupta, Distributed Data Mining in Peer-to-Peer Networks, Universityof Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA, Journal IEEEInternet Computing archive Volume 10 Issue 4, Pages 18 - 26, July 2006.

MafruzZamanAshrafi, David Taniar, and Kate A. Smith, A Data MiningArchitecture for Distributed Environments, pages 27-34, SpringerVerlagLondon,UK, 2007.

GrigoriosTsoumakas and IoannisVlahavas, Distributed Data Mining ofLarge Classifier Ensembles, SETN2008, Thessaloniki, Greece, Proceedings, Companion Volume, pp. 249-256, 11-12 April 2008.

Cheng-Tao Chu et. al., Map-Reduce for Machine Learning on Multicore,CS Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 2006.

function map(String key, String value): // key: document name //value: document contents for each word w in value: Emit Intermediate(w, word length); function reduce(String key, Iterator values) // key: word // values: list of counts double sum = 0, count =0, result=0; for each v in values: sum += ParseInt(v); count++; result = sum / count; Emit(w, As Double(result));

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Jeffrey Dean and Sanjay Ghemawat, Mapreduce: Simplied data processing on large clusters. In OSDI, pages 137-150, 2004.

Daniel J. Abadi, Yale University, Data Management in the Cloud: Limitations and Opportunities, Bulletin of the IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Data Engineering 2009

“Top 10 algorithms in data mining”, © Springer-Verlag London Limited 2007

James l. Johnson, SQL in the Clouds, IEEE journal Cloud Computing, 2009.

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A DHT ORIENTED PEER TO PEER NETWORK WITH NEW HASH FUNCTION 1

*VIVEK SAINI1, K P YADAV2 Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Director, MIET, Greater Noida , Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for correspondence : Vivek Saini, Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Now a days P2P networks are widely used for voice and video communications and also in many transactions like file sharing. In P2P networks DHT (Distributed Hash Table) oriented routing protocols gives an efficient way to search the contents (like files) between various peers. A DHT protocol works on a hash function for the P2P application that provides a key and searches the responsible nodes for the particular key. In this paper the core focus is targeted to identify a new hash function that can enhance the working of DHT by generating a new identifier for p2p nodes. The Chord protocol is also chosen as the routing protocol for the numerous reasons those are conferred in this paper. Keywords: P2P Networks, Distributed Hash Tables, Hash Functions ,Cryptography, Key Distribution Center INTRODUCTION To find the resources rapidly in decentralized distributed systems, DHT protocols are very suitable for searching the contents efficiently. In a distributed system, resources like any type of file, several messages and directories, or various contents can be backed up or fetch from the any nodes at anytime. DHT has a collection of joining nodes, wherever every node have small information of other nodes to make the difference to each other in the system and also has a route searching requests to identify a best path to move towards an appropriate target[1]. Message integrity is among the major requirements in many network protocols that we use today. As, today transmission on any network is achieved at very high speed, the processing for encryption, authentication and integration must also be done at very high speed. Currently, many hash functions are being used for this purpose, say- MD4[2], MD5 [3] and SHA-1[4], Tiger, Whirlpool etc.. These hash functions are oneway hash functions, in the sense that original 136

input message can not be obtained back from the hash value generated from it. In general, Hash Function is defined as a function that takes arbitrary length input and produces output of fixed length, which is known as hash value or the message digest [5]. For a hash function to be useful for network security, it is desirable to have no two different input messages for which the digest is same. Almost all major cryptographic protocols depend on the security of hash functions [3]. Although, there is a variety of hash functions available in the market, only MD5 [4] and SHA-1 [5] are widely used all over the world. Both hash functions are derived from MD4 [6], which has been proven to be weak. It therefore says that all functions based on MD4 may have common weaknesses. In P2P network every resource is associated with a key, with the help of that key, DHT can find the responsible node for the linked resource rapidly usually in O (log n) hops, here n is the quantity of nodes in the peer to peer network. www.ijsir.co.in

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There are various DHT protocols like CAN[8], Chord[9], and Pastry[10] but in this paper Chord is targeted protocol on which new hashing will be applied. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE NEW HASH FUNCTION For message integrity, the hash function should be fast and one-way functions, that is, it should be practically impossible to find the input message from the digest. This feature gives security against data modification by adversary, but, message integrity alone does not guarantee sufficient security against few of the attacks [7]. For example, general error detecting codes are not sufficient enough because, if the adversary knows algorithm for generating the code, he can easily generate the correct hash code again after forging the message. Intentional modification is undetectable with such codes. i. e. suppose a sender sends the message M along with its hash value h, and intruder changes this message M into M’, he also intercepts h and calculates h’ for new message M’, and transmits it to the receiver. When receiver will recalculate hash on M’ it will result in verified one, which is not true. However, encryption techniques, that use a key, can be used to produce a cryptographic checksum that can protect against both accidental and intentional modification in message, and unauthorized data modification also. A hashing scheme can be made more secured and strong by combining it with a block cipher encryption algorithm either symmetric or asymmetric. The function h is defined such that h(M) can be calculated from the message M easily, but if only h(M) is known, finding even one message M that will generate this value is “difficult”. Moreover, calculating another message M’ that produces the same hash value, i.e., h(M) = h(M’), must be infeasible. The hash value may then be given to encryption function, whose key is known to sender for final calculations of keyed hash. The corresponding key will be used by the receiver to invert the transformation and restore the value h(M). At the receiving end, the function his applied to the received message M, and the two values of h(M) are compared. The message is considered original and unaltered if the two values are equal.

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Designing and implementing a new keyed hash function includes two constructs- a compression function that operates on input strings of a fixed length and then to use the cascade function to extend the compression function to string of arbitrary length[10]. P2P ROUTING ALGORITHM (CHORD) Each resource has a key linked with it. Given a key, a DHT can quickly locate the node responsible for the associated resource, typically within O (log n) hops, where n is the total quantity of nodes in the system. In Chord, both nodes and keys are given numerical identifiers. The identifier for a key is obtained by hashing that key with some hash function that is used by all of the nodes in the system which returns integers of some bit length m. A node is assigned an identifier by hashing its IP address. Nodes and keys are then arranged in an identifier ring modulo 2m. Each key’s value is stored on the first node with an identifier equal to or following that key’s identifier in the ring [8]. This aspect is illustrated in following Figure 1.In the Chord ring; the hash bit length m is 6. There are 10 nodes in the network (shown with N prefixes followed by the nodes identifier) and 5 keys (shown with K prefixes followed by the keys identifier) are being stored. Each key is shown being stored on the first node that succeeds the keys identifier in the ring, as indicated by the arrows. In order to find nodes that are responsible for keys, each node has to store some routing information.In Chord, this routing table is called a “finger table”. The Chord finger table for a node with identifier id contains m entries, numbered from 0 to m-1. For finger table entry i, the node stored in that entry is the first node whose identifier succeeds id + 2i (mod 2k). It is possible (and often probable) to have duplicate entries in the finger table.

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distance between the node doing the routing and the node responsible for the key. This divide and conquer approach to routing lookup requests has been shown by [8] to use O (log n) hops for each route. The algorithm for routing a lookup request from a node is simple: forward the request to the last finger table entry that precedes the identifier of the key. The node preceding the destination node will detect that the key falls between itself and its successor and return information about its successor to the node performing the lookup.

Figure 1: The Chord Ring

Figure 3: An example of route taken by a lookup in a Chord network [8]

Figure 2: The Chord Ring with Finger Table

Figure 2 shows a sample finger table with an illustration of how the finger table is derived for node N8. N8’s last finger table entry should be the node that succeeds 8+25. This node is N42, so a reference to N42 is stored in the last finger table entry of N8’s finger table. The rest of the finger table entries are filled in with the same process for i =0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. As figure 2 illustrates, each node only has information about a subset of the nodes in the overall system. As the system gets much larger, the number of unique nodes in each node’s finger table becomes a smaller fraction of the overall number of nodes. The size of the finger table has been shown by [8] to be O (log n) where n is the number of nodes in the system. The advantage of the finger table is that when performing a lookup the request can jump about half of the remaining 138

Figure 3 shows an example of the route a lookup request might take through a Chord network. In this figure, N8 is performing a lookup request for key K54. CURRENT SCENARIO FOR HASH FUNCTION WITH KEY COMBINATION We assume that two parties A and B wish to communicate with each other, and for message integrity they may use any available hash function such as SHA family or MD family. At the time of session establishment, a user A, may generate random 512-bit value, HSH, A then sends this HSH to the second party in communication, B, in secret manner. This secret key may be further used for keyed Hash Function in any of the following two ways [11]: Similar problems arise with suffix technique. Still, secret suffix is secure with respect to padding attacks. This is because a message digest is computed with a secret suffix as the last input block. Without knowing the secret, the www.ijsir.co.in

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adversary cannot, with any surety, append (or prepend) to the message. One major disadvantage of the secret suffix is that it is prone to Birthday attack. In brief, this attack consists of the intruder generating a message trial pool of size R and recording a sample pool of genuine messages of size S. The probability of at least one message in a trial pool hashing to the same MD5 value as one of the messages in the sample pool is roughly expressed by P = (R * S/N) where N is the range (N = 2128 in our case) . According to the Birthday paradox, there is a 50% chance of two messages hashing to the same MD5 value for R = 264 and S = I. a) Secret Prefix Method- When A needs to send a message M to receiver B, A prefixes the random 512 bit value HSH to message and calculates the digest for this combination. It can be represented as h = MD 5(HSH||M) and sends this h to B. Since B possess HSH, it can recompute MD5 (HSH||M) and verify h. This is known as prefix technique.

original messages, the adversary needs only the intermediate hash value of HSH, i .e. MD5(HSH). If, the MD5(HSH) is 128 bits long, the number of operations required to find MD5(HSH) is computationally 2128.

One more drawback of the secret prefix method is its vulnerability to padding attacks. A padding attack is successful when the adversary is able to either prepend or append few extra bits to an authentic message and pass the resulting message off as original one. An adversary can capture a message M along with its secret prefix-based check MD5(HSH||M). He can then append arbitrary data, M, to the end of M and compute the digest of the resulting message, using MD5(HSH||M) as the initialization value. The legitimate receiver is then fooled into accepting the fraudulent message because the accompanying secret prefix value is â&#x20AC;&#x153;correctâ&#x20AC;?. [12]

b) Secret Suffix Method- When A needs to send a message M to receiver B, A postfixes 512 bit value HSH to message and calculates the digest for this combination. It can be represented as h= MD5(M||HSH) and sends this h to B. Since B possess HSH, it can recompute MD5(M||HSH) and verify h. This is known as suffix technique. PROPOSED KEYED HASH SOLUTION There could be numerous solution to the above scenario and thus to strengthen previous designs. Few of such solutions may be to increase the number of rounds (as in MD5); add some coding or scrambling steps (as in SHA-1); increase the buffer size and make the mixing step vary with each round. An example of such an assumption is any ideal-cipher model that uses a key. An adversary who wishes to discover the secret prefix would first record a message M accompanied by its integrity value, MD5(HSH||M). He would then need to try on the average 2128 possibilities before discovering a prefix string S where S = HSH. But these methods are not resistant to attacks. To possess the goal of composing www.ijsir.co.in

Figure 4: Proposed Hash function algorithm for identifier of resource key generation.

Building hash functions based on block ciphers is the most popular and established approach till date. In this approach, the hash 139

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compression function is a block-cipher with its two inputs representing a message block and a key. At present, a protocol requiring 2128 operations to defeat is considered strong and secure. Nevertheless, it is conceivable that a need for stronger protocols may arise in the future. This paper proposes integration of a keyed encryption function such as DES along with hash function such as MD5. Because the keyed encryption function such as- DES works on Symmetric Key Cryptography, both sender and receiver work on the same key. This common key is shared between them using an encrypted link between them by Key Distribution Center (KDC) [11]. It is responsibility of KDC to send the common session key to both parties involved in communication, using their corresponding public keys. As, only these parties possess their private keys, so other user in the network may decode and use this session key. No other user, apart from KDC and both parties, involved in the message transmission, has any idea of the shared secret key. Thus, it may validate source identity, as receiver is now having the key that same as that of sender’s key. In this solution, the working of hash function HF is integrated with encryption function EF. The output of hash operation in each block will be used as input for encryption function. The hash function HF gives output of 128 bits and the encryption function EF accepts input block of 64 bits at a time. So, first, the output of HF is divided into two blocks each of 64 bit long, first with left 64 bits and second with right 64 bits. Then apply EF on both blocks respectively. The output will be again of 64 bit (total of 128 bit). This overall 128 bit output will then be used as 128 bit CVq for HF processing of next block of input [14]. CV0=IV CVq= E (K,B1) || E (K,B2) Where, IV= Initialization value of 128 bit buffer E= Encryption function EF B1= Left 64 bits of output of HF digest value B2= Right 64 bits of output of HF digest value K= EF key. The proposed algorithm may be stated in figure 4.

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The overall processing with this scheme is shown in the Figure 5. The strength of this variant is difficult to estimate. The only observation that can be made with certainty is that it is stronger than using only MD5, MD4 or SHA family hash function. The brute force attack on this method requires, on the average, 2196 trials. (Assuming that the intruder has perform attack that equivalent to both attack on HF plus attack on EF at the same time).

Figure 5: Processing of Hash Function HF having Encryption EF in between

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE DHT protocols are available for routing the packets in P2P networks. Careful and secure identification of a machine in p2p network is very challenging in such type of distributed network. Security may be provided using message integration and authentication techniques between peers. The paper proposed involvement of a newly designed hash technique that makes use of a key while hashing. This key is the main reason behind authenticity of message between peer entities. REFERENCES 1.

A. Saroliya, U Mishra, A. Rana. “A pragmatic analysis of peer to peer networks and protocols for security and confidentiality”, IJCCR. Volume 2 (6), November 2012.

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R.L. Rivest. MD4 Message Digest Algorithm. RFC 1186, October 1990.

R. Rivest. The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm. RFC 1321, April 1992.

National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce. Secure Hash Standard, 2002. FIPS PUB 180-2.

P. Rogaway, T. Shrimpton. Cryptographic Hash Function Basics: Definitions, Implications, and Separations for Preimage Resistance, SecondPreimage Resistance, and Collision Resistance. Springer-Verlag 2004.

M. Stanek. Analysis of Fast Block Cipher Based Hash Function. Computational Science and its Applications. 2006, vol- 3982/2006, pp- 426-435. DOI: 10.1007/ 11751595_46. J. Walker, M. Kounavis, S.Gueron, G.Graunke, Recent Contribution to Cryptographic Hash Function, Intel Technology Journal, 2009, Vol 13, issue 2, pp 80-95. Sylvia Ratnasamy, Paul Francis, Mark Handley, Richard Karp, Scott Shenker, “A Scalable Content Addressable Network”, In Proceeding of SIGCOMM’01, ISSN:0146-4833, Volume 31, Number 4, San Diego, California, USA, pp. 161–172, August 27-31, 2001

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I. Stoica, R. Morris, D. Karger, M. F. Kaashoek, and H. Balakrishnan, “Chord: A scalable peer-to-peer lookup service for Internet applications”, In: Proc. ACM SIGCOMM’01, San Diego, California 2001.

10.

R. Antony, D. Peter, “Pastry: Scalable, Decentralized Object Location, and Routing for LargeScale Peer-to-Peer Systems”, In Proc. of IFIP/ACM International Conference on Distributed Systems Platforms, ISBN:3-540-42800-3, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 329–350, Nov. 2001

11.

L. Harn and C. Lin, Authenticated Group Key Transfer Protocol Based on Secret Sharing. Computers, IEEE Transactions on, June 2010, vol 59, issue- 3, pp-842846.

12.

G. Tsudik, Message Authentication with One-Way Hash Fnctions, Newsletter, ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication, Volume 22, Issue 5, Oct.1992 pages 29-38.

13.

B. Preneel, P.C. Van Oorschot, “On the security of iterated Message Authentication Codes,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol. 45, No. 1, January 1999, pp. 188-199.

14.

R. Purohit, U Mishra, A. Bansal. “Design and Analysis of a New Hash Algorithm with Key Integration”. International Journal of Computer Application. Vol 81 (1), pp 33-38, 2013.

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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF RELIABILITY GROWTH MODELS USING SUPERVISED LEARNING TECHNIQUES 1

G SARVANAN1, K KRISHNAMOORTHY2 Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Professor, Sudarshan Engineering College, Tamilnadu, India

Address for correspondence: G. Sarvanan, Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Software reliability is one of a number of aspects of computer software which can be taken into consideration when determining the quality of the software. Building good reliability models is one of the key problems in the field of software reliability. A good software reliability model should give good predictions of future failure behavior, compute useful quantities and be widely applicable. Software Reliability Growth Models (SRGMs) are very important for estimating and predicting software reliability. An ideal SRGM should provide consistently accurate reliability estimation and prediction across different projects. However, that there is no single such model which can obtain accurate results for different cases. The reason is that the performance of SRGMs highly depends on the assumptions on the failure behavior and the application datasets. In other words, many models may be shown to perform well with one failure data-set, but bad with the other data-set. Thus, combining some individual SRGMs than single model is helpful to obtain a more accurate estimation and prediction. SRGM parameters are estimated using the least square estimation (LSE) or Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE). Several combinational methods of SRGMs have been proposed to improve the reliability estimation and prediction accuracy. The AdaBoosting algorithm is one of the most popular machine learning algorithms. An AdaBoosting based Combinational Model (ACM) is used to combine the several models. The key idea of this approach is that we select several SRGMs as the weak predictors and use an AdaBoosting algorithm to determine the weights of these models for obtaining the final linear combinational model. In this paper, the Fitness and Prediction of various Software Reliability Growth Models (SRGMs) can be compared with AdaBoosting based Combinational Model (ACM) with the help of Maximum likelihood estimation to estimate the model parameters. Keywords: Software Reliability, Software Reliability Growth Models (SRGMs), AdaBoosting Algorithm, Least Square stimation, Maximum Likelihood Estimation. INTRODUCTION Software Reliability Engineering is defined as quantitative study of the operational behavior of software-based systems with respect to user requirements concerning reliability. The demand for software systems has recently increased very rapidly. The reliability of software systems has become a critical issue in the software systems industry. With the 90â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s of the previous century, computer software systems have become the major source of reported failures in many 142

systems. Software is considered reliable if anyone can depend on it and use it in critical systems. The importance of software reliability will increase in the years to come, specifically in the fields of aerospace industry, satellites, and medicine applications. The process of software reliability starts with software testing and gathering of test results, after that, the phase of building a reliability model. In general, the concept of reliability can be defined as â&#x20AC;&#x153;the probability that a system will www.ijsir.co.in

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perform its intended function during a period of running time without any failure”. IEEE defines software reliability as “the probability of failurefree software operations for a specified period of time in a specified environment”. In other words, software reliability can be viewed as the analysis of its failures, their causes and effects. Software reliability is a key characteristic of product quality. Most often, specific criteria and performance measures are placed into reliability analysis, and if the performance is below a certain level, failure occurred. Mathematically, the reliability function R(t) is the probability that a system will be successfully operating without failure in the interval from time 0 to time t [1], R(t) = P(T>t), where t >=0 T is a random variable representing the failure time or time-to-failure (i.e. the expected value of the lifetime before a failure occurs). R(t) is the probability that the system’s lifetime is larger than (t), the probability that the system will survive beyond time t, or the probability that the system will fail after time t. From above Equation, we can conclude that failure probability F(t), unreliability function of T is: F(t) = 1 – R(t) = P(T<=t) If the time-to-failure random variable T has a density function f(t), then the reliability can be measured as following R(t) = f(x) dx Where f(x) represents the density function for the random variable T. Consequently, the three functions R(t), F(t) and f(t) are closely related to one another . SUPERVISED LEARNING TECHNIQUES 1. Bootstrap The Bootstrap procedure is a general purpose sample-based statistical method which consists of drawing randomly with replacement from a set of data points. It has the purpose of assessing the statistical accuracy of some estimate, say S(Z), over a training set Z = {z1, z2, . . . , zN}, with zi = (xi, yi). To check the accuracy, the measure is applied over the B sampled versions of the training set. The Bootstrap algorithm[10] is as follows: www.ijsir.co.in

Bootstrap Algorithm Input: Training set Z={z1,z2,…,zN}, with zi=(xi,yi). B, number of sampled versions of the training set. Output: S(Z), statistical estimate and its accuracy. Step 1: for n=1 to B a) Draw, with replacement, L < N samples from the training set Z, obtaining the nth sample Z*n. b) For each sample Z*n, estimate a statistic S(Z*n). Step 2: Produce the bootstrap estimate S(Z), using S(Z*n) with n = {1, . . . ,B}. Step 3: Compute the accuracy of the estimate, using the variance or some other criterion. We start with the training set Z, obtaining several versions Z*n (bootstrap samples). For each sampled version, we compute the desired statistical measure S(Z*n). 2. Bagging The Bagging technique [10] consists of Bootstrap aggregation. Let us consider a training set Z ={z1, z2, . . . , zN}, with zi = (xi, yi) for which we intend to fit a regression model, obtaining a prediction f(x) at input x. Bagging averages this prediction over a collection of bootstrap samples, thereby reducing its variance. For classification purposes, the Bagging algorithm is as follows. Bagging Algorithm for Classification Input: Z = {z1, z2, . . . , zN}, with zi = (xi, yi) as training set. B, number of sampled versions of the training set.

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4. AdaBoosting

Output: H(x), a classifier suited for the training set.

A very promising well known used boosting algorithm is AdaBoost [2]. The idea behind adaptive boosting is to weight the data instead of (randomly) sampling it and discarding it. In recent years, ensemble techniques, namely boosting algorithms, have been a focus of research. The AdaBoost algorithm is a wellknown method to build ensembles of classifiers with very good performance. It has been shown empirically that AdaBoost with decision trees has excellent performance, being considered the best off-the-shelf classification algorithm.

Step 1: for n=1 to B a) Draw, with replacement, L < N samples from the training set Z, obtaining the nth sample Z*n. b) For each sample Z*n, learn classifier Hn. Step 2: Produce the final classifier as a vote of Hn with n = {1, . . . ,B}

As compared to the process of learning a classifier in a conventional way, that is, strictly from the training set, the Bagging approach increases classifier stability and reduces variance.

AdaBoosting is a commonly used ML algorithm which can combine several weak predictors into a single strong predictor for highly improving the estimation and prediction accuracy. It has been applied with great success to several benchmark Machine Learning (ML) problems using rather simple learning algorithms, in particular decision trees.

3. Boosting

AdaBoosting Algorithm

The Boosting [10] procedure is similar to Bootstrap and Bagging. The first was proposed in 1989 by Schapire and is as follows.

AdaBoosting is a commonly used machine learning algorithm for constructing a strong classifier f(x) as linear combination of weak classifiers ht(x).

H(x)= sign ( ∑

n=1

Hn(x))

Boosting Algorithm for Classification

Input: set.

Output: H(x), a classifier suited for the training set. Step 1: Randomly select, without replacement, L1 < N samples from Z to obtain Z*1; train weak learner H1 on Z*1. Step 2: Select L2 < N samples from Z with half of the samples misclassified by H1 to obtain Z*2; train weak learner H2 on it. Step 3: Select all samples from Z that H1 and H2 disagree on; train weak learner H3, using three samples. Step 4: Produce final classifier as a vote of the three weak learners H(x) = sign (

144

t =1

Z = {z1, z2, . . . , zN}, with zi = (xi, yi) as training

3 n=1

Hn(x))

AdaBoosting calls a weak classifier ht(x) repeatedly in a series of rounds t=1, 2,…..,T. For each call a distribution of weights is updated in the data-set for the classification. The algorithm takes as input a training set (x1, y1),(x2, y2),….,(xn, yn) where xi X, yi {-1,+1} (x1, y1) where each xi belongs to some domain or instance space X, and each label yi is in some label set Y. One of the main ideas of the algorithm is to maintain a distribution or set of weights over the training set. Given (x1, y1),…,(xn, yn) where xi

X, yi

{-1,+1}

Initialize weights Dt(i) = 1/n Iterate t=1,…,T:

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Train weak learner using distribution Dt Get weak classifier: ht : X → R Choose

t R

Update to Dt+1(i) from Dt(i)

Where Zt is a normalization factor (chosen so that Dt+1 will be a distribution), and t

Output Final Classifier T

t =1 EXISTING SYSTEM 1. Software Reliability Growth Models A software reliability growth model (SRGM) describes the mathematical relationship of finding and removing faults to improve software reliability. A SRGM performs curve fitting of observed failure data by a pre-specified model formula, where the parameters of the model are found by statistical techniques like maximum likelihood method. The model then estimates reliability or predicts future reliability by different forms of extrapolation. After the first software reliability growth model was proposed by Jelinski and Moranda in 1972, there have been numerous reliability growth models following it. These models come under different classes, e.g. exponential failure time class of models, Weibull and Gamma failure time class of models, infinite failure category models and Bayesian models. These models are based on prior assumptions about the nature of failures and the probability of individual failures occurring. There is no reliability growth model that can be generalized for all possible software projects, although there is evidence of models that are better suited to certain types of software projects. www.ijsir.co.in

An important class of SRGM that has been widely studied is the Non Homogeneous Poisson Process (NHPP). It forms one of the main classes of the existing SRGM, due to its mathematical tractability and wide applicability. NHPP models are useful in describing failure processes, providing trends such as reliability growth and the fault - content. SRGM considers the debugging process as a counting process characterized by the mean value function of a NHPP. Software reliability can be estimated once the mean value function is determined. Model parameters are usually determined using either Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE) or leastsquare estimation methods. NHPP based SRGM are generally classified into two groups [13]. The first group contains models, which use the execution time (i.e., CPU time) or calendar time. Such models are called continuous time models. The second group contains models, which use the number of test cases as a unit of the fault detection period. Such models are called discrete time models, since the unit of the software fault detection period is countable. A test case can be a single computer test run executed in an hour, day, week or even month. Therefore, it includes the computer test run and length of time spent to visually inspect the software source code. Software reliability growth models with a model are formulated by using a NonHomogeneous Poisson Process (NHPP). Using the model, the method of data analysis for the software reliability measurement will be developed. SRGM parameters are estimated by using the least square estimation (LSE) or maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) method and using actual software failure data, numerical results are obtained. In the existing system, the software reliability growth model parameters are estimated using least square estimation to obtain the numerical results. 2. Limitations of Existing System ·

It is generally considered to have less desirable optimality properties than maximum likelihood.

It can be quite sensitive to the choice of starting values. 145

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· It can’t generate accurate results for data of sufficiently large samples. PROPOSED WORK AND METHODOLOGY In the proposed system, the reliability growth model parameters are estimated using maximum likelihood estimation to get accurate results, to overcome the problems of LSE, we use MLE. Maximum likelihood provides a consistent approach to parameter estimation problems. This means that maximum likelihood estimates can be developed for a large variety of estimation situations. For example, they can be applied in reliability analysis to censored data under various censoring models. MLE has many optimal properties in estimation, i.e. Sufficiency: complete information about the parameter of interest contained in its MLE estimator. Consistency: true parameter value that generated the data recovered asymptotically, i.e. for data of sufficiently large samples. Efficiency: lowest-possible variance of the parameter estimates achieved asymptotically. 1. Selected Models for Parameter Estimation and Comparison Criterion A software reliability growth model characterizes how the reliability of that software varies with execution time. The traditional software reliability models are set of techniques that apply probability theory and statistical analysis to software reliability. A reliability model specifies the general form of the dependence of the failure process on the principal factors that affects it. The following five models are selected as the candidate and comparison models, which have been widely used by many researchers in the field of software reliability modeling [6]. (1) Goel-Okumoto model (GO Model) : M1 This model is proposed by the Goel and Okumoto, one of the most popular nonhomogeneous poisson process (NHPP) model in the field of software reliability modeling. It assumes failures occur randomly and that all 146

faults contribute an equally to total unreliability. When a failure occurs, it assumes that the fix is perfect, thus the failure rate improves continuously in time. a(1-exp(-rt)), a>0,r>0 (2) Musa-Okumoto model (MO Model) : M2 It is also a non homogeneous poisson process with an intesity function that decreases exponentially as failures occor. The exponential rate of decrease reflects the view that the earlier discovered failures have a grater impect on reducing the failure intensity function then those encountered later. 1/a*In(1+art) (3) Delayed S-Shaped model : M3 Yamada presented a delayed S-shaped SRGM incorporating the time delay between fault detection and fault correction. The Delayed SShaped model is a modification of the NHPP to obtain an S-shaped curve for the cumulative number of failures detected such that the failure rate initially increased and later decays. a(1-(1+rt)exp(-rt)) (4) Inflected S-Shaped Model : M4 Ohba proposed an inflected S-shaped model to describe the software failure-occurrence phenomenon with mutual dependency of detecting faults.

a(1 - exp(-rt)) (1 + c * exp(-rt)) (5) Generalized GO Model : M5 In GO model, the failure occurrence rate per fault is time independent, however since the expected number of remaining faults decreases with time, the overall software failure intensity decreases with time. In most real-life testing scenarios, the software failure intensity increases initially and then decreases. The generalized GO model was proposed to capture this increasing/ decreasing nature of the failure intensity. a(1-exp(-rtc)) In these NHPP models, usually parameter ‘a’ usually represents the mean number of www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 142-149, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

software failures that will eventually be detected, and parameter ‘r’ represents the probability that a failure is detected in a constant period [13].

the training rounds) are generated by repeatedly random sampling from D 0 according to its corresponding weight set Ki={ki1…kij…kin}.

In this, two real failure data-sets are selected, Ohba and Wood [5], which are popular and frequently used for comparison of SRGM.

If there are some same data in Di, only one of them will be reserved in our approach. Hence the data number of Di may not be n.

2. AdaBoosting based Combinational Model (ACM)

Step4: Di is used to estimate the parameters of each Mm(t) in the i-th training round. Then the fitness function (Notation 1) of Mm(t) can be determined by D0.

Many SRGMs may result in estimation or prediction bias since their underlying assumptions are not consistent with the characteristics of the application data. To reduce this bias, combining several different SRGMs together in linear or nonlinear manner is a common and applicable method. Many approaches are proposed to determine the weight assignment for the combinational models, such as equal weight, neural-network, genetic programming and etc. In this, an abstract description of how to use AdaBoosting to obtain the dynamic weighted linear combinational model (ACM) of several SRGMs is shown as follows[3] Input: 1. Let M(t)=u(x 1 ,x 2 ,…x k…x S, t) denotes different SRGMs (such as GO model). M(t) is the cumulated faults detected at time t, S is the number of the parameters of M(t), xk is the k-th parameter of M(t), k=1,2,3,…......S; 2. The failure data-set D0 is denoted by (t1, m1), (t2, m2), (tj, mj)... (tn, mn). Where n is the data number of D0, mj is the cumulated faults detected at tj, j=1...n. Initialize: Step1: Selecting M different SRGMs (denoted by Mm(t), m=1...M) as the candidate models for the ACM. Step2: The original weight set of D0 can be denoted by K0 = {k01... k0n}, where k0j is initialized by 1/n. Circulation: Step3: New training data set Di (i=1...P, P is www.ijsir.co.in

The candidate model whose value of fitness function is the smallest is chosen as the selected model (denoted by Mis(t)) in this round, i=1...P. Step5: If M1is(t) denotes the estimation form of Mis(t), the loss function Lis (Notation 2) of Mis (t) can be calculated by the fitting results of M1is (t) with D0. Then K i can be updated as K i+1 by L is (Notation 3). The basic weight β is of Mis (t) also can be determined by Lis(Notation 4). Step6: Performing Step3-Step5 repeatedly until i=P, and then turning into Step7. Output: Step7: Finally, a combinational linear model is obtained as follows: MACM(t) =

P i=1

Wis Mis(t)

The combination weight Wis of the selected model Mis (t) is f (

) (Notation 5), that is, Wis is

a function of the basic weight

Notation 1: Fitness function (FF) can be defined according to the estimation method of the parameters of these candidate SRGMs. The general methods to estimate the parameters of SRGMs are least-squares estimation (LSE) and maximum likelihood estimation (MLE). If Maximum likelihood Estimation is used, FF equation is FF =1/- log (ML) Where ML is the maximum likelihood function derived in the next section. 147

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Notation 2: Lis =

n j=1

detected by tj test cases (j=1,2,3,…….,n), tj is accumulated number of test run executed to detect m j faults, m(tj) is the expected mean number of faults detected by the nth test case.

j is

kij * L

Ljis = AE jis / Dent Where AE jis = mj - M1is (tj), Dent =max {AEjis} Notation 3:

lnML = nj=1(mj-mj-1) ln[m(tj)-m(tj-1)] - {(m(tj)-m(tj)} – nj=1 ln[(mj-mj-1)!] 1

Ki+1 = { Ki+1, j }, Ki+1, j = kij * Ljis / (

n j=1

kij * Ljis )

The values of these parameters that maximize the sample likelihood are known as the Maximum Likelihood Estimator.

Notation 4: is

= Ljis /(1- Ljis)

Notation 5: Wis = f(

Analysis of Data is

) = log (1/

p i=1

log 1/

3. Parameter Estimation Once the analytic expression for the mean value function is derived, it is required to estimate the parameters in the mean value function, which is usually carried out by using Maximum likelihood Estimation technique [11]. Maximum Likelihood Estimation: Once a model is specified with its parameters, and data have been collected, one is in a position to evaluate its goodness of fit, that is, how well it fits the observed data. Goodness of fit is assessed by finding parameter values of a model that best fits the data, a procedure called parameter estimation. The general methods to estimate the parameters are least-squares estimation (LSE) and maximum likelihood estimation (MLE). Fitting a proposed model to actual fault data involves estimating the model parameters from the real test data sets. Here we employ the method of MLE to estimate the parameters ‘a’ and ‘r’. All parameters of different Reliability models can be estimated by the method of MLE. For example, suppose that a and r are determined for the observed data pairs: (t0, m0), (t1, m1), (t2, m2),…….,(tn, mn). Then the” likelihood()( !function)exp[“(m(tfor the)” parametersm(t))] a and r in the models with m(t) is giv n by ML = ---------Where, mj is the cumulative number of faults 148

Taking the natural logarithm of the above equation, we get

Data Set #1: The first data set employed was from the paper by Ohba [5] for a PL/I database application software system consisting of approximately 1 317 000 LOC. Over the course of 19 weeks, 47.65 CPU hours were consumed, and 328 software faults were removed. Although this is an old data-set, we feel it is instructive to use it because it allows direct comparison with the work of others who have used it. Data Set #2: The second data set presented by Wood[5] from a subset of products for four separate software releases at Tandem Computers Company. Wood reported that the specific products and releases are not identified, and the test data sets have been suitably transformed in order to avoid confidentiality issues. Here we only use Release 1 for illustrations. Over the course of 20 weeks, 10 000 CPU hours were consumed, and 100 software faults were removed. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS In order to implement the fitting and prediction performance of the five selected models and ACM by using maximum likelihood estimation to estimate the parameters of models can be shown as follows. 1. Fitness and Prediction Performance of five Models and ACM with failure datasets The Figures (Fig. 1 & Fig.2) represents the Fitness and Prediction graphs of various SRGMs and ACM respectively. Here the failure data-set www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 142-149, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

Ohba [5] is taken for the comparison purpose.

REFERENCES

Fig.1 : Fitness comparison between Models and ACM with Ohba Dataset

Hoang Pham, System Software Reliability. Springer Series in Reliability Engineering..

Jiri Matas and Jan S ochman, AdaBoost, Centre for Machine Perception, Czech Technical University, Prague.

Haifeng Li, Min Zeng, and Minyan Lu, “Exploring AdaBoosting Algorithm for Combining Software Reliability Models”,ISSRE 2009.

X. Cai, M. R. Lyu. Software Reliability Modeling with Test Coverage Experimentation and Measurement with a Fault-Tolerant Software Project. ISSRE, 2007: 1726

C. Y. Huang, S. Y. Kuo and M. R. Lyu. An assessment of testing-effort dependent software reliability growth models. IEEE Transactions on Reliability, 2007, 56(2): 198-211

Lyu, M. R, Nikora, A. Applying Reliability Models More Effective. IEEE Software, 1992, 9(4): 43-52

Y. S. Su, C. Y. Huang. Neural-network based approaches for software reliability estimation using dynamic weighted combinational models. The Journal of Systems and Software, 2007, 80: 606-615

C. J. Hsu, C. Y. Huang. Reliability analysis using weighted combinational models for web-based software. WWW 2009, 1131-1132

Eduardo Oliveira Costa, Silvia R. Vergilio, Aurora Pozo, Gustavo Souza. Modeling software reliability growth with Genetic Programming. ISSRE, 2005: 1-10

Fig .2 : Prediction comparison between Models and ACM with Ohba Dataset

10. Artur Ferreira, Survey on Boosting algorithms for supervised and semi-supervised learning. Institute of Telecommunications.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE In this paper, the Fitness and Prediction of various Software Reliability Growth Models (SRGMs) can be compared with AdaBoosting based Combinational Model (ACM) with the help of Maximum likelihood estimation to estimate the model parameters. From the results, the fitting and prediction performance of ACM is better compare with individual reliability growth models with real failure data-sets.

11. Aasia Quyoum, Mehraj – Ud - Din Dar, Improving Software Reliability using Software Engineering Approach, International Journal of Computer Applications (0975– 8887) Volume 10– No.5, November 2010. 12. S. Yamada, J. Hishitani, and S. Osaki, “Software reliability growth model with Weibull testing effort: a model and application” , IEEE Trans. Reliability, vol. R-42, pp. 100–105, 1993. 13. Alan Wood, “Software reliability growth models”. Tandem Computers.

The further enhancements those are possible for this, examining the statistical significance of the estimation and prediction results of the ACM and comparing with the other combination approaches such as Genetic-based Combinational Model (GCM) [9] , Dynamic Weighted Combinational Model (DWCM)[7] etc. www.ijsir.co.in

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STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL UNDER VARIABLE RAKE ANGLE 1

*DEEPAK BHARDWAJ1, B. KUMAR2 Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sunrise University, Alwar , Rajasthan, India 2 Professor, MIET, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India *Address for correspondence: Deepak Bhardwaj, Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sunrise University, Alwar , Rajasthan ,India

ABSTRACT The finite element method is used to study the effect of different rake angles on the force exerted on the tool during cutting. This method is attracting the researchers for better understanding the chip formation mechanisms, heat generation in cutting zones, tool-chip interfacial frictional characteristics and integrity on the machined surfaces. In present study, the three different rake angles are studied to find out the variation in values of Vonmisses stress for the specified applied forces. As we increase the rake angle then the value of Vonmisses stress goes on decreasing. The value of Vonmisses stress decreases for increase of rake angles of 7°, 9° and 1 1° respectively . From results it seems that reduction of resultant forces might cause increase in tool life but it causes decrease in tool life. In present study, mesh is created in ANSYS and the boundary conditions are applied and the analysis is carried out for the applied constraints. The results calculated on software can be verified with experiments carried out with tool dynamometers for lathe tool. For future study the applied model can be used for multipoint cutting tools such as milling cutters, broaching tools etc. Keywords: Single Point Cutting Tool, Back Rack Angle, Vonmisses Stress, Finite Element Method. INTRODUCTION Finite Element Method (FEM) based modeling and simulation of machining processes is continuously attracting researchers for better understanding the chip formation mechanisms, heat generation in cutting zones, tool-chip interfacial frictional characteristics and integrity on the machined surfaces. Predicting the physical process parameters such as temperature and stress distributions accurately plays a pivotal role for predictive process engineering of machining processes. The cutting forces vary with the tool angles, feed and cutting speed. Knowledge about the forces acting on the cutting tool may help the manufacturer of machining tool to estimate the power requirement. Tool edge geometry is very important, because its influence on obtaining most desirable tool life and surface integrity is extremely high. 150

Therefore, development of accurate and sound continuum-based FEM models are required in order to study the influence of the tool edge geometry, tool wear mechanisms and cutting conditions on the surface integrity especially on the machining induced stresses. On the other hand, the friction in metal cutting plays an important role in thermo-mechanical chip flow and integrity of the machined work surface. The most common approach in modeling the friction at the chip-tool interface is to use an average coefficient of friction. Late models consist of a sticking region for which the friction force is constant, and a sliding region for which the friction force varies linearly according to Coulomb’s law. The round edge of the cutting tool and the highly deformed region underneath has dominant influence on the residual stresses of the mawww.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 150-157, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

chined surface. The use of a separation criterion undermines the effect of the cutting edge on the residual stress formation on the machined surface. In this project, the work material is allowed to flow around the round edge of the cutting tool and therefore, the physical process is simulated more realistically. LITERATURE REVIEW There are different approaches that have been applied in the recent past for formulating numerous static field problems. As the number of these problems is varied, there can be many types of approaches that have been found to give reasonable results since their time of occurrence. Below gives a glimpse of the finite number of techniques for dealing with these problems. 1. Finite difference method It is one of the older and yet decreasingly used numerical methods. In essence, it consists in superimposing a grid on the space-time domain of the problem and assigning discrete values of the unknown field quantities at the nodes of the grid. Then, the governing equation of the system is replaced by a set of finite difference equations relating the value of the field variable at a node to the value at the neighboring nodes.

strongly challenges the finite element method. Limitation: - Instead of sparse (and usually symmetric and positive definite) matrices of the FDM and FEM, the resultant matrices in this method are full (and usually non-symmetric). The most powerful numerical method appears to be the FEM, which (from the mathematical point of view) can be considered as an extension of the Rayleigh-Ritz / Galerkin technique of constructing coordinate functions whose linear combination approximates the unknown solutions. In this method, the field region is subdivided into elements i.e. into sub-regions where the unknown quantities , for instance a scalar or vector potential , are represented by suitable interpolation functions that contain, as unknowns, the values of the potential at the respective nodes of each element. The potential values at the nodes can be determined by direct or iterative methods. The normal procedure in a field computation by the FEM involves, basically, the following steps:1]

Discretization of the field region into a number of node points and finite elements.

Derivation of the element equation: The unknown field quantity is represented within each element as a linear combination of the shape functions of the element and in the entire domain as a linear combination of the basis functions. A relationship involving the unknown field quantity at the nodal points is then obtained from the problem formulation for a typical element. The accuracy of the approximation can be improved either by subdividing the region in a finer way or by using higher order elements

Assembly of element equations to obtain the equations of the overall system: The imposition of the boundary conditions leads to the final system of equations, which is then solved by iterative or elimination methods.

Post-processing of the Results: - To compute other desired quantities and to represent the results in tabular form or graphical form, etc. Use of TSP is routing in network. Minimum path will help to reduce the overall receiving time

Limitation: (1) Lack of geometrical flexibility in fitting irregular boundary shapes. (2) Large points are needed in regions where the field quantities change very rapidly. (3) The treatment of singular points and boundary interfaces do not coincide with constant coordinate surfaces. 2. Boundary element method To formulate the eddy-current problem as a boundary element technique, an integral needs to be taken at the boundary points. To avoid the singularity which occurs in the integrand when the field point corresponds to the source point, the volume is enlarged by a very small hemisphere whose radius tends to zero, with the boundary point being the center of the sphere. The usage of the boundary element method reduces the dimensionality of the problem from three to two or from two to one. It is found to be useful in open boundary problems where it www.ijsir.co.in

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3. Formulation of the Finite Element Method (FEM) The FEM is concerned with the solution of mathematical or physical problems which are generally defined in a continuous domain either by local differential equations or by equivalent global statements. To render the problem amenable to numerical treatment, the infinite degrees of freedom of the system are discretized or replaced by a finite number of unknown parameters, as indeed is the practice in other processes of approximation. The concept of ‘finite elements’ replaces the continuum by a number of sub- domains (or elements) whose behavior is modeled adequately by a limited number of degrees of freedom and which are assembled by processes well known in the analysis of discrete systems. Hence this method can be defined as any approximation process in which:(a) The behavior of the whole system is approximated by a finite number n of parameters aj , i = 1 to n . These parameters are described by “n” number of equations. (b) The “n” equations governing the behavior of the whole system Fj (ai) = 0 j = 1 to n can be assembled by the simple process of addition of terms contributed from all sub-domains (or elements). These elements divide the system into physically identifiable entities (without overlap or exclusion). Then Fj = Ó Fej Where Fej is the element contribution to the quantity under consideration. This method combines the best of the features found in the earlier used methods like the variation method, Rayleigh Ritz method, and so forth. The implementation of this method involves steps in the following chronological order:(1) Discretization of the continuum The electromagnetic field is described as a continuum of numerous points. The field variable is projected as having been endowed with infinite degrees of freedom, as it can be expressed as a function of different coordinates of each point in the solution domain. The finite element method 152

aims to approximate this field to finite degrees of freedom. Thus by transforming this problem into finiteness, the finite element method divides the solution region into known number of non-overlapping sub-regions or elements. Thereafter, nodes are assigned to different elements. (2) Selecting approximating or interpolation function Within each element, an approximation for the variation of potential is sought which is described by an interpolation function. This function inter-relates the potential distribution in various elements such that the potential is continuous across inter-element boundaries. Now, the field variable may take any one of the form from vector, scalar or a tensor. Depending on its form, the corresponding variation of the potential is approximated and hence the choices of a particular interpolation function. More often, polynomial functions are used as interpolation function for the ease of their differentiability as well as integrability. The potential, ingeneral, is nonzero within an element and zero outside its periphery. The element shape functions are denoted by ái and have the following properties:ái (xi, yi ) = 1 , i = j ái (xi, yi ) = 0, i ‘“ j (3) Element governing equations On the completion of the above two steps, equations describing the properties of elements are derived for different elements. These equations are then combined to form the element coefficient matrices. For each element, a typical element coefficient matrix is obtained. This computed value of this matrix when, viewed as a determinant, gives the numerical value of the area of that particular element. The value of the matrix is found to be positive if the nodes are numbered counterclockwise (starting from any node). (4) Assembling all elements Having derived matrix for individual elements, the next step is to assemble all such elements in the solution region. The basic idea behind this is to obtain the overall or global coeffiwww.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 150-157, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

cient matrix, which is the amalgam of individual coefficient matrices. (5) Imposition of boundary constraints Before going for the solution of the global coefficient matrix, it is mandatory to impose certain boundary constraints. Keeping this in view, these matrices are modified accordingly. For obtaining a unique solution of the problem, two possibilities can be examined:(1) In some cases, a value of potential is assigned across a line. If the specified potential is same everywhere, equi-potential conditions are said to be specified. When the potential is set to zero, this condition is termed as dirichlet homogeneous condition.

forces acting on the cutting tool may help in the manufacturing of machine tool to estimate the power requirement. The forces components in the lathe turning can be measured in three directions, as shown in Fig.1. The component of the force acting on the rake face of the tool, normal to cutting edge, in the direction OY is called the cutting force Fc. This is usually the largest force component, and acts in the direction of cutting velocity. The force component acting on the tool in the direction OX, parallel with the direction of feed, is referred to as the feed force, Ff . The third component, acting in OZ direction, pushes the cutting tool away from the work in the radial direction. This is the smallest of the force components.

(2) In others, a value of the normal derivative of the potential is specified. When this value is set to be zero, this is known as Neumann homogeneous condition. The matrix equations so obtained after accounting for the boundary constraints, are then solved, using a suitable procedure. The task behind obtaining the solution of the equations is to compute the value of field variable at the nodes. That is to find the variation of the field variable within each node.

Fig. 1: Forces acting on tool

(6) Error Analysis The results obtained above are compared with standard results in order to obtain extent of conformity with the desired ones. The desired or standard results are acquired from the empirical formulas. Thereafter, the error analysis is carried out. In case, the error is found to be exceeding the required tolerance limits, the results obtained from the equations are again channeled through the iterative procedure. At this juncture, the power of this numerical approach can be realized. Iterative techniques tend to refine the results, every time a process does not conform to the desired level of accuracy. NEW PROPOSED SCHEME STRESS MODELING OF CUTTING TOOL 1. CUTTING FORCES ACTING IN TURNING The cutting forces vary with the tool angles, feed and cutting speed. Knowledge about the www.ijsir.co.in

Fig. 2: Tool Geometry

2. VARIOUS ANGLES IN TOOLS GEOMETRY Back Rake Angle It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side cutting edge. This angle is positive, if the side cutting slops downward from a point towards the shank and is negative if the slope of side cutting edge is reverse. So this angle gives the slops of the face of the tool from the nose towards the shank. 153

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Side Rake Angle

Side Relef Angle = 5ˆ End Relef Angle = 5ˆ End Cutting Edge Angle = 20ˆ Side Cutting Edge Angle = 15ˆ Corner nose Radius = 1/8 R Overall length of the tool =120 mm. Height of the tool = 30 mm. Width of the tool = 25 mm.

It is the angle between the side cutting edge and a line parallel to the top surface of the tool when viewed from side. End Relief Angle It is the angle between the flank and the line perpendicular to the shank when viewed from the front. Side Relief Angle It is the angle between the line perpendicular to the shank and the surface formed by side cutting edge and end cutting edge if viewed from side. 3. APPROACH OF THE ANALYSIS Cutting Forces are the three dimensional in nature. The present work investigates the effect of different forces on varying tool geometries. It considers the three cases of forces on the tool which are the experimental. It is measured by Dynamometer for cutting Aluminium with High Speed Steel as given in table 1. Force C o n d itio n s

Forces (F x ) in N

F o rc es (F y ) in N

Forces (F z ) in N

300

450

105

500

130

Table 1 : Experimental Cutting Force Data

The single point cutting tool geometry is made in CATIA V4R14 as shown in Fig.4. 3(a). It is then imported into ANSYS using a GUI command. 4. MATERIAL PROPERTIES Material properties of single point cutting tool is defined as given in below : Single point cutting tool is made up of H.S.S. Modulus of Elasticity = 250 Gpa Poisson’s Ratio = 0.26 Yield Strength of HSS = 280 Mpa. 5. ELEMENT TYPE The selection of element type in FEM is very important. If the element type is not proper then the results may deviate from the actual values. For rectangular section SOLID 92 becomes the most suitable candidate of element type. SOLID92 has a quadratic displacement behavior and is well suited to model irregular meshes and satisfies the patch test condition (A method of testing finite elements to determine if they perform acceptably under less than ideal conditions). So in present work SOLID92 element type is selected for analysis.

Back Rake Angle Geometry condition:

6. STRESS ANALYSIS ON TOOL RAKE FACE RESULTS

Back rake angles of the tool for different cases, are taken as below for cutting Aluminum with High Speed Steel i.e.

The Results of the study are categorized in different forces and geometric conditions as given below:

Case A: When the Back Rake angle = 7ˆ

Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 20 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 300 N and Force in ZDirection (Fz) is 80 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 7o.

ii.

Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 20 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 300 N and Force in ZDirection (Fz) is 80 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 9o.

Case B: When the Back Rake angle = 9ˆ Case C: When the Back Rake angle = 11ˆ Geometrical detail of the single point cutting tool: Side Rake Angle = 14ˆ 154

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iii.

Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 20 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 300 N and Force in ZDirection (Fz) is 80 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 11o.

iv.

Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 35 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 450 N and Force in ZDirection (Fz) is 105 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 7o.

Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 35 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 450 N and Force in ZDirection (Fz) is 105 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 9o.

vi.

Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 35 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 450 N and Force in ZDirection (Fz ) is 105 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 11o

vii. Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 50 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 500 N and Force in ZDirection (Fz ) is 130 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 7o viii. Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 50 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 500 N and Force in Z-Direction (Fz) is 130 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 9o ix.

Fig. 3: Variations in Vonmisses Stress against resultant force at different rake angles

Force in X-Direction (Fx) is 50 N, Force in Y– Direction (FY) is 500 N and Force in ZDirection (Fz ) is 130 N along with Geometric parameters of back rake angle 11o

Table 2: Vonmisses stress for different force and geometric conditions

S.No.

Force

G eo m etric

Vonmisses

Conditions 1

Conditions A

Stress 0.566 + E 6

0.534 + E 6

0.451 + E 6

0.855 + E 6

0.802 + E 6

0.502 + E 6

0.115 + E 8

Fig.4 : superimposing three charts with Variations of Vonmisses stresses with 70, 90 & 110 rake angles

0.106 + E 8

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

0.801 + E 6

The results are generated from various classifications of force and geometric conditions im-

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posed on the tool and following conclusion are made.

resources available at the researcher’s end which can be addressed in future.

Rake angle specifies the ease with which materials is cut. In practice it is observed that as the rake angle is increased, the tool forces decrease and tool life increases. On further increase it is reported that although tool forces go on decreasing, tool-life decreases. It is said that on increasing the rake angle, cutting force reduces and so less heat is generated. It is the reason of consequent improvement in tool life. Shear plane region inside the work material stands approximately at an angle of 900 to the face of the tool. The length of shear plane is determined by the rake angle. Larger the rake angle lesser will be the length of the shear plane so lesser power is required to shear the materials. However, very large positive rake angled tool have less mechanical strength which reduces tool life.

(1) For solid model

In this study, we have utilized the explicit dynamic Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian method with adaptive meshing capability to develop a FEM simulation model for orthogonal cutting of Aluminium using round edge HSS cutting tool without employing a re-meshing scheme and without using a chip separation criterion. The development of temperature distributions during the cutting process is also captured. Very high and localized temperatures are predicted at toolchip interface due to a friction model. Predictions of the Vonmisses stress distributions in the chip, in the tool and on the machined surface are effectively carried out. Process induced stress profiles depict that there exists only a tensile stress region beneath the surface. These predictions combined with the temperature field predictions are highly essential to further predict surface integrity and thermo-mechanical deformation related property alteration on the microstructure of the machined surfaces. It is believed that the ALE simulation approach presented in this work, without remeshing and using a chip separation criterion, may result in better predictions for machining induced stresses.

The future scope of single point cutting tool and chip contact analysis can be further extended to 3D analysis of cutting tool and chip contact and also for 3D analysis of multi point cutting tool and chip contact (e.g. milling, broaching, etc.). The use of re-meshing technique and adaptive meshing technique can increase the accuracy of results. It can be further extend to very complex processes like metal forming, crack propagation in work materials, tool life and simulate tool wear.

FUTURE SCOPE

Black, J. T. and Huang, J. M., “An evaluation of chip separation criteria for the fem simulation of machining”, ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 1995.

Marusich, T.D. and Ortiz, M., “Modeling and simulation of high-speed machining,” International Journal

In the present work although care was taken to predict stress distribution behavior accurately, but there are some scope for improvement in the present work due to the limitations of time and 156

The future scope of this analysis can be extended for calculating the force acting on a tool in general metal cutting environment. This analysis can be explored for multi point cutting tools like milling cutters, broach tool etc. It can help in estimation of tool life and wear of cutting tools. We can calculate heat generation and temperature by calculating the material flow. The generalization of constrained can further help to handle actual problem of industry like the case when tool material is non-homogeneous, non-linear, as well as when the problem states are dynamic and transient. (2) For single point cutting tool and chip contact

VALIDATIONS OF RESULTS For solid model all those results that had been worked by me in this study with the help of ANSYS platform can be practically verified by using dynamometer for measurement of cutting forces. Moreover, the same can be measured through power measurement and calorimetry. The measurement assists in estimating the efficiency of the machine tool in determining the size of the cutting tool required to resist those encountering forces and for verifying the result. REFERENCES

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for Numerical Methods in Engineering1995.

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Ozel, T. and Altan, T., “Determination of workpiece flow stress and friction at the chip-tool contact for highspeed cutting,” International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2000.

Y. Hang, S.Y. Liang, “Force Modeling in Shallow cuts with Negative Rake angle and large nose radius Tools- Applications to hard turning” International Journal of Advance Manufacturing Technology, 1999.

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Y.M.lee, W.S. Choi, T.S.Song, “Analysis of 3-D Cutting with Single point Cutting Tool”, International Journal of the Korean Society of precision Engineering, Vol 1,No.1 2000.

19.

Ozel, T., “Modeling of Hard Part Machining: Effect of Insert Edge Preparation for CBN Cutting Tools,” Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2003.

Kalhori, V., “Modelling and Simulation of Mechanical Cutting”, Doctoral thesis, Institution for Maskinteknik, Avdelningen for Datorstodd maskinkonstruktion, Lulea Tekniska Universitet, 2001.

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Ozel, T., “The influence of friction model on finite element simulations of machining”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2005.

Shih, A. J., “Finite element simulation of orthogonal metal cutting”, Journal of Engineering for Industry 1999.

21.

Kalhori, V. “Numerical and Experimental Analysis of orthogonal Metal Cutting”, Lulea University of technology, 2001.

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Özel T. and Ka rpat Y., (2009), “Predictive modeling of surface roughness and tool wear in hard turning using regression and neural networks”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Volume 45, pp. 467–479.

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Ahmed S. G., (2009), “Development of a Prediction Model for Surface Roughness in Finish Turning of Aluminium”, Sudan Engineering Society Journal, Volume 52, Number 45, pp. 1-5.

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Doniavi A., Eskanderzade M. and Tahmsebian M., (2007), “Empirical Modeling of Surface Roughness in Turning Process of 1060 steel using Factorial Design Methodology”, Journal of Applied Sciences, Volume 7, Number17, pp. 2509-2513.

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Natarajan U., Arun P., Periasamy V. M., (2007), “Online Tool Wear Monitoring in Turning by Hidden Markov Model (HMM)” Institution of Engineers (India) Journal (PR), Volume 87, pp. 31-35.

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Sahoo P., Barman T. K. and Routara B. C., (2011), “Taguchi based practicald mension modeling and optimization in CNC turning”, Advance in Production Engineering and Management, Volume 3, Number 4, pp. 205-217.

27.

Thamma R., (2012), “Comparison between Multiple Regression Models to Study Effect of Turning Parameters on the Surface Roughness”, Proceedings of the 2008 IAJC-IJME International Conference, ISBN 9781-60643-379-9, Paper 133, ENG 103 pp. 1-12.

Ozel, T. and Zeren, E., “Finite element method simulation of machining of AISI 1045 steel with a round edge cutting tool,” Proceedings of the 8th CIRP International Workshop on Modeling of Machining Operations, Chemnitz, Germany, 2005.

Ozel, T. and Zeren, E., “A Methodology to Determine Work Material Flow Stress and Tool-Chip Interfacial Friction Properties by Using Analysis of Machining,” Proceedings of IMECE’04, Anaheim, California, USA 2004. Zhang, B. and Bagchi, A., “Finite element simulation of chip formation and comparison with machining experiment,” ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry, 1994.

Shaw, M. C., “Metal Cutting Principals”, Oxford Press, Oxford, UK1984.

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Metals Data Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 1, “American Society for metals” 1980.

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R.W. Ivester, M. Kennedy, M. Davies “Assessment of Machining Models”: Progress Report 1995.

12.

Bathe, K.J., “Finite Element Procedures”, prentice Hall publication 1995.

13.

Thomas H.C. Childs, “Modelling Requirements for Computer Simulation of Metal Machining” Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 1998.

14.

T.D.Marusich, M.Ortiz, “Modeling and Simulation of High Speed Machining”, 1995.

15.

T. Ozel, T. Altan, “Determination of work piece flow stress and friction at the chip–tool contact for highspeed cutting”International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 1999.

16.

Y.C. Yen, J. Sohner, H. Weule, J. Schmidt, and T. Altan, “Estimation of Tool wear of carbide tool in orthogonal cutting using fem simulation”, machining science and technology vol. 5, 2002.

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QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD): A CASE STUDY 1

*SATISH CHANDER GARG¹, B. KUMAR2 Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Professor, MIET, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh , India

*Address for correspondence: Satish Chander Garg, Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Quality Function Deployment (QFD) was conceived in Japan in the late 1960's, and introduced to America and Europe in 1983. This paper will provide a general overview of the QFD methodology and approach to product development. Once familiarity with the tool is established, a real-life application of the technique will be provided in a case study. The case study will illustrate how QFD was used to develop a new tape product and provide counsel to those that may want to implement the QFD process. Quality function deployment (QFD) is a “method to transform user demands into design quality, to deploy the functions forming quality, and to deploy methods for achieving the design quality into subsystems and component parts, and ultimately to specific elements of the manufacturing process.” Keywords: Quality Function Deployment, Tape Product, Product Development, Design Quality, Manufacturing INTRODUCTION Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a quality tool that helps to translate the Voice of the Customer (Vo C) into new products that truly satisfy their needs. In this paper, QFD has been reviewed in order to understand how it works, to highlight its strengths and weaknesses and to discuss its practical applications. The first part of the paper presents an overview of QFD and explains the methodology. QFD has been defined and explained by means of an example and a number of benefits and implementation problems have been revealed [1] . First conceptualized in 1966 as a method or concept for new product development under the umbrella of Total Quality Control, Hinshitsu Tenkai (quality deployment) was developed by Dr. Shigeru Mizuno and Yoji Akao. Yoji Akao, et al detailed methods of quality deployment in 1972. The Japan Society of Quality Control formed a research group to specifically study Quality Function Deployment (QFD) in 1978. QFD is used to translate customer requirements to 158

engineering specifications. It is a link between customers - design engineers - competitors manufacturing. It provides an insight into the whole design and manufacturing operation from concept to manufacture and it can dramatically improve the efficiency as production problems are resolved early in the design phase. It is very powerful as it incorporates the voice of the customer in the designs - hence it is likely that the final product will be better designed to satisfy the customer’s needs. Moreover, it provides an insight into the whole design and manufacturing operation (from concept to manufacture) and it can dramatically improve the efficiency as production problems are resolved early in the design phase .Quality Function Deployment (QFD) was conceived in Japan in the late 1960' s, and introduced to America and Europe in 1983. During the period between the late 1960's and early 1980's, the concept of QFD was evolved from the belief that Total Quality Control must include not only checking of the control points during production, but an understanding of the www.ijsir.co.in

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requirements prior to the design phase. In the late 1960's, Japanese companies were breaking from their post World War II mode of imitation and copying to a more original mode of product development, making design quality an important consideration. The need to understand the critical design issues prior to production was acknowledged and QC process charts were widely used to ensure that the design criteria were met during manufacturing, but there was no formal system to translate the customer’s needs into the initial design and subsequent process control points. Thus, an opportunity was created for QFD to come to fruition as a method to check the design itself for adequacy in meeting customer requirements and to translate those requirements to production [2]. When to use QFD: QFD is applied in the early stages of the design phase so that the customer wants are incorporated into the final product. Furthermore, it can be used as a planning tool as it identifies the most important areas in which the effort should focus in relation to our technical capabilities. Ask yourself these questions: 1. Why do QFD in this case? 2. What will the QFD be made of? 3. Is it the right tool at this time? 4. Is this the right place for implementation? 5. What is the goal and what is success? 6. Who all should we involve? How to use it? Comprehensive QFD may provide four phases: 1. Product Planning (House of Quality): Translate customer requirement into product technical requirement to meet them. 2. Product Design: Translate technical requirement to key part characteristics or systems. 3. Process Planning: Identify key process operations necessary to achieve key part characteristics. 4. Production Planning (Process Control): Establish process control plans, maintenance plans, training plans to control operations. www.ijsir.co.in

Linking these phases provides a mechanism to deploy the customer voice through to control of process operations. Follow these steps: 1. Learn what each element represents 2. Form a multidisciplinary team. Obtain voice of the customer from market surveys, focus groups, observations, interviews. Identify customer requirements and ask customer to rate importance. 3. The development of the first issue of the charts is the most time consuming part. Conduct competitive analysis by customer requirement, establish a quality plan based on competitive mode you would like to have for your future product. Once this is completed, regular reviews and updates require minimum time. Remember that the benefits from an appropriately developed QFD chart are very big compared with the effort – put focus on the issues that are important to the customer. Benefits of QFD include better understanding of customer demands and design interactions; early manufacturing involvement during the design process reducing iterations and focusing the design while fostering teamwork [4]. QFD METHODOLOGY AND THE HOUSE OF QUALITY (HOQ) The concept of QFD was created in Japan in the late 1960s. According to Akao (1997) after World War II, Japanese companies used to copy and imitate product development; nevertheless, they decided to move their approach to one based on originality. QFD was introduced, in that environment, as a concept for new product development. It can be better understood from the definition presented below which summarizes the purposes of the technique: “QFD is a method for structured product planning and development that enables a development team to specify clearly the customer’s wants and needs, and then to evaluate each proposed product or service capability systematically in terms of its impact on meeting those needs”(Cohen, 1995). The QFD method includes building one or 159

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more matrices known as “quality tables”. The first matrix is named the “House of Quality” (Ho Q). It exhibits the customer’s needs (Vo C) on the left hand side, and the technical response to meeting those needs along the top. Figure 1(a) shows each of the sections contained in the Ho Q. Every section holds important data, specific to a part of the QFD analysis. The matrix is usually completed by a specially formed team, who follows the logical sequence suggested by the letters A to F, but the process is flexible and the order in which the HOQ is completed depends

on the team [1]. A four phases approach is accomplished by using a series of matrixes that guide the product team’s activities by providing standard documentation during product and process development (Figure below). Each phase has a matrix consisting of a vertical column of “Whats” and a horizontal row of “Hows”. “Whats” are CR; “Hows” are ways of achieving them. At each stage, the “Hows” are carried to the next phase as “Whats” [4].

Figure 1. The House of Quality [1]

Section A has a list of customer needs; Section B contains market data, strategic goal setting for the new product and computations for prioritizing the customer needs; Section C includes information to translate the customer’s needs into the organization’s technical language; Section D contains the relationship between each customer’s need and each technical response; Section E (the “roof”) assesses the interrelationships between elements of the technical response; Section F contains the 160

prioritization of the technical responses, information on the competitors and technical targets. Moving on from the Ho Q, QFD comprises the building of other matrices that help to make detailed decisions throughout the product development process, however in practice they are rarely used (Cohen, 1995). The main reason for this is that the integration of people required to build the subsequent matrices, will use 80 % of a company’s employees (Amos, 1997).

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In order to better understand the structure of the Ho Q, a brief example is presented. It concerns the improvement of a pizza (Sower et al, 1999); its Ho Q is shown in Figure 1(b). As can be seen, the customers want value, taste and the pizzas delivered hot. The current product is superior to competitor X on two of the three customer requirements, but ranks equal to or below competitor Y on all three requirements. The purpose of this product redesign project is to make the current product superior to both competitors on all three counts. There is a strong positive correlation between the design requirements of meat and cheese and the customer requirement of value. That means that the more meat and cheese on the pizza, the higher the value to the customer. The roof shows that there is a strong negative correlation between meat and cheese and price, which means that there is a trade-off to be considered. A way to provide a meaty, cheesy pizza at a low

price must be found. The bottom of the HoQ shows the target values that the design team has determined must be met to meet the technical responses. These are the specifications for the pizza that will put the current product ahead of its two competitors [1]. QFD uses some principles from Concurrent Engineering in cross-functional teams that are involved in all phases of product development. Each of the four phases in a QFD process uses a matrix to translate customer requirements from initial planning stages through production control (Becker Associates Inc, 2000). Each phase, or matrix, represents a more specific aspect of the productâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s requirements. Relationships between elements are evaluated for each phase. Only the most important aspects from each phase are deployed into the next matrix.

Figure 2. The four phases of traditional QFD [2] www.ijsir.co.in

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Phase 1- Product Planning: Building the House of Quality led by the marketing department, Phase 1, or product planning, is also called The House of Quality. Many organizations only get through this phase of a QFD process. Phase 1 documents customer ’s requirements, warranty data, competitive opportunities, product measurements, competing product measures, and the technical ability of the organization to meet each customer’s requirement. Getting good data from the customer in Phase 1 is critical to the success of the entire QFD process. Phase 2- Product Design:

Table 1: Some of the important objectives of QFD [5][6][7][8]

Resource Vonderembse and Raghunathan (1997)

Kathawala and (1) Identify the customer Motwani (1994); Zairi (2) Determine what the customer (1995) wants (3) Provide a way to meet the customer’s desires Franceschini and Rossetto (1995)

This phase 2 is led by the engineering department. Product design requires creativity and innovative team ideas. Product concepts are created during this phase and part specifications are documented. Parts that are determined to be most important to meeting customer’s needs are then deployed into process planning, or Phase 3. Phase 3- Process Planning: Process planning comes next and is led by manufacturing engineering. During process planning, manufacturing processes are flowcharted and process parameters (or target values) are documented. Phase 4- Process Control: And finally, in production planning, performance indicators are created to monitor the production process, maintenance schedules, and skills training for operators. Also, in this phase decisions are made as to which process poses the most risk and controls are put in place to prevent failures. The quality assurance department in concert with manufacturing leads Phase 4[2]. QFD OBJECTIVES Table 1 summarizes some of the important objectives of QFD. It is important to note that a design project can be considered as a mixture of all objectives. While some trading off is often unavoidable, the way to achieve an outstanding product is to seek to optimize all elements.

162

QFD To drive long-term improvements in the way new products are developed in order to create value for customers

Jagdev et al., 1997

(1) Definition of the product characteristics, which meet the real needs of the customers. (2) Gathering of all necessary information to set up the design of a product or a service, without neglecting any point of view. (3) Supplying a support to competitive benchmarking. (4) Preservation of coherence (5) Provision of an audit trail from the manufacturing floor back to customer demands. (6) Auto documenting the project during its evolution. (1) Identify current performance measures that are closely linked to CR. (2) Identify current performance measures that are redundant. (3) Identify new customer oriented performance measures that are required. (4) Identify conflicts associated with different performance measures. (5) Identify target values for customer oriented performance measures. (6) Assess the degree of difficulty of achieving the target value(s) for specific performance measures.

QFD BENEFITS AND IMPLEMENTATION PROBLEMS On the one hand, Hales and Staley (1995) argued that using QFD can result in the development of better products at a price that the customer is willing to pay; moreover, based on its application in different companies, the following advantages and benefits have been reported: Customer satisfaction (Fernandez et www.ijsir.co.in

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al., 1994), reduction in product lead times (Hauser and Clausing, 1988), improved communications through teamwork (Griffin and Hauser, 1992) and better designs (Mehta, 1994). In addition, Bicknell and Bicknell (In Chan and Wu (2002a)) reported that tangible benefits that are common when QFD is properly used are: a 30-50% reduction in engineering changes, 3050% shorter design cycles, 20-60% lower start up costs, and 20-50% fewer warranty claims.[10] On the other hand, an empirical study conducted by Martins and Aspinwall (2001) within the United Kingdom (UK), identified many QFD implementation problems among the companies surveyed. The results showed that there was a problem in western companies associated with “working in teams”. Problems in maintaining a commitment to the methodology and an unsuitable “organizational culture” were also highlighted. Other aspects, such as “time consuming”, “costly”, and most important, complexity of the methodology, which are commonly mentioned in the literature, were deemed to be only secondary. Govers (1996) declared that most of the problems that companies have to untangle, in order to implement QFD, are related to organizational circumstances like project definition and project management as well as team selection and team building. A critical factor concerning project definition is the “Voice of the Customer” while with respect to project management and team selection, it is essential to have the support of top management and the integration of a team with receptive open-minded members who are willing to challenge established practice. The need for a good facilitator, who knows the method very well and has the social skills to build and to manage a team, was also mentioned [9][11]. Hauser and Clausing (1996) compared startup and preproduction costs at Toyota auto body in 1977, before QFD, to those costs in 1984, when QFD was well under way. Ho Q meetings early on reduced costs by more than 60 %. Appendix 10, reinforces this evidence by comparing the number of design changes at a Japanese auto manufacturer using QFD with changes at a US automaker. Also, Hauser and Clausing considered the difference between applying QFD in Japanese companies and not www.ijsir.co.in

applying QFD in U.S. companies (Appendix 10). As the Appendix shows, Japanese automaker with QFD made fewer changes than U.S. company without QFD. Some benefits of QFD are illustrated in Table 2. Benefits of QFD Major reduction in development, time and cost, shorter design cycle and changes. Significantly reduces start up problems, times and costs

Leads to truly satisfy and delighted customer

Improved

Communication

The quality and productivity of service become more precise in a continual improvement process and the company can reach world class.

QFD

clarifies the customer priority

Enables one to focus proactively on CR early in the design stage. Critical items identified for parameter design and product planning is much easier to carry out. Also, ensure consistency between the planning and the production process.

Source

Ferguson (1990), Stoker (1991), Stauss (1993), Kathawala and Motwani (1994), Dhalgaard and Kanji (1994), Kenny (1988), Markland et al (1995, 1988), Hales (1995), Bendell (1993), Bouchereau and Rowlands (1999, 2000a), Fortuna (1988), Lockamy and Khurana (1995), Curry and Herbert (1988), Zairi (1995), Howell (2000) Ermer and Kniper (1998), Kathawala and Motwani (1994), Kenny (1988), Lim and Tang (2000), Stauss (1993), Howell (2000), Stoker (1991), O‟ Neal and Lafief (1992), Markland et al (1995, 1988), Hales (1995), Bendell (1993), Bouchereau and Rowlands (1999, 2000a), Lockamy and Khurana (1995), Curry and Herbert (1988), Zairi (1995) Designing for customers satisfaction (1994), Kathawala and Motwani (1994), Stauss (1993), Dhalgaard and Kanji (1994), Stoker (1991), Markland et al (1995, 1988), O‟ Neal and Lafief (1992), Hales (1995), Bendell (1993), Fortuna (1988), Zairi (1995) Designing for customers satisfaction (1994), Kanko (1991), Ermer and Kniper (1998), Howell (2000), Stoker (1991), Markland et al (1995, 1988), O‟ Neal and Lafief (1992), Hales (1995), Bendell (1993), Fortuna (1988), Zairi (1995) Ferguson (1990), Lim and Tang (2000), Dhalgaard and Kanji (1994), Stoker (1991), Markland et al (1995, 1988), Hales (1995), Bendell (1993), Fortuna (1988), Lockamy and Khurana (1995), Curry and Herbert (1988), Zairi (1995) Ferguson (1990), Ermer and Kniper (1998), Kathawala and Motwani (1994), Stauss (1993), Dhalgaard and Kanji (1994), O‟ Neal and Lafief (1992), Zairi (1995)

Table 2: Major Benefits of QFD [13] 163

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QFD is not always easy to implement, and companies have faced problems using QFD, particularly in large, complex systems (Harding et al., 2001). Govers (2001) emphasized that “QFD is not just a tool but has to become a way of management”. He also categorized problems of QFD in three groups as: methodological problems, organizational problems and Problems concerning product policy. Table 3, presents some regular problems of QFD. Problems of QFD If all relational matrixes combined into a single deployment, the size of each of the combined relational matrixes would be very large. Completing QFD late, does not let the changes be implemented. It takes a long time to develop a QFD chart fully.

Source Kathawala and Motwani (1994); Dahlgaard and Kanji (1994); Prasad (2000); Zairi (1995); Dale et al. (1998); Bouchereau and Rowlands (1999, 2000a); Designing for customer satisfaction (1994)

QFD is a qualitative method. Due to the ambiguity in the voice of the customer, many of the answers that customers give are difficult to categorize as demands. It can be difficult to determine the connection between customer demands

Dahlgaard and Kanji (1994); Bouchereau and Rowlands (1999, 2000a); Designing for customer satisfaction (1994) Dahlgaard and Kanji (1994); Dale et al. (1998); Bouchereau and Rowlands (1999, 2000a)

QFD is not appropriate for Dale et al. (1998); all applications. For example, Bouchereau and Rowlands in the automotive industry there (1999, 2000a) are only a limited number of potential customers; the customer identifies their needs and the supplier acts to satisfy them. For a product of limited complexity and a small supplier base, the effort required to complete a thorough QFD analysis might be justified by customers. Setting target values in the Ho Q is imprecise. Strengths between relationships are ill-defined.

Table 3: Some regular problems of QFD [13] CONCLUSIONS In this paper, an attempt was made to demonstrate the capabilities and weaknesses of QFD which has been regarded as one of the most important advanced quality engineering techniques. QFD has been found to have some considerable problems, most of which seem to affect adversely its employment. Examples of some of the most important ones are: ambiguity in the voice of the customer (VoC), managing 164

large HoQ and conflicts between Customers requirements (CR). In spite of the above problems, there are however a wide range of benefits and advantages associated with using such a customer satisfaction quality design technique, which make it beneficial to designing quality. QFD is a quality design and improvement technique and relatively is closer to the customers than other techniques. Also, QFD can serve as a flexible framework, which can be modified, extended, and be combined with other quality design and improvement techniques. There are still not enough publications about the use of QFD in service areas. However, comparing with other quality design techniques, QFD has the potential to be the most suitable technique for designing quality from customers point of view. It is believed that the present investigation will provide some good research opportunities; for instance, emphasizing on enhancing QFD s capabilities and improving the associated problems with this technique. The flexibility of QFD has facilitated its integration with other advanced quality engineering techniques. However, the following recommendations are made to enhance the capabilities of QFD: 1) More care should be taken to the beginning phases of QFD process (e.g. first house of quality) and new models should be proposed to improve the evaluation of the input data (e.g. customers requirements), before entering into other Ho Qs. 2) The effectiveness of QFD should be improved through its integration with other quality engineering techniques which could improve the functioning of traditional QFD at its early stages with respect to: competitive analysis, correlation matrixes, determining critical items, number of phases needed and components of its phases. 3) Enhancements must be designed to take place, with a focus on current problems associated with QFD (e.g. ambiguity in Vo C, managing large Ho Q and conflicts between CR). REFERENCES 1.

D.J. Delgado & E.M. Aspinwall, (2003) “QFD Methodology and Practical applications – A Review”, Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Postgraduate

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Management, Vol.12, No.6, 24-42. 19.

Bendell, T. (1993) Quality: Measuring and monitoring, The Century Business, UK, 150-164.Betts, M. (1990) QFD integrated with software engineering, Transactions of The Second Symposium on Quality Function Deployment, Novi, MI, 442-459.Bicheno, J. (1994) The Quality 50: a guide gurus, tools, wastes, techniques and systems, PICSIE Books.Bier, I.D. and Cornesky, R. (2001) Using QFD to construct a higher education curriculum, Quality Progress, April, 6468.Bode, J. and Fung, R.Y.K. (1998) Cost engineering with quality function deployment, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol.35, No. 3/4, 587-590.

Akao, Y., ed. (1990). Quality Function Deployment, Productivity Press, Cambridge MA, Becker Associates Inc

Robin Rawlings-Quinn, “QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD): A CASE STUDY”,

Dr. Arash Shahin, Quality Function Deployment: A Comprehensive Review, Department of Management, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran

Vonderembse, M.A. and Raghunathan, T.S. (1997) Quality function deployment s impact on product development, International Journal of Quality Science, Vol.2, No.4, pp. 253-271.

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Kathawala, Y. and Motwani, J. (1994) Implementing quality function deployment - A system approach, The TQM Magazine, Vol.6, No.6, pp. 31-37.

Bouchereau, V. and Rowlands, H. (1999) Analytical approaches to QFD, Manufacturing Engineer, Vol.78, No.6, December, 249-254.

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Franceschini, F. and Rossetto, S. (1995) QFD: the problem of comparing technical/engineering design requirements, Research in Engineering Design, Vol.7, pp. 270-278.

Bouchereau, V. and Rowlands, H. (2000a) Methods and techniques to help quality function deployment (QFD), Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol.7, No.1, 8-19.

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Jagdev, H., Bradley, P., and Molloy, O. (1997) A QFD based performance measurement tool, Computers in Industry, Vol.33, pp. 357-366.

Bouchereau, V. and Rowlands, H. (2000b) Quality function deployment: The unused tool, Engineering Management Journal, Vol.10, No.1, February, 45-52.

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Hales, R. and Staley, D., (1995) “ Mix target costing, QFD for successful new products”, Marketing News, 29(1), 18

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MANUFACTURING QUALITY 1

*ROHITASH KUMAR KAUSHIK1, B KUMAR2 Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Professor, MIET, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for correspondence: Rohitash Kumar Kaushik, Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT This paper deals with the quality during manufacturing. It discusses various manufacturing steps and methods of manufacturing keeping in view the quality of product at all stages. It includes Just-In-Time (JIT) and Just-In Sequences (JIS) in details. It emphasizes upon that quality of a product has to be maintained during manufacturing employing different kinds of gauges for example ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ gauges, depth micrometer, level protractor, Vernier caliper, micrometer etc. Also at the end importance of Statistical Quality Control in discussed.

INTRODUCTION

MANUFACTURING STEPS

This paper discusses in details the aspects of quality involved during manufacturing. It systematically touches all the important points for example Lean manufacturing, Six-Sigma, JIT, KANBAN etc. that how they help to improve production as well as quality. Particularly, first step in Lean manufacturing is to restructure and reorganize the basic manufacturing system in to manufacturing uses that fabricate families of parts. Then it involves methods to change the tools, jigs, dies rapidly to avoid wastage of time. Also it integrates Quality Control with a multiprocess worker who can run more than the bied of process. A multi-functional worker can do more that operate machines. He is also an inspector who understands process capability, quality control, process improvement. In Lean production every worker has the responsibility and the authority to make the product right the first time and every time and the authority to stop the process when something is wrong. The integration of quality control into the manufacturing system markedly reduces defects while eliminating inspectors. Calls provide the natural environment for the integration of quality control. The functional idea is to inspect to the present defect from occurring.

Manufacturing steps involve pre-production activity, pilot run, production run and delivery to customer. Pre-production activity involves selection of suppliers, develop pilot run plan, and develop manufacturing strategy with production plan, quality plan, test plan, material plan, and supplier plan. The pilot run is done to validate manufacturing process against objectives set forth in manufacturing strategy and product specifications, standard cost, product quality, documentation, foiling, training, process control, validates supplier plan and contracts and internal failure analysis and corrective action. Production run is done to produce high quality product on time while continuing to time tune the process, first order manufacture and verification of product cost.

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Delivery to customer is done to deliver first production units to customer, refine manufacturing process based on first build and monitor field unit performance to correct any problems. This is explained stepwise below: 1.

Definition of product need, marketing information.

Conceptual design and evaluation feasibility study. 169

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Design analysis; codes standards review, physical and analytical models.

Prototype production testing and Evaluation.

Production drawings, instruction manuals.

Material specification, process and equivalent selection, safety review;

Pilot Production.

Production.

Inspection and Quality Assurance.

to repair minor issues with their machines. (e) Quick Response Manufacturing (QRM) in making the time period between a customer’s request for a product and the final delivery of that product as brief as possible. (f)

10. Packaging, marketing and Sales literatures. 11. Product. Methods of manufacturing: Methods of manufacturing have changed from the rigid, push-oriented production principles of the early 20 th century to more flexible, pull principles. Assembly line manufacturers used to push mass production ahead based on estimates of future demand. This often resulted in waste of effort and resources if short of estimated demand. To avoid waste one needs to wait for actual demand for manufacturing products as per customer requests or take previous batch of product sales. The modern manufacturing methods have three main considerations: i)

Waste reduction is done by following several techniques:

(a) Just-In-Time (JIT) Manufacturers: By just enough supplies to keep the process moving and schedule them to arrive at the factory “ Just-in-time” for them to be used in production. (b) Automatic requests for new supplies are sent to their supplier when supplies are running low. These alert KANBAN and they are generally computerized. KANBAN is a system for inventory control. (c) Just-in-Sequences (JIS). Supplies arrive at the factory at the exact instrument. They are needed within the manufacturing sequence. This means production may come to a stand still if the supplies are just few minutes late. (d) Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is followed to avoid stopping productions, some factories wait until the end of the day 170

Cellular Manufacturing separates the factory floor into difference sections or cells. Machines area placed in a certain order so that materials flow naturally towards the compensation of the production.

(g) Single-minute Exchange of Die (SMED) is to reduce waste time. Even between projects SMED focuses on changing the factory process from working on an old product to a new product as quickly as possible. ii)

Quality of a product has to be maintained

A manufacturing process is a given a sigma rating based on the percentage of its product yield being defect free. A one sigma rating designates a process with a yield of 31% and a six-sigma rating is a process which nearly perfect that is 99.99966% defect free. Thus every company wants to achieve six-sigma method focuses on measuring and analyzing process data in order to find and remove defects. During, the Lean manufacturing, it is concerned with improving the flow between processes to reduce waste. Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify (DMADV) methodology is followed which is a more anticipatory approach. Based on an analysis of customer demand, manufacturers plan ahead and try to design ways to avoid defects in the first place. Critical to Quality (CTQ) and Quality Function Deployment (QFD) area two concepts which try to pinpoint the elements of a product that are most important to customers and translate those needs into a manufacturing strategy that focuses on getting the critical elements exactly right. Suppliers, Inputs, Process , Outputs customers (SIPOC) is followed to allow manufacturers to trace the life cycle of their products from supplier to customer and identify problem areas. www.ijsir.co.in

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Taguchi Loss function is considered which suggests that production quality decreases as variation increases.

on the end user and customer, which may include durability, materials, toxicity and so forth. Improvements in manufacturing can include disintegration of parts, loose fatness and so forth and should be a main focus.

iii) Accelerate Production: Production is accelerated to make sure products are made available and demand is met. Machine flexibility should exist for change to manufacture different products. Routing flexibility concept is used to focus on the adaptability of the manufacturing process as a whole. Computer-aided-Design (CAD) and Computer-aided-manufacturing (CAM) should be adopted. If a factory has machine and routing flexibility, CAD is used for design of production processes and CAM is to guide parts through those processes with robots and computercontrolled Machines (CCM). Computer integrated Manufacturing (CIM) creates a network of computer that observes and operate the manufacturing process. Computer can monitor every step of production for defects and change the actions of a machine almost immediately leading to flexibility. Finally, the three major goals of reducing cost, maintaining quality and accelerating production are achieved through the combined efforts of Lean manufacturing theories, six-sigma methodologies and flexible processes. Steps for Quality Manufacturing: Improving quality manufacturing processes leads to decreased waste, better quality products, and overall improvement in customer satisfaction. To begin with, a committee is formed to ensure the following steps are completed and taken from beginning to end: i)

Actual process: Name the process and its purchase, as well as its starting and ending points, inputs and outputs and overall requirements. Identify the customers and suppliers who will be affected by this process.

ii)

Areas of improvement: A random sampling (Statistical Quality Control) is done. Sample plans to suit various sizes are available with Bureau of standards. Product is tested for a variety of things that will have an impact

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iii) Solution for the problems: Brain storming is done in committee, or specialists are consulted. Additionally, get feedback from those who work on or with the process on daily basis. iv) Detailed solution: A budget is included to determine what personnel are necessary for making the improvements, conduct, a projected cost analysis and time frame for completing the overall improvements. There may also be a need to determine how the rest of the manufacturing plant will be affected by this and whether it will slow production at 999 level. v)

Put Plan into action: Involve everyone, from the highest levels of management in the manufacturing company down to the workers who utilize the process and implement the action plan.

vi) Evaluate: Now, there will be a need to evaluate the improvements in the processes as a whole. The process should have desired effect, the process should be successful, the problem should be fixed, and wastes should be eliminated. The improvements should be on time and within budget. vii) The steps two to six should be continuously repeated as often as necessary to achieve improvement within the manufacturing plant. Final goal is to decrease the need for a committee, and instead involve all members of the plant continually working to improve. Six-sigma approach is used for maintaining quality in manufacturing which means identifying errors or defects in the production and elimination of these defects to minimum. Also it means identifying errors or defects in the production flow and eliminating them to maximize productivity. CONCLUSION Thus, we see that by following above procedure it is possible to ensure zero defects and make the production line more smooth and 171

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effective. The main point is procedure should be followed very strictly. A team leader should employ a team of inspectors to keep on checking that the work is carried out as per planning. This is very important, then only Lean manufacturing, JIT, SQC, KANBAN area possible for smooth production link.

172

REFERENCES 1.

Total Quality Management by Dr. D.S. Kumar, Univ. Science Press.

Total Quality Management by Shailendra Nigam – Excel Books

Materials and Processes in Manufacturing by E.Paul Degarmo, J.T.Block, Ronald A, Kohser- PHI.

Quality Management by Kanishka Bedi - Oxford.

Strategic Management by Pearce II, Rabinson Jr. Mittal – T.M.H.

Management – Robbins, Coutler – T.M.H.

Total Quality Control by Mukherjee – TMH.

Management – C.A.Gupta – Sultan Chand and Sons.

Production and Operations Management – S.N.Chary – TMH.

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A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON EMISSIONS FROM TWO STROKE COPPER COATED SPARK IGNITION ENGINE WITH ALCOHOLS WITH CATALYTIC CONVERTER 1

*N L MAHARAJA1 B. KUMAR2 Research Scholar, Sunrise University, Alwar, Rajasthan, India 2 Professor, MIET, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for correspondence: N L Maharaja, Research Scholar, Sunrise University, Alwar, Rajasthan, India

ABSTRACT Experiments were conducted to control the exhaust emissions from two-stroke, single cylinder, spark ignition (SI) engine, with alcohol blended gasoline (80% gasoline, 20% methanol by vol; 80% gasoline and 20% ethanol by volume) having copper coated engine [CCE, copper-(thickness, 300 ĂŹ) coated on piston crown, inner side of cylinder head] provided with catalytic converter with different catalysts such as sponge iron and manganese ore and compared with conventional engine (CE) with pure gasoline operation. A microprocessor-based analyzer was used for the measurement of carbon monoxide (CO) and un-burnt hydro carbon (UBHC) in the exhaust of the engine at various magnitudes of brake mean effective pressure. Aldehydes were measured by DNPH (dinitrophenyl hydrazine) method. CCE with alcohol blended gasoline considerably reduced emissions in comparison with CE with pure gasoline operation. Catalytic converter with air injection significantly reduced pollutants with test fuels on both configurations of the engine. The catalyst, sponge iron in comparison with manganese ore reduced the pollutants effectively with both test fuels in both versions of the engine. Methanol blended gasoline effectively reduced pollutants in comparison with ethanol blended gasoline. Keywords: S.I. Engine, CE, CCE, Emissions, Catalytic converter, Sponge iron, Manganese ore, Air injection NOMENCLATURE Ă&#x2DC; BMEP C

Fuel-equivalence ratio, Brake mean effective pressure in bar Number of carbon atoms in fuel composition CCE Copper coated engine CE Conventional engine CO Carbon monoxide CO2 Carbon dioxide DNPH Dinitrophenyl hydrazine Gasohol 20% of ethanol blended with 80% of gasoline by volume H Number of hydrogen atoms in fuel composition HPLC High performance liquid chromatography M Manganese ore

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METCO S Set-A Set-B Set-C SI UBHC

A Trade name Sponge iron Without catalyst and without air injection With catalyst and without air injection With air injection and with catalyst Spark ignition Un-burnt hydro-carbons

INTRODUCTION CO and UBHC, major exhaust emissions formed due to incomplete combustion of fuel, cause many human health disorders [1,2]. Such emissions also cause detrimental effects3 on animal and plant life, besides environmental disorders. Age and maintenance of the vehicle are some of the reasons[4,5] for the formation of pollutants. Aldehydes which are intermediate com173

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pounds[6] formed in combustion are carcinogenic in nature and cause detrimental effects on human health and hence control of these pollutants is an immediate task. Engine modification[79] with copper coating on piston crown and inner side of cylinder head improved engine performance as copper is a good conductor of heat and combustion improved with copper coating. Catalytic converter was effective[10-14] in reduction of emissions in SI engine. The present paper reported the control of emissions of CO, UBHC, and aldehydes from the exhaust of twostroke SI engine with alcohol blended gasoline in different configurations of the engine with catalytic converter with different catalysts such as sponge iron (S) and manganese ore (M) and compared with pure gasoline operation on CE. The performance of the catalyst was compared with one over the other.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

Directional valve, Air compressor, Rotometer, Heater, Air chamber, Catalytic chamber, CO/HC analyzer, Filter, Round bottom flasks containing DNPH solution,

MATERIALS AND METHODS Fig.1 showed experimental set-up used for investigations. A two- stroke, single-cylinder, air -cooled, SI engine (brake power 2.2 kW at the speed of 3000 rpm) was coupled to a rope brake dynamometer for measuring its brake power. Speed was measured with speed sensor and torque with torque sensor. Compression ratio of engine was 7.5:1. Exhaust gas temperature, speed, torque, fuel consumption, and air flow rate of the engine were measured with electronic sensors. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 174

Engine, Electrical swinging field dynamometer, Loading arrangement, Fuel tank, Torque indicator/controller sensor, 6. Fuel rate indicator sensor, Hot wire gas flow indicator, Multi channel temperature indicator, Speed indicator, Air flow indicator, Exhaust gas temperature indicator, Mains ON, Engine ON/OFF switch, Mains OFF, Motor/Generator option switch, Heater controller, Speed indicator,

Fig.1 : Experimental set up

In catalytic coated engine, piston crown and inner surface of cylinder head were coated with copper by flame spray gun. The surface of the components to be coated were cleaned and subjected to sand blasting. A bond coating of nickelcobalt- chromium of thickness 100 microns was sprayed over which copper (89.5%), aluminium (9.5%) and iron (1%) alloy of thickness 300 microns was coated with METCO flame spray gun. The coating had very high bond strength and did not wear off even after 50 h of operation[7]. CO and UBHC emissions in engine exhaust were measured with Netel Chromatograph analyzer at various magnitudes of BMEP. A catalytic converter [11] (Fig.2) was fitted to exhaust pipe of engine.

Fig.2. Details of Catalytic converter

Note: All dimensions are in mm. 1.Air chamber, www.ijsir.co.in

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2.Inlet for air chamber from the engine, 3.Inlet for air chamber from compressor, 4.Outlet for air chamber, 5.Catalyst chamber, 6. Outer cylinder, 7. Intermediate cylinder, 8.Inner cylinder, 9. Outlet for exhaust gases, 10.Provision to deposit the catalyst 11.Insulation Provision was also made to inject a definite quantity of air into catalytic converter. Air quantity drawn from compressor and injected into converter was kept constant so that backpressure did not increase. Experiments were carried out on CE and CCE with different test fuels [pure gasoline, ethanol blended gasoline [gasohol], methanol blended gasoline (20% by volume)] under different operating conditions of catalytic converter like Set-A, Set-B and Set-C. Air fuel ratio was varied so as to obtain different equivalence ratios. For measuring aldehydes in the exhaust of the engine, a wet chemical method[6] was employed. The exhaust of the engine was bubbled through 2,4 DNPH in hydrochloric acid solution and the hydrazones formed from aldehydes were extracted into chloroform and were analyzed by HPLC to find the percentage concentration of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde in the exhaust of the engine. RESULTS Fig. 3-Variation of CO emissions with BMEP in different versions of the engine with both pure gasoline and methanol blended gasoline. Fig.4-Variation of CO emissions with equivalence ratio, f in both configurations of the engine with pure gasoline and methanol blended gasoline. Fig.5- Variation of un-burnt hydro carbon emissions (UBHC) with BMEP in different versions of the engine with both test fuels. Fig. 6- Variation of UBHC emissions with equivalence ratio, f with pure gasoline and methanol blended gasoline with both configurations of the engine www.ijsir.co.in

Table1- Data of CO emissions (%) with different test fuels with different configurations of the engine at different operating conditions of catalytic converter with different catalysts Table 2- Data of UBHC emissions (ppm) with different test fuels with different configurations of the engine at different operating conditions of catalytic converter with different catalysts Table3-Data of Formaldehyde emissions (% Concentration) with different test fuels with different configurations of the engine at different operating conditions of catalytic converter with different catalysts Table 4-Data of Acetaldehyde emissions (%Concentration) with different test fuels with different configurations of the engine at different operating conditions of catalytic converter with different catalysts DISCUSSION From Fig.3, it could be observed that methanol blended gasoline decreased CO emissions at all loads when compared to pure gasoline operation on CCE and CE, as fuel-cracking reactions were eliminated with methanol. The combustion of methanol produces more water vapor than free carbon atoms as methanol has lower C/H ratio of 0.25 against 0.50 of gasoline. Methanol has oxygen in its structure and hence its blends have lower stoichiometric air requirements compared to gasoline. Therefore more oxygen that is available for combustion with the blends of methanol and gasoline, leads to reduction of CO emissions. Methanol dissociates in the combustion chamber of the engine forming hydrogen, which helps the fuel-air mixture to burn quickly and thus increases combustion velocity, which brings about complete combustion of carbon present in the fuel to CO2 and also CO to CO2 thus makes leaner mixture more combustible, causing reduction of CO emissions. CCE reduced CO emissions in comparison with CE. Copper or its alloys acted as catalyst in combustion chamber, whereby facilitated effective combustion of fuel leading to formation of CO2 instead of CO. Similar trends were observed by other researchers also[7] with pure gasoline operation on CCE.

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Fig. 3: Variation of CO emissions with BMEP in different versions of the engine with pure gasoline and methanol blended gasoline at a compression ratio of 7.5:1 and speed of 3000 rpm

that CO emissions deceased considerably with catalytic operation in set-B with methanol blended gasoline and further decrease in CO was pronounced with air injection with the same fuel. The effective combustion of the methanol blended gasoline itself decreased CO emissions in both configurations of the engine. Sponge iron decreased CO emissions effectively when compared with the manganese ore in both versions of the engine with test fuels. CO emissions were observed to be more with gasohol operation in comparison with methanol blended gasoline in both versions of the engine at different operating conditions of the catalytic converter. This was due to the reason that C/H ratio of gasohol is higher (0.33) in comparison with methanol blended gasoline 0.25).

From Fig.4, it could be noticed that at leaner mixtures marginal increase in CO emissions, and at rich mixtures drastic increase in CO emissions were observed with both test fuels

TABLE 1: DATA OF â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;COâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; EMISSIONS (%) Conventional Engine (CE) Set

Pure Gasolin e

Set-A

S 5.0

Set-B Set-C

Copper Coated Engine (CCE)

M 5.0

Methanol blended gasoline S M 3.0 3.0

Gasohol

Pure Gasoline

Methanol ble nded gasoline

S 3.5

3.0

4.0

1.8

2.1

2.0

3.0

1.2

1.5

Gasohol

M 3.5

S 4.0

M 4.0

S 2.4

M 2.4

S 2.9

M 2.9

2.3

2.8

2.4

3.2

1.44

1.92

1.9

2.32

1.5

2.1

1.6

2.4

0.96

1.44 1.26 1.74

From Fig.5, it could be observed UBHC emissions followed the same trend as CO emissions in CCE and CE with both test fuels, due to increase of flame speed with catalytic activity and reduction of quenching effect with CCE.

Fig. 4 : Variation of CO emissions with Equivalence ratio in both versions of the engine with different test fuels with a compression ratio of 7.5:1 at a speed of 3000 rpm In different configurations of the engine. With methanol blended gasoline operation minimum CO emissions were observed at f = 0.85, and with pure gasoline operations, minimum CO emissions were observed at f = 0.9 with both configurations of the engine. This was due to lower value of stoichiometric air requirement of methanol blended gasoline when compared with gasoline. Very rich mixtures have incomplete combustion. Some carbon only burns to CO and not to CO2. From the Table-1, it could be observed 176

Fig. 5 : Variation of UBHC emissions with BMEP in different versions of the engine with pure gasoline and methanol blended gasoline at a www.ijsir.co.in

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compression ratio of 7.5:1 and speed of 3000 rpm From Fig. 6, it could be seen that the trends followed by UBHC emissions were similar to those of CO emissions. Fig. 6 : Variation of UBHC emissions with Equivalence ratio in both versions of the engine with different test fuels with a compression ratio of 7.5:1 at a speed of 3000 rpm Drastic increase of UBHC emissions was observed at rich mixtures with both test duels in different configurations of the engine. In the rich mixture some of the fuel would not get oxygen and would be completely wasted. During starting from the cold, rich mixture was supplied to the engine, hence marginal increase of UBHC emissions was observed at lower value of equivalence ratio. From Table-2, it could be noticed that the trends observed with UBHC emissions were similar to those of CO emissions in both versions of the engine with both test fuels. Catalytic converter reduced pollutants considerably with CE and CCE and air injection into catalytic converter further reduced pollutants. In presence of catalyst, emissions got further oxidized to give less harmful emissions like CO2. Similar trends were observed with pure gasoline operation on CCE by other researchers also[7]. Sponge iron was proved to be more effective in reducing UBHC emissions in both versions of the engine with different test fuels when compared with manganese ore in both versions of the engine with different configurations of the engine. Gasohol operation increased UBHC emissions marginally in comparison with methanol blended gasoline in both versions of the engine. TABLE 2 : DATA OF UBHC EMISSIONS (ppm)

Conventional Engine (CE) Pure Meth anol Gasohol Gasoline blended Set gasolin e S M S M S M Set-A 750 750 525 525 562 562 Set-B 450 600 315 420 340 450 Set-C 300 450 210 315 225 330

Copper Coated Engine (CCE) Pure Gasoline Meth anol Gasohol blended gasoline S 600 360 240

M S M S 600 420 420 450 480 252 335 270 360 168 250 180

M 450 360 270

From Table-3 and Table-4, it could be noticed that the formaldehyde emissions in the exhaust decreased considerably with the use of catalytic converter, which was more pronounced with an air injection into the converter. Methanol blend increased formaldehyde emissions considerably due to partial oxidation compared to pure gasoline. The low combustion temperature lead to produce partially oxidized carbonyl (aldehyde) compounds with gasohol. CCE decreased formaldehyde emissions when compared to CE. The trend exhibited by acetaldehyde emissions was same as that of formaldehyde emissions. However, acetaldehyde emission was observed to be more with ethanol blend compared to methanol blend of gasoline in both versions of the engine (Table-4). TABLE 3 : DATA OF FORMALDEHYDE EMISSIONS (% CONCENTRATION)

Set Set-A Set-B Set-C

Conventional Engine (CE) Pure Methanol Gasohol Gasoline blended gasolin e S M S M S M 9.1 9.1 23.6 23.6 14.6 14.6 6.3 8.2 10.8 12.6 7.0 9.2 3.5 5.5 8.0 10.1 5.9 7.7

Copper Coated Engine (CCE) Pure Gasoline Methanol Gasohol blended gasoline S 6.8 4.1 3.2

M 6.8 5.9 5

S 13.6 10.2 3.5

M S M 13.6 9.31 9.31 12 5.0 7.1 5 3.93 5.8

TABLE 4 : DATA OF ACETALDEHYDE EMISSIONS (% CONCENTRATION)

Set Set-A Set-B Set-C

Conventional Engine (CE) Pure Methanol Gasohol Gasoline blended gasolin e S M S M S M 7.7 7.7 12.3 12.3 16.8 16.8 4.9 7.2 6.5 8.5 8.4 10.5 2.1 4.3 3.8 5.6 7.0 9.1

Copper Coated Engine (CCE) Pure Gasoline Methanol Gasohol blended gasoline S 4.9 3.5 1.4

M 4.9 5.3 3.1

S 9.3 7.7 3.9

M 9.3 9.5 5.6

S 12.6 7.5 5.2

M 12.6 9.3 7.2

The partial oxidation of ethanol during combustion predominantly leads to formation of acetaldehyde. Copper (catalyst) coated engine decreased aldehydes emissions considerably by effective oxidation when compared to CE. Catalytic converter with air injection drastically decreased aldehyde emissions in both versions of the engine due to oxidation of residual aldehydes in the exhaust. CONCLUSION CO emissions in exhaust decreased by 40%

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with sponge iron, while they decreased by 20% with manganese ore in CE with pure gasoline operation. These pollutants decreased by 20% with CCE when compared to CE with both test fuels. Set-B operation decreased CO and UBHC emissions by 40% each, while Set-C operation decreased these emissions by 60% with test fuels when compared to Set-A operation. Sponge iron was proved to be more effective in reducing the pollutants than manganese ore. Methanol blended gasoline reduced pollutants effectively in comparison with gasohol operation in both versions of the engine.

Nedunchezhian N and Dhandapani S, Experimental investigation of cyclic variation of combustion parameters in a catalytically activated two-stroke SI engine combustion chamber, Eng Today, 2,11-18 , 2000.

Murali Krishna, M.V.S., Kishor, K., Murthy, P.V.K., Gupta, A.V.S.S.K.S. and Narasimha Kumar, S., Performance evaluation of copper coated four stroke spark ignition engine with gasohol with catalytic converter, International Journal of Eng. Studies, 2(4), 465473, 2010.

Narasimha Kumar, S., Murali Krishna, M.V.S., Murthy, P.V.K., Seshagiri Rao, V.V.R... and Reddy, D.N., Performance of copper coated two stroke spark ignition engine with gasohol with catalytic converter “ International

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

10.

Journal on Mechanical & Automobile Eng (IJMAE), 12(1), 36-43, , 2011.

11.

Murali Krishna, M.V.S. and Kishor, K., Control of pollutants from copper coated spark ignition engine with methanol blended gasoline, Indian J. of Env. Prot., 25(8), 732-738 , 2005.

12.

Murali Krishna, M.V.S., Kishor, K., Prasad, P.R.K. and Swathy, G.V.V., Parametric studies of pollutants from copper coated spark ignition engine with catalytic converter with gasoline blended methanol, Journal of Current Sciences, 9(2), 529-534, 2006.

13.

Murali Krishna, M.V.S., Kishor, K. and Ramana Reddy, Ch. V., Control of carbon monoxide emission in spark ignition engine with methanol blended gasoline and sponge iron catalyst”, Ecology, Environment &Conservation. 13(4), 13-17 , 2008.

14.

Murali Krishna, M.V.S. and Kishor, K., Investigations on catalytic coated spark ignition engine with methanol blended gasoline with catalytic converter, Indian Journal (CSIR) of Scientific and Industrial Research, 67, 543-548 , 2008

15.

Kishor, K., Murali Krishna, M.V.S., Gupta, A.V.S.S.K.S., Narasimha Kumar, S. and Reddy, D.N., Emissions from copper coated spark ignition engine with methanol blended gasoline with catalytic converter, Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 30(3),177-18 , 2010.

Authors thank authorities of Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad for facilities provided. The financial assistance from Andhra Pradesh Council of Science and Technology (APCOST), Hyderabad, is greatly acknowledged. REFERENCES 1.

Fulekar M H, Chemical pollution – a threat to human life, Indian J Env Prot, 1, 353-359, 1999.

Engineering Chemistry, edited by B.K. Sharma [Pragathi Prakashan (P) Ltd, Meerut] 150-160, 2004).

Environmental Pollution Analysis, edited by S.M Khopkar [New Age International (P) Ltd, Publishers, New Delhi] 180-190 , 2005.

Usha Madhuri T, Srinivas T and Ramakrishna K, A study on automobile exhaust pollution with regard to carbon monoxide emissions, Nature, Environ & Poll Tech, 2, 473-474 , 2003.

5. Ghose M K, Paul R and Benerjee S K, Assessment of the impact of vehicle pollution on urban air quality, J Environ Sci & Engg , 46, 33-40, 2004. 6.

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Murthy, P.V.K., Narasimha Kumar, S., Murali Krishna, M.V.S., Seshagiri Rao, V.V.R. and .Reddy, D.N., Aldehyde emissions from two-stroke and four-stroke spark ignition engines with methanol blended gasoline with catalytic converter, International Journal of Eng. Research and Tech., 3(3),793—802 , 2010.

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OPTIMAL POWER FLOW BY PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION FOR REACTIVE LOSS MINIMIZATION 1

* G. SRIDHAR,1 RADHE SHYAM JHA ‘RAJESH’2 Research Scholar, Sunrise University, Alwar, Rajasthan, India 2 Principal, S (PG) ITM, Rewari, (HR), India

*Address for correspondence: G. Sridhar, Research Scholar, Sunrise University, Alwar, Rajasthan, India ABSTRACT Optimal Power Flow (OPF) problem in electrical power system is considered as a static, non-linear, multi-objective or a single objective optimization problem. As the power industrial companies have been moving into a more competitive environment, OPF has been used as a tool to define the level of the inter utility power exchange. Basically, this research work provides a new approach to solve the single objective OPF problem considering critical objective function of reactive loss minimization for utility/ industrial companies, while satisfying a set of system operating constraints, including constraints dedicated by the electrical network. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) has been used for this purpose. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a population based stochastic optimization technique. The system is initialized with a population of random feasible solutions and searches for optima by updating generations. The IEEE- 30 bus system is considered throughout this research work to test the proposed algorithm. Keywords— OPF-optimal power flow, PSO-particle swarm optimization. INTRODUCTION The Optimal Power Flow (OPF) has been widely used for both the operation and planning of a power system. Therefore, a typical OPF solution adjusting the appropriate control variables, so that a specific objective in operating a power system network is optimized (maximizing or minimizing) with respect to the power system constraints, dictated by the electrical network. This paper focuses on single objective OPF problem considering reactive loss minimization optimization. For optimization any optimization technique is required and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is used in this research. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a relatively new evolutionary algorithm that may be used to find optimal (or near optimal) solutions to numerical and qualitative problems. Particle Swarm Optimization was originally developed by a social psychologist (James Kennedy) and an electrical engineer (Russell Eberhart) in 1995, and emerged from earlier experiments with algorithms that modeled www.ijsir.co.in

the flocking behavior seen in many species of birds. OPTIMAL POWER FLOW SOLUTION METHODS CLASSICAL METHODS [2]: 1. Linear Programming (LP) Method 2. Newton-Raphson (NR) Method 3. Quadratic Programming (QP) Method 4. Nonlinear Programming (NLP) Method 5. Interior Point (IP) Method Artificial Intelligence (AI) Methods: 1. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) 2. Fuzzy Logic Method (FL) 3. Genetic Algorithm (GA) Method Pathak Smita is currently pursuing a masters degree program in electrical (Powe) are engineered in Gujarat Technological University, India, PH-0919979858183. E-mail: smitamishra75@yahoo.com Prof. B. N. Vaidya is HOD Electrical of Shantilal Shah Engg. College, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India. 179

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4. Evolutionary Programming (EP) 5. Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) 6. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) A. Comparison of Above Methods Even though, excellent advancements have been made in classical methods, they suffer with the following disadvantages: In most cases, mathematical formulations have to be simplified to get the solutions because of the extremely limited capability to solve real-world large-scale power system problems. They are weak in handling qualitative constraints. They have poor convergence, may get stuck at local optimum, they can find only a single optimized solution in a single simulation run, they become too slow if the number of variables are large and they are computationally expensive for the solution of a large system. Whereas, the major advantage of the AI methods is that they are relatively versatile for handling various qualitative constraints. AI methods can find multiple optimal solutions in a single simulation run. So they are quite suitable in solving multi-objective optimization problems. In most cases, they can find the global optimum solution. The main advantages of ANN are: Possesses learning ability, fast, appropriate for non-linear modeling, etc. whereas, large dimensionality and the choice of training methodology are some disadvantages of ANN. The advantages of Fuzzy method are: Accurately represents the operational constraints and fuzzified constraints are softer than traditional constraints. The advantages of GA methods are: It only uses the values of the objective function and less likely to get trapped in a local optimum. Higher computational time is its disadvantage. The advantages of the EP are adaptable to change, ability to generate good enough solutions and rapid convergence. ACO and PSO are the latest entry in the field of optimization. The main advantages of the ACO are positive feedback for recovery of good solutions, distributed computation, which avoids premature convergence. It has been mainly used in finding the shortest route in the transmission network, short-term generation scheduling and optimal unit commitment. PSO can be used to solve complex optimization problems, which are non-linear, non-differentiable and multi-model. The main merits of PSO are its fast 180

convergence speed and it can be realized simply for less parameters need adjusting. PSO has been mainly used to solve Bi-objective generation scheduling, optimal reactive power dispatch and to minimize total cost of power generation. Yet, the applications of ACO and PSO to solve Security constrained OPF, Contingency constrained OPF, Congestion management incorporating FACTS devices etc. Of a deregulated power system are to be explored out. TABLE I : SUITABLE METHODS FOR SOLVING THE VARIOUS OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Objective function to be optimized

Suitable method(s)

LP, NR Economic dispatch Economic AI dispatch with non-smooth cost function Economic Fuzzy emission dispatch NLP, OP, IP, AI Reactive power optimization Optimal AI location of FACTS device Social welfare QP, AI

Congestion management

Security constrained OPF

NLP, IP

Reason to use that method Fast methods Nonlinear problem

Suitable for conflicting objectives Accurate methods Multi objective non-linear problem Multi objective non-linear problem Multi objective non-linear problem Stable convergence

PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a relatively new evolutionary algorithm that may be used to find optimal (or near optimal) solutions to numerical and qualitative problems. Particle Swarm Optimization was originally developed by James Kennedy and Russell Eberhart in 1995, www.ijsir.co.in

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and emerged from earlier experiments with algorithms that modeled the flocking behavior seen in many species of birds .In simulations, birds would begin by flying around with no particular destination and spontaneously formed flocks until one of the birds flew over the roosting area. Due to the simple rules the birds used to set their directions and velocities, a bird pulling away from the flock in order to land at the roost would result in nearby birds moving towards the roost. Once these birds discovered the roost, they would land there, pulling more birds towards it, and so on until the entire flock had landed. Finding a roost is analogous to finding a solution in a field of possible solutions in a solution space. The manner in which a bird who has found the roost, leads its neighbors to move towards it, increases the chances that they will also find it. This is known as the “socio-cognitive view of mind”. The “sociocognitive view of mind” means that a particle learns primarily from the success of its neighbors .The concept of the PSO consists of, at each time step, changing the velocity of (accelerating) each particle toward its pbest and lbest locations (local version of PSO). Acceleration is weighted by a random term, with separate random numbers being generated for acceleration toward pbest and lbest locations. In the past several years, PSO has been successfully applied in many research and application areas. It is demonstrated that PSO gets better results in a faster, cheaper way compared with other methods. A. Basic Terms Used in PSO The basic terms used in PSO technique are stated and defined as follows [11]: 1. Particle X (I): It is a candidate solution represented by a k-dimensional real-valued vector, where k is the number of optimized parameters. At iteration i, the jth particle X (i,j) can be described as: X i (i ) = [ X j 1 (i ); X j 2 (i );.....X jk (i );.....X jd Where: x’s are the optimized parameters d represents number of control variables 2. Population: It is basically a set of n particles at iteration i. pop (i )= [ X 1 (i ), X 2 (i ), .........X n (i)]T www.ijsir.co.in

Where: n represents the number of candidate solutions. 3. Swarm: Swarm may be defined as an apparently disorganized population of moving particles that tend to 2 cluster together while each particle seems to be moving in a random direction. 4. Particle velocity V (i): Particle velocity is the velocity of the moving particles represented by a d-dimensional real-valued vector. At iteration i, the jth particle Vj (i) can be described as: V j (i ) = [V j1 (i );V j2 (i );.....V jk (i );.....V jd (i);] Where: V jk (i) is the velocity component of the jth particle with respect to the kth dimension. 5. Inertia weight w (i): It is a control parameter, which is used to control the impact of the previous velocity on the current velocity. Hence, it influences the trade-off between the global and local exploration abilities of the particles. For the initial stages of the search process, large inertia weight to enhance the global exploration is recommended while it should be reduced at the last stages for better local exploration. Therefore, the inertia factor decreases linearly from about 0.9 to 0.4 during a run. In general, this factor is set according to the following equation : W = Wmax –( (Wmax - Wmin) / itermax)* iter Where: itermax is the maximum number of iterations and iter is the current number of iterations. 6. Individual best X* (i): When particles are moving through the search space , it compares its fitness value at the current position to the best fitness value it has ever reached at any iteration up to the current iteration. The best position that is associated with the best fitness encountered so far is called the individual best X* (i). For each particle in the swarm, X*(i)can be determined and updated during the search. For the jth particle, individual best can be expressed as: X j (i ) = [ X j ,1 *(i ), X j ,2. *(i ),..........X j ,d *(i)] 181

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In a minimization problem with only one objective function f, the individual best of the jth particle Xj*(i) is updated whenever f (Xj*(i)) < f (Xj*(i-1)). Otherwise, the individual best solution of the jth particle will be kept as in the previous iteration. 7.Global best X** (t): Global best is the best position among all of the individual best positions achieved so far. 8. Stopping criteria: Termination of the search process will take place whenever one of the following criteria is satisfied: B. Advantages of PSO Many advantages of PSO over other traditional optimization techniques can be summarized as follows :PSO is a population-based search algorithm. This property ensures PSO to be less susceptible in being trapped on local minima. PSO makes use of the probabilistic transition rules and not deterministic rules. Hence, PSO is a kind of stochastic optimization algorithm that can search a complicated and uncertain area. This makes PSO more flexible and robust than conventional methods. PSO can easily deal with non-differentiable objective functions because PSO uses payoff (performance index or objective function) information to guide the search in the problem space. Additionally, this property relieves PSO of assumptions and approximations, which are often required by traditional optimization models. PSO has the flexibility to control the balance between the global and local exploration of the search space. This unique feature of a PSO overcomes the premature convergence problem and enhances the search capability which makes it different from Genetic Algorithm (GA) and other heuristic algorithms. C. Flowchart for Basic Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm OPF USING PSO Step 10: If one of the stopping criteria is satisfied then we go A. The Objectives: Minimization of Reactive Power to Step 11. Otherwise, we go to Step 5.

182

Transmission Loss Static network-related system Voltage Stability Margin (VSM) depends on the availability of reactive power to support the transportation of real power from sources to sinks. In practice, the QL is not necessarily positive. The expression for reactive power loss minimization is as below:

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QL= ∑ Qgi- Qdi B. The various steps involved in the implementation of PSO to the OPF problem are[3] Step 1: Firstly read the Input parameters of the system (bus, line and generator data) and also specify the lower and upper boundaries of each variable. For N generators, optimization is carried out for N-1 generators and generator of large capacity is considered at slack bus. Step 2: Then the particles of the population are randomly initialized i.e. are randomly selected between the respective minimum and maximum values. Also assign the velocity V initially between [-1 and 1]. Step 3: Obtain power flow solution and compute losses by Newton-Raphson method. Step 4: The best fitness is assign ed as pBest . At this stage the pBest is also the gBest . Step 5: Iteration i = i+1 is updated. Step 6: Update the inertia weight w given by W =– (Wmax - Wmin) / itermax = iter

∑

Step 7: Modify the velocity v of each particle according to the mentioned equation. V (k,j,i+1) = w*V(k,j,i) + C1*rand*(pbestx (j,k) - x(k,j,i)) + C2*rand*(gbestx (k) - x(k,j,i)) .....(a) Step 8: Position of each particle is also modified according to the mentioned equation. If a particle violates its position limits in any dimension, its position is set at the proper limit. x( k , j , i 1) x( k , j 1,i ) v( k , j , i) Step 9: Evaluation of each particle is done according to its updated position by running power flow and calculate the fitness function. If the evaluation value of each particle is better than the previous pBest then the current value is set to be pBest . If the best pBest is better than gBest , the value is set to be gbest. Step 10: If one of the stopping criteria is satisfied than we go to step 11 otherwise we go to step 5. www.ijsir.co.in

Step 11: gBest is the optimal value that is latestly generated by the particle. C. Flow chart for PSO based OPF D. The parameters that must be selected carefully for the efficient TABLE IIIperformance of PSO algorithm are:1. Both acceleration factors C1 & C2. (0-4) 2. Number of particles 3. Inertia factor w The search will terminate if one of the below scenario is encountered: -gbest f(i) – gbest f(i-1)| < 0.0001 for 50 iterations Maximum number of iteration reached (500 iterations)

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SIMULATION RESULTS The OPF using PSO has been carried out on the IEEE 30 bus system. The OPF solution has been attempted for minimizing the reactive power loss by considering the (i) Generated PV and slack bus voltages, (ii) Voltage limits for load bus voltages as control variables. The simulation has been carried out on the system having an Intel core i5 2.67 GHz processor with 4 GB of RAM in MATLAB 7.7.0 environment. Results are viewed as reactive power loss as objective function. For the studies, the population size is considered as 50 Generated PV and slack bus voltages between 0.95 to 1.15, Voltage limits for load buses are 0.95 to 1.05 A. Various Case studies: TABLE II : THE ABOVE STUDY HAS BEEN SUMMARIZED UNDER THE FOLLOWING CASES Case no.

Reactive loss applying PSO In Mvar 79.5

Name

before

Reactive loss after applying PSO In Mvar 73.5

74 .9

Base case power flow solution Newton74 .8

Raphson method.(before optimization) Optimal Power Flow solution by Particle swarm optimization for Minimizing Reactive Power Loss

74 .7

74 .6

u.74.5 .

Case 2

voltage as per specification voltage before optimization voltage after optimization

i n

Case 1

Fig. 1 : Voltage Magnitute- BUS No.

74 .4

s 7 4.3

Bus No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

184

Voltage Magnitude as per IEEE specification In p.u. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Voltage Magnitude before applying PSO In p.u. 1 0.98 0.953318 0.944309 0.95 0.944243 1 0.983506 1 0.967354 0.962282 0.969677 0.963589 0.951564 0.948617 0.952909 0.955973 0.956607 0.950896 0.944794 0.942281 0.923133 0.949998 0.94009 0.928441 0.91598

Voltage Magnitude after applying PSO In p.u. 1.032481 1.015079 0.994568 0.98718 0.987554 0.989664 1.046949 1.031638 1.047678 1.016218 1.011325 1.01818 1.012103 1.000944 0.998025 1.002041 1.004804 1.005427 1.000395 0.994448 0.992299 0.974157 0.999746 0.986903 0.979388 0.967615

l o

sse 74.2 M V R

TABLE III:COMPARISON OF VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE

74 .1

73 .9

73 .8

73 .7

73 .6

73 .5

0 1 2

6 7 8 9

1 0 1 1 12 13 14 1 5 1 6 17 18 19 20 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 25 26 27 2 8 2 9 30 31 32 33 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 38 3 9 4 0 41 4 2 4 3 44 45 46 4 7 4 8 49 50

TABLE : IV : COMPARISON OF REACTIVE LOSSES

Fig. 2 : MVR Losses-Iteration No. www.ijsir.co.in

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These control variables include: active power generation except the slack bus; all PVbus voltages; all transformer load tap changers; and the setting of all switched reactors or static VAR components.

P.R.Sujin, Dr.T.Ruban Deva Prakash and M.Mary Linda, “ Particle Swarm Optimization Based Reactive Power Optimization”, Journal Of Computing, Volume 2, Issue 1, January 2010, Issn 2151-9617

Jean-Carlos Hernandez, “Particle Swarm Optimization: Basic Concepts, Variants and Applications in Power Systems”, Student Member, IEEE, and Ronald G. Harley, Fellow, IEEE

A. H. Mantawy M. S. Al-Ghamdi, “A New Reactive Power Optimization Algorithm”,Electrical Engineering Department King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261 Saudi Arabia Iteration No. Fig. II : MVR losses-Iteration No.

Interpretation of results After applying optimization technique (PSO) Reactive loss decreases. Nodal Voltage uplift

Malihe M. Farsangi “Multi-objective VAr Planning with SVC for a Large Power System Using PSO and GA” , Hossien Nezamabadi-Pour, and Kwang Y. Lee, Fellow, IEEE

Vladimiro Miranda Nuno Fonseca, “Epso – Best-OfTwo-Worlds Meta-Heuristic Applied To Power System Problems” , INESC Porto – Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemase Computadores do Porto, Portugal & FEUP – Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Portugal

Numphetch Sinsuphun, Uthen Leeton, Umaporn Kwannetr,Dusit Uthitsunthorn, and Thanatchai Kulworawanichpong “Loss Minimization Using Optimal Power Flow Based on Swarm Intelligences” Nonmembers ECTI Transaction on electrical eng., Electronics, an communication vol.9, NO.1 February 2011

10.

B. Mozafari, T. Amraee1,A.M. Ranjbarand M. Mirjafari, “ Particle Swarm Optimization Method for Optimal Reactive Power Procurement Considering Voltage Stability”, Scientia Iranica, Vol. 14, No. 6, pp 534 c Sharif University of Technology, December 2007

11.

M.A.Abido, “ Optimal Power flow using Particle Swarm Optimization “,Department of Electrical engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, KFUPM Box 183, Dhahran 31261,Saudi Arebia,14 aug 2000. Electrical power and energy system.

12.

N.P.Padhy, Artificial intelligence and intelligent systems, Oxford university

CONCLUSION This paper focuses on single objective Optimal Power Flow ( OPF) problem considering reactive loss minimization optimization. The various research findings can be summarized as follows implementing a single OPF objective function optimization algorithm based on the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). An algorithm is developed and applied to a practical power system network. The developed OPF algorithm offers to : provide a flexibility to add or delete any system constraints and objective functions, having this flexibility it will help electrical engineers in analyzing other system scenarios and contingency plans, calculate the optimum generation pattern as well as all control variables in order to minimize reactive loss together with meeting the transmission system limitations, reactive loss decrease after applying PSO and bus voltages uplift after applying PSO ,to find the optimum setting for system control variables that achieve a minimum objective REFERENCES 1.

Carpinter J., “Contribution to the Economic Dispatch Problem”, Bulletin Society Francaise Electricians, Vol.3, No.8, pp. 431-447,1962.

K.S.Pandya, S.K.Joshi “Survey of Optimal Power Flow Methods” ,Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology

Nakhon Ratchasima “ Power Loss Minimization Using Optimal Power Flow Based on Particle Swarm Optimization”, U. Leeton, University of Technology, THAILAND 30000

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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION AND RELATED LEGISLATIONS IN INDIA M.I.KHAN1,*NIAZ AHMED SIDDIQUI2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Integral University, Lucknow, (UP), India 2 Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 1

*Address for correspondence : Niaz Ahmed Siddiqui, Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, email:niazsiddiqui@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT Pollution, in general, may be defined as the addition of undesirable, unwanted or objectionable foreign matter to water, air and land which adversely change the natural quality of the environment and results in harmful effect on human, plant and animal life. The pollution caused by industries or industrial processes are termed as industrial pollution. Pollution includes water, air, noise, solid waste and radioactive waste. This paper critically discusses in brief the aspect of water, air, noise, solid waste and radioactive waste pollutants in the environment and the concerned government regulations thereof. (a) Water Pollution: it is caused by industrial effluents, surface run off, waste water discharge, toxic/chemical elements in waste water.(b) Air Pollution: it is caused due to release of chemicals, particulates into the atmosphere e.g. carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) etc. (c) Noise Pollution: it is caused by industrial processes, machine operations, construction activities, working of earth moving equipments, operation of generators, loco movement inside the factory etc.(d) Solid Waste Pollution: any material which is discarded because of its negligible value comes under solid waste. Such solid wastes generated, domestically or industrially, create one of the major concerns for the environment. (e) Radioactive Waste Pollution: radioactive wastes are generated from the nuclear fuel cycle right from mining of uranium, fuel fabrication through reactor operations and subsequent reprocessing of the spent fuel. These wastes are also generated from use of radio-nuclides in medicines, research and industries. There is much legislation enacted by the Government of India to control the environmental pollution. A few important ones are: (a)The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (b)The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (c) The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (d) The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 (e) The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 (f)The Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987 .These legislations are complete in totality and cover the most important aspects, but our level of pollution control is not up to the level of developed countries. The basic reason for which is the lack of awareness amongst the people and weak implementation of legislations by the law enforcing authorities. Keywords : Industrial pollution, Pollution control, Pollution control legislations, Environmental pollution, Radioactivity, Environmental acts and rules. INTRODUCTION Pollution caused by industries is becoming a serious concern for all. Government tries to ensure that industries take adequate safety measures to treat the effluents from their plant before disposing off the effluents so that the 186

environment does not get polluted. Pollution of the environment may take place either through water, air, noise, solid wastages and radioactive wastages. At the stage of establishing of an industry, it shall be seen whether the industry is polluting in www.ijsir.co.in

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nature and if so, the prior approvals that are required to be obtained from the concerned authorities are to be taken into consideration. Certain industries that are highly polluting in nature need prior clearance from the, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India The industries have to apply for consent order from Pollution Control Board of the respective State Government after getting environmental clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. The Pollution Control Board issues consent order for starting the industry stipulating the necessary Pollution Control measures to be followed / adopted. The consent order once given is not a permanent one, but needs to be renewed at stipulated intervals as specified. Renewed consent order is given by the Pollution Control Boards after ensuring that the effluent treatment / pollution control measures taken by the industry are as per the norms stipulated. Types of Pollutions There are main five types of pollutions created by the industries/individuals: 1. Water Pollution 2. Air Pollution 3. Noise Pollution 4. Solid Waste Pollution 5. Radioactive Waste Pollution Water Pollution The problem is worse in case of water pollution. Untreated effluents have increased the level of toxins like cyanide and chromium up to 20 times. The surface water is the main source of industries for waste disposal. It is found that almost all rivers are polluted by some industry or the other. Different norms and guidelines are given for all the industries depending upon their pollution creating potentials. In India, there are sufficient evidences available related with the mismanagement of industrial wastes. Analysis has been performed for 56 sectors, out of which 6 sectors appear to be non-polluting, 26 sectors are high polluting and 24 sectors are low www.ijsir.co.in

polluting. Sectors such as dairy, textile, paper, leather, rubber, chemicals, drugs, fertilizers, synthetic fiber etc. are responsible for most of the pollution. The polluted water must be treated thoroughly and tested before discharging it out of the industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s premises. If the practice of effluent treatment is adopted in true sense, our rivers can again get back to their original clean and refreshing shape. Disadvantages of Water Pollution a.

Adverse effect on human life like skin diseases, stomach disorder, eye infection etc.

Adverse effect on soil and vegetation.

Adverse effect on marine life.

Air Pollution Air in atmosphere is a reserve of oxygen and carbon dioxide without which survival of plant and animal is not possible. The other gases in the atmosphere perform vital functions that maintain living environment in balance. Dust and Fume, generated by industries, try to become air borne and then spread in the surrounding atmosphere. Pollutants include oxides of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, hydrocarbons, inorganic/organic acids, insecticides etc. Air pollutants contain 22 minerals. Most of them are very poisonous. The industries must control the emission limits of the exhausts as per the set norm of the Pollution Control Boards and avoid unrestricted discharge of solid and gaseous pollutants to the atmosphere. It is always suggested that the industries should consider the dust / fume generation aspects seriously while designing their equipment and should try to minimize the same. Unavoidable dust and fume generated in the process should be controlled at the source of generation through the system of capture, extraction, conveying, and collection. In some cases fine dusts are suppressed with the help of fine mist / fog. Many large polluting industries have some Dust Extracting System installed already but 187

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e. Headache.

could not be used properly either for deficiency in equipment design or deficiency in the system design or both. In this situation, the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) has big roles to play. They are required to study the problems of different systems separately and analyze them critically and give solutions which are workable and effective.

f. Sleep disturbance. g. Annoyance. h. Speech problem. i. Aggression. j. Anxiety. k. Withdrawal.

Disadvantages of Air Pollution a.

CO (carbon monoxide): It is a chocking gas. This acts on hemoglobin and releases oxygen from blood. It causes drowsiness, headache and even death. SO2 (sulphur dioxide): It causes burning sensation, bronchitis, asthma and lung cancer. It is oxidized to trioxide and reacting with moisture from acids which is washed down to earth with rain causing acid rain. Acid rain causes extreme damage to buildings, vegetation, marine life etc.

l. Psychological problem. m. Cardiac arrest Solid Waste Pollution All materials which are thrown away because of no value are called solid waste. The solid waste that we generate, industrial or domestic, represents one of the major environmental challenges. The enhancement in industrialization resulted in vast increase in the amount of refuse generated per person. Types of Solid Wastes

NO2 (nitrogen dioxide): It is foul odoured, poisonous gas causing diseases like respiration, digestion and nervous system.

Garbage: Decomposable biological domestic waste e.g. food, vegetables, animal related wastes etc.

H2S (hydrogen sulphide): It is also a fouled smelled gas having hazardous effects on human beings.

Rubbish: Waste excluding decomposable part of garbage e.g. paper, beverage, plastic cans etc.

Solid waste: These are industrial products like metals, ceramics, paints, pigments, plastic, rubber, leather, glass etc. and also municipal solid wastes like sewage sludge, ash, dirt, rubble, farm wastes, wood, paper products etc.

Litter: Street and highway refuse.

Noise Pollution Industrial noise refers to noise that is created in the factories which is jarring and unbearable. Sound becomes noise when it becomes unwanted and unpleasant. Heavy industries like ship building and steel making have long been associated with noise induced hearing loss.

Disposal of Solid Waste

Normal sound level should not be more than 50 decibels. It has been scientifically proved that noise more than 85 decibels can cause hearing impairment.

There are four main ways of disposing of solid wastes: a.

Ocean Dumping: It creates water pollution and destroys marine life.

Disadvantages of Noise Pollution

Incineration: It leads to atmosphere pollution if not conducted under controlled conditions.

Land Fill: This has been by far the most widely used method till its limitations are realized in recent years.

Recycling: This is the least offensive of the method with respect to spreading of

Main disadvantages caused by the noise pollution are listed below: a. Increase in blood pressure. b. Increased stress. c. Fatigue. d. Stomach ulcers. 188

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pollution. However, limited types of materials can be subjected to this operation. Land fill has been the most common way of disposing of non-hazardous solid wastes. Since most of these operations were carried out without adequate precautions, their safety is being reviewed and remedial measures are underway. Disadvantages Improper handling of solid wastes leads to spread of many diseases. Glass / metal waste is hazardous. Moist and warm environment favors generation of pathogens. Those of substances retaining water are breading grounds for insects leading to gastroenteritis, hepatitis, dysentery and encephalitis. Mosquitoes and flies give rise to typhoid, cholera, malaria, filarial etc. The containers with unused pesticides or herbicides cause problem due to indiscriminate disposal. Some may lead to explosion if they contain some inflammable material. The health of workers at disposal site is also of concern. They must always use safety helmets, dust masks, protective gloves, eye protectors, safety shoes to protect themselves. Enclosed trucks should always be used for carrying waste. Radioactive Waste Pollution An industrial activity, invariably, generates some sort of waste material. Nuclear industry is no exception and the presence of radioactive materials which may have adverse impact on living beings and which is likely to continue to the subsequent generation as well is what sets radioactive wastes different from other conventional hazardous wastes. Another unique feature of the radioactive waste is the decay of radioactivity with time. This fact can be exploited by the nuclear waste management. Management of radioactive waste in Indian context includes all types of radioactive wastes generated from the entire nuclear fuel cycle right from mining of uranium, fuel fabrication through reactor operations and subsequent reprocessing of the spent fuel. Radioactive wastes are also generated from use of radio-nuclides in medicines, research and industries.

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Effective management of radioactive wastes involves segregation, characterization, handling, treatment, conditioning and monitoring prior to final storage/disposal. Types of Radioactive Wastes Radioactive wastes arise in different forms viz. solid, liquid and gas with variety of physical and chemical/radiochemical characteristics. (a) Solid Radioactive Waste Significant quantities of solid wastes of diverse nature are generated in the different nuclear installations. They are essentially of the following two types: (i)

Primary Waste: This comprises components and equipments contaminated with radioactivity e.g. metallic hardware, spent radiation sources etc.

(ii) Secondary Waste: This results from different operational activities. Some solid radioactive wastes include protective rubber and plastic wear, miscellaneous metallic components, cellulosic and fibrous materials, spent organic ion-exchange resins, filter cartridges etc. Treatment and conditioning of solid wastes are practiced to reduce the waste volume so as to minimize the consumption of space and also the movement of the radioactive material. Low active combustible wastes are incinerated and compactable wastes are reduced in volume by mechanical compaction. The final packaged conditioned waste is then disposed off a few meters below the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface in specially made trenches lined with reinforced concrete. A multi-barrier approach is followed to ensure confinement and isolation of the wastes. Special emphasis is laid on closure of such areas after it gets filled. These include appropriate closure with a concrete cover. (b) Liquid Radioactive Waste Liquid radioactive wastes are generated in relatively large volumes with low levels of radioactivity. If a particular stream of radioactive liquid waste contains short-lived isotopes, it may be stored for adequate time period to ensure that majority of the radio-nuclides die down, thus, 189

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following the ‘delay and decay’ principles. Similarly, if the level of radioactivity present in the liquid waste is small, it is required to dilute it sufficiently to render the specific activity levels well below the stipulated limits and discharge it to a large water body following the ‘dilute and discharge’ principles. In all other cases, the waste may call for suitable treatment in order to make the waste satisfactorily fit to discharge. Many processes like chemical precipitation, ion exchange, evaporation reverse osmosis etc. can be used singly or in combination for the treatment of liquid radioactive wastes. (c) Gaseous Radioactive Waste Radioactive gases generally carry radionuclides. This must be removed before the gases are released to the atmosphere through tall chimneys. That is why always a comprehensive gas treatment and ventilation system is installed in nuclear power plants and other fuel cycle facilities in order to keep the air free from radioactive contamination. Various designs of scrubbers are deployed so as to retain the radioactive element in the liquid phase. Specific absorbers are also used to remove volatile radionuclides like iodine, ruthenium etc. Surveillance and monitoring of the clean gases ensure that the discharges are well below permissible limits. Disadvantages of Radioactive Pollution Radioactive waste, whether natural or artificial, is a potential threat of radioactive exposure to humans through many channels. The routes are direct exposure to radioactive materials, inhalation and ingestion of such materials through air that one breathes or food that one consumes. The quantum of exposure (dose x duration of exposure) decides the adversity that may result. Exposure may occur to particular organ locally or to the whole body. Sufficiently high exposure can lead to cancer. The radio-activity of a particular radio-nuclide is quantified in terms of what is referred to as ‘potential hazard index’ that is defined in terms of the nuclide availability, its activity, maximum permissible intake annually and its half-life. This depends on a variety of factors like physical halflife, biological half-life, sensitivity of the organ or 190

tissue where the nuclide is likely to concentrate, ionizing power of the radiation from the nuclide that depends on the energy of the radiation emitted from the radio-nuclides etc. It is from such considerations that one concludes that radioactive nuclides of few elements are the most hazardous for human beings. In few other cases, the effect of nuclides poses long-term hazards, even to future generations also. The thought of Atomic Bomb has set a certain perception in the public mind. The dangers, use and abuse of nuclear facilities, operations and waste are enormous. Radioactive waste is potentially toxic for many years, it is also the most difficult to be disposed safely because of its heat and radiation output. The exposure to radioactivity has the following main adverse effect on human life: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

Damage to genetic system (DNA) Cancer Cataract Skin burns Vomiting Hair loss Temporary sterility Blood change/clotting Damage of reproductive cells Deformed limbs in future generations

Acts for Controlling Environmental Pollution Few of the important Acts are discussed below : The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 Scientific and industrial growth, without sustainable development and proper care for environment, invite the disasters like heavy pollution of natural resources, depletion of environment, severe health problems for human beings etc. At this period penal laws of the country did not suffice to take stringent steps to check, control and reduce these regressing phenomena. A new law was then formed to define and explain the importance of certain terms like environment, pollution etc. This Act empowers Central Government to make rules and lay procedures for prevention of any event which may cause environmental pollution. Central Government may for this purpose provide for certain rules for following www.ijsir.co.in

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matters.

water, all water courses, sea and tidal waters etc.

The standards of quality of air, water, soil etc.

The maximum allowable limits of concentration of pollutants affecting environment.

The procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances.

The prohibition and restrictions on location of industries etc.

The Central Government and the State Governments are authorized to appoint Central Board and State Board respectively to control and check all kinds of activities polluting water and also to promote cleanliness of streams and wells. These Boards shall also make plans and programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution of streams and wells. The Boards have to lay down and modify the effluent standards for sewage and trade effluents and also evolve methods of utilization or recycling of sewage.

Persons who carry on industry, operation or any process etc. are not allowed to emit or discharge any of the environmental pollutions in excess of standards prescribed by the Government. The penalty and punishment prescribed for contravention of any of the provisions of this Act are purposely determined in a very harsh manner to avoid any kind of mischief or non-observance. Any failure of any rule will invite imprisonment for the term up to 5 years and/or with the fine up to rupees one lakh. The Central Government is also authorized to issue directions for closure, prohibitions or regulation of any industry, operation or process and also to stop or regulate the supply of electricity, water or any other amenities or service which are essential for the process of any such defaulting industries even without the direction of the court. Supreme Court, in one of its very important rulings, ruled that ‘the right to environmental protection’ should be considered as part of ‘the right to life’ under Article 21 of The Constitution of India. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 The objective of this Act is to control the pollution of water and also to preserve and protect the purity of water. The Act also lays down preventive and precautionary measures to be taken by industrial owners. In order to cover all sorts of water resources under this Act, the definition of ‘stream’ was widened. This will include rivers, tanks, inland www.ijsir.co.in

The authorities of such Boards are empowered to take any samples of water source or sewage from any area which is an effluent of any industry for the purpose of analyzing/testing the percentage of contamination in it. The Boards can also carry out operations of cleaning and to remove the matters from water source and dispose it off in proper manner. Contravention of any provision of this Act will call for the imprisonment from minimum 3 months to maximum 7 years and/or with fine from one thousand to five thousand rupees. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 With the increasing industrialization and tendency of the majority of industries to congregate in already heavily industrialized area, the problems of air pollution began to be felt in the country, more acutely so in such areas which are also densely populated. The presence in air of various pollutants discharged through industrial emissions and from certain human activities connected with traffic, heating, use of domestic fuel, refuse incinerations etc. has a detrimental effect on the health of the people as also of animal life, vegetation and property. To check air pollution, The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 was enacted by the Parliament under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution. The Act exclusively deals with the preservation of air quality and control of air pollution. The Act envisages the setting up of Air Pollution Control Boards at the Centre as well as 191

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in the States with power to issue and revoke licenses to polluting industries, enforce emission standards and to frame rules and regulations for the control of air pollution. The legislation is directly against polluting industries called scheduled industries. The schedule has a list of 20 types of industries such as textile, power plants, iron and steel, engineering, chemical, fertilizer, coal industries etc. It covers all sources of pollution such as industries, transport, railways, automobiles as well as domestic fuel with extensive powers to the Boards for effective action. Under this Act, Government is empowered to declare any area as the pollution control area. The State Boards are formed for the purpose of keeping check on all activities causing air pollution. The Board can prohibit the use of any such kind of fuel which may cause air pollution and no one is allowed to use any other fuel than the approved fuel. No one is allowed to operate or start any industrial plant specified in the schedule, in an air pollution control area without taking prior consent of the State Board. Every person has to submit an application before the State Board for consent of the Board to start such industry.

Keeping in view of the above, the Central Government has made the rules for regulation and control of noise producing sources as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The Noise pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000â&#x20AC;&#x2122; The various noise levels, in decibels (dB), and its effects on human being is shown below : Noise (dB)

Effects Observed

Threshold of audibility

Normal audible level

Hearing impairment

110

Stimulation of reception in skin

120

Pain threshold

130

Nausea, vomiting, dizziness

140

Pain in ear, insanity

150

Burning of skin

160

Minor permanent damage if prolonged

190

Major permanent damage in a short time The Rules elaborates the following:

All authorities, while planning developmental activity or carrying out functions relating to town and country planning shall take into consideration all aspects of noise pollution as a parameter of quality of life to avoid noise menace and to achieve the objective of maintaining the ambient air quality standards in respect of noise.

An area comprising not less than 100 meters around hospitals, educational institutions and courts may be declared as silence zone.

A loud speaker or a public address system shall not be used except after obtaining written permission from the authority, also the public address system shall not be used at night (between 10.00 PM to 6.00 AM).

None of the industrial unit will be allowed to discharge or emit any of the air pollutant in excess of the standards laid down in prescribed manner. Penalties for contravening the provisions of this Act are stringent, imprisonment ranging from six months to seven years with or without fine. The Noise pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 Whereas the increasing ambient noise levels in public places from various sources e.g. industrial activity, construction activity, generator sets, loud speakers, public address systems, music systems, vehicular horns and other mechanical devices have adverse effects on human health and the psychological well being of the people, it is considered necessary to regulate and control noise producing source with the objective of maintaining of ambient air quality standards in respect of noise.

192

Violation Whoever, in any place covered under the silence zone, commits any of the following offence; he shall be liable for penalty under the provision of the Rule:

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Whoever plays any music or uses any sound amplifiers.

Whoever beats a drum or blows a horn either musical or pressure or trumpet or beats or sounds any instrument.

Whoever exhibits any mimetic, musical or other performances of a nature to attract crowds.

processing and disposal facility including landfills from the State Board. c.

The municipal authority shall comply with these Rules as per the implementation schedule.

The municipal authority shall furnish its annual report in the prescribed Form –

Complaints / Punishment a.

A person may, if the noise level exceeds the ambient noise standards by 50 dB or more, make a complaint to the authority.

The authority shall act on the complaint and take action against the violator in accordance with the provisions of these rules and any other law in force.

The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 Solid Wastes, if not handled properly is a major health hazard. Its collection, transportation, processing and disposal are critical activities. Processing involves physical, chemical or biological procedures. The recycling and disposal by land filling are most common methods employed so far. To regulate all these activities, under controlled system, Government of India enacted a set of Rules known as ‘The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000’. Application These rules shall apply to every municipal authority responsible for collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing and disposal of municipal solid wastes. Responsibility a.

To the Secretary-in-charge of the Department of Urban Development of the concerned State or as the case may be of the Union Territory in case of a metropolitan city.

ii.

To the District Magistrate or the Deputy Commissioner concerned in case of all other towns and cities with a copy to the State Board.

Implementation of Rules a.

The Secretary-in-Charge of the Department of Urban Development of the concerned State or the Union Territory, as the case may be, shall have the overall responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of these rules in the metropolitan cities.

The District Magistrate or the Deputy Commissioner of the concerned district shall have the overall responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of these rules within the territorial limits of their jurisdiction.

The Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987 The above said legislation, The Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987, has many clauses and sub-clauses. Few of them are detailed below:

Every municipal authority shall, within the territorial area of municipality, be responsible for the implementation of the provisions of these rules and for any infrastructure development for collection, storage, segregation, transportation, processing and disposal of municipal solid wastes.

1. Restriction on the disposal of radioactive waste : No person shall dispose of radioactive waste –

The municipal authority shall make an application in the prescribed Form for grant of authorization for setting up waste

(b) in any manner other than in accordance with the terms and conditions specified in the authorization issued under these rules;

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(a) unless he has obtained an authorization from the competent authority under these rules;

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(c) in any location different from those specified in the authorization; (d) in quantities exceeding those specified in the authorization. 2. Application for authorization : Each application for authorization to dispose or transfer radioactive waste shall be made in the prescribed format and shall give the brief description of â&#x20AC;&#x201C; (a) the process, materials and equipment generating radioactive wastes in the installation; (b) the equipment and systems provided in the waste generating installation to monitor and control the radioactive wastes and to reduce environmental releases;

(c) any operation likely to result in a more hazardous accident than that envisaged in the safety analysis given by the applicant are not carried out in the installation; (d) personnel monitoring and environmental surveillance is carried out in a continued basis to evaluate the risks and to monitor the environmental impact of the waste disposal operations; (e) after the waste disposal installation is closed, institutional control is maintained for such time as stipulated by the competent authority in each specific case.

4. Maintenance of records of waste disposal : Every authorized person shall maintain records of disposal of radioactive waste, giving the following particulars -

(d) the processes and equipments in the installation for conditioning, treatment and disposal of radioactive waste and the staff employed for the purpose;

(a) the description, quantity, physical state, chemical characteristics and the date of disposal of each consignment of radioactive waste;

(e) safety devices incorporated in the waste disposal installation to contain the radioactive effluent and control their release to unrestricted areas during normal operations;

(b) mode of disposal, concentration of radioactive material in the waste disposed off and site of disposal;

(f)

an estimate of the amounts of annual releases, discharges and leakages from radioactive waste repositories during normal condition and an analysis of their anticipated environmental impact;

(g) an analysis of the potential accidents which may occur in the installation and design features and monitoring equipment incorporated in the waste disposal installation to control the release of radioactivity in the event of such accidents. 3. Duties of the authorized person : Every authorized person shall ensure that â&#x20AC;&#x201C; (a) disposal of radioactive wastes is done in accordance with the provisions of these rules and in accordance with the terms and conditions laid down in the authorization; (b) records of waste disposal are maintained by the competent authority; 194

(c) data on periodic radiation surveillance in and around the site of the disposal of radioactive waste. 5. Prevention of entry into restricted areas: The authorized person shall make adequate arrangements to prevent entry of unauthorized members of the public in the restricted areas and shall further ensure that only the essential staff remains in the said areas to perform necessary operations. 6. Power to inspect installations : Any person duly authorized by the competent authority for inspection and enforcement of these rules may at any time â&#x20AC;&#x201C; (a) inspect any installation where disposal of radioactive waste is carried out; (b) inspect any equipment, permanently installed or mobile, therein; (c) make such tests and measurements as may be necessary for purposes of evaluating radiation hazards; www.ijsir.co.in

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(d) order disposal of such radioactive wastes as he deems necessary in the interest of radiation protection. 7. Closure and institutional control: Closure of a radioactive waste disposal installation and institutional control shall be undertaken by the authorized person after obtaining permission from the competent authority and in accordance with the procedure as prescribed by the competent authority in each case. CONCLUSION The environmental consequences of rapid industrialization have resulted in countless incidents of lands, air and water resources sites being contaminated with toxic materials and other pollutants, threatening humans and ecosystems with serious health risks. More extensive and intensive use of materials and energy has created cumulative pressures on the quality of local, regional and global ecosystems. Applications of pollution control methods have demonstrated considerable effectiveness in controlling pollution problems. Application of appropriate technologies is based on a systematic analysis of the source and nature of the emission or discharge, its interaction with the ecosystem and development of appropriate technologies to monitor pollution impacts. India is one of the first countries which has made provision for the protection and improvement of environment in its legal system which empowers State to make endeavor for protection and improvement of the environment and for safeguard the environment and ecosystem of the country. A landmark provision is also incorporated as one of the Fundamental

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Duties of every citizen of India to safeguard and protect the environment. However, with our country’s emerging environmental scenario with industrialization, these legislations were found either inadequate or being not effectively applicable to check the degradation of our environment. Over the years, several amendments have also been made in the various existing legislations to meet the requirements of the unfolding environmental issues. But, the need of the day is to implement the existing legislations with full sincerity to protect the environment for peaceful and healthy co-existence of climate, vegetation, land, rivers, human and animal lives. REFERENCES 1.

Prof. K C Mathur and Prof. R N Shukla, “Pollution Management”.

G N Pandey and G C Carney, “Environmental Engineering”.

Gilbert M. Masters, “Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science”.

Anjaneyulu Y, “Introduction to Environmental Science”.

Trivedi R K, “Handbook of Environmental Laws, Acts, Guidelines, Compliances and Standards”.

Press Information Bureau, Government of India, http://pib.nic.in/newsite erelease. aspx? relid = 94087

Rao, K R, “Radioactive waste: The problem and its management”.

Wattal P K, “Indian programme on radioactive waste management”.

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CARBON TRADING : SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT WITH POTENTIAL WEALTH IMRAN FAROOQ1 , *KAMLESH KUMAR SHUKLA 2 1 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 2 Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P.G. College, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

* Address for correspondence: Dr. Kamlesh Kumar Shukla , Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P.G. College, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, email :drkkshukla78@gmail.com

ABSTRACT In response to the global warming crisis, in Rio deo Janeiro of Brazil, the 1992 UN Conference on the Environmental and Development clearly raised the concept of sustainable development. Through this conference more than 150 countries had established “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change”, which was called UNFCCC for short. UNFCCC is the first convention to take full control of greenhouse gas emissions including carbon dioxide discharge and is an international convention to fight global warming which is causing a lot of adverse effect to the development of society and economy. After that, in December 1997, the third Conference of the Parties (COP) under the UNFCCC held in Kyoto of Japan, which aimed at limiting carbon emissions in developed countries. In this way, we can curb global warming. Carbon trading is a advances format, where firms or countries buy and sell carbon permits as part of a program to trim out carbon emission. It is a widespread method and countries utilise it in order to meet their obligations specified by international Kyoto Protocol (1997) of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in order to mitigate future climate changes. It specifically targets carbon dioxide calculated in terms of CO2 equivalent or CO2. Currently, future contracts in carbon credits are actively traded in European Exchanges (ECX).The European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is the largest multinational, greenhouse emissions scheme in the world and is committed to reduce 8% 1990 levels of emission in 2008-2012.Carbon Development Mechanism (CDM) is another trading project which is administered by the CDM executive which reports and is accountable to the Conference of Parties(COP) Carbon Trading. In India, though we are potentially the largest market for carbon credits on the MCX, we still need to implement proper policies to allow trading of certified emission reductions (CERs), carbon credit. To increase the market for carbon trading Forward Contracts (Regulation) Amendment Bill has been introduced in the Parliament. Thus we see that Carbon Trading is definitely the “Greenest” pastures for business trading for the small and large scale private and governmental sectors in India with opportunities for everyone. So, in this paper, we have reviewed and put forward the technologies and market standards that we can set so that the concept of carbon trading can have its roots in India too. Keyword: Carbon Permits, Kyoto Protocol, Carbon Development Mechanism (CDM), Carbon Footprint .Carbon trading in India INTRODUCTION Increase in GHGs mostly the Carbon dioxide is the serious problem of the era. The problem with humans contributing so much carbon dioxide is that Earth’s natural system is overwhelmed and 196

can’t keep up with the rate of our CO2 release. The natural carbon cycle is disrupted and Earth’s carbon ‘sinks’ or places that carbon can be safely absorbed are either diminishing or saturated. The terms ‘Global Warming’ and ‘Climate Change’, www.ijsir.co.in

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describes what is happening..!! Global economic growth is driving higher carbon dioxide emissions and we really must manage the tremendous amounts of carbon dioxide we are emitting. Definition of ‘Carbon Trade’ An exchange of credits between nations designed to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide. The carbon trade allows countries that have higher carbon emissions to purchase the right to release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from countries that have lower carbon emissions. The carbon trade originated with the 1997 Kyoto Protocol and is intended to reduce overall carbon dioxide emissions to 5% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide calculated in tonnes of carbon equivalent or tCO2e and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading. This form of permit trading is a common method and countries utilize it in order to meet the obligations specified by Kyoto Protocol; namely the reduction of the carbon emissions in an attempt to mitigate the future climate change. Emission trading works by setting a quantitative limit on emissions produced by emitters. How are carbon credits created? The carbon market can be divided into two: the voluntary market and the regulatory (compliance) market .In the compliance market, carbon credits are generated by projects that operate under one of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) approved mechanisms such as the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).Credits generated under this mechanism are known as Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs). In the voluntary market, carbon credits are generated by projects that are accredited to independent international standards such as the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS). These credits are known as Verified Emission Reductions (VERs). Carbon Trade Exchange supports the trading of both voluntary and compliance credits. It is important to note that carbon credits differ from carbon allowances although the term carbon credit is interchangeably used to represent both. www.ijsir.co.in

Although in most cases, they both represent one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent, allowances do not originate from carbon projects but are allocated to companies under a ‘cap and trade’ system such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme – therefore, they represent the right to emit. How are carbon credits issued? All projects listed on CTX are certified, verified and registered, ensuring that actual emission reductions take place before the credits are issued thus providing a secure and transparent environment for carbon trading. The process of getting credits issued varies depending on the credit type i.e. CERs vs VERs. However, below is a very general overview of the process a project developer needs to follow before credits can be issued: 1.

3. 4. 5. 6.

The selection of a approved methodology which quantifies the GHG benefits of a project The development of a Project Design Document (PDD) which describes the whole project in detail including the project crediting period and the demonstration of additionality An independent auditor reviews the PDD and validates the project The project is monitored to ensure that GHG reductions are occurring The monitoring reports are verified by an independent auditor The project gets credits issued into a appropriate registry account

Where are carbon credits held? Carbon credits are stored electronically in ‘registries’. Registries are essential for issuing, holding, and transferring carbon credits. Once a carbon project is issued with credits, the registry gives each one a unique serial number so that they can be tracked through their entire life-cycle. Registries also facilitate the retirement (surrendering) of credits for carbon neutrality purposes, ensuring credits are not resold at a later date. In the voluntary carbon market, the largest registry is the Market Environmental Registry which CTX is directly connected to. In the 197

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compliance markets, each scheme has its own arrangements with regards to registries. CTX is connected to various national registries in the EU via CDC Climate’s Registry Electronic Interface (REI). Greenhouse gases Greenhouse gases trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere. Cars, planes, power plants and factories all emit GHG. The Kyoto Protocol, an international GHG agreement, defines six troubling types of emissions: ·

Carbon dioxide (CO2): When fossil fuels, waste and plant matter burn, they emit CO2, the most common GHG emission.

Methane (CH 4 ): Landfills, livestock, agricultural activities and the production of coal, natural gas and oil all generate CH4, an emission far more powerful than CO2.

Nitrous oxide (N2O): Sewage treatment and the combustion of fossil fuels both produce N2O. s However, fertilizer and agricultural soil management release the majority of this potent emission.

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6): The electric power industry uses this man-made compound for insulation and current interruption.

Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs): Solvents, refrigerants, fire fighting agents and propellants for aerosols use HFCs as a replacement for ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Per fluorocarbons (PFCs): There are relatively low amounts of PFCs in the atmosphere,- but they’re hard to get rid of. The estimated atmospheric life of this solvent and component of aluminium production ranges from 10,000 to 50,000 years!

KYOTO PROTOCOL: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The Kyoto Protocol is an historical agreement. It was the first international agreement in which many of the world’s industrial nations concluded a verifiable agreement to reduce their emissions of six greenhouse gases 198

in order to prevent global warming. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing emissions. These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. 184 Parties of the Convention have ratified its Protocol to date. It is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The conference ended with an agreement of “Kyoto Protocol”. The Protocol took formal effect on February 16th 2005. “Kyoto Protocol” is internationally binding and enforceable agreements that will encourage countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The Kyoto Protocol has introduced ground breaking concepts on carbon credits, carbon footprint and emissions trading. Annex - I Countries: United States of America, United Kingdom, Japan, New Zealand, Canada, Australia, Austria, Spain, France, and Germany etc. agree to reduce their emissions (particularly carbon dioxide) to target levels below their 1990 emissions levels. A total of 41 industrialized countries are currently listed in the Convention’s Annex-1 including the relatively wealthy industrialized countries that were members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1992, plus countries with economies in transition (EITs), including the Russian Federation, the Baltic States, and several Central and Eastern European States. Annex II Countries: Annex II countries are a sub-group of the Annex I countries. Developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries if they cannot reduce their emissions, they must buy emission credits from developing countries or invest in conservation are included in this category. Countries like United States of America, United Kingdom, Japan, Newzealand, Canada, Australia, Austria, Spainetc are also included in Annex- II. This serves three purposes: www.ijsir.co.in

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Avoids restrictions on growth because pollution is strongly linked to industrial growth, and developing economies can potentially grow very fast.

It means that they cannot sell emissions credits to industrialized nations to permit those nations to over-pollute.

They get money and technologies from the developed countries in Annex II.

Kuwait, Malaysia, Pakistan, Phillippines, Saudi Arabia, Sigapore, South Africa, UAE etc. Developing countries have no immediate restrictions under the UNFCCC. This serves three purposes: a)

Avoids restrictions on growth because pollution is strongly linked to industrial growth, and developing economies can potentially grow very fast.

It means that they cannot sell emissions credits to industrialized nations to permit those nations to over-pollute.

They get money and technologies from the developed countries in Annex II.

CARBON EMISSIONS TRADING It is relatively a new market and has traded a bit at minor levels in the OTC market since the 1990s .Recent developments in this vibrant market is due to significant global governmental involvement which has facilitated the tremendous growth for carbon emission trading since 1997 from $727 million in 2004 to over $120 billion in 2008. The carbon credit market emerged due to various regularity bodies that collaborated with governments to establish the framework for carbon emission trading in a proactive attempt to involve the world to decrease their carbon footprint. Furthermore, due to the complexity of this market, carbon emission trading has attracted numerous intermediaries including brokers, exchangers, aggregators and financiers. Opportunities for market participants are expected to continue to increase as the value of global carbon markets are forecast to grow by 68% per year to $669 billion in 2013.With the EU www.ijsir.co.in

members taking common commitment to reduce their average greenhouse emissions by 8% in the first Kyoto commitment (2008-2012), the EU has set up a European Emissions Trading Scheme. With the Japanese and Canadian governments entering the markets, and increased pressure on US companies to comply with the carbon emission reduction, the end-user in this market has grown and will continue to do so. Further to this, Britain’s Department of Energy has committed to cut carbon emission by 8% before 2050. Even, Barack Obama’s new US administration is considering whether to set up its own federal carbon emissions trading scheme. CARBON CREDITS The primary purpose of the Protocol was to make developed countries pay for their ways with emissions while at the same time monetarily rewarding countries with good behaviour in this regard. Since developing countries can start with clean technologies, they will be rewarded by those stuck with “dirty ones. This system poises to become a big machine for partially transferring wealth from wealthy, industrialised countries to poor, undeveloped countries. A CER or carbon Credit is defined as the unit related to reduction of 1 tonne of CO 2 emission from the baseline of the project activity.

For example, India decided to invest in a new power station, and has decided on a particular technology at the cost of X crore. An entity from an industrialised country (which could even be a company) offers to provide India with slightly better technology, which costs more (say Y crore), but will result in lower emissions. The industrialised country will only pay the incremental cost of the project – viz. Y minus X. In return, the investing” country will get certified emission reductions (CERs), or credits, which it can use to meet its Kyoto commitments. This is 199

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a very good deal indeed – but for the investing country. Not only do they sell developing countries their technology, but they also meet their Kyoto commitments without lifting a finger to reduce their domestic emissions. Countries like the US can continue to pollute at home, so long as it makes the reductions elsewhere. MECHANISMS OF EMISSION REDUCTONS TO EARN CARBON CREDITS Kyoto Protocol worked out three mechanisms of the energy conservation and emission reduction; Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Joint Implementation (JI) Emissions Trade (ET) a) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Under the UNFCCC charter, any company from the developed world can tie up with a company in the developing country that is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol. These companies in developing countries must adopt newer technologies, emitting lesser gases, and save energy. Only a portion of the total earnings of carbon credits of the company can be transferred to the company of the developed countries under CDM. There is a fixed quota on buying of credit by companies in Europe.

b) Joint Implementation (JI): The mechanism known as “joint implementation,” defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emissionreduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target. Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer. c) Emissions Trading (ET): Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Parties) have accepted targets for limiting or reducing emissions. These targets are expressed as levels of allowed emissions, or “assigned amounts,” over the 2008-2012 commitment periods. The allowed emissions are divided into “assigned amount units” (AAUs).Emissions’ trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have emission units to spare – emissions permitted them but not “used” - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets .Thus, a new commodity was created in the form of emission reductions or removals. Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon. Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other commodity. This is known as the “carbon market.” INDIA AND CARBON CREDITS India being a developing country has no emission targets to be followed. However, it can enter into CDM projects. As mentioned earlier, industries like cement, steel, power, textile, fertilizer etc emit green houses gases as an outcome of burning fossil fuels. Companies investing in windmill, bio-gas, bio-diesel, and cogeneration are the ones that will generate carbon credits for selling to developed nations. Polluting industries, which are trying to reduce emissions and in turn earn carbon credits and make money include steel, power generation, cement, fertilizers, waste disposal units, plantation

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companies, sugar companies, chemical plants and municipal corporations. DELHI METRO RAIL CORPORATION (DMRC) A must mention project is The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC): It has become the first rail project in the world to earn carbon credits because of using regenerative braking system in its rolling stock. DMRC has earned the carbon credits by using regenerative braking system in its trains that reduces 30% electricity consumption. Whenever a train applies regenerative braking system, the released kinetic energy starts a machine known as converter-inverter that acts as an electricity generator, which supplies electrical energy back to the Over Head Electricity (OHE) lines. This regenerated electrical energy that is supplied back to the OHE that is used by other accelerating trains in the same service line. DMRC can now claim 400,000 CERs for a 10-year crediting period beginning December 2007 when the project was registered by the UNFCCC. This translates to Rs 1.2 crore per year for 10 years. India has the highest number of CDM projects registered and supplies the second highest number of Certified Emission Reduction units. Hence, India is already a strong supplier of Carbon Credits and can improve on it. (Refer Annexure No. 3 & 4 for projects registered and expected average annual CERs generated respectively) BENEFITS FOR INDIA By switching to Clean Development Mechanism Projects, India has a lot to gain from Carbon Credits: a)

It will gain in terms of advanced technological improvements and related foreign investments.

It will contribute to the underlying theme of green house gas reduction by adopting alternative sources of energy

Indian companies can make profits by selling the CERs to the developed countries to meet their emission targets.

Trading of CERs As a welcome scenario, India now has two www.ijsir.co.in

commodity exchanges trading in Carbon Credits. This means that Indian companies can now get a better trading platform and price for CERs generated. Multi Commodity Exchange (MCX), Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest commodity exchange, has launched future trading in carbon credits. The initiative makes it Asiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first-ever commodity exchange and among the select few along with the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCE) and the European Climate Exchange to offer trades in carbon credits. The Indian exchange also expects its tie-up with CCX which will enable Indian firms to get better prices for their carbon credits and better integrate the Indian market with the global markets to foster best practices in emissions trading. On 11th April 2008, National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange (NCDEX) also started future contract in carbon trading for delivery in December 2008. MCX is the future exchange. People here are getting price signals for the carbon trading for the delivery in next five years. The exchange is only for Indians and Indian companies. Every year, in the month of December, the contract expires and at that time people who have bought or sold carbon will have to give or take delivery. They can fulfil the deal prior to December too, but most people will wait until December because that is the time to meet the norms in Europe. If the Indian buyer thinks that the current price is low for him he will wait before selling his credits. The Indian government has not fixed any norms nor has it made it compulsory to reduce carbon emissions to a certain level. So, people who are coming to buy from Indians are actually financial investors. If the Europeans were unable to meet their target of reducing the emission levels by 2009, 2010 or 2012, then the demand for the carbon would increase and then they would make more money. There was a huge requirement of carbon credits in Europe before 2012. Only those Indian companies that meet the UNFCCC norms and take up new technologies will be entitled to sell carbon credits. There are parameters set and detailed audit is done before you get the entitlement to sell the credit. Financing support in India: Carbon Credit projects require huge capital investment. Realizing the importance of carbon credits in India, World Bank has entered into an 201

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agreement with Infrastructure Development finance Company (IDFC), wherein IDFC will handle carbon finance operations in the country for various carbon finance facilities. The agreement initially earmarks a $10-million aid in World Bank-managed carbon finance to IDFCfinanced projects that meet all the required eligibility and due diligence standards .IDBI has set up a dedicated Carbon Credit desk, which provides all the services in the area of Clean Development Mechanism/Carbon Credit (CDM).In order to achieve this objective, IDBI has entered into formal arrangements with multilateral agencies and buyers of carbon credits like IFC, Washington, KfW, Germany and Sumitomo Corporation, Japan and reputed domestic technical experts like MITCON.HDFC Bank has signed an agreement with Cantor CO2E India Pvt Ltd and MITCON Consultancy Services Limited (MITCON) for providing carbon credit services. As part of the agreement, HDFC Bank will work with the two companies on awareness building, identifying and registering Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and facilitating the buy or sell of carbon credits in the global market.ss

LEGAL ASPECT OF CARBON TRADING IN INDIA

Examples of Carbon trading in India

Under the present provision of the Forward Contracts Regulation Act, the trading of forward contracts will be considered as void as no physical delivery is issued against these contracts. To rectify this Forward Contracts (Regulation) Amendment Bill 2006 was introduced in the Indian Parliament. The Union Cabinet on January 25, 2008 approved the ordinance for amending the Forward Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1952. This Bill also amends the definition of ‘forward contract’ to include ‘commodity derivatives’. Currently the definition only covers ‘goods’ that are physically deliverable. However a government notification on January 4th paved the way for future trading in CER by bringing carbon credit under the tradable commodities.

Jindal Vijaynagar Steel The Jindal Vijaynagar Steel has recently declared that by the next ten years it will be ready to sell $225 million worth of saved carbon. This was made possible since their steel plant uses the Corex furnace technology which prevents 15 million tonnes of carbon from being discharged into the atmosphere. Powerguda in Andhra Pradesh The village in Andhra Pradesh was selling 147 tonnes equivalent of saved carbon dioxide credits. The company has made a claim of having saved 147 MT of CO 2. This was done by extracting bio-diesel from 4500 Pongamia trees in their village. Handia Forest in Madhya Pradesh In Madhya Pradesh, it is estimated that 95 very poor rural villages would jointly earn at least US$300,000 every year from carbon payments by restoring 10,000 hectares of degraded community forests. 202

The Multi Commodity exchange started future trading on January 2008 after Government of India recognized carbon credit as commodities on 4th January. The National Commodity and Derivative Exchange by a notification and with due approval from Forward Market Commission (FMC) launched Carbon Credit future contact whose aim was to provide transparency to markets and help the producers to earn remuneration out of the environmental projects. Carbon credit in India is traded on NCDEX only as a future contract. Future contract is a standardized contract between two parties to buy or sell a specified asset of standardized quantity and quality at a specified future date at a price agreed today (the future price). The contracts are traded on a future exchange. These types of contracts are only applicable to goods which are in the form of movable property other than actionable claims, money and securities . Forward contracts in India are governed by the Indian Contract Act, 1872.

Mandatory Carbon Trading The Kyoto Protocol, an international treaty on climate change that came into force in 2005, dominates the mandatory carbon market. It serves as both a model and a warning for every emerging carbon program. In the early 1990s, nearly every member www.ijsir.co.in

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state of the United Nations resolved to confront global warming and manage its consequences. Although the resulting United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) international treaty recognized a unified resolve to slow global warming, it sets only loose goals for lowering emissions. In 1997, the Kyoto amendment strengthened the convention.

Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI). CDM allows Annex I industrialized countries to pay for emissions reduction projects in poorer countries that do not have emissions targets. By funding projects, Annex I countries earn certified emissions reduction (CER) credits to add to their own allowances. JI allows Annex I parties to fund projects in other Annex I countries.

Under the Protocol, members of the convention with industrialized or transitional economies (Annex I members) receive specific reduction targets. Member states with developing economies are not expected to meet emissions targets—an exception that has caused controversy because some nations like China and India produce enormous levels of GHG. The Protocol commits Annex I members to cut their emissions 5 percent below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. But because the Protocol does not manage the way in which members reduce their emissions, several mechanisms have arisen. The largest and most famous is the European Trading Scheme (ETS), still in its twoyear trial phase.

The Kyoto Protocol expires in 2012. Lawmakers around the world are rushing to analyze its achievements and shortcomings and negotiate a successor. The United States, Kyoto’s most famous holdout, lacks any national mandatory carbon legislation but, ironically, has a booming voluntary carbon market. In the next section we’ll learn about the Chicago Climate Exchange.

The ETS is mandatory across the European Union (EU). The multi sector cap and trade scheme includes about 12,000 factories and utilities in 25 countries. Each member state sets its own emissions cap, or national allocation plan, based on its Kyoto and national targets. Countries then distribute allowances totalling the cap to individual firms. Even though countries distribute their own allowances, the allowances themselves can be traded across the EU. Independent third parties verify all emissions and reductions. There has been, however, some question as to whether the ETS has actually helped reduce emissions. Some people even call it a “permit to pollute” because the ETS allows member states to distribute allowances free of charge. The ETS also excludes transport, homes and public sector emissions from regulation and as with all capand-trade schemes, governments can essentially exempt influential industries by flooding them with free allowances. The ETS allows its members to earn credits by funding projects through two other Kyoto mechanisms: the Clean Development www.ijsir.co.in

CRITICISMS One criticism of carbon trading is that it is a form of colonialism, where rich countries maintain their levels of consumption while getting credit for carbon savings in inefficient industrial projects (Liverman, 2008, p. 16). Nations that have fewer financial resources may find that they cannot afford the permits necessary for developing an industrial infrastructure, thus inhibiting these countries economic development. Other criticisms include the questionable level of sustainable development promoted by the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism. Another criticism is of non-existent emission reductions produced in the Kyoto Protocol due to the surplus (“hot air”) of allowances that some countries have. For example, Russia has a surplus of allowances due to its economic collapse following the end of the Soviet Union (Liverman, 2008, p. 13). Other countries could buy these allowances from Russia, but this would not reduce emissions. Rather, it would simply be a redistribution of emissions allowances. In practice, Kyoto Parties have as yet chosen not to buy these surplus allowances (PBL, 2009) In China some companies started artificial production of greenhouse gases with sole purpose of their recycling and gaining carbon credits. Similar practices happened in India. Earned credits were then sold to companies in US and Europe. 203

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Critics of carbon trading, such as Carbon Trade Watch, argue that it places disproportionate emphasis on individual lifestyles and carbon footprints, distracting attention from the wider, systemic changes and collective political action that needs to be taken to tackle climate change. Groups such as the Corner House have argued that the market will choose the easiest means to save a given quantity of carbon in the short term, which may be different from the pathway required to obtain sustained and sizable reductions over a longer period, and so a market-led approach is likely to reinforce technological lock-in. For instance, small cuts may often be achieved cheaply through investment in making a technology more efficient, where larger cuts would require scrapping the technology and using a different one. They also argue that emissions trading are undermining alternative approaches to pollution control with which it does not combine well, and so the overall effect it is having is to actually stall significant change to less polluting technologies. In September 2010, campaigning group FERN released “Trading Carbon: How it works and why it is controversial”] which compiles many of the arguments against carbon trading. The Financial Times published an article about cap-and-trade systems which argued that “Carbon markets create a muddle” and “...leave much room for unverifiable manipulation”. Lohmann (2009) pointed out that emissions trading schemes create new uncertainties and risks, which can be commoditised by means of derivatives, thereby creating a new speculative market. Recent proposals for alternative schemes to avoid the problems of cap-and-trade schemes include Cap and Share, which was being actively considered by the Irish Parliament in May 2008, and the Sky Trust schemes. These schemes state that cap-and-trade or cap-and-tax schemes inherently impact the poor and those in rural areas, who have less choice in energy consumption options.

the goal being to reduce global warming) have been modified in ways that have been attributed to permitting money laundering to take place. The principal point here is that financial system innovations (outside banking) open up the possibility for unregulated (non-banking) transactions to take place in relativity unsupervised markets. The principle being that poorly supervised markets open up the possibility of structuring to take place. CONCLUSION Even though India is the largest sbeneficiary of carbon trading and carbon credits are traded on the MCX, it still does not have a proper policy for trading of carbon in the market. As a result, the Centre has been asked by The National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange Limited (NCDEX) to put in place a proper policy framework for allowing trading of certified emission reductions (CERs), carbon credit, in the market. Also, India has huge number of carbon credits sellers but under the present Indian law, the buyers based in European market are not permitted to enter the market. To increase the market for carbon trading Forward Contracts (Regulation) Amendment Bill has been introduced in the Parliament. This amendment would also help the traders and farmers to utilize NCDEX as a platform for trading of carbon credits. However, to unleash the true potential of carbon trading in India, it is important that a special statue be created for this purpose as the Indian Contracts Act is not enough to govern the contractual issues relating to carbon credits. Having cornered more than half of the global total in tradable certified emission reduction (CERs), India’s dominance in carbon trading under the clean development mechanism (CDM) of the Unconventional on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is beginning to influence business dynamics in the country. REFERANCES 1.

http://carbontradexchange.com/knowledge/what-iscarbon-credit

STRUCTURING ISSUES Corporate and governmental carbon emission trading schemes (a trading system devised by economists to reduce CO2 emissions, 204

http://carbontradexchange.com/

http://www.carbontradewatch.org/publications/ carbon-trading-how-it-works-and-why-it-fails.html 2.

AEA (2009) Reducing the emissions of HFC-23 within and outside of the clean development mechanism,

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 196-205, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971 May 2009, Oxfordshire, UK. Work commissioned by the Department of Energy and Climate Change 3.

AEA Technology (2009) Report on International Aviation and Maritime Emissions in a Copenhagen (post 2012)

Haites, E (2003) Harmonisation between National and International Tradeable Permit Schemes: CATEP Synthesis Paper, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris.

Haites, E (2008) Linking emissions trading schemes for international aviation and maritime emissions, Climate Strategies, Cambridge Harbury, C and Lipsey, R (1992) First principles of economics, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Agreement: Final Report, AEA Technology, Oxfordshire, Ambrosi, P and Capoor, K (2009) State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2009, The World Bank,Washington DC 4.

Anderson, J and Mehling, M (2009) Linking the EU’s emissions Trading System to any future US Emissions Trading Scheme, European Parliament Policy Department Economic and Scientific Policy, European Parliament Associated Press (2009) ’Automakers, Obama announce mileage, pollution plan’, 19 May 2009

Associated Press (2009) ’Obama team debuts at U.N. climate talks’, Msnbc, 29 March 2009

Australian Government (2008) Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: Australia’s Low Pollution Future, White Paper Volume 1. Available at http:// www.climatechange.gov.au/emissionstrading/ index.html

FERN: www.fern.org Point Carbon: http://www.pointcarbon.com/ REDD Monitor: www.redd-monitor.org SinksWatch: www.sinkswatch.org 9.

The Corner House: www.thecornerhouse.org.uk UN Risoe: http://uneprisoe.org/ UNFCCC CDM database: http://cdm.unfccc.int/ index.html

10.

World Bank State of the Carbon Market annual report: http://siteresources. worldbank.org/INTCARBONFINANCE/Resources/ State_and_Trends_of_the_ Carbon_Market_2010_low_res.pdf

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SOCIAL MEDIA AND ITS ROLE IN BRAND BUILDING SHALINI BARIAR* Assistant Professor, Durga Devi Saraf Institute of Management, Mumbai, India *Address for Correspondence : Dr. Shalini Bariar, Assistant Professor Durga Devi Saraf Institute of Management, Mumbai, India Email: shalinibariar@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Advancement in technology in recent years has transformed the purpose of communication and encouraged the emergence of new communication channels based on internet technology, that have fashioned bold new approaches in the management of the marketing mix. The growing importance of social media marketing has come with a revolution in the IMC approach. The low cost and greater benefits have been the major reason for the success of the social media marketing. The study reveals how the consumer awareness generated by social media leads to success in the marketing communications. The continuous updates about the products on the social media generate interest which leads to higher customer involvement and hence enjoys the top of mind recall. Keywords: Social media marketing, consumer awareness, consumer involvement, top-of-mind recall. INTRODUCTION During the last decade, the business world has experienced and reached to an absolutely new horizon of technological advancements. The consumers have started experiencing a substantial change in their lifestyles due to the internet, and mobile technology. The way of learning, working, living, and communicating has changed dramatically. Brain Solis (2010) states, “ the democratization of information, transferring people from content readers into publishers, it is the shift from a broadcast mechanism , one-to many and many to many model, rooted in conversations between authors, people and peers”. Blackshaw and Nazzaro stated that “a variety of new sources of online information that are created, initiated, circulated and used by consumers intent on educating each other about products, brands, services, personalities, and issues” (Blackshaw & Nazzaro , 2004). Griffin (1997) stated that, with the increase in social media networking, building a relationship with your targeted audience and conversing with them has become a major part of marketing adopting the erstwhile “pull” marketing strategy. Social media offers a quicker and more cost-effective way to reach highly targeted markets than 206

marketing through traditional media, (Mannonen & Runonen, 2008). In the today’s scenario, the social media (consumer generated media) are continuously growing and being treated as one of the most important vehicle for creating word of mouth publicity. It can be in form of consumer to consumer email, discussion forum, newsgroups, blogs, social networking sites etc. The business marketers are paying too much importance to this as they believe that it often carries much higher credibility and trust than any other traditional media, especially the advertisements which are believed as misleading and untruthful. During the past few years, along with the traditional modes of marketing communications, the reliance has shifted to the one-to-one promotions, most importantly the social media. Due to the emergence of social media, the marketers have found an inexpensive method to create and implement the marketing campaigns. The social media marketers focus on creating such a content which generates desirable attention and also influence people for sharing it on their social network. The social media relies on the actively participating users who contribute to the entire campaign by their involvements. The key to the www.ijsir.co.in

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success of this media are user participation, user loyalty, user motivations, and the interaction between people.

and test market for promoting the product in long terms and enjoy customer loyalty for longer period.

WHAT IS SOCIAL MEDIA?

BENEFITS OF SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING

There are many definitions of social media but, at its core, social media uses Internet-based technologies that facilitate the creation and exchange of user-generated content. Social media refers to Web sites that permit people to interact with the site and with each other using simple interfaces. The social media mainly includes, the social networking, email marketing, blogs, multimedia sharing, viral marketing, affiliated marketing. At the time of publication, Face book, qq.com, Twitter and YouTube are among the most popular social media sites. Social media provides the information that people share on those sites, including status updates, image and video comments, responses to blogs and forums, and any other individual contributions to the online space. This information reflects naturally occurring conversations among people who may or may not personally know each other. The low cost of social media marketing as well as the amount of users and user information available has contributed in making social media marketing big business.

The marketers believe that the use of Social media along with other IMC tools helps in faster Brand Building due to the following benefits.

The consumer’s current lifestyle has shown special influence of the word of mouth impact on consumer’s buying behaviour. These changes in lifestyle have imposed various challenges and opportunities for marketers on social media. The social media provides numerous opportunities for expanding and strengthening relationships to customers. These include targeted brand building with the help of activities like executive blogs or micro sites, podcasts which are specially developed to focus on specific target markets. The social media offers a quicker and cost effective technique to approach the highly targeted market than targeting through traditional media like television, websites, newspapers or public relations etc . Viewing this recent development in social media marketing, there are opportunities for research and development to get immediate feedback on the product , make corrections and counter challenge. Social media can include customers in the product development process www.ijsir.co.in

The benefits of social media marketing are: 1.

Social media is extremely targeted

Increases business exposure

Gives insight about current and potential customers

Reduces marketing expenses

Strengthen customer loyalty

Lead generation

Creates competitive advantage

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM It is observed that the social media is considered as the latest tool for promoting a brand and creating a competitive advantage over the competitors by enjoying consumer’s top of the mind recall. It has become very necessary to study how the effective strategy be applied to social media that it efficiently manages to build a brand and reap benefits of customer preference. OBJECTIVE The objective of the research is to explore how social media is helping in brand building and how consumers perceive it. SUB OBJECTIVE 1.

To find out how social media helps in brand building.

To study the consumer’s perception about the social media usage

To find out what factor helped social media marketing attained success

HYPOTHESIS 1.

Social media generates consumer awareness and hence leads to greater brand building

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Consumers believe that continuous and detailed product information on social media leads to top of mind recall.

Consumer involvement and relationship plays important role in the success of the social media marketing

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ·

Research Design : Exploratory

Variable : Social media marketing

Sampling : Convenience Sampling

Instrument: Personal interview and Questionnaire

Data Collection: Primary and Secondary

Sample size: 50

Population and Segmentation : social media users and Media agencies

Research techniques: Measure of central tendency, measure of dispersion ,hypothesis testing, error testing

Level of significance :test is done at the 5% level of significance

DATA INTERPRETATION With the help of questionnaire and personal interview analysis; 1.

It was observed that 64% respondents believed that social media generated awareness which leads to stronger brand building

It was observed that 88% people believed that continuous updates about the products on social media generates interest and later leads to top of mind recall

It was observed that 67% people believed that customer involvement and relationship plays important role in the success of social media marketing.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING The hypothesis testing is done at 5% level of significance and as the sample size is 50, use normal distribution as an approximation to the sampling distribution. Z test is done to prove the hypothesis. As we conduct a one –tailed test, i.e. left tailed test, at the level of significance at 5% 208

The values of Z TAB = -1.645 (5% Level of significance, for left tailed test ) ZCAL is calculated using the formula ZCAL = p^ –p “p q/N Where, If Z TAB < Z CAL, we accept the hypothesis. Hypothesis 1 : Social media generates consumer awareness and hence leads to greater brand building The results of Hypothesis 1 states that out of 50 respondents, 32 believed that social media generates consumer awareness about the brand and hence it leads to the greater brand building. p ^ = 0.64 q= 0.5 p= 0.5 Z cal = 0.64- 0.5/0.035 = 4

n=50

The value of Z calculated being 4 shows that the value is greater than the value of Z tabulated which is -1.645 Hence, the Hypothesis 1 is accepted and the chances of Type II error is less than 1% Hypothesis 2 : Consumers believe that continuous and detailed product information on social media leads to top of mind recall. The results of Hypothesis 1 state that out of 50 respondents, 40 believed that consumers believe that continuous and detailed product information on social media leads to top of mind recall. p ^ = 0.8 q= 0.5 p= 0.5 n=50 Z cal = 0.8- 0.5/0.035 = 8.6 The value of Z calculated being 8.6 shows that the value is much higher than the value of Z tabulated which is -1.645 Hence, the Hypothesis 2 is accepted and the chances of Type II error is less than 1% Hypothesis 3 : Consumer involvement and relationship plays important role in the success of the social media marketing. The results of Hypothesis 3 state that out of 50 respondents, 34 believed that consumer involvement and relationship plays important role in the success of the social media marketing. p ^ = 0.68 q= 0.5 p= 0.5 n=50 Z cal = 0.68- 0.5/0.035 = 5.1 www.ijsir.co.in

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The value of Z calculated being 5.1 shows that the value is much higher than the value of Z tabulated which is -1.645 Hence, the Hypothesis 3 is accepted and the chances of Type II error is less than 1% CONCLUSION The importance of traditional marketing mix tools cannot be ignored when it comes to connecting with consumer still in the era of techno savvy consumers, the consumers give enough time to the social media. The active online users fully expect companies to be present on social media and be willing to interact with them. However, as much as companies are also realising the importance of social media, it is important that every company’s in-house expert or media marketing agency must understand the rules of this new medium to correctly involve companies and customers together, and to be able to measure the importance of social media activities. In order to succeed a robust strategy is an absolute imperative. In other words, every company/ brand needs to take a strategic rather than a tactical approach to incorporating social media into their marketing planning. It has been observed that social media is an important platform in generating consumer awareness which leads to generating desire and hence giving a chance for greater brand building opportunity to the branding organisations. During the leisure time the customers prefers to socialise and when the information is interesting enough to be involved with, the customers get emotionally attached to the said brand and hence makes it an alternative option in the buying process. Due to the continuous updates and in detailed information about the products on the social media sites, it leads to top of mind recall and hence it leads to the success of social media marketing. Good and relevant content may play a very important role in any social media strategy. The content represents the brand and gives customers a reason to stay engaged. When consumers participate actively and has personalized interaction with customers it may help companies to build strong relationships and create a sense of loyalty among the customers which my play a important role as a reference group. The success of the social media campaign can be enhanced by the effectiveness with which the customers get engaged through the various

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activities. The integration of social media with customer relationship management strategies may become an important element for organizations that want to optimize the power of social interactions to get closer to customers as highlighted by social media experts. But in spite of any other reason, the customers are more interested in getting a tangible value. Business organizations need to realize that the basic objective of most of the customers to interact with companies on social media is not to feel emotionally connected. To successfully exploit the potential of social media, marketing companies need to deliver tangible value by designing proper experiences in return for customers’ valuable time, attention, and endorsements. REFERENCES 1.

BELCH G.E., BELCH M.A. (1996) Advertising and Promotion; An integrated marketing communications perspective Irwin/McGrawhill Publishing USA.

CLOW K.E., BAACK .D. (2004) Integrated Advertising, Promotions and Marketing Communications Pearson Education Inc Upper Saddle Rwer, New Jersey USA.

GILSON – C. and HAROLD .E.B (1980) Advertising concepts and strategies. Banden Publishers, Random House, New York USA.

LEVIT .T. (1969) Marketing Principles Harvard Business Review. Harvard USA.

Drury, Glen., 2008. Social Media: Should marketers engage and how can it be done effectively.

Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice, (9), pp.274-277.

Duncan, T., and Caywood, C., Ed. 1996. The Concept, Process, And Evolution of Integrated

Marketing Communication. Mahwah, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Eley, B. and Tilley, S., 2009. The Online Marketing Inside Out. Sitepoint.

10.

Idman, RM. et al., 1993. Modern Marketing. London: Weiling and Göös.

11.

Griffin, A. (1997) PDMA Research on New Product Development Practices: Updating Trends and Benchmarking Best Practices. Journal of Product Innovation Management, vol. 14, pp. 429 – 458

12.

Blackshaw P, Nazzaro M. 2004. Consumer-generated media (CGM) 101: word-of-mouth in the age of the web-fortified consumer. http://www.brandchannel.com/ images/Papers/222_CGM.pdf [29 January 2011].

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Mannonen, Petri; Runonen, Mikael SMEs in Social Media Proceedings of NordiCHI 2008 Workshop: How Can HCI Improve social Media Development, Lund, 20.22.10.2008, pp. 86-91, 2008.

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IMPORTANCE OF LIFE INSURANCE IN MEETING OUT FINANCIAL NEEDS AND SECURITY IN CURRENT SCENARIO WITH CHALLENGES AND EMERGING TRENDS 1

*JYOTI AGARWAL1, S.C. PANDEY2 Research Scholar, Bhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India,2 Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P.G. Degree College, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for correspondence : Jyoti Agarwal, Research Scholar, Bhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, email: agarwaljyotilko@gmail.com

ABSTRACT From the above discussion it is evident that life insurance industry expanded tremendously from 2000 onwards in terms of number of offices, number of agents, new business policies, premium income etc. Further, many new products (like ULIPs, pension plans etc.) and riders were provided by the life insurers to suit the requirements of various customers. However, the new business of such companies was more skewed in favor of selected states and union territories. During the period of study, most of life insurance business was underwritten in the last four months of the year. Private life insurers used the new business channels of marketing to a great extent when compared with LIC. Investment pattern of LIC and private insurers also showed some differences. Solvency ratio of private life insurers was much better than LIC in spite of big losses suffered by them. INTRODUCTION The journey of human life, from womb to tomb is full of woes, worries and unlimited needs. Man is endowed with highly intellectual ability which encourages him for the betterment and advancement of his life so as to achieve happiness and comfort, also benefiting in that process all those who depend on him for economic security, which gave rise to the business of insurance. The insurance is primarily a social device adopted by civilized society for mitigating the incidence of loss of income to families by unforeseen contingencies. Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) came into existence on 1st September, 1956 after nationalization of all the 245 companies engaged in life insurance business. From its very inception, the Corporation has made impressive growth always striving for further improvement. American psychologist Abraham Maslowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s theory of hierarchy of needs has calibrated human needs into five stages: (1) Physiological needs ( 2) Safety/Security needs ( 3) Social needs, 4) Ego needs and 5) Self Actu210

alization/Self Fulfillment needs. In the present socioeconomic scenario, the human needs can be restructured in a FEP module i.e. on financial, emotional and philosophical aspects and here we will throw light on these three with reference to insurance. While earlier studies on life insurance sector mainly focused upon LIC, it was only after reforms in this sector that certain studies covering private players have taken place. Among early studies, Arora (2002) highlighted that LIC was likely to face tough competition from private insurers having large established network and their trained intermediaries throughout India. Verma (2003) analyzed the various type of products offered by public sector giant and the new global players in the private sector. Kumar and Taneja (2004) highlighted the opportunities and challenges before the insurance industry in India due to liberalization, globalization and privatization. Kulshrestha and Kulshrestha (2006) highlighted that demand for life insurance in rural India was expanding at the annual rate of 18 www.ijsir.co.in

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per cent as compared to 3.9 per cent in urban areas which provided good opportunity for life insurers to perform. The present paper is an attempt to study the recent life insurance scenario in the light of changes mentioned above. For this purpose, various indicators like number of policies and products, growth of life insurance business and premium income , operating expenses, profit & loss A/c have been analyzed. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS The study is based upon secondary data which has been collected from annual reports of IRDA, IRDA journal and Life Insurance Today. Besides, a few websites have also been consulted. The data used in the paper covers the period from 2001-02 to 2011-12. For the analysis of data, statistical tools like percentages, ratios, growth rates and coefficient of variation have been used. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 : Profit & Loss Position (Rs. crore) Year

Profits/Loss (+) (–)

Table 2: Operating expenses for conducting Insurance Business Year

Operating expenses (Rs. crores)

Total Premium (Rs. crores)

2000-01

3706.56

34892.02

2001-02

4260.40

49821.91

2002-03

4621.09

54628.49

2003-04

5186.50

63533.42

2004-05

6241.26

75127.28

2005-06

6041.55

90792.22

2006-07

7080.86

127822.84

2007-08

8309.32

149789.99

2008-09

9064.29

157288.04

2009-10

12245.82

186077.31

2010-11

16980.28

203473.40

2011-12

14914.40

202889.28

2012-13

16707.66

208803.58

Source: IRDA, Annual Reports

Financial Aspect Finance plays a crucial role in a human life. Every human being exerts himself to acquire financial power, using his muscle power and intellectual power; so that he can have that money power. The financial needs can be split into four S’s, i) Swapping, ii) Saving, iii) Stocking and iv) Securing. While people roll in the first three steps, i.e. Swapping, Saving and Stocking gradually in that order; the fourth one, i.e. Securing lacks behind. Man seems to relegate ‘financial security’ to a lower down position. Financial security is as important need in the personal financial planning of an individual as other needs are. Hence it deserves the full attention for enduring financial stability. Insurance is a firm fulcrum for providing this stability. Yet people are by instinct averse to insurance. This can be attributed to the peculiar characteristics of insurance, such as, intangibility of the product and benefits appearing to come to fruition at too distant a future.

2000-01

316.65

2001-02

821.79

2002-03

496.97

2003-04

551.81

2004-05

708.37

2005-06

631.58

2006-07

773.62

2007-08

844.63

2008-09

957.35

2009-10

1060.72

2010-11

1171.80

2011-12

1313.34

Emotional Aspect

2012-13

1489.92

Insurance is significantly concerned with emotions. Insurance is meant for catering to unpredictable and deferred needs. It should, how-

Source - IRDA Annual Report

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ever, be purchased well before its need arises, lest it get too late. It is of little use digging a well when thirsty. People postpone availing of insurance cover as they don’t sense the immediate need thereof. Some people sarcastically feel that not many persons are really benefited by insurance. It is true that many people come out ‘unhurt and safe’ in the journey of life. But quite a good number of unfortunate people, though relatively lesser in number, face the ‘storm’ and they and/or their loved ones are forced to bear the brunt and to face a life of hardship by the happening of an unfortunate tragedy which apparently had a low probability but turned out to be a calamity of utmost severity. It is therefore better to keep the life boat ready when one gets set for a voyage. It is rightly said that “It is better to have insurance for a hundred years and not need it, than to need it one day and not have it”. Insurance is concerned with dreaded and disliked eventualities like death, disease, disability and dilapidation. Everyone is exposed to these risks. Everyone has to accept these realities of life and be well prepared to face them. Insurance is undoubtedly the best way out. People act on emotions rather than on reason. Insurance is a long term contract. The benefits fructify in future. The timing of fructification is to be decided in the initial stage by proper planning. The fruit reaper has to have patience, if he wants to enjoy the fruit. Philosophical Aspect Insurance means spreading of risk and sharing of loss amongst the community of insured people. It is a co-operative venture. Insurance is beneficial not only to the individual but to the entire community of the insured people. Thus it promotes fraternal concern. When an individual dies, three deaths occur, that of i) the individual himself or herself, ii) a father, a mother, a brother, a sister, a son, a daughter or some such relative, iii) a breadwinner of the family. The third death is the most disastrous. As it results in stoppage of the income, the family is made to face a financial crisis. Nevertheless, if the deceased individual were to be insured, there would be only two deaths. The third death would be avoided, economically at least, and the family would be financially secure. If the number of such secured families is more in the society, the socio-economic inadequacy would be minimized to a great 212

extent. The money paid by the insured public by way of premium does not remain idle in the coffer. World over, it is used for promoting industries, business, commerce and developmental programs particularly in developing countries like India. Indirectly, the insured community contributes for a noble cause – nation building activity. With a proper perspective, insurance can be used as a means to achieve many objectives. One can perform his duties as a father, as a husband or as a son by insuring himself so that financially the dependents do not become orphaned in the event of his premature death. He can express his love and affection towards his beloved ones even from beyond the graveyard. Finance can be managed in a better way with the help of insurance. Men have many wants, needs and desires. They can fulfill their desires by means of insurance, which means freedom or liberation from all worries, which insurance undoubtedly ensures. It can, therefore, be said that insurance is a multifaceted tool in the hands of mankind for a number of purposes. About 10% of the GDP of the developed countries comes from insurance premium (in India it is a little over 4%). Insurance as a business activity is a driver of economic development. Insurance is an effective device which promotes stability, prosperity and happiness to the individual and the society at large. Development and insurance are also complementary to each other. Prudent men will realize the importance of insurance and will accept it as an integral part of the way of financial planning in life. Decisions of quantum of insurance For an individual, having decided to obtain insurance, the next logical dilemma to deal with is to the quantum of insurance that he or she should purchase. With the dynamics of finance and economy ever being so volatile, it is certainly a major decision and is something that is not easy to arrive at. Besides, current affordability as also the projected affordability in future, considering the fact that it is a long term commitment, is another factor that has to be weighed sensibly. In such a scenario, the Human Life Value (HLV) provides the most objective and need-based solution. Human life has an economic value. It is the monetary worth of an earning person and is the capitalized value of his net future earnings www.ijsir.co.in

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less cost of his current self maintenance. It is exactly to preserve or secure this economic value of human life, which is subjected to vagaries of nature, that life insurance was devised. Once the prospect realizes this important fact, his endeavor to purchase life insurance is to protect his dependants from any eventuality. If the human life value-based selling and after sales service are rendered by the agent in letter and spirit to the clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s utmost satisfaction, there will be further development and conservation of life insurance business. Human lifeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s value may be defined as the capitalized value of the net future earnings of an individual after taking into account appropriate costs for his/her self maintenance. It is the monetary value of an earning person. The facts that determine it are training and education, character and health and, above all, his ability to work. The higher these factors, the higher are the values; and the lower these factors, the lower is his economic value. Human life value-based selling and appropriate after-sales service are the need of the hour. The emphasis should be on the total needs concept, as the basis for developing life insurance programs for individuals. In the same vein, emphasis should be on the concept of building a life insurance clientele, which can be achieved only by an agent who gives professionally competent service and advice. If these two aspects are pursued by the insurer in letter and spirit, there is ample scope for increase in volumes of business, and its retention. Challenges of the Industry Life insurance industry is passing through a difficult phase in our country. There is enormous scope for the industry to grow. Yet, the industry is unable to grow in recent years. There has been de-growth in 2012-13 to the extent of 6.32% in terms of First Premium Income (FPI). The economy is growing and so is the per capita income in all the segments of the economy. But, the life insurance industry finds it difficult to make use of this golden opportunity. Insurance intermediaries lost much of their credibility after the ULIPs failed to generate expected returns. A lot of ULIPs were sold on false promises. So, now the insurance intermediaries find it difficult to regain the same confidence of people. This is a great challenge. This challenge is greater for www.ijsir.co.in

those agents who operate in the rural and semiurban areas. As agents still contribute 78.69% of total business, their success is critical for the success of the life insurance industry in India. The productivity of the agents is low because of miss-selling of ULIPs. Barring a small proportion of agents who have got MDRT or similar recognition for the consistency of their performance, a very large number of agents have failed to become true professionals. They are mostly part timers and do not even have the inner motivation to grow. If insurance industry has to grow, the same way, the skills, competencies and attitudes of all agents have to get a total face lift. Professionalizing a vast sales force is a big challenge for all insurers. The average number of policies sold by the agents in 2011-12, proves that an insurance agent, on an average, has not been able to make a career out of his job. If an agent is not fully devoted in this profession on a regular basis, it is very difficult for him to bring quality business and also to give proper services to the customers. Perhaps the biggest challenge is the lack of proper insurance awareness. Even after 57 years LIC was formed , many people still do not understand the value of insurance properly. Although LIC did a commendable job in spreading the message of insurance, most people still can not distinguish insurance from other forms of investments. That is why only a few products are demanded by the market. Our agents have failed to market need based insurance. At best, insurance is sold as a savings instrument or an investment instrument. Most of the agents continue to push products which give more commissions or where service obligations are less. Agents could have been the ideal medium for generating insurance awareness as they are in direct contact with the customers. But lack of competency, professionalism and integrity on the part of many of the agents (and of other intermediaries as well) have prevented them from improving insurance awareness to the extent it should have been. Recent Trends in the life insurance industry The good news is that the insurers are trying their best to meet the challenges. Recent trends in the industry show that the insurers are 213

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fast changing the way of their functioning. Insurers are now trying to sell a blend of linked and non-linked products. They are also trying to sell more of long term products. This is a step in the right direction. People indeed need more of long term insurance products, covering them protection throughout their working life. This will also ensure consistency of business for the insurers. Many insurers, especially the private insurers are now successfully marketing term assurance among the youth. This is great as the youth can get a large cover at the minimum of premium. Term assurance carries no maturity value and therefore it is heartening that the new generation is able to pick up a product which is pure insurance. But, while granting a huge cover, the insurers have to assess the quality of each risk carefully because if a claim is repudiated later, it can shake the confidence of the people in the institution called life insurance . Another important trend in insurance industry is that a large volume of selling is happening online. Some private insurers have been doing business online for quite some time. Since the new generation is tech savvy and makes a lot of buying online, insurers are rightly catching the young customers in the internet. After all, an insurer has to be present wherever the customers are i.e. purely customer friendly . The insurers are rightly doing a lot of marketing and brand building activities in the social media.

have a great chance to increase their sales as people will have a freedom to choose whichever insurer they want to go with. LIC has been asked to make its presence felt in areas where population is more than 10,000. Probably, LIC will do this by opening one man offices within the premises of its bank assurance partners. Other insurers are surely contemplating similar actions, to go deeper into the insurance market. Another important and heart warming trend in insurance industry is that the insurers are trying to discharge their Corporate Social Responsibility as much as they can. An insurer is judged not just by the greatness of its products but also by its human face. When insurers directly do some work in building the infrastructures of the society or help some underprivileged sections of society, people become more respectful of them and can eventually become loyal customers. Insurance can indeed change the face of India as it can provide confidence to people to take more risks which are very important for taking the country to the next level of growth and development. If the insurers can involve rural and urban youths as volunteers in this campaign along with employee volunteers of the insurers, the required level of awareness can surely be generated in a few years. Emerging Trends

Although insurers know that it is difficult to professionalize lakhs of tied agents with diverse social and educational backgrounds, they understand the importance of training in improving the skills and attitudes of the agents working across the length and breadth of the country. Even today, common people get to interact with the agents only, before buying insurance. If the agent is found knowledgeable and trustworthy, it improves the image of the insurers.

Multi-distribution i.e. increasing penetration through new modes of distribution such as the internet, direct and telemarketing and NGOs

Product innovation i.e. increased levels of customization through product innovation

Claims management i.e. timely and efficient management of claims to prevent delays which can increase the claims cost

All insurers have started depending heavily on their bank assurance partners, for increasing insurance penetration in special segments. In our country, people depend a lot on banks and therefore banks have earned more acceptability in rural as well as in urban areas. New IRDA regulation is going to allow banks to sell insurance products of multiple insurers. So, all insurers

Profitable growth i.e. expanding product range, developing innovative products and expanding distribution channels

Regulatory trends i.e. mandated regulatory changes by the IRDA to promote a competitive environment in both the life and nonlife insurance sectors

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Globalization- The Dynamic Force

REFERENCES

Globalization has become a broad heading for a multitude of global interactions, ranging from the expansion of cultural influences across borders to the enlargement of economic and business relations throughout the world. It has different dynamic force for different person. It may be treated as a phenomenon, a philosophy and a process, which affects human beings.Insurance being an integral part of financial service could not claim immunity to the impact of the globalization process and opened up to private and global players world over, including India. So many MNCs are now entering into the insurance sector which is now a booming sector. Marketing after globalization has become more customer oriented, better service oriented and more competitive. To sustain in present era insurance sector has to provide better satisfaction, more value addition and strategic development.

Arora, R.S.. “Financial Reforms and Service Sector– A Study of Life Insurance Industry in India”, In B.B. Tandon and A.K. Vashisht (Eds.), Financial Sector Reforms–An Unpublished Agenda for Economic Development: 259-270, New Delhi: Deep & Deep, 2002.

JOHN, JIMMY. “THE WAR FOR MARKET SHARE – A VIEW FROM INDIA”, INSURANCE CHRONICLE: 37-39, 2008.

KULSHRESTH, LAXMI R., KULSHRESTH, ANUJA. 2006. “LIBERALIZATION AND RURAL INSURANCE PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES”, LIFE INSURANCE TODAY, 1(10): 9-13.

Verma, Vinay,”New Trends in Product Design: An Overview of Life Insurance Products”, The Insurance Times, 23 (6): 16-28, 2003.

Taneja, Aruna, Kumar Narendera. “Insurance in India –Challenges and Opportunities”.

IRDA Annual Reports, “Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority”, Mumbai, 2001 to 2007.

IRDA Journal, Various Issues (2000-01 to 2009-10).

Life Insurance Today, Various Issues (2000-01 to 200910)

[Online] Available : www.irdaindia.org

10.

[Online] Available : www.irdajournal@irda.gov.in

CONCLUSION From the above discussion it is evident that life insurance industry expanded tremendously from 2000 onwards in terms of number of offices, number of agents, new business policies, premium income etc. Further, many new products (like ULIPs, pension plans etc.) and riders were provided by the life insurers to suit the requirements of various customers. However, the new business of such companies was more skewed in favor of selected states and union territories. During the period of study, most of life insurance business was underwritten in the last four months of the year. Private life insurers used the new business channels of marketing to a great extent when compared with LIC. Investment pattern of LIC and private insurers also showed some differences. Solvency ratio of private life insurers was much better than LIC in spite of big losses suffered by them.

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FDI IN INDIAN RETAIL SECTOR: ANALYSIS OF COMPETITION IN AGRIFOOD SECTOR *

P NIXON DHAS1, N P SHARMA2 Research Scholar, Sunrise University, Alwar, Rajasthan , India 2 Director, Nimbus Academy of Management, Dehradun, Uttara Khand, India 1

*Address for correspondence : P Nixon Dhas, Research Scholar, Sunrise University, Alwar, Rajasthan , India

ABSTRACT Indian retail industry is one of the sunrise sectors with huge growth potential. According to the Investment Commission of India, the retail sector is expected to grow almost three times its current levels to $660 billion by 2015. However, in spite of the recent developments in retailing and its immense contribution to the economy, retailing continues to be the least evolved industries and the growth of organized retailing in India has been much slower as compared to rest of the world. Undoubtedly, this dismal situation of the retail sector, despite the on-going wave of incessant liberalization and globalization stems from the absence of an FDI encouraging policy in the Indian retail sector. In this context, the present paper attempts to analyze the strategic issues concerning the influx of foreign direct investment in the Indian retail industry. Moreover, with the latest move of the government to allow FDI in the multiband retailing sector, the paper analyses the effects of these changes on farmers and agri -food sector. The findings of the study point out that FDI in retail would undoubtedly enable India Inc. to integrate its economy with that of the global economy. Thus, as a matter of fact, FDI in the buzzing Indian retail sector should not just be freely allowed but should be significantly encouraged. Keywords: Organized retail, Globalization, Foreign direct investment, Strategic issues and Prospects, Farmers and Agri-food sector. INTRODUCTON Retailing is one of the most important sectors of India economy. It provides 9% employment to the total workforce and contributes around 15% to the Indian GDP. It could have been a welcome step in strengthening Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s FDI regime with making it in tune with countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs. The FDI policy has been moving away from the license mentality of protection against imagined foreign dictators towards a more open, healthy and competitive environment. This policy would have provided a window for the world class retailer Hermes, Tiffany & Co and Wal- Mart etc. to set their foot in the booming Indian retail sector. The Indian Government believes that the opportunity of FDI in multiband retail and further liberalization of single-brand retail trade will facilitate greater 216

FDI inflows providing new opportunities and benefits besides quality improvement. At a time when declining investments have led to slower GDP growth, however, a healthy competition, between the large domestic retailers and those with FDI, should be maintained. Imposing socially desirable constraints on FDI funded retailers would lead into unfair competition. In spite of the recent developments in retailing and its immense contribution to the economy, retailing continues to be the least evolved industries and the growth of organized retailing in India has been much slower as compared to rest of the world. One main cause for this is that retailing is one of the few sectors where foreign direct investment is not allowed. Within the country, there have been protests by trading associations and other stakeholders against allowing FDI in retailing. In www.ijsir.co.in

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2004, The High Court of Delhi referred to Black’s Law Dictionary to define the term retail. The term ‘ retail’ is defined as a sale for final consumption in contrast to a sale for further sale or processing (i.e. wholesale). Thus, retailing can be said to be the interface between the producer and the individual consumer buying for personal consumption. This excludes direct interface between the manufacturer and institutional buyers such as the government and other bulk customers. Retailing is the last link that connects the individual consumer with the manufacturing and distribution chain. A retailer is involved in the act of selling goods to the individual consumer at a margin of profit. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study is based on secondary sources of data. The main source of data are various Economic Surveys of India and Ministry of Commerce and Industry data, RBI bulletin, online data base of Indian Economy, journals, articles, news papers, etc. INDIAN RETAIL SECTOR OVERVIEW Retailing in India is one of the pillars of its economy and accounts for 14 to 15% of its GDP. The Indian retail market is estimated to be US$ 450 billion and one of the top five retail markets in the world by economic value. India is one of the fastest growing retail markets in the world, with 1.2 billion people. India’s retailing industry is essentially owner manned small shops. In 2010, larger format convenience stores and supermarkets accounted for about 4% of the industry, and these were present only in large urban centers. India’s retail and logistics industry employs about 40 million Indians (3.3% of Indian population). Until 2011, Indian central government denied foreign direct investment (FDI) in multi-brand retail, forbidding foreign groups from any ownership in supermarkets, convenience stores or any retail outlets. Even single-brand retail was limited to 51% ownership and a bureaucratic process. In November 2011, India’s central government announced retail reforms for both multi-brand stores and single-brand stores. These market reforms paved the way force retail innovation and competition with multi-brand www.ijsir.co.in

retailers such as Walmart, Carrefour and Tesco, as well single brand majors such as IKEA, Nike, and Apple. The announcement sparked intense activism, both in opposition and in support of the reforms. In December 2011, under pressure from the opposition, Indian government placed the retail reforms on hold till it reaches a consensus. In January 2012, India approved reforms for single-brand stores welcoming anyone in the world to innovate in Indian retail market with 100% ownership, but imposed the requirement that the single brand retailer source 30% of its goods from India. Indian government continues the hold on retail reforms for multi-brand stores. IKEA announced in January that it is putting on hold its plan to open stores in India because of the 30% requirement. Fitch believes that the 30% requirement is likely to significantly delay if not prevent most single brand majors from Europe, USA and Japan from opening stores and creating associated jobs in India. ENTRY OPTIONS FOR FOREIGN PLAYERS PRIOR TO FDI POLICY Although prior to Jan 24, 2006, FDI was not authorized in retailing, most general players had been operating in the country. Some of entrance routes used by them have been discussed in sum as below:1. Franchise Agreements: It is an easiest track to come in the Indian market. In franchising and commission agents services, FDI (unless otherwise prohibited) is allowed with the approval of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Foreign Exchange Management Act. This is a most usual mode for entrance of quick food bondage opposite a world. Apart from quick food bondage identical to Pizza Hut, players such as Lacoste, Mango, Nike as good as Marks as good as Spencer, have entered Indian market place by this route. 2. Cash and Carry Wholesale Trading: 100% FDI is allowed in wholesale trading which involves building of a large distribution infrastructure to assist local manufacturers. The wholesaler deals only with smaller retailers and not consumers. Metro AG of Germany was the first significant global player to enter India through this route. 217

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3. Strategic Licensing Agreements: Some foreign brands give exclusive licenses and distribution rights to Indian companies. Through these rights, Indian companies can either sell it through their own stores, or enter into shop-in-shop arrangements or distribute the brands to franchisees. Mango, the Spanish apparel brand has entered India through this route with an agreement with Piramyd, Mumbai, SPAR entered into a similar agreement with Radhakrishna Foodlands Pvt. Ltd 4. Manufacturing and Wholly Owned Subsidiaries: The foreign brands such as Nike, Reebok, Adidas, etc. that have wholly-owned subsidiaries in manufacturing are treated as Indian companies and are, therefore ,allowed to do retail. These companies have been authorized to sell products to Indian consumers by franchising, internal distributors, existent Indian retailers, own outlets, etc. For instance, Nike entered through an exclusive licensing agreement with Sierra Enterprises but now has a wholly owned subsidiary, Nike India Private Limited. FDI POLICY IN INDIA FDI as defined in Dictionary of Economics (Graham Bannock et.al.) is investment in a foreign country through the acquisition of a local company or the establishment there of an operation on a new (Greenfield) site. To put in simple words, FDI refers to capital inflows from abroad that is invested in or to enhance the production capacity of the economy. Foreign Investment in India is governed by the FDI policy announced by the Government of India and the provision of the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) 1999. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in this regard had issued a notification, which contains the Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or issue of security by a person resident outside India) Regulations, 2000. This notification has been amended from time to time. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India is the nodal agency for motoring and reviewing the FDI policy on continued basis and changes in sectoral policy/ sectoral equity cap. The FDI policy is notified through Press Notes by the Secretariat for 218

Industrial Assistance (SIA), Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP). The foreign investors are free to invest in India, except few sectors/activities, where prior approval from the RBI or Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB) would be required. FDI Policy with Regard to Retailing in India It will be prudent to look into Press Note 4 of 2006 issued by DIPP and consolidated FDI Policy issued in October 2010 which provide the sector specific guidelines for FDI with regard to the conduct of trading activities. a)

FDI up to 100% for cash and carry wholesale trading and export trading allowed under the automatic route.

FDI up to 51 % with prior Government approval (i.e. FIPB) for retail trade of Single Brand products, subject to Press Note 3 (2006 Series).

FDI is not permitted in Multi Brand Retailing in India.

Prospected Changes in FDI Policy for Retail Sector in India The government (led by Dr.Manmohan Singh, announced following prospective reforms in Indian Retail Sector. 1.

India will allow FDI of up to 51% in multibrand sector.

Single brand retailers such as Apple and Ikea, can own 100% of their Indian stores, up from previous cap of 51%.

The retailers (both single and multi-brand) will have to source at least 30% of their goods from small and medium sized Indian suppliers.

All retail stores can open up their operations in population having over 1million.Out of approximately 7935 towns and cities in India, 55 suffice such criteria.

Multi-brand retailers must bring minimum investment of US$ 100 million. Half of this must be invested in back-end infrastructure facilities such as cold chains, refrigeration, transportation, packaging etc. to reduce www.ijsir.co.in

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post-harvest losses and remunerative prices to farmers. 6.

provide

The opening of retail competition (policy) will be within parameters of state laws and regulations.

SINGLE AND MULTI-BRAND RETAILING FDI in Single-Brand Retail The Government has not categorically defined the meaning of Single Brand anywhere neither in any of its circulars nor any notifications. In single-brand retail, FDI up to 51 per cent is allowed, subject to Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB) approval and subject to the conditions mentioned in Press Note 3 that (a) only single brand products would be sold (i.e., retail of goods of multi-brand even if produced by the same manufacturer would not be allowed), (b) products should be sold under the same brand internationally, (c) single-brand product retail would only cover products which are branded during manufacturing and (d) any addition to product categories to be sold under single-brand would require fresh approval from the government. While the phrase single brand has not been defined, it implies that foreign companies would be allowed to sell goods sold internationally under a single brand viz., Reebok, Nokia, and Adidas. Retailing of goods of multiple brands, even if such products were produced by the same manufacturer, would not be allowed. Going a step further, we examine the concept of single brand and the associated conditions. FDI in Single brand retail implies that a retail store with foreign investment can only sell one brand. For example, if Adidas were to obtain permission to retail its flagship brand in India, those retail outlets could only sell products under the Adidas brand and not the Reebok brand, for which separate permission is required. If granted permission, Adidas could sell products under the Reebok brand in separate outlets. FDI in Multi-Brand Retail The government has also not defined the term Multi Brand. FDI in Multi Brand retail implies that a retail store with a foreign investment can sell multiple brands under one roof. In July 2010, Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion www.ijsir.co.in

(DIPP), Ministry of Commerce circulated a discussion paper [14] on allowing FDI in multibrand retail. The paper does not suggest any upper limit on FDI in multi-brand retail. If implemented, it would open the doors for global retail giants to enter and establish their footprints on the retail landscape of India. Opening up FDI in multi-brand retail will mean that global retailers including Wal-Mart, Carrefour and Tesco can open stores offering a range of household items and grocery directly to consumers in the same way as the ubiquitous ‘ kirana’ store. EFFECTS OF STAKEHOLDERS

FDI

VARIOUS

Impact on Farming Communities A supermarket revolution has been underway in developing countries since the early 1990s. Supermarkets (here referring to all modern retail, which includes chain stores of various formats such as supermarkets, hypermarkets, and convenience and neighborhood stores) have now gone well beyond the initial upper- and middle-class clientele in many countries to reach the mass market. Within the food system, the effects of this trend touch not only traditional retailers, but also the wholesale, processing, and farm sectors. When supermarkets modernize their procurement systems, they require more from suppliers with respect to volume, consistency, quality, costs, and commercial practices. Supermarket’s impact on suppliers is biggest and earliest for food processing and foodmanufacturing enterprises, given that some 80% of what supermarkets sell consists of processed, staple, or semi-processed products. But by affecting processors, supermarkets indirectly affect farmers, because processors tend to pass on the demands placed on them by their retail clients. Supermarket chains prefer, if they are able, to source from medium and large processing enterprises, which are usually better positioned than small enterprises to meet supermarket’s requirements. The rise of supermarkets thus poses an early challenge to processed food microenterprises in urban areas. By contrast, as supermarkets modernize the procurement of fresh produce (some 10–15% of supermarket’s food sales in developing countries), they increasingly source from farmers 219

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through specialized and dedicated wholesalers (specialized in product lines and dedicated to modern segments) and occasionally through their own collection centers. Where supermarkets source from small farmers, they tend to buy from farmers who have the most non-land assets (like equipment and irrigation), the greatest access to infrastructure (like roads and cold chain facilities), and the upper size treacle of land (among small farmers). Where supermarkets cannot source from medium or large-scale farmers, and small farmers lack the needed assets, supermarket chains (or their agents such as the specialized and dedicated wholesalers) sometimes help farmers with training, credit, equipment, and other needs. Such assistance is not likely to become generalized, however, and so overtime assetpoor small farmers will face increasing challenges surviving in the market as it modernizes. When farmers enter supermarket channels, they tend to earn from 20 to 50% more in net terms. Among tomato farmers in Indonesia, for example, net profit (including the value of own laborer as imputed cost) is 33– 39% higher among supermarket channel participants than among participants in traditional markets. Farm laborer also gains. But supplying supermarket chains requires farmers to make more up-front investments and meet greater demands for quality, consistency, and volume compared with marketing to traditional markets. Support for retail reforms In a pan-Indian survey conducted over the weekend of 3 December 2011, overwhelming majority of consumers and farmers in and around ten major cities across the country support the retail reforms. Over 90 per cent of consumers said FDI in retail will bring down prices and offer a wider choice of goods. Nearly 78 per cent of farmers said they will get better prices for their produce from multiform at stores. Over 75 per cent of the traders claimed their marketing resources will continue to be needed to push sales through multiple channels, but they may have to accept lower margins for greater volumes.

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Farmer groups Various farmer associations in India have announced their support for the retail reforms. For example: 1. Shriram Gadhve of All India Vegetable Growers Association (AIVGA) claims his organization supports retail reform. He claimed that currently, it is the middlemen commission agents who benefit at the cost of farmers. He urged that the retail reform must focus on rural areas and that farmers receive benefits. Gadhve claimed, “A better cold storage would help since this could help prevent the existing loss of 34% of fruits and vegetables due to inefficient systems in place.” AIVGA operates in nine states including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Punjab and Haryana with 2,200 farmer outfits as its members. 2. Bharat Krishak Samaj, a farmer association with more than 75,000 members says it supports retail reform. Ajay Vir Jakhar, the chairman of Bharat Krishak Samaj, claimed a monopoly exists between the private guilds of middlemen, commission agents at the sabzi mandis (India’s wholesale markets for vegetables and farm produce) and the small shopkeepers in the unorganized retail market. Given the perishable nature of food like fruit and vegetables, without the option of safe and reliable cold storage, the farmer is compelled to sell his crop at whatever price he can get. He cannot wait for a better price and is thus exploited by the current monopoly of middlemen. Jakhar asked that the government make it mandatory for organized retailers to buy 75% of their produce directly from farmers, bypassing the middlemen monopoly and India’s sabzi mandi auction system. 3. Consortium of Indian Farmers Associations (CIFA) announced its support for retail reform. Chengal Reddy, secretary general of CIFA claimed retail reform could do lots for Indian farmers. Reddy commented, India has 600 million farmers, 1,200 million consumers and 5 million traders. I fail to understand why political parties are taking an anti-farmer www.ijsir.co.in

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stand and worried about half a million brokers and small shopkeepers. CIFA mainly operates in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu; but has a growing member from rest of India, including Shetkari Sanghatana in Maharashtra, Rajasthan Kisan Union and Himachal Farmer Organisations. 4. Prakash Thakur, the chairman of the People for Environment Horticulture & Livelihood of Himachal Pradesh, announcing his support for retail reforms claimed FDI is expected to roll out produce storage centers that will increase market access, reduce the number of middlemen and enhance returns to farmers. Highly perishable fruits like cherry, apricot, peaches and plums have a huge demand but are unable to tap the market fully because of lack of cold storage and transport infrastructure. Sales will boost with the opening up of retail. Even though India is the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, its storage infrastructure is grossly inadequate, claimed Thakur. 5. Sharad Joshi, founder of Shetkari Sangathana (farmers association), has announced his support for retail reforms. Joshi claims FDI will help the farm sector improve critical infrastructure and integrate farmer-consumer relationship. Today, the existing retail has not been able to supply fresh vegetables to the consumers because they have not invested in the backward integration. When the farmers’ produce reaches the end consumer directly, the farmers will naturally be benefited. Joshi feels retail reform is just a first step of needed agricultural reforms in India, and that the government should pursue additional reforms. Suryamurthy, in an article in The Telegraph, claims farmer groups across India do not support status quo and seek retail reforms, because with the current retail system the farmer is being exploited. For example, the article claims: a)

Indian farmers get only one third of the price consumers pay for food staples, the rest is taken as commissions and mark-ups by middlemen and shopkeepers.

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For perishable horticulture produce, average price farmers receive is barely 12 to 15% of the final price consumer pays.

Indian potato farmers sell their crop for Rs.2 to 3 a kilogram, while the Indian consumer buys the same potato for Rs.12 to 20 a kilogram.

CASE STUDIES OF HOW MNC’s ARE HELPING FARMERS CASE 1 . PepsiCo India helping farmers improve yield and income The company’s vision is to create a costeffective, localized agro-supply chain for its business by: 1.

Building PepsiCo’s stature as a development partner by helping farmers grow more and earn more.

Introducing new high yielding varieties of potato and other edibles.

Introducing sustainable farming methods and practicing contact farming.

Making world-class agricultural practices available to farmers and helping them raise farm productivity.

Working closely with farmers and state governments to improve agro sustainability and crop diversification.

Providing customized solutions to suit specific geographies and locations.

Facilitating financial and insurance services in order to de-risk farming.

THE JOURNEY SO FAR Where stand today, at a glimpse 1.

Today PepsiCo India’s potato farming program reaches out to more than 12,000 farmer families across six states. We provide farmers with superior seeds, timely agricultural inputs and supply of agricultural implements free of charge.

We have an assured buy-back mechanism at a prefixed rate with farmers. This insulates them from market price fluctuations.

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Through our tie-up with State Bank of India, we help farmers get credit at a lower rate of interest.

We have arranged weather insurance for farmers through our tie-up with ICICI Lombard.

We have a retention ratio of over 90%, which reveals the depth and success of our partnership.

In 2010, our contract farmers in West Bengal registered a phenomenal 100% growth in crop output, creating in a huge increase in farm income.

The remarkable growth has resulted in farmers receiving a profit between Rs.20, 000– 40,000 per acre, as compared to Rs.10000–20,000 per acre in 2009.

Case 2. Bharti Walmart initiative through Direct Farm Project: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives in Bharti Walmart are aimed at empowerment of the community thereby fostering inclusive growth. Through our philanthropic programs and partnerships, we support initiatives focused on enhancing opportunities in the areas of education, skills training and generating local employment, women empowerment and community development. In conjunction with the farmers development program in Punjab, community building activities have been implemented in village, Haider Nagar. Due to lack of sanitation facilities, households tend to use the farm fields, thereby affecting yields and impacting the produce that is being supplied to stores. In order to improve the yields and the community’s way of life, we are working on the issues of Sanitation and Biogas, Education, Awareness Building and Health and Hygiene. Education: 100% children enrolled in formal education program. Children groups had been formed to discuss children issues. All the nonschool going children had been given nonformal basic education required to mainstream them in the government schools. A sanitation block has been constructed, hand pump has

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been installed and school uniforms have been donated to create a better learning environment for children. Fifteen students have been mainstreamed back in school. Health and Hygiene: A dispensary has been started in Haider Nagar to help people avail medical facilities in the village itself. Nearly 2000 patients have availed the dispensary facilities. Twenty Community Dustbins have also been installed in the village to bring about a change in the living conditions of the people and to provide them garbage free environment. Sanitation and Biogas: Ensured that 100% households have toilets in the village. Eighty Bio Gas plants have been installed to help people conserve gas energy and utilize the waste generated from their cattle and toilets; thus making the environment healthier. Waste Management: twenty Community Dustbins have been installed in the village to bring about a change in the living conditions of the people and to provide them garbage free environment thus ensuring a healthier living. This and many other cases suggest that opening of Indian retail sector to FDI is a win-win situation for farmers. Farmers would benefit significantly from the option of direct sales to organized retailers. For instance, the profit realization for farmers selling directly to the organized retailers is expected to be much higher than that received from selling in the mandis. Also rise in the organized retail whether domestic or through entry of foreign players will lead to an increase in investments in both forward and backward infrastructure such as cold chain and storage infrastructure, warehousing and distribution channels thereby leading to improvement in the supply chain infrastructure in the long run. Global majors such as Wal-mart, Carrefour and Tesco are expected to bring a global scale in their negotiations with the MNCs such as Unilever, Nestlé, P&G, Pepsi, Coke, etc. The improved cold chain and storage infrastructure will no doubt lead to a reduction in losses of agriculture produce. It may also lead to removal of intermediaries in the retail value chain and curtail other inefficiencies. And this may, result in higher income for a farmer.

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Following are the few recommendations for formulation of policies by government

Impact on Consumers Supermarkets

Much of the Indian retail trade (particularly grocery) still has traditional features: small familyrun shops and street hawkers dominate the situation in most of the country. However, the retail trade in India is now undergoing an intensive structural change which could cause irreversible damage to local commodity supply chains and competition. The existing regulations are not adequate to fulfil the new requirements. India can learn (and perhaps forestall loss of genuine competition and product variety) from the experience of south-east Asian countries which are improving regulatory frameworks and some advanced retailing economies like Germany which are already considered more successful regulators in this sector. German competition policies in content and implementation are significant for India to the extent that they are different from other advanced retailing countries like the US and Great Britain. German policy now proactively aims to preserve small and medium competitors in retail sector.

and

existing

Supermarkets tend to charge consumers lower prices and offer more diverse products and higher quality than traditional retailers .These competitive advantages allow them to spread quickly, winning consumer market share. In most countries supermarkets offer lower prices first in the processed and semi processed food segments. Only recently, mainly in the first and second wave countries have supermarket prices for fresh fruits and vegetables been lower than traditional retailers (except in India). The food price savings accrue first to the middle class, but as supermarkets spread into the food markets of the urban poor and into rural towns, they have positive food security impacts on poor consumers. For example, in Delhi, India, the basic foods of the urban poor are cheaper in supermarkets than in traditional retail shops: rice and wheat are 15% cheaper and vegetables are 33% cheaper. Existing Indian retail firms such as Spencer’s, Food world Supermarkets Ltd, Nilgiri’s and ShopRite support retail reform and consider international competition as a blessing in disguise. They expect a flurry of joint ventures with global majors for expansion capital and opportunity to gain expertise in supply chain management. Spencer’s Retail with 200 stores in India, and with retail of fresh vegetables and fruits accounting for 55% of its business claims retail reform to be a win-win situation, as they already procure the farm products directly from the growers without the involvement of middlemen or traders. Spencer claims that there is scope for it to expand its footprint in terms of store location as well as procuring farm products. Foodworld, which operates over 60 stores, plans to ramp up its presence to more than 200 locations. It has already tied up with Hong Kongbased Dairy Farm International. With the relaxation in international investments in Indian retail, India’s Foodworld expects its global relationship will only get stronger.

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Policies for Competitiveness with Inclusiveness in the Supermarket Revolution: As the supermarket revolution proceeds in developing countries, governments have several options for helping small farmers participate in supermarket channels (or gain access to viable alternatives) and traditional retailers coexist or compete with the modern retail sector. Option 1: Regulate Modern Retail. To the extent developing countries have regulated modern retail; their goal has been to reduce the speed and scope of its spread. The regulations have mainly limited the location and hours of modern retail. On balance, these regulations have done little to limit supermarket spread, partly because although regulations tend to target large-format stores (and thus not limit small traditional stores), modern retail comes in a wide variety of formats, including neighborhood stores and convenience stores. Option 2: Upgrade Traditional Retail. A number of good examples of programs to upgrade traditional retail exist. Of particular interest are those of East and Southeast Asia, such as in China, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, 223

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and Taiwan. In most of these countries, the programs in question are municipal, sometimes under a national umbrella policy. Option 3: Upgrade Wholesale Markets to Serve Retailers and Farmers Better. Small shops and wet-market stall operators typically source food products from wholesale markets, which typically buy from small farmers. Upgrading wholesale markets infrastructure and services is thus important to the whole traditional supply chain. Private-sector actors are helping traditional retailers (and supermarket independents and chains) obtain the services and products they need. Governments need to supplement private efforts with public investments in improving farmers access to assets, services, training, and information. Some of these assets are public goods, such as regulations on retailer-supplier relations to promote fair commercial practices, wholesale market upgrading, market information, and physical infrastructure such as cold chains and roads. Option 4: Help Farmers Become Competitive Suppliers to Supermarkets. Private-sector programs are emerging to help small farmers get the assets and services they need to supply supermarket channels. Metro, for example, has direct procurement links to fish and vegetable farmers in China. Agri- food businesses in India, like ITC, Tata, Godrej, Reliance, and DSCL Hariyali , have rural business hubs that offer consumables, farm inputs, and technical assistance and procure output from farmers. Option 5: Regulation of misleading statements and advertisements. The law against dishonest competition (referred to as unfair trade practices in India) forbids a number of marketing practices which are regarded as dishonest. These include misleading statements or advertisements about business circumstances, especially the nature, origin, manner of manufacture or the pricing of goods or commercial services or the size of the available stock. In a recently reported case in India a leading corporate retailer, Subhiksha claimed in advertisements that its prices were the lowest compared to rivals like Big Bazar, DMART, and Apana Bazar, etc. Big Bazar filed a case against the advertisements and the Advertising and Standards Council of India is understood to have given its verdict in April 2007. 224

However, the verdict has not been made public as yet. Option 6: Regulatory Framework to avoid monopolistic practices. The possible monopolistic/ monopolistic tendencies of the large retailers (fears of predatory behavior and abuse of dominance) would have to be proactively dealt to ensure competition in the market. Appropriate policy formulation can also aide this cause, as was done during the telecom sector liberalization with the National Telecom Policy mandating that each circle should have at least 4-6 players. It is to be understood that free and fair competition in procurement of farm produce is the key to farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s enhanced remuneration. CONCLUSION The discussion above highlights: (1) Small retailers will not be crowded out, but would strengthen market positions by turning innovative /contemporary. (2) Growing economy and increasing purchasing power would more than compensate for the loss of market share of the unorganized sector retailers. (3) There will be initial and desirable displacement of middlemen involved in the supply chain of farm produce, but they are likely to be absorbed by increase in the food processing sector induced by organized retailing. (4) Innovative government measures could further mitigate adverse effects on small retailers and traders. (5) Farmers will get another window of direct marketing and hence get better remuneration, but this would require affirmative action and creation of adequate safety nets. (6) Consumers would certainly gain from enhanced competition, better quality, assured weights and cash memos. (7) The government revenues will rise on account of larger business as well as recorded sales. www.ijsir.co.in

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(8) The Competition Commission of India would need to play a proactive role.

Development Policy Review, 2010, 28 (4): 435-456. 11.

Association of Traders of Maharashtra v. Union of India, 2005 (79) DRJ 426.

12.

Indian retail: The supermarket s last frontier”. The Economist. 3 December 2011.

13.

INDIAN RETAIL INDUSTRY: A Report”. CARE Research. March 2011.

14.

Global Powers of Retailing 2011". Deloitte. 2011.

15.

India’s retail reform: No massive rush”. The Economist. 2 December 2011.

Thus from developed countries experience retailing can be thought of as developing through two stages. In the first stage, modern retailing is necessary in order to achieve major efficiencies in distribution. The dilemma is that when this happens it inevitably moves to stage two, a situation where an oligopoly, and quite possibly a duopoly, emerges. In turn this implies substantial seller and buyer power, which may operate against the public interest.

16.

Retail Global Expansion: A Portfolio of Opportunities”. AT Kearney. 2011.

17.

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MIND THE GAP”. Calcutta, India: The Telegraph. 1 December 2011.

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Tripathi, Salil (29 December 2011). “India needs Supermarkets”.London: The Guardian.

The Bird of Gold - The Rise of India’s Consumer Market”. McKinsey and Company. May 2007.

Anand Dikshit (August 12 2011). “The Uneasy Compromise – Indian Retail”. The Wall Street Journal. “Winning the Indian consumer”. McKinsey & Company. 2005.

Majumder, Sanjoy (25 November 2011). “Changing the way Indians shop”. BBC News.

“Retailing in India Unshackling the chain stores”. The Economist. 29 May 2008.

Agarwal, Vibhuti; Bahree, Megha (7 December 2011). “India puts retails reforms on hold”. The Wall Street Journal.

Sharma, Amol; Sahu, Prasanta (11 January 2012). “India Lifts Some Limits on Foreign Retailers”. The Wall Street Journal.

IKEA shelves Indian retail market move”. The Financial Times. 22 January 2012.

Association of Traders of Maharashtra v. Union of India, 2005 (79) DRJ 426.

The Supermarket Revolution in Developing Countries, Policies for ¯Competitiveness with Inclusiveness , Thomas Reardon and Ashok Gulati, IFPRI Policy Brief 2 • June 2008.

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The Impacts of Supermarket Procurement on Farming Communities in India: Evidence from Rural Karnataka, Bill Pritchard, C. P. Gracy and Michelle Godwin,

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WalmartFact Sheets”. Walmart. November 2011.

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Indian retail kings around the world”. Rediff, 6 December 2011.

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Walmart Asia to make India an export hub”. Business Standard. April 14, 2010.

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Grant, Tavia (January 25, 2011). “The Wal-Mart effect: food inflation tame in Canada”. Toronto: The Globe and Mail.

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Aam bania is more powerful than the aam aadmi”. The Times of India. 4 December 2011.

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FDI POLICY IN MULTI BRAND RETAIL”. Ministry of Commerce, Government of India. 28 November 2011.

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Tripathi, Salil (29 December 2011). “India needs Supermarkets”.London: The Guardian.

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India government puts foreign supermarkets “on pause””. Reuters. 4 December 2011

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Farmer Organisations back retail FDI”. The Financial Express, 2 December 2011.

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Suryamurthy, R. (2 December 2011). “Enter, farmer with an FDI in retail query”. Calcutta, India: The Telegraph.

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FDI in retail is first major step towards reforms in agriculture, feels Sharad Joshi”. The Economic Times. 2 December 2011.

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Major Benefits of FDI in Retail”. The Reformist India. 30 November 2011.

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SIX SIGMA â&#x20AC;&#x201C; DMAIC FRAMEWORK FOR ENHANCING QUALITY IN ENGINEERING EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 1

*VIKAS SINGH1, N P SHARMA2 Research Scholar, Department of Management, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Director, Nimbus Academy of Management, Dehradun, Uttara Khand, India

*Address for correspondence : Vikas Singh, Research Scholar, Department of Management, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Six Sigma is a proven business strategy for improving the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effectiveness and achieving higher levels of performance. Six Sigma applications have proved its success in product and process / service Industries by deploying any one of its models like DMAIC or DFSS during implementation. In the recent times, educational institutions are attempting to leverage the success of industries in improving their efficiency and the quality of service that are delivered by them. In the context of educational institutions, the customer and products are complex phenomenon to describe unlike an industry. Engineering educational institutions, under the globalised industrial scenario faces lots of challenges in their service offerings of quality education and also in their output of students as products for employment in industry. This issue of quality in higher education is a concern not only for the stake holders, but also for the society at large. There have been many initiatives at the national level by government and other interested stake holders at the macro level. Attempts have been made in this work to deliver a broader framework of DMAIC approach to impact quality of engineering education at the micro level of institutions themselves by leveraging the success of industries in applying six sigma for complex problems. The scope of the work also includes review the published literatures related to this work Keywords: Six Sigma, DMAIC, Engineering Education, Educational Enterprise, Engineering Colleges INTRODUCTION Six Sigma and its Success with Industries Quality is a measure for success of any organization. It helps in setting metric for achieving higher goals of accomplishments from the historical data of the own organization and for bench marking the current level of performance with leaders in the particular domain towards setting targets for achievements. It also helps in continuous improvement and excel in the given function. There have been many initiatives of quality in the industries for achieving higher standards like Zero Defects, TQM, 5S and many others. Quality Gurus like Deming, Juran and many others during various phases have 226

immensely contributed to the quality movement that benefitted the industries at large. One such quality movement is Six Sigma, which originated at Motorola in early 1980s [1] and was recognized with the prestigious Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) in 1988 [2]. Six sigma was popularized by demonstrating it as a successful business model, by Jack Welch at GE during late 1980s and 1990s [3]. Success of Six Sigma either in Motorola, GE or any other organizations later can be attributed to the management and leadership commitments. Six Sigma word is not always a smooth one and requires the patience of a saint, never-give-up philosophy and long-term perspective to work on quality [4]. Some of the organizations failed in its www.ijsir.co.in

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first attempt of implementation in making considerable business impact, recognized that they did not create enough of sustainable infrastructure or force fit Six Sigma into the organization and without management support [4] . Six Sigma is a structured approach and a discipline. DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control) is the most familiar model of Six Sigma to the industries in general, which is applicable to both process and product industries. This model leverages effective utilization of existing resources, without any additional investments on resources or infrastructure to achieve entitlement [3] in Six Sigma implementation in delivering business results. Basically DMAIC strategy aims at lowhanging fruits. Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) is another model aimed at delivering defect free products / process with a focus at the design stage itself. It is largely applicable for completely new process or product development, or new design to process or product quality when existing process / product quality attained entitlement. Six Sigma methodologies in brief, starts with the customer by closely understanding their needs / expectations, making appropriate changes / improvements to the process / product and delivering the solution that exceeds customer expectations rather than meeting the expectations. QUALITY CHALLENGES OF THE ENGINEERING EDUCATIONAL ENTERPRISE Quality and its sustenance in higher educational institutions, more particularly in professional institutions is a great challenge for the mere existence of the educational institutions themselves. Employability of the students produced by the engineering institutions, for employment by the industry at 25% [5, 6] is a major cause of worry for all the stake holders and has been elaborated [7]. Apart from the need for absorption by the industries for employment, the products of engineering institutions have also to be equipped with the knowledge necessary for carrying forward research work in institutions of higher learning. The requirements of the customers (industry and research institutions) of www.ijsir.co.in

engineering institutions from its products (students) are quite different, industry requiring more emphasis on practical knowledge for applications and applied research, while research institution requiring strong knowledge on concepts for theoretical research. This throws a good challenge for the institutions and its products. Unlike the industry, the engineering institutions have to meet the needs of complex demands of varying stake holders, regulatory bodies like AICTE, funding members for the educational process like parents, industries under globalised scenario and expectations of students themselves as stake holders in the input process. Educational Institutions in general and Engineering Educational Enterprise (EEE) in particular, have been attempting to address the quality challenges of EEE by leveraging various models that were found to be successful in industries for this complex issue. In this work, attempts have been made to focus on Six Sigma methodology towards this cause, review the literatures towards this work and deliver a broader frame work to be carried forward at the institutional level. LITERATURE SURVEY Joan [8] in his work has briefed on how to apply Six Sigma methodology to project levels in the mechanical engineering department of the institution, which is comparable to Green Belt Projects of a Six Sigma Enterprise and is not dealt on the frame work at the institution level, nevertheless explains the usefulness of six sigma to educational institution. Prabhakar and Dinesh[9] in their work explained how Six Sigma methodology to a specific problem of increasing the pass percentage of students in engineering institutions is similar to that of a task as explained by Joan [8]. Jayanta and Robert [10] in their work very nicely brought out the usefulness of Six Sigma approach in impacting quality and productivity improvement in higher educational institutions in United States. Interestingly, authors have brought out the wastages / under utilization of resources by quantifying academic work of 9 months in a year, with an idle time of 3 months on resources. They briefed further on, whether academic institutions can be run like a business enterprise, quantifying the importance of faculty 227

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role and explained the lack of investments in their development. They have also briefly explained all the 5 phases of DMAIC model. Ramasubramanian [11] has nicely captured in his literature the various roles of Six Sigma, DMAIC one of the most familiar model of Six Sigma and broadly listed various tools applicable in various phases of Six Sigma to educational institutions at macro level. The focus is not to dwell into the application of six sigma to the specific issue under discussions. Imam et. al. [8] briefed in their work traces the Six Sigma origin, development and the different phases of the Six Sigma Methodology. They also compared various categories of educational system across the globe. Interestingly this article quantifies levels of defects generated across global poles in products and process. It is not within the scope of the work to include suggesting a method or approach. Ramanan et. al [7] in their work attempted to explain the application of Six sigma in addressing employability issues of engineering graduates, which is task specific similar to studies reported earlier [8,9]. Sean [13] while attempting to explain the implications of Six Sigma in industry and educational institutions narrated the various roles, tools and phases of the Six Sigma model and has not delivered a frame work. Ramanan et.al. [14] focused in explaining the necessity and benefits of having Six Sigma as a measurement metric for measuring quality of higher education. SIX SIGMA â&#x20AC;&#x201C; DMAIC FRAME WORK FOR ENGINEERING EDUCATIONAL ENTERPRISE (EEE) From the success and also from the failures of the industry from Six Sigma implementation, it is confidently learnt that effectiveness and benefits from Six Sigma implementation is largely

dependent on leadership / management commitments and involvement of everyone in the process, of Six Sigma deployment. Hence, the delivery of a successful frame work for EEE, starts from the top most level of the enterprise, thus ensuring commitment and support for six sigma deployment leading to measurable results. 1. System and Sub-System of DMAIC and its Analogy to EEE DMAIC as briefed [7] is the process improvement methodology of Six Sigma approach either at the system level or at the component / task level for the product or process industry. It shall be of benefit in explaining the model and frame work with an example of a product and apply the analogy to EEE for system level approach. Fig.1 captures one of the highly sophisticated, highly safety critical medical device from GE [15] used in interventional diagnostics and also in procedure like stenting in coronary artery of the heart. The medical device as a system (Fig. 1), integrates various sub-systems (Fig. 2) by leveraging cutting edge technology across various domains of engineering [15] in delivering the flaw less function to the doctors and patients. We can extend the same analogy of the system approach to EEE, which has to integrate with various sub-systems of like various departments of academic excellences, various departments of administrative functions and various external agencies like regulatory authorities, investors (parents), society etc. in delivering a flawless service and outputs from EEE. Fig. 3 covers a broader system and sub-system involvement to an EEE and can be extended / expanded / modified according to the structure and discipline of EEE.

Fig. 1 & 2 Typical Medical Device & System and Sub-System[15] 228

Fig. 3 System and Sub-System of EEE www.ijsir.co.in

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1.1: Impact of Quality – Flowing from Component to Sub-System to System

effectiveness and efficiency of deployment and sustenance.

It could be appreciated from the industrial product example explained here, if the system has to function flawless, each one of the components as small as a screw or a capacitor etc., in the sub-system has to function flawless all the time. Hence it can be realized that the importance the smallest component like a bolt in a complex product is as important as the system itself in its flaw less function. This analogy is applicable to educational institutions comprising of various functions, departments, internal and external shareholders etc. For example, a typographical mistake in a mark sheet of an EEE by a clerk in an examination section of an administrative department is as important as a researcher’s publication in an accredited journal in measuring the quality of an engineering educational enterprise.

3. Typical DMAIC Structural Model for EEE

2. Typical DMAIC Model for EEE and aligning it with Quality System’s Vision and Mission It could visualize EEE as a system comparable to that of the product as explained earlier. Each of the EEE has its ‘Mission and Vision’ (V&M) statements towards what they want to achieve, by aligning Six Sigma model with Quality System’s vision and mission it can be easily tracked towards measurable objectives at all levels. A generic DMAIC model of an EEE is depicted in Fig. 4 with broader objectives to be achieved in each one of the phase of the DMAIC Six Sigma Model towards EEE. This frame work can be adopted at sub-system and also at the individual levels by having the V&M or ‘Goals and Objectives’ (G&O) by aligning it with a flow down from system level to component. To achieve these objectives industries have adopted a structure of Six Sigma Roles towards

Fig. 4: DMAIC Model for EEE www.ijsir.co.in

As explained earlier, success of Six Sigma depends on leadership involvement and commitment. The head of the organization – Chairman / President / Director / Principal is assigned / assumes the role of Sponsor or Champion depending on the size of the organization, which is accountable for V&M in quality systems. The defined goals are then flown down to department heads, to individuals in chain of implementation to achieve desired goal. A generalized EEE structure for implementation of DMAIC is depicted in Fig. 5. Depending on the size of the EEE and its function Champion, Sponsor and MBB roles can get merged thus performing all the intended function. The broad DMAIC – EEE Structural model is depicted for one department and function to explain how V&M is flown into individual levels towards achievable objectives. This can be extended / expanded / adopted based on various stated V&M or G&O of the EEE. Though this structure is explained keeping engineering educational enterprise in mind, but adoptable with modifications to any educational environment with suitable modifications as appropriate. As the faculty develops the passion in adopting and leveraging the Six Sigma approach in their research and academic work, it further flows down into their respective student and research scholar projects, thus full potential of Six Sigma is realized into the EE enterprise as a whole. This is the way, Motorola, GE and all other great leaders demonstrated success by driving Six Sigma as a DNA of the organization. 4. Typical DMAIC Tools Applicable to EEE Model

Fig. 5: DMAIC Structural Model for EEE

Fig. 6: Tools in DMAIC 229

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Fig. 6 is suggestive in nature of the various tools that could be used in various phases of the DMAIC model in achieving the desired G&O or V&M. It is not a rule that a specific tool has to be used only in that phase as mentioned. 5. Typical CTQ Flow-Down, Flow-Up for Roles & Responsibilities in a DMAIC Model for EEE As explained earlier, the Six Sigma success is at the organization level and hence its deployment requires commitment and engagement at the highest level. A typical engagement of various levels of the organization and their alignment to Six Sigma role in a frame work for achieving the desired targets or realistic goals are captured in Fig. 7. It flows from top level (like system in a product) to the bottom level (like that of a component in a system) in assigning the roles and responsibilities to achieve the quality goals, with achieved goals flowing-up from

lowest level to the highest level of the system. A typical example is captured what could be achieved at the each phase at various level for the given cause / target from top level and what can be achieved at next levels as it flows down to the level like that of a system in a product to component. This explains the CTQ (Critical to Quality) flow down from system level to component / part level. It also explains how the quality rigor is achieved in component / part level and is flown back to build the quality rigor into the system with the broad structure of roles and responsibilities and mapping it to the DMAIC – EEE Structure. It is a typical example and has to be altered based on the CTQ at the institution level which is comparable to that of a system and to the departments comparable with that of a sub-system and to the individuals of the institution comparable to that of a part / component level quality.

Fig. 7: DMAIC Model for EEE - Roles and Responsibilities – CTQ Flow Down from System to Individual vs Achievement of Quality from Individual to System

SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The structure of the DMAIC for the EEE has been structured and formulated. Each of the phase and the complexity with the applicable tools along with the case study are dealt separately in the future publications. It has also been included to bring-out how to merge DMAIC Frame work proposed in this work can be merged with ISO Standards adopted by the EEE, thus avoiding / repeating administrative work. DFSS model for the institutions which has the opportunity to introduce new papers / courses are dealt separately in future work.

From the literatures surveyed and references, broader structural frame work of a DMAIC Model for EEE with organization structure, applicable tools and assignable roles and responsibilities has been delivered.

230

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Bossert, J, Lean and Six Sigma—Synergy Made in Heaven, Quality Progress, 2003, 31-32

Bhote, K. (2002). The Ultimate Six Sigma: Beyond Quality Excellence to Total Business Excellence.NewYork: American Management Association, 2002

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L Ramanan and KPV Ramanakumar, Six Sigma – As a Measurement Metric in Measuring Quality of Higher Education, Intnl Journal of Business Management Invention, Vol 3, Issue 1, pp 28-30, 2014

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P Ramasubramanian, Six Sigma in Educational Institutions, Intnl Journal of Engineering Practical Research, Vol 1, Issue 1, pp 1-5, 2012

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Chithra R, Employability Skills – A Study on the perception of the Engineering Students and their Prospective Employers, Global Journal of Management and Business Studies, Vol 3, Number 5, pp 525-534, 2013

Imam M and Pradeep B, Transforming US Higher Education with Six Sigma, Proceedings of the IntnlNetwork of Quality Assesment Agencies in Higher Education, Abudhabi, 2009

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Sean P Goffnett, Understanding Six Sigma Implications for Industry and Education,Journal of Industrial Technology, Vol 20, No.4, 2004

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L Ramanan and KPV Ramanakumar, Necessity of Six Sigma – As a Measurement Metric in Measuring Quality of Higher Education, Intnl Journal of Business Management Invention, Vol 3, Issue 1, pp 28-30, 2014

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L Ramanan, Six Sigma – An Ingredient of Innovative Product Design, Proceedings of the Indo-US Workshop on Product Design – Impact from Research to Education to Practice, pp 353-355, 2010

L Ramanan, M Kumar and KPV Ramanakumar, Six Sigma Methodology for Addressing Employability Issue of Engineering Graduates, Intnl Journal of Modern Education Forum - Spl Edition (Submitted) Joan Burtner, The Adoption of Six Sigma Methodology to the Engineering Educational Enterprise, Proceedings of the ASEE South East Section Conference, 2004 PrabhakarKaushik, and Dinesh Khanduja, Utilising Six Sigma for Improving the pass percentage of Students – A Technical Institute Case Study, Educational Research and Review Vol. 5 (9), pp. 471-483, 2010

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BIO MEDICAL WASTE: A SERIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN *KUSHAGRA SAH1, SWAPNIL SRIVASTAVA1, 2 SHUBHAM SINGH 1 Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University, Visakhapatnam, 2 Symbosis Law School, Pune *Address for correspondence : Kushagra Sah, Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University, Visakhapatnam, India, e-mail: kushagrasah@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Though hospitals make relatively insignificant contribution to the total garbage mountain, they have an obligation to deal with bio-medical waste in an effective and safe manner being hazardous and infectious in nature. Because of its composition, there are significant risks associated with hospital waste. Infections are the most common health hazards associated with poor hospital waste management, which has been magnified with the advent of AIDS and hepatitis B virus infections and increase in the prevalence of disease in the health care providers (HCP). Good collection, handling, transport, treatment and ultimate disposal procedures are essential for well-being of patients, hospital staff, the community and the environment. Although the risk posed by bio-medical waste can never be totally eradicated, it can be significantly reduced by careful planning. An effective programme of hospital waste management can have distinct economic benefits such as cost saving linked to waste reduction and improved purchasing power. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, notified the rules for management and handling of bio-medical waste called Bio-medical waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998.These rules apply to all hospitals that generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat, dispose or handle bio-medical waste in any form .It is extremely unfortunate that medical waste regulation has never before focused on the immediate and extremely high risk faced by the hospital workers and waste handlers. There is no mention of worker’s safety, procedure, training and operation and monitoring the activities. Now, hospital waste management is one of the thrust areas which is drawing the attention of health authorities and the government. Biomedical waste is generated by the health care providers. Therefore, it becomes the responsibility of this group to segregate and manage the waste in such a way, that it is no longer hazard for them, public and environment. INTRODUCTION Medical care is vital for our life, health and well-being. Hospital is a place to provide medical care and serve the patient. But the wastes generated from the medical activities carried on during patient care have many adverse and harmful effects to the environment including human beings. The huge amount of the ‘Hospital Waste’ can be hazardous, toxic and even fatal because of their high potential for diseases transmission. Because of its composition, there are significant risks associated with ‘Hospital Waste’. Infections are the most common health 232

hazards associated with poor hospital waste management, which has been magnified with the advent of AIDS and Hepatitis B virus infections and increase in the prevalence of the diseases like hospital acquired infections and transfusion transmitted diseases. The hazardous and toxic part of waste from health care establishments comprising infectious, bio-medical and radioactive material as well as sharps (hypodermic needles, knives, scalpels etc.) constitute a grave risk, if these are not properly treated/disposed or is allowed to get mixed with other municipal waste. The situation gets more worsen due to its ability to contaminate other non-hazardous/nonwww.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 232-240, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

toxic municipal waste. The rag pickers and waste workers are often worst affected, because unknowingly they rummage through all kinds of poisonous material while trying to collect items to sell for reuse. Beside this air pollution due to emission of hazardous gases by incinerator such as furan, dioxin, hydrochloric acid etc. have compelled the authorities to think seriously about hospital waste and the diseases transmitted through improper disposal of hospital waste. This problem has now become a serious threat for the public health and, ultimately, the Central Government had to intervene for enforcing proper handling and disposal of hospital waste and a Bio-medical Waste (handling and management) Rule was introduced in 1998. A modern hospital is a complex multidisciplinary system which consumes thousands of items for delivery of medical care and is a part of physical environment. All these products consumed in the hospital leave some unusable leftovers i.e. hospital waste. The last century witnessed the rapid mushrooming of hospital in the public and private sector, dictated by the needs of expanding population. The advent and acceptance of â&#x20AC;&#x153;disposableâ&#x20AC;? has made the generation of hospital waste a significant factor in current scenario.[1]

pressure. Most hospitals in India do not have proper disposal facilities for these hazardous wastes.Thus we can say hospital waste refers to all waste generated, discarded and not intended for further use in the hospital. AMOUNT AND COMPOSITION OF HOSPITAL WASTE GENERATED3 (a) Amount Country U. K.

2.5

U.S.A.

4.5

France

2.5

Spain

3.0

India

1.5

(b) Hazardous/non-hazardous Hazardous

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15%

a) Hazardous but non-infective 5% b) Hazardous and infective

10%

Non-hazardous

85%

14%

Combustible

WHAT IS A HOSPITAL WASTE? Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities in these fields or in the production or testing of biological waste. It may include wastes like sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, etc. These are in the form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta, etc. This waste is highly infectious and can be a serious threat to human health if not managed in a scientific and discriminate manner. It has been roughly estimated that of the 4 kg of waste generated in a hospital at least 1 kg would be infected. [2] Hospital waste contaminated by chemicals used in hospitals is considered hazardous.These chemicals include formaldehyde and phenols, which are used as disinfectants, and mercury, which is used in thermometers or equipment that measure blood

Quantity (kg/bed/day)

Dry cellulosic solid

45%

Wet cellulosic solid

18%

Non-combustible

20%

Indian Scenario country wide waste generation (approx.) Approx. beds-10 lakhs Total waste generated per day

15 lakh Kg

Govt. Hospital-

9.45 lakh Kg

Pvt./Corporate -

5.25 lakh Kg

Local body hospital

0.30 lakh Kg

BIOMEDICAL WASTE Any solid, fluid and liquid or liquid waste, including its container and any intermediate product, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunisation of human being or 233

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 232-240, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

animals, in research pertaining thereto, or in the production or testing of biological and the animal waste from slaughter houses or any other similar establishment. All biomedical waste is hazardous. In hospital it comprises of 15% of total hospital waste.

bandages or any other materials that were in contact with infectious agents or blood, pathological waste including organs, body parts, tissues. These are potentially dangerous and present a high risk of infection to the general public and to the staff.

COMPONENTS OF BIO-MEDICAL WASTE4

B) Laboratory Waste:

This is also high risk category waste. This includes chemicals used in the pathological laboratory, microbial cultures and clinical specimens, slide, culture dish, needle, syringes, as well as radioactive waste such as Iodine-125, Iodine -131 etc.

Human anatomical waste (tissues, organs, body parts etc.)

ii) Animal waste (as above, generated during research/experimentation, from veterinary hospitals etc.) iii) Microbiology and biotechnology waste, such as, laboratory cultures, micro-organisms, human and animal cell cultures, toxins etc. iv) Waste sharps, such as, hypodermic needles, syringes, scalpels, broken glass etc. v) Discarded medicines and cytotoxic drugs (wastes comprising of outdated, contaminated and discarded medicines) vi) Soiled waste, such as dressing, bandages, plaster casts, material contaminated with blood etc.

C) Non-clinical Waste: This includes wrapping paper, office paper, and plastic that has not been in contact with patient body fluid. D) Radioactive waste: This describes waste resulting from nuclear medicine treatments, cancer therapies and medical equipment that uses radioactive isotopes. Pathological waste that is contaminated with radioactive material is treated as radioactive waste rather than infectious waste.

vii) Solid waste (disposable items like tubes, catheters etc. excluding sharps),

E) Kitchen waste:

viii) Liquid waste generated from any of the infected areas (waste generated from laboratory and washing, cleaning, housekeeping and disinfecting activities)

This includes food waste, wash and waste water. It is a potential source of pests and vermin, such as cockroach, mice and rats and is thus an indirect potential hazard to the staff and patients in a hospital.

ix) Incineration ash (ash from incineration of any bio-medical waste) x) Chemical waste (chemicals used in production of biological, chemicals used in disinfection, as insecticides, etc.) wash and waste water. It is a potential source of pests. Medical wastes are also classified into five different categories based on their sources and potential hazards they may cause. A) Clinical Waste: This includes body fluid, drainage bags, blood collection tubes, vials, culture dishes, other types of broken/unbroken glassware that were in contact with infectious agents, gauze, 234

THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION CLASSIFIES MEDICAL WASTE INTO: ·

Sharps

Infectious

Pathological

Radioactive

Pharmaceuticals

Others (often sanitary waste produced at hospitals)

Sharp wastes make up most of the volume of medical wastes produced by SQGs. The next highest is blood and body fluids.

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 232-240, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

BIO MEDICAL WASTE: CONCERN

A SERIOUS

The problem of bio-medical waste disposal in the hospitals and other healthcare establishments has become an issue of increasing concern, prompting hospital administration to seek new ways of scientific, safe and cost effective management of the waste, and keeping their personnel informed about the advances in this area. The need of proper hospital waste management system is of prime importance and is an essential component of quality assurance. This topic has assumed great importance in our country, especially in the light of honourable Supreme Court Judgement and the notification of the Bio-medical waste (Management &handling) Rules, 1998. HONOURABLE JUDGEMENT5

SUPREME

COURT

1. Supreme Court judgment dated 1st March 1996 in connection with safe disposal of hospital waste ordered that (a) All hospitals with 50 beds and above should install either their own incinerator or equally effective alternative method before 30th November 1996. (b) The incinerator or the alternative method should be installed with a necessary pollution control mechanism conforming to the standard laid down by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). (c) Hazardous medical waste should be segregated as source and disinfected before final disposal.

According to these rules, it shall be the duty of every occupier of an institution generating biomedical waste, which includes hospitals, nursing homes ,clinics, dispensaries, veterinary institution, animal houses, pathology laboratories ,blood banks etc., to take all steps to ensure that such wastes are handled without any adverse effect to human health and the environment. They have to either setup their own facility within the time frame (schedule VI[10]) or ensure requisite treatment at a common waste treatment facility or any other waste treatment facility. HEALTH HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH POOR MANAGEMENT OF BIO-MEDICAL WASTE11 Hospital waste management is a part of hospital hygiene and maintenance activities. In fact only 15% of hospital waste i.e. “Biomedical waste” is hazardous, not the complete. But when hazardous waste is not segregated at the source of generation and mixed with non-hazardous waste, then 100% waste becomes hazardous. The question then arises that what is the need or rationale for spending so much resource in terms of money, man power, material and machine for management of hospital waste? The reasons are: a)

BIO-MEDICAL WASTE (MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING) RULES, 1998 The Central Govt. has notified these rules on 20th July, 1998 in exercise of section 6[6], 8[7] and 25[8] of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Prior to that, the draft rules were gazetted on 16th October, 1997 and Public suggestions / comments were invited within 60 days. These suggestions were considered before finalising the rules.

SCOPE AND APPLICATION OF THE RULES9 These rules apply to all those who generate, collect, receive, store ,transport, treat, dispose or handle bio-medical waste in any form. www.ijsir.co.in

Injuries from sharps leading to infection to all categories of hospital personnel and waste handler. Nosocomial infections in patients from poor infection control practices and poor waste management. Risk of infection outside hospital for waste handlers and scavengers and at time general public living in the vicinity of hospitals. Risk associated with hazardous chemicals, drugs to persons handling wastes at all levels. “Disposable” being repacked and sold by unscrupulous elements without even being washed. Drugs which have been disposed of, being repacked and sold off to unsuspecting buyers. Risk of air, water and soil pollution directly due to waste, or due to defective incineration emissions and ash. 235

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APPROACH FOR MANAGEMENT

HOSPITAL

WASTE

Based on Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998, notified under the Environment Protection Act by the Ministry of Environment and Forest (Government of India). 1. IDENTIFICATION COMPONENTS OF GENERATED12

OF VARIOUS THE WASTE

The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 says that such waste shall be segregated into containers/bags at the point of generation in accordance with Schedule II[13] of the Rules prior to its storage, transportation ,treatment and disposal. This would help in easy identification of the various components of health care waste. All containers bearing hazardous material must be adequately labelled according to Schedule IV[14] of the Rules. 2. SEGREGATION OF WASTE

3. COLLECTION OF WASTE: Collection of bio-medical wastes should be done as per rules in colour coded plastic bags as mentioned in the earlier table. There is a need to be vigilant so that intermixing of different categories of waste is not done inadvertently by the patients, attendants or visitors. The containers for collection should be strategically located at all points of generation as mentioned in the earlier table. The process of collection should be documented in a register, the coloured polythene bags should be replaced and the garbage bin should be cleaned with disinfectant regularly. 4. STORAGE OF WASTE: Storage refers to the holding of bio-medical waste for a certain period of time, after which it is sent for treatment and disposal. In other words it means that the duration of time wastes are kept at the site of generation and transit till the point of treatment and final disposal.

Segregation is the essence of waste management and should be done at the source of generation of bio-medical waste e.g. all patient care activity areas, diagnostic services areas, operation theatres, labour rooms, treatment rooms etc. The responsibility of segregation should be with the generator of biomedical waste i.e. doctors, nurses, technicians etc. (medical and paramedical personnel). The biomedical waste should be segregated as per categories mentioned in the rules.

5. TRANSPORTATION OF WASTE

The colour, coding, type of container to be used for different waste category and suggested treatment options are listed below:

Trolleys or carts should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected in the event of any spillage. The wheeled containers should be so designed that the waste can be easily loaded, remains secured during transportation, do not have any sharp edges and is easy to clean and disinfect. Hazardous biomedical waste needing transport to a long distance should be kept in containers and should have proper labels. The transport is done through desiccated vehicles specially constructed for the purpose having fully enclosed body, lined internally with stainless steel or aluminium to provide smooth and impervious surface which can be cleaned. The driverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s compartment should be separated from the load compartment with a bulkhead. The load compartment should be provided with roof vents for ventilation.

COLOR CODING & TYPE OF CONTAINER FOR DISPOSAL OF BIO-MEDICAL WASTE15 Colour Coding

Type

Waste

Treatment

Contain

Categ

Options as per

ers Yellow

Plastic bag

Red

Disinfected

ory

Schedule 1

1,2,3,

Incineration/d

eep burial

3,6,7

Autoclaving/Mi

Container/

cro

Plastic bag

Chemical

waving/

Treatment Blue/

Plastic

4,7

White

bag/punctu

cro

translu

chemical

cent

container

proof

Autoclaving/Mi waving/

treatment

and

destruction/sh redding Black

236

Plastic bag

5,9,10

Disposal

(Solid

secured

)

landfill

Within hospital, waste routes must be designated to avoid the passage of waste through patient care areas. Separate time should be earmarked for transportation of bio-medical waste to reduce chances of its mixing with general waste. Desiccated wheeled containers, trolleys or carts should be used to transport the waste/plastic bags to the site of storage/ treatment.

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 232-240, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

6. TREATMENT OF HOSPITAL WASTE:16 Improper treatment of hospital waste creates a lot of health risks to the public. The failure to properly dispose of syringes and needles can result in them being repackaged, leading to an unsafe reuse. Also, mismanagement of hospital waste leads to health risks to all those who are exposed to it.Treatment of waste is required: ·

To disinfect the waste so that it is no longer the source of infection.

To reduce the volume of the waste.

Make waste unrecognizable for aesthetic reasons

Make recycled items unusable.

6.1 General Waste The 85% of the waste generated in the hospital belongs to this category. The safe disposal of this waste is the responsibility of the local authority. 6.2 Bio-medical Waste: 15% of hospital waste

Incineration: The incinerator should be installed and made operational as per specification under the BMW Rules 1998 and a certificate may be taken from CPCB/State Pollution Control Board and emission levels etc. should be defined. In case of small hospitals, facilities can be shared. The waste under category 1, 2,3,5,6 can be incinerated depending upon the local policies of the hospital and feasibility. The polythene bags made of chlorinated plastics should not be incinerated.

7. SAFETY MEASURES17 7.1 Safety Measures for the Medical and Paramedical Staff The following instructions need to be notified and strictly adhered to: Clear directives in the form of a notice to be displayed in all concerned areas. Issuance of all protective clothes such as, gloves, aprons, masks etc. without fail. Sterilisation of all equipment and issue of only properly sterilised equipment and tool, such as, surgical tools to the medical personnel and maintenance of registers for this purpose.

Deep burial: The waste under category 1 and 2 only can be accorded deep burial and only in cities having less than 5 lakh populations.

Autoclave and microwave treatment: Standards for the autoclaving and microwaving are also mentioned in the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998. All equipment installed/shared should meet these specifications. The waste under category 3,4,6,7 can be treated by these techniques. Standards for the autoclaving are also laid down.

7.2 Safety Measures for Cleaning and Transportation Staff

Shredding: The plastic (IV bottles, IV sets, syringes, catheters etc.), sharps (needles, blades, glass etc) should be shredded but only after chemical treatment/microwaving/ autoclaving. Needle destroyers can be used for disposal of needles directly without chemical treatment.

Provision of disinfectant, soap etc of the right quality and clean towels.

Secured landfill: The incinerator ash, discarded medicines, cytotoxic substances and solid chemical waste should be treated by this option.

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Provision of disinfectant, soap etc of the right quality and clean towels/tissue papers Regular medical check-up (half-early).

Display of illustrated notices with clear instructions for do’s and don’ts in Hindi and the local language. Issuance of all protective gears such as, gloves, aprons, masks, gum boot etc .without fail.

Provision of a wash area, where they can take bath, if needed/desired. Washing and disinfecting facility for the cleaning equipment and tools. Regular medical check-up (at least halfyearly). 237

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8. TRAINING Each and every hospital must have well planned awareness and training programme for all personnel working in the institute including administrators, medical, paramedical and sanitary staff. The administration of the establishment, whether big or small, should provide written instructions to all the departments generating or managing waste, stating the policy of the organisation and the decisions taken which are to be adhered to. All the medical professionals must be made aware of Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998. Training should be conducted to all categories of staff in appropriate language/ medium and in an acceptable manner. A core group of trainers should be trained for continued in-house training of the administrative, para-medical and sanitation staff. 8. MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION A Hospital Waste Management Committee should be constituted in each hospital for proper implementation of Bio-Medical Waste Management Rulesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; 98, under the chairmanship of the Medical Superintendents. It is a broad based committee with representatives from hospital administration, clinical departments, pathology and microbiology departments and has powers to take decisions on all matters relating to bio-medical waste management in their respective hospitals. Heads of each hospital will have to take authorization for generation of waste from appropriate authorities as notified by the concerned State /U.T. Government, well in time and to get it renewed as per time schedule laid down in the rules. The annual reports, accident reports, as required under BMW rules should be submitted to the concerned authorities as per BMW rules format. 9. MEASURES FOR WASTE MINIMIZATION Proper collection and segregation of biomedical waste are important. At the same time, the quantity of waste generated is equally 238

important. A lesser amount of biomedical waste means a lesser burden on waste disposal work, cost-saving and a more efficient waste disposal system. Hence, health care providers should always try to reduce the waste generation in dayto-day work in the clinic or at the hospital. As far as possible, purchase of reusable items made of glass and metal should be encouraged. Select non PVC plastic items. Adopt procedures and policies for proper management of waste generated, the mainstay of which is segregation to reduce the quantity of waste to be treated. Establish effective and sound recycling policy for plastic recycling and get in touch with authorised manufactures.18 9.1 Authorization Every occupier of the institution generating, collecting, receiving, storing, transporting, treating, disposing or handling bio-medical wastes in any other manner, except such occupier of clinics, dispensaries, pathological laboratories, blood banks providing treatment/ service to less than 1000 patients per month and every operator of bio-medical waste facility shall make an application in the prescribed Form No. I to the Prescribed Authority for the grant of authorization. 19 A prescribed fee shall also accompany the application for the grant of authorization.20 9.2 Role of Advisory Committee â&#x20AC;&#x153;In order to check the waste management an Advisory Committee should be formed. Rule (1) puts an obligation on the Government of every State to constitute an Advisory Committee. The Committee will include experts in the field of medical and health, animal husbandry and veterinary sciences, environmental management, municipal administration and any other related department or organization including nongovernmental organizations.21 The committee shall advise the Government and the Prescribed Authority about matters related to the implementation of these rules. The Ministry of Defence shall constitute an Advisory Committee in respect of all health care establishments to advise the Director General, Armed Forces Medical Services and Ministry of Defence in matters relating to implementation of www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 232-240, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

these rules.22 Further Rule 9-A provides that the Central Pollution Control Board shall monitor the implementation of these rules in respect of all the Armed Forces health care establishments under the Ministry of Defence.

and hazardous waste. Also, to search for suitable materials to be used as containers for bio-medical waste requiring incineration/autoclaving/ microwaving.

9.3 Common Disposal/ Incineration Sites Rule 14[23] which was inserted in 2000, provides that the Municipal Corporations, Municipal Boards or Urban Local Bodies, as the case may be, shall be responsible for providing suitable common disposal/ incineration sites for the bio-medical wastes generated in the area under their jurisdiction. In the areas outside the jurisdiction of any Municipal Body, it shall be the responsibility of the occupier generating the biomedical waste/ operator of the bio-medical waste treatment facility to arrange for suitable sites, individual or in association, so as to comply with the provisions of these rules.[240 10. COORDINATION BETWEEN HOSPITAL AND OUTSIDE AGENCIES Co-ordination between the civic authority and the common treatment / disposal facility is extremely important for timely removal of the waste. There should be no confusion regarding placement of the waste components, their containers and colour coding, removal schedule etc. The hospitals should always be in coordination with: I.

II.

Municipal authority : A large percentage of waste (in India up to 85%), generated in Indian hospitals, belongs to general category (non-toxic and nonhazardous).The hospital should have constant interaction with municipal authorities so that this category of waste is regularly taken out of the hospital premises for land fill or other treatment. Co-ordination with Pollution Control Boards: Search for better methods technology, provision of facilities for testing, approval of certain models for hospital use in conformity with standards laid down.

III. Private Agencies: To search for cost effective and environmental friendly technology for treatment of bio-medical www.ijsir.co.in

IV. Development of non-PVC plastics as a substitute for plastic which is used in the manufacture of disposable items. CONCLUSION The safe and effective management of biomedical waste is not only a legal necessity but also a social responsibility. Lack of concern, motivation, awareness and economic factors are some of the problems faced in proper hospital waste management. Clearly there is a need for awareness and education about the hazards associated with improper waste management. Lack of apathy to the concept of waste management is a major obstacle to the practice of waste disposal. An effective communication strategy is imperative keeping in view the low awareness level among different category of staff in the health care establishments regarding biomedical waste management. Therefore, it is emphasised on the following policy initiatives: 1.

To ensure that the regulations are implemented and supported by regulatory bodies. Strict instructions by authorities should be given and fear for punitive action should be there in the Para medical staff.

To ensure an access to clean disposal technologies and clean medical products which do not create undesirable waste so that the sector can benefit from them.

Addressing worker safety issues though procedures, information and training, involving various stakeholders such as nurses and ward boys and other paramedical staff without whom any waste system can hope to succeed.

An accreditation system for health care units, for the waste management system, can only be as good as other systems within the hospital.

Incorporating training and awareness through on-going programs and

239

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incorporating waste management focuses in course curriculum. 6.

The development of safe and reliable transport and collection systems for hospital waste to support the sharing of facilities and the setting up of common treatment facilities. Solid waste utilization practices after proper treatment for cost containment for waste management /cost recovery should be adopted by other large hospitals especially tertiary care hospitals where the treatment cost is very high and bulk of solid waste is generated. Awards and incentives are components for the success of the programme. ‘Awards’ should be instituted for medical, surgical, laboratory and research staff for suggesting innovative ideas/ designs/systems to combat with the problem. Similarly, the nursing and the Para medical staff and sanitation staff may also be given awards to suggest practical ideas for improvement in their sphere of activities.

REFERENCES 1.

Hospital Waste: An Environmental Hazard And Its Management — Dr. Hem Chandra

Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998 : Gazette of India extraordinary, Part II, Section3, Subsections II), 1998, dated 28th July 1998.

240

Dr. B.L.Wadehravs.Union of India&ors. [AIR 1996 SC 2969];

Rules to regulate environmental pollution

Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguardsPower to make rules

Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998

Schedule for waste management facilities like incinerator/autoclave / microwave system

10. Hospital waste an environmental hazard and its management,by: Dr. Hem Chandra 11.

Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998

12. Colour coding and type of container for disposal of biomedical wastes 13. Label for transport of bio-medical waste containers/ bags 14. Schedule II of the bio-medical waste (management and handling) rules, 1998 15. Hospital waste: an environmental hazard and its management,by: Dr. Hem Chandra 16. Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998 17. hospital waste an environmental hazard and its management,by: Dr. Hem Chandra 18. P.S.Jaswal, NishthaJaswal, Environmental Law, Allahabad Law Agency, 3rd Edition, pg.430 19. Rule 8 of The Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998. 20. P.S.Jaswal, NishthaJaswal, Environmental Law, Allahabad Law Agency, 3rd Edition, pg.430. 21. Rule 9(2) of The Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998. 22. Rule 14 of The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998. 23. P.S.Jaswal, NishthaJaswal, Environmental Law, Allahabad Law Agency, 3rd Edition, pg.431.

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A CRITICAL STUDY ON FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF SIDBI *PRAKASH YADAVA Research Scholar, BBD University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India *Address for correspondence : Prakash Yadava, Research Scholar, BBD University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India email: prakash771983@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The financial performance of SIDBI in recent years is critically analyzed in this paper. The research paper suggests the recommendations for improvement in financial performance of SIDBI. (IV) TOOLS FOR ANALYSIS-

INTRODUCTION The Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) was set up in 1990 under an Act of Parliament- the SIDBI Act, 1989. The charter establishing SIDBI envisaged SIDBI to be “the principal financial institution for the promotion, financing and development of industries in the small scale sector and to coordinate the functions of other institutions engaged in similar activities.”SIDBI commenced its operations on April 2, 1990, by taking over the outstanding portfolio and activities of IDBI pertaining to the small-scale sector.

Ratios, Dupont analysis DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION LIQUIDITY RATIO –

CURRENT RATIO

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (I) RESEARCH DESIGN Descriptive Research INTERPRETATION

(II) SAMPLE DESIGN Sample Unit

SIDBI

YEAR

2011

2012

2013

CURRENT

1.11

155129/146804

181856/202099

= 1.05

= 0.899

5.41

14.29

RATIO %

We can see that the current ratio of SIDBI is first decreasing from 2011 to 2012 and then it is increasing from 2012 to 2013. Hence, the financial position at present sounds good. QUICK RATIO

CHANGE

(III) DATA COLLECTION METHOD Secondary data is used such as SIDBI’s website, Published data of SIDBI, internet etc. www.ijsir.co.in

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INTERPRETATION 80

quick ratio

60 40

percenta ge change

20 0 2011 2012 2013

In the turnover ratio we can see that the ratio of the company is decreasing from 0.99, 0.68 and 0.13 for the year 2011, 2012 and 2013 respectively. This shows that the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s turnover is decreasing. GROSS MARGIN RATIO YEAR

2011

2012

2013

GROSS

1.30

6.41

7.55

30.00

393.07

17.78

INTERPRETATION The Quick Ratio is seen as 0.72, 0.67, and 0.16 for 2011, 2012, and 2013 respectively. It is decreasing from 2011 to 2013.

MARGIN RATIO CHANGE (%)

LEVERAGE RATIOS 600

DEBT EQUITY RATIO

gross margin ratio

400

0.002

200

total debt ratio

0.001

2011 2012 2013

percentag e change

0 2011 2012 2013

percentage change

INTERPRETATION YEAR

2011

2012

2013

TOTAL DEBT RATIO

0.00

0.0014

CHANGE (%)

0.00

DUPONT ANALYSIS

INTERPRETATION In the total debt ratio, we can see that the ratio is constant 0.00 in the year 2011and 2012 respectively and then it increased and became 0.0014 in the year 2013. TURNOVER RATIO YEAR

2011

2012

2013

TURNOVER

0.99

0.68

0.13

RATIO CHANGE %

The gross margin for the company in ratio is calculated as Gross Margin Ratio and here we can see that the Gross Margin Ratio for the year 2011, 2012 and 2013 is 1.30, 6.41 and 7.55 respectively.

-31.31

-80.88

RATIO

FORMULAE

2011

2012

2013

a)Turnover ratio

Sales/ Net Asset

1.84

3.91

1.18

b)Gross margin ratio

Gross Profit/ Sales

1.30

6.41

7.55

c)Operating leverage

EBIT/ Gross Profit

0.58

0.86

2.71

d)Return on Net

a*b*c

13.87

21.55

24.14

e)ROI (before tax)

EBIT / Net Asset

4.09

6.13

6.80

f)Financials

Profit After Tax/

0.55

0.58

0.57

Leverage Income

EBIT

g)Financial leverage

Net Asset/ Net Worth

0.56

0.44

0.37

e*f*g

1.25

1.56

1.43

Retained Earnings /

0.75

0.76

0.94

1.19

1.09

Asset(RONA)

(B/S) h)Return on equity

200

turnover ratio

100 0 -100 242

2011 2012 2013

percentage change

(ROE) i)Retention ratio

Profit After Tax j)Equity growth

h*i

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Graphical Presentation of Du Pont Analysis

The equity‘s return is in a fluctuating stage, as it increased first and then decreased.

The equity growth is also in fluctuating stage.

The enterprise is presently in the gray area which means that it is unpredictable to say that if the firm will become bankrupt in future or not.

Also the analysis showed that the different ratios calculated are also showing the fluctuating nature for the last three years.

30 RONA

20 10

ROE

0 2011

2012

2013

INTERPRETATION From the above Graphical Presentation it is clear that the Return on Net Assets is increasing year by year which is a good sign for the enterprise. On the other hand, the values of the Return on Equity and Equity Growth are facing the fluctuations as they are first increasing and then they tend to fall. FINDINGS

SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Although the organisation serves the nation with various benefits and vitality but while going through the study of this organisation I would suggest this enterprise to make alterations.

Since the SIDBI is a premier institution hence it is playing a very important role in development of SSIs.

In Du Pont Analysis, it is seen that the Return on Net Assets is at a good growth but the Return on Equity and Equity growth is decreasing year by year.

Passing through financial fluctuations SIDBI still is the big devotee in the development of the SSI.

Hence the efforts should be made in order to improve these two also.

Various ratios and analysis showed that the financial position of the SIDBI is somewhat viable.

The Return on Net Assets is increasing year by year.

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REFERENCES 1.

Kotahri C.R. (2002), Research Methodology: Methods & techniques, Viswa Prakashan

Pandey I.M. (2008).Financial Management, Vikas Publication house Pvt. Ltd.

www.sidbi.co.in

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ROLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT ON ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION COGNITION IN TRIBAL AND NON-TRIBAL ZONES 1

* MAHENDRA SINGH1, ROHTASH MALIK2 Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Principal, Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Jhojhu Kalan, Bhiwani, India

*Address for correspondence: Mahendra Singh, Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Environmental degradation is the complex process involving transformation and material loss from any one of the environmental components. Environmental degradation arises by natural processes or by man-made activities. The primary knowledge about environmental degradation, causes and consequences of environmental degradation and planning measures about environmental degradation are the three main parameters selected to know the cognition about environmental degradation in different geographical environment in the Jalgaon district of the Maharashtra state considered for the study. Among the geographical environment, parameters sslike location, slope of land, physiography, climate, soils, resources, accessibility, socioeconomic status, population etc. are considered to demarcate the tribal and non-tribal zones of the study region. Geographical environmental zones and their relation with environmental degradation cognition were studied with the help of statistical method. Keywords : Material Loss, Natural Process, Consequences, Cognition Process INTRODUCTION The major form of environmental degradation varies from region to region, depending upon the geographical environment. The major causes of environmental degradation are water pollution and scarcity, air pollution, global atmospheric changes, solid and hazardous wastes, congestion and noise in various areas, soil loss, forest loss in rural areas, depletion of raw materials and energy resources, ecosystem losses. The main consequence of the environmental degradation is on health, productivity and amenity in the region. In this research article, investigators have studied the role of geographical environmental factors on cognition about environment degradation. STUDY REGION In this research work, Jalgaon district of Maharashtra state is selected for study due to sizable variations in geographical environment. 244

Northern part of the study region is occupied by Satpura Mountainous area, steep slope, undulating relief, lower agricultural land, unfertile soil, low accessibility, inhabitance of tribal community like Pawara, Tadavi, Bhil. The extreme southern part is occupied by Ajanta hills, a offshoots of Sahyadri Mountain habited by tribal community â&#x20AC;&#x153;Banjaraâ&#x20AC;?. The central part of the study region is occupied by Central Tapti river plain, which is agriculturally fertile, prosperous, high literacy area, accessible and is inhabited by non-tribal community hindu, muslim, harijan population. This area is well developed area known as cotton and banana belt of India. The tribal and non-tribal zones dominate the monsoon climate. OBJECTIVES 1) To study and mark the geographical environmental zones in the study region 2) To know the environmental degradation www.ijsir.co.in

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cognition among the tribal and non-tribal population 3) To study the comparison between environmental area and cognition of environmental degradation. 4). To suggest some planning measures to improve cognition of environmental degradation. SOURCE DATA METHODOLOGY

AND

RESEARCH

To complete this basic and applied research work, investigators have used the secondary data for the study and demarcation of geographical environmental zones. Gazetteers,census hand book, general population report, atlas, socioeconomic data are gained from secondary sources. To achieve our objectives primary data is generated from door to door to survey with the help of questionnaire, interview of experts and field observations. The identified ten questions related to three parameters like primary knowledge about environmental degradation, cognition about causes and consequences of environmental degradation and planning measures, views about environmental degradation are included in questionnaire. From the both tribal and non -tribal environmental zones, ten villages are selected by stratified sampling method. From these villages one hundred houses were selected for questionnaire survey with the help of stratified samples. The questionnaire data was developed in tabulation and processed by statistical method. The comparative study was done and the results were obtained. GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT AND COGNITION OF ENVIRONMENT DEGRADATION In the study region, two environmental zones are demarcated i.e. central Tapti river plain, a agriculturally prosperous region inhabited by nontribal population and northern Satpura isolated hilly area, inhabited by tribal community. For this study, two geographical environmental regions were considered. Both the regions are having identical environment reflecting the environmental degradation cognition among the population. www.ijsir.co.in

Table I : Tribal environment and Cognition of environmental degradation % of Population (Males)

% of Population (Females)

Primary Knowled ge in Env. Degradat ion

Cognition about cause & Consequen ces of Env. Degradatio n

Planning about Env. Degradat ion

Primary Knowled ge in Env. Degradat ion

Cognition about cause & Consequen ces of Env. Degradatio n

Planning about Env. Degradat ion

Borkheda

53.50

38.50

28.50

52.50

35.80

25.70

Nimade

54.30

37.40

27.50

51.60

36.90

26.50

Garbardi

51.50

40.15

29.30

50.15

38.50

28.50

Haripura

52.80

40.80

28.50

51.80

39.80

27.30

Mohamma 50.70 dali

35.90

25.10

51.00

36.80

23.10

Lalmati

47.80

37.80

28.50

50.10

37.50

25.50

Jamne

51.90

38.90

26.10

50.80

35.30

25.90

Sakshtrali 52.80

39.40

27.80

51.50

32.10

26.10

Langda amba

53.50

38.50

28.50

52.80

33.50

27.50

Chichati

52.50

39.50

29.10

51.50

34.10

28.90

Avg.

52.13

38.68

27.89

51.37

36.03

26.50

Sample Villages

Source â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Field Work, 2010 Table I revels the gender variations of cognition among the tribal population among the ten tribal villages. There are variations in environmental degradation, cognition among the tribal males and females. There are also variations in environmental degradation parameters like primary knowledge about environmental degradation, cognition about causes and consequences of environmental degradation and environmental planning. Among the ten tribal villages there are sizable variations in primary knowledge about environmental degradation i.e. ranges from 50.70 % to 53.50% among the male population. Among the male population we can see lower level of cognition about environmental degradation i.e. 35.90 % to 40.80 %. The tribal parameter of environmental degradation planning is lowest among the tribal males population. i.e. 25.10% to 29.10%. As compared to tribal male population, tribal female population is having lower level of environmental degradation parameter. As we see in table, a sizable tribal women population is having primary knowledge about environmental degradation i.e 50.15 % to 52.80%. While cognition about causes and consequences of environmental degradation is lower than first parameter i.e. 32.10% to 38.50%. The planning views about environmental 245

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degradation is lowest among the tribal women i.e only 23.10 %to 28.90%. There are sizable variations among the tribal women about environmental degradation in the ten sample villages. Lastly, we can see that tribal male population is having higher environmental degradation cognition than tribal females in the study region. TRIBAL LITERACY AND COGNITION ABOUT ENVIRONMENT DEGRADATION On this aspect, investigators have studied the co-relation between illiterate and literacy population and cognition about environmental degradation. From the ten villages, illiterate and literate males / females were surveyed by identified questionnaire to study the relationship between literacy and cognition about environmental degradation. In the identified questionnaire on cognition about environmental degradation, 50 questions for illiterates and literates were keenly observed and from that it was noted that there is close relationship between literacy and cognition of environmental degradation. The illiterate males and females are having the lower level of cognition about environmental degradation than the tribal literates in the study region. There are gender variations in cognition about environmental degradation. Males are having the higher cognition about environmental degradation than tribal females. In the representative questionnaire, we can see that there are variations in environmental degradation parameter. Almost tribal males and female are having higher cognition about primary knowledge of environmental degradation, than cognition about causes and consequences of environmental degradation and environmental degradation planning. The same pattern we can see in the Table II about environmental parameters among the tribal males and females. NON-TRIBAL ENVIRONMENT AND COGNITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION The central part of the study region is occupied by Tapti river basin, which is extensive fertile plain, accessible area and socially and economically developed region, and inhabited by 246

non-tribal Hindu population. This area is agriculturally prosperous region known as cotton and banana belt of India. This area has higher infrastructure facilities. Ten villages from this environmental zone were selected for case study and one hundred questionnaires from each village were considered as sample study. While selecting the samples for study, males, females, literacy levels were also considered Table II : Non-tribal environment and cognition of environmental Degradation

% of Population (Males)

% of Population (Females)

Hingone

65.50

52.50

Cognition Primary about Planning Knowledg e cause & about Env. in Env. Consequen Degradati Degradati ces of Env. on on Degradatio n 45.90 64.50 51.50 42.80

Mohorale

66.80

53.80

42.95

65.80

52.30

41.90

Bhadali

67.50

54.50

43.80

66.60

53.50

42.80

65.30

53.00

45.80

65.80

50.80

44.50

Anjale

68.35

52.80

49.30

68.20

51.90

45.90

Dhanova

69.15

51.50

46.50

67.50

51.30

45.50

6.20

52.30

45.80

65.10

51.50

44.80

Fattehpur

65.50

51.90

46.60

63.30

52.00

46.50

Bodwad

62.50

50.80

47.50

61.50

51.00

46.80

Anturli

65.90

51.50

46.30

64.30

51.20

45.50

Avg.

60.27

52.46

46.04

65.26

51.70

44.70

Sample Villages

Nashirabad

Mehunbare

Cognition Primary about Planning Knowledg cause & about Env. e in Env. Consequen Degradati Degradati ces of Env. on on Degradation

Source â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Field work 2010 Table II shows the gender variations of cognition about environment degradation among the non-tribal population in the study villages. There are sizable variations in cognition about environmental degradation among males and females. In the environmental degradation study, we have considered the three parameters primary knowledge about environmental degradation cognition, causes and consequences of environmental degradation and planning view. Among the non-tribal male population, we can see higher cognition about www.ijsir.co.in

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environmental degradation than the non-tribal females. The basic knowledge about environmental degradation value ranges from 62.50% to 69.15% for the males. The second parameter causes and consequences effect view value ranges between 50.80% to 54.50% for males. The third parameter planning measures value is lowest for the males. Among the nontribal females, we can see variations in the environmental degradation parameters. As our expectations, there is lower value about causes and consequences and planning measures about environmental degradation among females. To study the relationship between educated level and cognition about environmental degradation, investigators selected fifty questionnaire of literates and non-tribal persons. The detail observation of these questionnaire and interviews show that there are very close relationship between cognition about environmental degradation and literacy levels. As our expectations, illiterates are having lower level of cognition about environmental degradation.

In both environment zones, male and females are having higher level of cognition about primary knowledge on environmental degradation than other parameters.

All most whole population of the study region has lowest level of planning measures about environmental degradation.

To improve the environmental degradation cognition among the population, awareness programs like documentary films, posters, exhibitions, street plays, essay competition etc. should be implemented.

REFERENCES 1.

Maharashtra State Gazetteers, Govt. of India, 1981.

Choondowat, Samiksha (2005). Assessment of Natural resources and Environmental Degradation in Udaipur basin”, Ph.D thesis, Dept. of Geography. M. Z. Sukhadia University, Udaipur, (Rajasthan) India.

Mittal, S. Agrawal M (2004) : Environment and Environmental education in 21st Century, Navchetana Publication, Jaipur.

Santra, S. C. (2009). Environmental Science, New Coastal Book Agency (P) Ltd., Kolkata

Sinha, S. K. and Swaminathan M.S. (1989). Deforestations, Climate Change and sustainable Newton Security : A case study of India Climate change 19. 2001-09.

Singh, Savindra (2000). Environment Geography. Prayag Pub. Allahabad.

Saxena, H. M. (2000). “Environmental Degradation” Rawat publication, New Delhi

OBSERVATIONS AND FINDINGS *

There are sizable variations about cognition environmental degradation among tribal and non-tribal population.

There is difference in cognition about environmental degradation among the males and females in both geographical environment.

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ANALYSIS OF RESPONSIVENESS & ASSURANCE DIMENSIONS OF SERVICE QUALITY & CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN INDIAN AIRLINES *RENUKA SINGH, Former Lecturer, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology , Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

*Address for Correspondence: Dr . Renuka Singh, Former Lecturer, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology , Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India email: drrenuka11@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Delivering high quality service to passengers is important for airlines to survive, gaining competitive advantages through repeated customer patronage, preferred transportation supplier status, market share gains and eventually increased profitability for the airlines . Airline companies have realized the importance of satisfied customers to find a place for themselves in this competitive world and initiated many projects to measure service quality and satisfy the customers by improving service quality. Based on this, in this study, in order to evaluate customer’s satisfaction at Domestic Airlines, with special reference to Indian Airlines the factors affecting customer’s experience were analyzed using weighted SERVQUAL SCALE & GAP ANALYSIS methodology. This research paper evaluates the underlying forces of service quality- influences on passenger’s satisfaction in domestic Airline, with special reference to Indian Airlines. The study examines which dimensions have a positive influence on service quality and which dimensions have the most and least important impact on service quality in domestic air travel, as perceived by Indian airline passengers. The findings of this study are based on the analysis of a sample of 300 respondents. The findings reveal that the service quality dimensions are positively related to customer’s satisfaction. Keywords: Service Quality, Customer’s Satisfaction, Service Quality Dimensions, GAP Analysis, CRM. INTRODUCTION An essential aspect of managing service quality is the identification of client expectations, and then designing the service system to focus on these requirements. The airline business must aim at fulfilling the individual customer’s needs or even reaching beyond these. The airline companies have realized that they have to listen to consumers to survive in a competitive market.(Booth M;2000) and airline companies also have become aware of the importance of having happy customers (Riddleberger EJ;IBM Global Business Services;2009). The prerequisite of the customer ’s satisfaction is understanding and knowing what they want. 248

The aviation sector has become the most important segment in the economic development of a nation. It plays a vital role in moving people or products from one place to another, especially when the distances involved are far. In a highly competitive environment the provision of high quality services to passengers is the core competitive advantage for an airline’s profitability and sustained growth. In the past decade, as the air transportation market has become even more challenging, many airlines have turned to focus on airline service quality to increase service satisfaction. Service quality conditions influences an industry’s competitive advantage by retaining customer patronage, and with this gain market www.ijsir.co.in

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1): 248-254, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

share. Delivering high-quality service to passengers is essential for airlines survival, so airlines need to understand what passengers expect from their services. Understanding exactly what customers expect is the most crucial step in defining and delivering high-quality service. Service quality is one of the best models for evaluating customer’s expectations and perceptions. The performance of a company leads to passenger’s satisfaction with a product or service. According Heskett et al. (1994), profit and growth are simulated by customer’s loyalty and loyalty in its turn is driven by customer’s satisfaction, and customer ’s satisfaction depends on the value customers receive from the service. Understanding importance and sources of customer satisfaction is important for any company or any industry to grow and remain profitable, but in airline industry customers are carriers’ only assets (Carlzon, 1987). Hence understanding and managing satisfaction through service quality is essential, and requires greater attention from carriers nowadays, in struggling and challenging environment. According to Parasumaran et al. (1991), continuously providing consistent, reliable and fair services is a key to achieve customer’s loyalty. Airlines should also know their competitors and consider the market competition campaign. CRM is an essential component of the corporate strategy of airline companies to differentiate themselves from competitors in the eyes of customers.( Boland et al 2002). In recent years, customer relationship management has been expanded to include an integrated perspective on marketing, sales, customer service, channel management, logistics and technology for engaging in customer’s satisfaction. Practitioners are calling it customer relationship management (CRM) and are interested in all aspects of interactions with customers to maintain a longterm profitable relationship with them. The purpose of this study is to identify the dimensions of service quality and aims at investigating how these dimensions contribute to customer’s satisfaction in Indian Airlines. This research work discusses a process approach to service quality in the airline Industry, taking a www.ijsir.co.in

customer’s point of view. The process describes steps from ticket purchase to the completion of the journey, analyzing each step from service quality perspective and assigning attributes that help to measure customer’s satisfaction in Indian Airlines. The results from this research may be useful for airline industry, airline managers to improve their service quality and customer’s satisfaction, finally the growth of the airline industry. PROBLEM STATEMENT Excellent passenger’s satisfaction is one of the greatest assets for airline industry in today’s competitive environment . The research related to service quality and customer’s satisfaction in the airline industry has been growing in interest because the delivery of high service quality is essential for airline’s survival and competitiveness. A number of studies have been conducted in service quality related theories and methods in the airline industry. . Although examining the effect of individual dimensions of service attributes has potentially great utility for airline managers, the effects of individual dimensions of airline service quality has not been fully investigated in previous airline service studies. Keeping in view all these aspects, this study is conducted. The main aim of the study is to analyze service quality and customer’s satisfaction of domestic airlines with special reference to Indian Airlines. In addition, the findings would enhance the airliners to improve their service quality, customer relationship management CRM, and finally customer’s satisfaction. LITERATURE REVIEW Customers consider five dimensions in their assessment of service quality-Reliability, Responsiveness, Assurance, Empathy, Tangibles. Of the five dimensions, Reliability is considered to be the most important one. It refers to the company delivering on its promises. The other four dimensions relate to the process of service delivery or how the service was delivered. Service is intangible, performed by people, providing satisfaction to customers. Services are essentially performance. Services have unique characteristics i.e. intangibility, inseparability , 249

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heterogeneity , perishability and ownership. Quality of a service , as perceived by the customer is the result of a comparison between the expectations of the consumer and his real – life experiences. A service quality can be described as the delivering of excellent or superior service relative to customer ’s expectations . According to Parasuraman , Zeithaml and Berry(PZB) ;

passengers’ vis-à-vis service quality on the different flights, changes in the marketing mix need to be implemented to improve the perception of quality. But, in general, passenger hardships have increased after Sept 11 attacks ( Gkritza, Niemeier & Mannering 2006). Much of the research in services marketing centers on understanding services and service quality from customer’s point of view (Brown et al. 2006).

Perceived Service Quality = Perceived Service – Expected Service .

Maintaining quality are the main concerns of business today. Providing quality is not a concern of manufacturing companies alone. The delivery of high-quality service becomes a marketing requirement among air carriers as a result of competitive pressure (Ostrowski et al., 1993).

Most important factor for the rising importance of service quality is that it is proving to be a winning competitive strategy. The ultimate aim of an excellent service quality system is to satisfy the customer’s need and go beyond to delight the customers. A good or excellent service quality would result in customer’s satisfaction or customer’s delight. Increased customer’s satisfaction in turn leads to higher level of customer retention and also positive word of mouth. In an era of increased competition, the importance of achieving high levels of customer’s satisfaction has gained the attention of researchers and practitioners alike. This is especially the case in the service sector, where many companies are focusing upon service quality improvement issues in order to drive high levels of customer’s satisfaction. Numbers of common factors have been identified as critical drivers of customer’s satisfaction. The service profit chain is one of the most widely supported theories of customer’s satisfaction Heskett et al. (1994). In brief, it proposes a positive linear relationship between staff satisfaction, service quality and customer satisfaction leading, ultimately, to profitability. Parasuraman etal. (1985) also recognized the significance of staff satisfaction and service quality as drivers of customer satisfaction in developing their SERVQUAL measurement tool. Airlines need to have valid and reliable measures for a better understanding of the variables likely to impact the perception of service quality being offered by them. They need to measure not only customer perceptions but also expectations of airline passengers. If significant variations are found in the perceptions of airline 250

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The Indian Airline is suffering from very intense competitions on its national market. The airline is not only enduring from low market share on most routes, on which other airlines are also having flight operations but also losing the market share on some others. The pre-requisite of the customer’s satisfaction is understanding and knowing what they want. In such a scenario, service quality is a significant driver of passenger satisfaction, loyalty and choice of airlines. Thus scientific investigations into service quality and customer’s satisfaction is need of the hour The main aim of the study is to analyze service quality and customer satisfaction of domestic airlines with special reference to Indian Airlines. Specific objectives of the study are as follows – 1- To examine in detail the services being offered in domestic airlines with special reference to Indian Airlines . 2- How can the passenger’s satisfaction within Indian Airlines be described? 3- To investigate how much satisfied Indian Airlines passengers are with its services? 4- To evaluate how can Indian Airlines managers improve and promote satisfaction level among the passengers? In order to evaluate the customer ’s satisfaction and service quality in domestic airlines industry with special reference to Indian Airlines, the following hypotheses have been made ; www.ijsir.co.in

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1- Service quality leads to customer ’s satisfaction. 2- Service quality creates brand loyalty. 3- Empathy is one of the important dimensions in service quality. 4- Reliability has a direct positive effect on service quality. 5- Tangiblity has an importance in service quality. METHODOLOGY In this study, sampling was done by interviewing, randomly selected 300 passengers, at different Air Ports i.e. Indira Gandhi International Airport , New Delhi , Choudhary Charan Singh Airport Lucknow. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. The questionnaire was divided into two sections, in which first section reveals the demographic profile of respondents and second part was for evaluation of their overall experiences, as they received from the Indian airline’s services. The questions were phrased in the form of statements scored on a 5-point Likert type scale, ranking from “highly dissatisfied / highly disagree” to “highly satisfied/ highly agree”. Average score analysis was used to evaluate to various service quality dimensions. Service quality and customer’s satisfaction were analyzed on the basis of Mean Difference, which is presented in Table-1&2 SERVICE QUALITY AND CUSTOMER’S SATISFACTION ANALYSIS TABLE 1:

DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS

Demographic Profile of of Respondents In demographic profile of respondents , it is found that there was total 64% male and 36% female respondents who replied the research questions regarding service quality and customer satisfaction in Indian Airlines, in which 69% respondents were married and 31% respondents were unmarried. Regarding age group analysis of respondents there were 24% respondents belonging to age group of 21- 30 years, 29% respondents were of age group between 31- 40 years, 31% respondents were of age group 4150 years, and 16% respondents belonged to www.ijsir.co.in

GENDER

Total No of Respondents % N=300 192 64% 108 36%

MALE FEMALE MARITAL STATUS MARRIED 207 69% UNMARRIED 93 31% AGE 21-30 72 24% 31-40 87 29% 41-50 93 31% 51-60 48 16% BACKGROUND URBAN 273 91% RURAL 27 09% EDUCATION INTERMEDIATE 27 09% GRADUATE 132 44% POST GRADUATE 111 37% PhD. 9 03% Dr/ Engg/ Other 21 07% Proffessional Reason to Fly300 36% Business 108 37% Jobs 111 14% Education 42 13% Others 39 Frequent Flyer 231 77% Since How Long FlyingMore then one Years 111 37% More then three years. 90 30% Less then one year 69 23% Common way to purchase ticket On- Line 258 86% Other. 42 14% age group 51 to 60 years . Regarding background of respondents there were 91% urban respondents who were using Indian Airlines flights , while remaining 09% respondents belonged to rural background .Regarding education level of respondents , it is found that 09% respondents were having education up to Intermediate, 44% Graduate, 37% Post Graduate, 03% having PhD, while 07% were doctors, engineers and others professionals. It is found that the main reason to use airline’s flights by the respondents was

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jobs/ service related works(37%), followed by business related trips (36%)and 14% for educational purpose. Majority of the respondents (86%) said that they perform the selection and purchase of air tickets by themselves, via online bookings. Out of 300 respondents, 77% respondents were frequent flyers of Indian Airline’s. The study shows that 37% respondents were using airline services more than one year, 30% were using airline services more than three years, while 23% respondents were using airlines services less than one year. Table 2: Gap Analysis

Expected services (E) & Perceived services (P) SERVICE QUALITY DIMENSIONS:

Total YES f No f %

RESPONSIVENES, ASSURANCE, TANGIBILITY , EMPATHY, RELIABILITY i.e.

Mean Yes f f %

Mean Gap(D)= (Expected service – Perceived service).

Gap(D)= (Expected service – Perceived service).

D =E-P

D = E-P

(~ Mean)

( ~ f %)

(RATER MODEL) & ATTRIBUTES

Reponsiveness 1. Get Informations about time of 300 service. 2. Prompt& accurate 300 services. 3. Efficient Check – in & Baggage 300 Handling services 4. Willingness to help

300

5-Prompt handling of request/complaints

300

ASSURANCE : 6. Knowledge to answer customers' questions.

285 95% 0.95 283 99% 0.99

D= - 0.04 D= ~0 4%

288 96% 0.96 257 89% 0.89

D= 0.07

D= ~ 07%

291 97% 0.97 232 79% 0.79

D= 0.18

288 96% 0.96 286 99% 0.99

D= - 0.03

D= 18%

D= 0 ~3%

252 84% 0.84 197 78% 0.78

D= 0.06

D= ~06%

300 294 98% 0.98 291 98% 0.98

D= 0

D= ~0%

300 291 97% 0.97 290 99% 0.99 7. Trustworthy crew.

8. Employees instill 300 273 91% 0.91 272 99% 0.99 confidence to passengers.

252

D= - 0.02 D= ~02% D= - 0.08 D= ~8%

Gap Analysis – “ The difference between expectations minus perceptions (D=E-P). A negative difference indicates on the average that perceived reality exceeds expectations that should produce satisfied customers. On the other hand, a positive difference indicates that on the average. Perception of service delivery failed to meet the expected level of service quality indirectly producing dissatisfied customers.” (Parasuraman et al). 1. It is found in study that majority of respondents 99% are satisfied with service quality attribute of “ getting proper information about time of various services of the Indian Airline’s”. There is –ve GAP ; D= -0.04, in expected services and perceived services ,which indicates customers are satisfied with this service quality. 2. The study reveals that there is positive gap D= 0.07 regarding “ Prompt and Accurate services of the Indian Airlines”. “ A positive difference indicates that on the average, perception of service delivery failed to meet the expected level of service quality indirectly producing dissatisfied customers.” So it indicates that customers are dissatisfied with ‘ Prompt and Accurate services of the Indian Airlines’. So there is need to improve this service quality ,because customer’s satisfaction depends on service quality and finally makes profit to company. 3. Regarding “ Efficient check –in & Baggage Handling services, of the Indian Airlines, it is found that there is +ve GAP ,D= 0.18, in expected service mean and perceived service mean. .” So it indicates that customers are dissatisfied with this services quality of the Indian Airlines. So improvement is needed for this service quality also. 4. It is found that there is –ve GAP (D= 0.03), in service quality dimension of willingness to help to passengers by the Indian Airlines staff. It indicates that customers of Indian Airlines are satisfied www.ijsir.co.in

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with service quality attribute of the Indian Airlines. 5. Regarding Prompt handling of request/ complaints: The study reveals that there is positive gap D = 0.06, “ a positive difference indicates that on the average, perception of service delivery failed to meet the expected level of service quality indirectly producing dissatisfied customers.” So it indicates that customers are dissatisfied with services quality attribute of prompt handling of requests/ complaints by the employees of Indian Airlines. So there is need to improve this service quality attribute for more customer satisfaction, because customer satisfaction depends on service quality. 6. There is no GAP (D=0) found in perceived services and expected services of the Indian Airlines in reference to ‘ Knowledge to answer customers’ questions: by the employees of the Indian Airlines. 7. The study reveals that there is negative gap D = - 0.02, “ The difference between expectations minus perceptions (D=E-P). A negative difference indicates on the average that perceived reality exceeds expectations, means that produce satisfied customers. It indicates good service quality attribute of the Indian Airlines having trustworthy crew. 8. It is found that there is negative GAP (D = -0.02) for service quality attribute ‘employees in still confidence to passengers’, which indicates that passengers of the Indian Airlines are satisfied with this service quality attribute of the Indian Airlines. 9. It is found that there is positive GAP (D= 0.14), which indicates customers dissatisfaction regarding feel safe and secured during flights. So improvement is needed by the Indian Airlines for their customers to feel safe and secured during flights. 10. The study reveals that there is positive gap D = 0.14 for services quality attribute of ‘flights breakdown,’ “a positive difference www.ijsir.co.in

indicates that on an average, perception of service delivery failed to meet the expected level of service quality indirectly producing dissatisfied customers. It indicates that passengers of the Indian Airlines are dissatisfied with service quality attribute of flights breakdowns. So there is need to improve this service quality attribute too. CONCLUSION Airline service dimensions were found to have direct and positive influences on airline image and passengers satisfaction intentions. In this study, passengers are satisfied to the service provided and overall facilities delivered by the airline companies. The passengers are satisfied with the services quality delivered in inflight services. While analyzing demographic profile of the passengers, educated and working passengers mostly belonging to urban areas are using flights more frequently. The results suggested that according to the gap scores, responsiveness dimension has better customer’s satisfaction level and assurance dimension followed the responsiveness. In these two dimensions, it is observed that customers are satisfied in general with service quality dimension of responsiveness and assurance. When considered in totality, the results of this study suggest that majority of passengers are satisfied with basic services provided by Indian Airlines. To combat the growing competition due to globalization, it is suggested that there should be satisfaction among passengers of Indian Airlines regarding vast network of services, safe and secured flights, waiting time etc. Unsatisfied passengers expect airline to ensure safe journey, to meet time commitments, convenient flight schedules, less waiting time for baggage arrival, better baggage handling mechanism etc. REFERENCES 1.

Boland Declan,Doug Morrison & Sean O’Neill ( 2002), “The future of Airline CRM’’.

Booth M (2000) Integrated Marketing Communications. MediaCat Publications, Istanbul , Compiled by: Iron , F. and Kirdar , F., “ Customer Relationship Management : CRM , Review of Social , Economic & Business Studies 7/8 : 293-308. Carlzon ,Jan (1987) , Moment of Truth, Ballinger Publications Company: Cambridge, Massachusets, USA.

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Gkritza, K., Niemeier, D. & Mannering, F. (2006). Airport security screening and changing passenger satisfaction: An exploratory assessment. Journal of Air Transport Management 12, 213–219

Parasuraman, A., Berry, L.L., and Zeithaml V.A. (1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 4(1), 12-37.

Heskett, J.L., Jones, T.O., Loveman, G.W., Sasser, W.E. Jr and Schlesinger, L.A. (1994), “Putting the service-profit chain to work”, Harvard Business Review, March/April, pp. 164-74.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., and Berry, L. L. (1991). Refinement and reassessment of the SERVQUAL scale. Journal of Retailing, 67(4), 420-50.

IBM Institute for business value, The future of airline CRM.page 1- 19.

Riddleberger EJ (2009) Leading a Sustainable Enterprise. IBM Global Business Services 1-16 New York.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1985). A conceptual model of service quality and its implications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 49, 41-50.

10. Ostrowski, P. L., O Brien, T. V., and Gordon, G. L. (1993). “Service quality and customer loyalty in the commercial airline industry”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 32, pp. 16-28.

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A STUDY ON MORAL JUDGMENT ABILITY OF TEENAGERS (14-19 YEAR) 1

*SUNIL KUMAR SINGH1, MANISHA SINGH2 Department of Education, Geeta P.G. College of Education, Panipat, Haryana, India, 2Research Scholar, Dr. R. M. L. Awadh University, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India *Address for correspondence: Dr. Sunil Kumar Singh, Professor ,Department of Education, Geeta P.G. College of Education, Panipat, Haryana, India, e mail: sksingh.ms@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Moral judgment involves a cognitive capacity to define situation in terms of right and duties. Pre-adolescent can see themselves better from other people’s view and thus develop awareness for moral issues. The sample consisted of 300 children, 150 of which were in the age group of 14-16 years and 150 in the age group of 17-19 years. Sex ratio was also maintained. Moral judgment was measured by Moral judgment Test developed by Meera Verma and Durga Nand Sinha. Results revealed a significant difference in the moral judgment ability between two groups with older children (17-19 years) scoring higher than younger ones (14-17 years), which suggested that maturity is a necessary (though not sufficient) condition for development of moral judgment ability. Key words: Morality, Judgment ability, Teenagers INTRODUCTION Morality, which is defined as the sum of an individual’s way of behaving that is judged through person’s ethical rightness or wrongness, refers to how human beings come to resolve discrepancies between their centered egoistic needs and obligations to act in favor. The ability to make moral judgment plays an important role in the development of morality. Moral judgment involves a cognitive capacity to define situation in terms of rights and duties. It is the ability to evaluate the situations and moral issues as right or wrong keeping in view the knowledge of moral standards. Developmental theorizing and research have centered on the three moral components mentioned below. An affective, or emotional, component that consists of the feelings (guilt, concern for other feelings) that surround right or wrong actions and motivate moral thoughts and actions. A cognitive component that centers on the way we conceptualize right and wrong and make decisions about how to behave.

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A behavioral component that reflects how we actually behave when we experience the temptation to lie, cheat or violate other moral rules. Table 1: Six Dimensions of Character that Define Moral Maturity

S. Character No. Dimension 1 Principle – Idealistic 2 Dependable – loyal 3. Has integrity 4. Caring-Trustworthy 5. Fair 6. Confident

Sample traits Clear values, concerned about doing right, highly development conscience, law abiding. Responsible, loyal, reliable faithful, honorable. Consistent, rational, hard working. Honest, trustful, sincere, kind, considerate. Virtuous, fair, just. Strong, self assured self confident.

Developmental theorists generally agreed on six aspects of moral maturity shown in table.

THE COGNITIVE COMPONENT OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT: Cognitive develop mentalists study morality by examining the development of moral reasoning that children display when deciding whether various acts are right or wrong. According to cognitive theorists, both cognitive 255

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growth and social experiences help children to develop progressively richer understandings of the meaning of rules, laws and interpersonal obligations. As children acquire these new understandings, they are said to progress through an invariant sequence of moral stages, each of which evolves from and replaces its predecessor and represents a more advanced or mature perspective on moral issues. Piaget formulated a stage theory of moral development that includes a pre moral period and two moral stages. Kohlberg has refined and extended Piaget’s theory. He discovered that moral development extends for beyond Piaget’s autonomous stage, becoming increasingly complex through out adolescence and into young adulthood. Like Piaget, Kohlberg assumes that each succeeding stage evolves from and replaces its predecessor; once the individual has attained a higher stage of moral reasoning, he or she should never regress to earlier stages.

Parents with inductive discipline are more effective for various reasons. First, it provides children with cognitive standard (or rationales) to evaluate their conduct. Second, this form of discipline helps children to sympathies with children and allows parents to talk about such moral affects as pride, guilt and shame.

IMPACT OF PARENTING ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL JUDGEMENT ABILITY :

In view of the above, the present study has been planned with the objective to study the impact of age difference, gender, parents education for learning moral judgment ability.

The child gets the first idea of right and wrong from his parents. There is also an important cognitive component to parents’ interaction with their children that may facilitate children’s moral development, parents are centrally important by virtue of their concern with their affective relationship with their child, and their ability to provide the types of interactions that facilitate moral judgment. Moral judgment is generally affected by disciplinary techniques that parents actually use. Three major approaches are: (1) Love withdrawal: A form of discipline in which an adult withhold attention, affection, or approval in order to modify or control a child’s behavior. (2) Power Assertion: A form of discipline which an adult relies on his or her superior power to modify or control a child’s behavior. (3) Induction: Explaining why a behavior is wrong and should be changed by emphasizing how it affects other people, often suggesting how the child might repair any harm done.

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So induction may be an effective method of moral socialization because it calls attention to the cognitive, affective and behavioral aspects of morality. An approval of studies reveals that the ability of moral judgment passes through a developmental phase which follows a progressive increase for judging in terms of internal purposes, norms and value. This occurs in predictable stages related to stages in intellectual development. As children’s ability to perceive change, they move into a higher level of moral development.

OBJECTIVES: Bearing in mind all the points discussed, the present study focuses on the following objectives: *

To study the moral judgment of respondents.

To study the impact of age on moral judgment.

To study the effect of gender on moral judgment.

HYPOTHESES: i) There will be a significant difference in moral judgment ability of 14-16 years and 17-19 years age groups. ii) There will be no significant difference in moral judgment of boys and girls. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE The sample for the study consisted of 300 students in the age group 14-19 years. The sample further comprised of 150 children in 1416 years age group and 150 in 17-19 years age group. The ratio between boys and girls was also maintained in each category i.e. 75 boys and 75 www.ijsir.co.in

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girls in each age group. FIGURE 1 : DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

Table3: Frequency Distribution of Respondents According to their Sex

Total No. of Respondents (N = 300)

Age Group

Subject

14-16 Years

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

17-19 Years

MORAL JUDGEMENT OF RESPONDENTS

14-16 years age group

17-19 years age group

(N=150)

The moral judgment of the respondent was assessed by Moral Judgments Test. Scores for moral judgment were calculated. Mean, standard deviation and z score and chi-square values were computerized in the view of the findings and the results were interpreted.

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

(N=75)

Table 4: Frequency distribution of respondents according to their moral judgment ability

Age Group

RESEARCH DESIGN : When more than one independent variable is included in a study, a factorial design is necessary. By using 2 x 2 factorial design the researcher has studied the significant impact of gender and age. TOOLS USED: Moral Judgment Test by Meera Verma & Durganand Sinha (1967) General- Information Performa ANALYSIS OF DATA: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION SELECTED VARIABLES

FOR

Table 2: Frequency Distribution of Respondents according to their Age

Age Group

14-16 Years

150

17-19 Years

150

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Very

High

Average

High

Ability Ability`

Low

Very

Ability

Low

Ability

Total

Ability

14-16 years

150

17-19 years

150

Total

144

300

A close perusal of Table-4 reveals that maximum subjects in the age group 17-19 years (85) fall under ‘average’ category while in the age group 14-16 years 59 respondents were under ‘average’ category. This indicates that more number of older children i.e. 17-19 years old had the average ability to make moral judgment as compared to younger children i.e. 14-16 years old. There were 27 subjects of 14-16 years age group in “Very High Ability” category where as there were only12 subjects of 17-19 years age group in this category. In the ‘High Ability’ category the number of subjects from both age groups was similar. In ‘Low Ability’ category also, the number of subjects from 2 age groups was again almost similar. Thus although the number in the very high ability is slightly higher for the younger age group; the majority of respondents

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lie in the average category, where the oldsters predominate. Table 5: Comparison of Mean Scores of subjects at two age-levels over their Moral Judgment

Age Group

14-16 years boys

Mean

25.8

Standard

Deviation

Score

Age

32.8

7.9

14-16 years girls

26.8

7.8

17-19 years girls

29.7

6.8

4.9*

2.2*

*Statistically significant at .01 and .05 probability level It is clear from Table-5 that mean score of respondents in the 17-19 years age group was higher than the mean scores of respondents in the younger age group 14-16 years. Also the value of Z was significant. In agreement with the above finding, Gibbs et al. (1982) reveals the fact from a study that maturity of moral reasoning is strongly related to age. A combined data from a cross-sectional study reveals that age is correlated with moral maturity at .72. Higher moral judgment ability of subjects in the age group 17-19 years, who are almost on the threshold of adolescence, can be accounted to their ability to think rationally and understand other personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspective which comes with increase in age. As children begin to interact with other people and their social sphere broadens, they come to know that others may have different view point from theirs. They start judging a situation in a rational way and become able to consider consequences and intentions simultaneously when judging the morality of an act. In case of 14-16 years age bracket the computed value of Z is greater than 1.96 but Levels than 2.58, so, it is significant at 5% level of significance but insignificant at 1% level of significance.

Subject

Mean

Standard

Scores Deviation Score

Group

14-16

Boys

27.4

5.1

years

Girls

29.7

7.8

17-19

Boys

30.6

2.5

years

Girls

29.9

12.3

5.5

17-19 years boys

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Table 6: Comparison of Mean Scores of Boys and Girls over their Moral Judgment

2.1 *

.53

*Statistically Significant at .05 level of significance. It is inferred from Table-6 that the mean scores for girls was slightly higher than the mean scores for boys at both the age levels but the value of z was significant which indicates that there is no significant difference between moral judgment of boys and girls. In line, walker (1984) found no consistent gender differences in the stages at which people were scored when responding to Kohlbergâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dilemmas. Rather he believed that the moral reasoning of males and females is more similar than different. In contrast, research finding has found that in females and males moral reasoning often centers on different concerns and issues. While females often articulate a care perspective and males a gender perspective, the gender difference is not absolute and the two orientations are not mutually exclusive (Yons1990). Thus, these general patterns may be the result of the different ways in which males and females are socialized in our society. A woman taught since childhood to value compassion toward others and social obligations and a man to value his freedom to make choices. MAJOR FINDINGS Major findings of the present study are summarized as follows:i).

A significant difference was found in moral judgment level in the two age groups; with older children (17-19) scoring higher than the younger ones (14-16 years). www.ijsir.co.in

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ii).

Insignificant gender difference was observed in the moral judgment of respondents.

relationship of moral reasoning and ego strength to cheating behaviour. Monographs of Society for Research in Child Devt. Toronto. 13.

Hyde, J.S. (2000), Gender differences in erotic plasticity. Evolutionary or Socio-cultural forces? Psychological Bulletin, 126, 375-379.

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Kahn, Peter, H.Jr. 1992. Children’s Obligatory and Discretionary Moral Judgements. Child Development. 63 : 416-430.

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Krevans, J & Gibbs, J.C. (1996) Parents’ use of inductive discipline. Retations to children’s empathy and pro social behaviour. Child Devt., 67, 3263-3277.

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CONCLUSION It was concluded from the research findings that cognitive maturity is closely related to mature moral judgment. This is not surprising as a high level of abstract thinking is required in the development of evaluation of intent, rational ethical standards and sensitivity to the roles, perceptions and feelings of others. Also, definite shifts in moral judgment occur with increase in chronological age, as older subjects were found higher in moral judgment. Further, certain antecedent conditions like sex, father’s education showed negligible impact on moral judgment but mother’s education was found to be of paramount importance. REFERENCES 1.

A1 - Deen, Hala - F 1991. Moral Judgement in mentally retarded children. Derasat Nafseyah. 1 (4): 553-570.

Berk, Laura. E. 1996 Child Development. 3rd ed. New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India.

Blankeney, C. & Blankeney, R. 1989. A Logic to the Madness> Toward a Theory of Moral Disorder. Berkeley : The Inst. for Clinica Devt. Psy.

Bussey, K.F. & Maughan, B. 1982. Gender differences in moral reasoning. J.Personal, Social, Psychological, 42 : 701 - 706.

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Lyons, N.P. 1990. Listening to voices we have not heard. In C.Gilligan, N.P. Lyons (Eds), Making Connections. Cambridge : Harvard Univ. Press.

Colby, A : Kohlberg, L : Gibbs, J & Leiberman, M. 1983. A longitudinal study of moral judgement. Monographs of Society for Research in Child Devt. 48 (1-2, Serial No. 200).

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Newton, G.B. 1984. A study of selected factors related to moral devt. in children ages 7-10 Diss. Abstr. Int. 44 (9) : 2707.

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Gupta, P : Puja 2010, A study of Moral Judgment Ability of Pre-Adolescent Children (9-11 year) of public school, IJEAS, Vol 2,

Nichols, K.E. 1982. A longitudinal study of deliberate moral and psychological educational intervention : moral and ego devt. in early adolescence. Diss. Abstr. Int. 42 (2) : 4707.

Finn, E.J. & Doyle, R.E. 1983. The effect of three experimental conditions on the moral judgements of 9th graders. Counselling and Values. 27(3) : 150-159

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Papalia, Diane E. & Olds, Sally. W. 1986. A Child’s World. 4th Ed. New Delhi. Mc Grow - Hill Book Company.

Gibbs, J.C. & Wildman, K.F. 1982. Measuring the devt. of socio-moral reflection. Social Intelligence. Englewood Cliffs : Prentice Hall.

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Gilligan, C. 1982. In a Different Voice. Cambridge : Harvard Univ. Press.

Ratcliff, D.E. 1987. Predicting the moral development of the mentally retarded. Journal of Psychology and Christianity. 6(1): 65-67.

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Gibbs, J.C. 1984. Construction and validation of a multiple choice measure of moral reasoning. Child Development. 55(2) : 527-536.

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Sharma, V. & Kaur, K. 1992. Moral judgement as function of intelligence, birth order and age of the children. Psychologia - An International Journal of Psychology. 35(2) : 121-124.

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Sigmand, M & Erdynast, A. 1988. Interpersonal understanding and moral judgement in adolescents with emotional and cognitive disorders. Child

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Walker, L.J. & Taylor, J.H. 1991. Family interaction and the devt. of moral reasoning. Child Development. 62 : 264 - 283.

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E â&#x20AC;&#x201C;GOVERNANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1

*S.K. SINGH1, MANISHA SINGH2, PRIYANKA SINGH3 Geeta P. G. College of Education, Panipat, Haryana, India, 2Research Scholor, Dr.R. M. L.Awadh University, Faizabad, UP, India, 3Research scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

*Address for correspondence: Prof. Sunil Kumar Singh, Principal, Geeta P. G. College of Education, Panipat, Haryana, India, e-mail: sksingh.ms@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Higher education in India has seen massive growth in recent years. On one hand, this growth promises to produce more skilled individuals to fulfill needs of ever growing Indian economy and on the other hand it poses a huge challenge for the governing bodies like UGC, AICTE and others to maintain or improve the quality of education. An integrated Higher Education Service System (HESS) at a national level can be one of the key ICT initiatives to help India become a provider of world-class education. This system can provide deep visibility to governing bodies at a university and student level to analyze their performance and hence gear up for future requirements. HESS will enable various stakeholders to leverage the improved operational efficiency in various key processes like grants, utilization certificates, approval processes, feedback mechanism etc. With deeper visibility and increased operational efficiency the Indian Higher Education System would be bolstered not only to satisfy the needs of students by making them more employable but also combat possible competition from foreign universities. Keywords : e-Governance, Higher Education Service System, Integrated System

INTRODUCTION

OPERATIONAL CHALLENGES

India has seen a lot of change in its educational system since independence. The government has shown great commitment in terms of funds for educational sector over many years. These funds have created many worldclass institutions like IITs, IIMs etc. but these kinds of institute are few in number. Pressing need of an emerging India necessitates the establishment of high quality institutions/ universities in sufficient number. India has one of the largest Higher Education System in the world. The higher education system, which caters to needs of approximately 99.54 lacks of students, definitely deserves applause for its commendable work so far. Despite having the largest Higher Education System, the quality of education, in general, cannot be claimed to be the best. Providing education to such a massive student base brings with it a number of challenges both at operational and strategic level as described below:

(1) Duplication of procedures

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According to a survey conducted by FICCI, most of the promoters of institutions/universities feel that multiplicity of regulating agencies like University Grant Commission (UGC), All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), Medical Council of India ( MCI), Central Council of Indian Medicine, etc. leads to duplication of procedures causing immense loss of time and resources. Ideally, a single window should exist for approval process. The university/institute should be asked to submit all the documents at once online for approvals. Various regulating agencies should then internally coordinate to fetch the documents/ details from that common pool. This would greatly reduce the unnecessary duplication of work for university. (2) Long funding cycles The approval cycle for funds tends to be long due to verification and various performance 261

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analysis of the university being funded. Performance analysis consumes a lot of time and resource. In general, the time from request for funds to disbursement of funds is approximately seven months. The difference between time of request for fund and disbursement of fund leaves much to forecasting and guesswork. If this difference can be reduced then the expenditure can be planned better. It will not only improve the utilization rate of grants but also prevent institute from making an unplanned and hasty decision for utilizing the remaining amount. (3) Long Approval Processes There are various accrediting bodies like NAAC, NBA etc. to maintain and improve the quality of education in a university/institute. These bodies take approximately nine months for the accreditation process to be completed. The process of approval and accreditation should be faster and preferably paperless for universities to get the rating quickly. If the process is short then the frequency for accreditation for a university can be more i.e. a university that has been rated ‘A’ in one year can continue to be graded every year or every two year hence, keeping itself up-to-date with the norms and rules set by governing bodies. This also will help students who seek admission based on rankings/ ratings of the colleges. (4) Fraudulent Practices Despite a great control of governing bodies in Higher Education, there are many colleges and students who get involved in fraudulent activities. This is a cause of concern of various recruiters/ other universities. It also is a negative indicator of Indian Higher Education System for various MNCs, present in the country, who take this news back to their countries. The verification of any college or student’s qualification should be possible from a single source. This would help large universities/ corporate keep a check on students trying to seek admission/job with forged certificates. STRATEGIC CHALLENGES (1) Deteriorating quality of education India has some of the great institutes and universities but the number of employable 262

students is very less. According to NASSCOM, of 3 million graduates and post-graduates added to the workforce in India every year only 25% of technical and 10-15% of non-technical graduates are employable by growing IT and ITES sector. In today’s environment, it is essential for the governing bodies to keep a track of universities based on monthly basis. There should be a metric to assess the performance of a university on an overall basis and on course basis. Some of the criteria can be the progression of course during a specified period, number of students attending them etc. Based on these metrics, the university/ college can be asked to explain the reason for good/bad performance. To achieve all this, there should be consolidated information about each university/college to track their performance versus grants allocated. (2) Outdated curriculum A major issue in Higher Education today is obsolete and irrelevant course curriculum. Today, the demand of industry is far from the learning that a student has gone through. In fast growing economy, the preference will always be given to a person who understands the industry practices. Based on this criterion of little practical knowledge, many graduates are losing out on possible job opportunities for various MNCs inside and outside the country. The need today is to analyze the trend being followed by institutions of excellence. Also, by seeing how the students are selecting their courses, a trend can be obtained about the movement of preferences among students. This kind of analysis can help governing bodies determine the academic plan and course curriculum for the lesser performing universities. (3) Unemployed Students It would be a mistake to assume that smaller colleges/universities would not have bright or employable students. There have been many cases where bright students from lesserknown colleges do not even get an opportunity to showcase their potential. It should be a duty of governing bodies to provide some opportunities to these bright students. This can be achieved if industry interaction is improved through a common medium. The governing bodies should provide a common platform for www.ijsir.co.in

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best performing students and industry seeking employees to interact for jobs, projects, research work etc. If a governing body is involved in this process then the industry will see it as a credible platform to recruit. E-GOVERNANCE E –governance has played a major role in reducing operational inefficiency and improving decision-making in many areas of governance. An integrated “Higher Education Service System ( HESS) “ is one such concept that can empower the governing bodies to administer the progress of the education plan in the whole country and serve various stakeholders in a much better manner. STAKEHOLDERS OF HESS Higher Education Service System is conceptualized to be an integrated system having interfaces with all the Universities. The data required for this system will be as following:

university/college along with all the required documents Ø

List of necessary details required for accreditation.

(3) Industry/Corporate Bodies Governing bodies can empanel some of the organizations selected through a process to become key contributors in providing inputs regarding the latest trends in the industries. This would enable the governing bodies to keep the universities/colleges in synch with the market needs. Organizations can provide input to the system in terms of: Ø

Desired skill set in current scenario

Obsolete course contents

Details of upcoming projects/employment

These contributions can be made at a common place in the system.

INPUTS REQUIRED FOR THE SYSTEM

OUTPUT FROM HIGHER EDUCATION SERVICE SYSTEM

(1) Universities/Colleges

(1) Consolidated information for analysis

All the universities and colleges in India should have an interface with UGC by registering themselves with HESS. Each university will have access to the system, where it would have to furnish the following details on a periodic (quarterly/monthly) basis:

HESS will have consolidated information of all the registered universities and their students. It would enable the governing bodies analyze trends and take strategic decision in future. For illustration, in many universities across United States, a system is used to analyze the demographics of students registering with a university. It helps them analyze the application trend based on geography and demographics e.g. students from which part of the country are not applying to the university and why. Similar analysis can be done in India by governing bodies to see and compare the performances of various universities based on regions. This analysis can then help them in devising a strategy for the overall growth of a region and its population.

Details of fund utilization

Details of all the registered students including their grades, attendance etc.

Courses offered and curriculum

Progress of course on a periodic basis

Details of academic/research project where human resource is required

(2) Governing Bodies All the governing bodies including UGC, AICTE, MCI (Medical Council of India) etc. should also be registered with the system (HESS). Each body will have separate access to the system. These bodies will have to furnish following details to the system: Ø Ø

Details of fund allocation Details of approval processes for a

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Once the data about universities/colleges and their students is consolidated, many kinds of analysis can be carried out for the betterment of the education system. Some of the analysis can be: Ø

Trend Analysis of Demand: The choice of courses by students is probably the best 263

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indicator of changing market needs. This trend can be proactively tracked by the governing bodies and a mechanism can be developed in short time to empower various universities to deliver a quality education in those courses. Ø

Performance Analysis: With the data available about colleges and universities, various metrics can be defined to measure the performances. Some of the metrics can be employment rate vs. passing graduation rate. This kind of analysis will help governing bodies to concentrate on specifically on those universities that have bad employment to passing graduates ratio.

(4) Benchmarking against better performing colleges It is really astonishing to see the gap between some of the top institutes (IITs, IIMs etc.) of India and the other institutes. The gap among these institutes needs to be reduced to raise the overall level of higher education in the country. With HESS having consolidated information about all the colleges and universities, benchmarking of lesser performing colleges can be done with the better performing colleges based on some common criteria like: Ø

Efficacy of fund utilization: If two colleges with similar funding perform at different levels then the governing bodies can organize a knowledge sharing session between the two colleges.

Better student performances: If two colleges with same course offering and similar faculty - student ratio have drastically different results then the best practices can be replicated from one college to another.

Course modification: Based on feedback from the industry, the system (HESS) can identify intelligently which courses need to be modified. Subsequently, with the approval of authorities necessary changes can be made to the curriculum in a short time making our system dynamic and adaptable to change.

(2) Visibility into fund utilization by universities By enforcing universities/colleges to update the fund utilization status on a periodic (monthly/ quarterly) basis the governing bodies can have a deeper visibility into the efficacy of funds. This would help the governing bodies to improve the utilization rate by monitoring on a regular basis and preventing hasty decisions by universities to utilize the fund before its expiry. (3) Single point of contact for universities/ colleges The system will gather all the pre-requisites from governing bodies and professional councils for funding/approval process. This information will be consolidated at a place to reduce the duplication of efforts. To illustrate, when a university applies for funds/approval or any other engagement with UGC (as example) then the entire necessary documents can be submitted online by the university without any manual interaction. These documents will stay in the repository of the HESS so that if university has to interact with any other body like AICTE etc. then the university needs not resubmit common information. The system will fetch the information from the repository for AICTE. This will reduce submission of similar information by the universities to different governing bodies. The data will be submitted by the university at a common place and will then be re-routed to various governing bodies as and when required.

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All this kind of analysis can be performed in a short time by using HESS. (5) Intelligent feedback mechanism The voices of the end consumer of education i.e. students are rarely heard directly by the governing bodies. There are too many levels for the voice or opinion of a student to remain original before reaching the concerned authorities. HESS can have an interface with the students to get the direct feedback on some critical matters like efficacy of course etc. The feedback then can be intelligently analyzed by the system to show the impact of suggested change on the key result areas (like governance, teaching, evaluation etc) set by the governing bodies.

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(6) Industry orientation and improved employment rate The yardstick to measure the quality of education in a country is either the contribution in Research & Development ( R & D ) or the employment rate. Assuming that every institute has a limited number of R & D aspirants, measuring the quality of education depends mainly on employment rate. Though governing bodies need not be responsible for creating job opportunities yet they can play a significant role in reducing the unemployment rate in lesserknown colleges by re-directing some of the job opportunities. This would be a great help for bright students in lesser-known colleges. For creating such opportunities projects/jobs in various fields can be published in the system by industry/other colleges. These project requirements can then be internally communicated to select institutes based on some rules e.g. colleges with low employment rate but good academic results can be given preference. This is not to say that governing bodies should act like placement agencies but like a body that will make sure that good universities or good candidates in remote areas donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t lose out an opportunity to change their lives. Assumption here is that the corporate houses and organizations would trust a governing body more than an individual university. KEY BENEFITS

university/collegeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s request to verify the status of a college. In case of transfer/admission/ placement of a student to a university/ organization, his / her credentials can be verified on a real-time basis. This will prevent students from using fake degrees to get admission/job. D. Improved quality of education An integrated system like HESS can enable the authorities to analyze the performance of one of the best performing institute in related field and compare it with other colleges to identify the gap areas. Also, the system can obtain feedback from industry and students to modify course curriculum if deemed appropriate by the authorities. This will allow all the lesser performing colleges to reduce the gap with better performing institutes. It will be helpful in the betterment of the higher education in the country and increase the number of employable students. E. Increased and broadened employment The HESS can be used as an analytical tool to assess the performance of an institute based on employment rate vs. the number of passing graduates. This would enable the governing bodies to capture the reason behind the low employment rate in a college. The opportunities from corporate houses/colleges can then be broadly diverted to lesser-known colleges for some bright students.

A. Single window approval/clearance system

POSSIBLE ROADBLOCKS

As discussed above, the HESS can provide a single window for approval/clearance for an institution. The documents/details to be submitted need not be duplicated. A common repository would hold the documents from where the concerned governing body can fetch the information anytime.

The HESS can be a significant step in improving the governance and service levels in higher education but there can be some roadblocks in the success of this concept.

B. Faster approval and funding processes HESS can reduce long cycle of accreditation and approval by automating most of the manual processes. This will not only help in better utilization rate but also encourage the universities to go for accreditation/approval on a regular basis. C. Keeping a check on fraudulent colleges The integrated system can respond to any www.ijsir.co.in

A. Furnishing data by universities/colleges The biggest roadblock in the success of this kind of system would be the availability of data with universities/colleges. At the moment, this data would have to be uploaded on a monthly/ quarterly basis manually in most cases. The bestcase scenario would be if these institutes/ universities have the required data maintained in their own systems. In such a scenario, the data can be fetched /requested at any moment for analysis and decision can be taken on real data and not past data.

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B. Threat of losing control

REFERENCES

One possible concern area for universities/ colleges would be of losing control over the utilization of funds, innovation in teaching etc. This threat would require to be attended by the governing bodies. Actually, it is not a threat but an opportunity to gear up for possible competition from foreign universities in the long run by being transparent and more efficient.

FICCI Survey on Understanding of Private Higher Education in India, 2006 Higher Education Sector in India: Opportunities & Reforms(Foundation for Democratic Reforms / Lok Satta), Tulika Khemani & Jayaprakash Narayan, March 2006.

Higher Education in Science and Research & Development: The Challenges and Road Ahead (INSA, New Delhi and Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore), August 2006.

C. Concern about sharing best practices

Another area of concern especially for the better performing institutes can be that of sharing their practices through which they achieved better results. This again needs to be addressed by the authorities by giving some incentives for sharing their practices in an open manner with lesser performing colleges.

Measuring Returns: Examining the Financial and Process Improvement Impact of Student Administration, Human Resources, and Finance Systems in Higher Education, White Paper by Edu ventures, 2004.

Ministry of Education www.education.nic.in

National Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC) website,http://www.naac-india.com

http://www.education.nic.in

Proposed Plan submission is in Sept-Oct and Disbursement happens after April next year.

National Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC),http://www.naac-india.com

NASSCOM Report 2004White Paper by Eduventures 2004: Measuring Returns

CONCLUSION Higher Education Service System (HESS) is a concept that can possibly revolutionize the governance in higher education. It has the capability of improving quality of higher education and increasing number of employable students. Despite its great potential to help the higher education in India, the success of this concept will be based on a great coordination and support from governing bodies and universities/colleges.

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Website: http://

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WOMEN EDUCATION FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA 1

* B.C. TRIPATHI1, M. AWASTHI2, R. SHUKLA3 Department of Education, Rama Mahavidyalaya, Chinhat, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh., India, 2Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 3Research Scholar, Himalayan University, Arunachal Pradesh, India *Address for correspondence: Dr. Brijesh Chandra Tripathi, Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Rama Mahavidyalaya, Chinhat, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, e-mail-tripathibc@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT Education of women is most important for development of society in a holistic way. Education helps the women in improving their status within her family and it brings a reduction in inequalities. With an aim to encourage education to women at all levels and to remove gender bias in providing knowledge and education, there is urgent need to establish schools, colleges and universities exclusively for women in various states of the country. Although some schemes have been launched by central government and state governments in our country to educate girls, especially from marginalized families of below poverty line (BPL), followed by giving a package of incentives in the form of providing free books, uniform, boarding and lodging, clothing, midday meals, scholarships etc., these are not sufficient considering the population size of the country. Concerted efforts involving educationists, social workers and policy makers are warranted in this important sector for overall development of the country. Keywords: Women education, Development INTRODUCTION Education is considered a key instrument for the change which is responsible for national development. It is true fact – “If you educate a boy, you educate an individual, but if you educate a girl , you educate a family, society and untimely the nation”. Education liberates women from ignorance and enhances their self esteem. It enabled them to choose their own way and look after their families in better way. Women’s education brings about more vigilant enhancing ability to rear and bring up children in a better way. There is a positive correlation between women literacy rate and life expectancy. While illiteracy is invariably associated with poverty, malnutrition, deprivation, high mortality, high population growth and all other aspects of underdevelopment; women’s education becomes imperative. When women are educated, their dependence may disappear or decrease. Education helps women to resist exploitation, besides of course empowering them to be selfreliant. The National Policy on Education 1986 www.ijsir.co.in

states “Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status of women. In order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well-conceived edge in favor of women. The National Education System will play a positive interventional role in the empowerment of women. It will foster the development of new values through redesigned curricula, test books, training and administration.” The aim of education to women should be in such a way that they may apply their acquired knowledge to the pursuits of daily life and they may be able to get desired employment in order to make themselves economically independent. Further, education for women should always be directed towards their holistic development so that they can adjust themselves to the complexities of the society. Education must create an awareness to them about their rights and duties so as to make them independent in thinking and decision making. If women are to contribute effectively to national development in the 21st century, the fundamental question arises 267

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whether they will be sufficiently equipped to participate fully by receiving a quality education that will prepare them to enter in any field exposing them to science, technology and communications and stimulating their creativity. Government has laid many policies and programs for the development of women education. LITERACY/ ILLITRACY Female literacy rate has improved from 7.95 per cent to 24.82 per cent between 1951 to 2011. The decadal growth rates and changes in the sex ratio among literates at the national level during this period are indicated in the table give below. The table indicates that while the decadal growth rate in female literacy is higher as compared to males, the trend shows a steep decline for both sexes: EMERGING CONCERN Year

Male Literacy to Total Male Population (%)

Female Literacy to Total Female Population (%)

1951

24.95

7.95

1961

34.44

12.95

1971

39.52

18.70

1981

46.82

24.82

1991

64.2

39.2

2001

75.85

54.16

2011

82.14

65.46

Table 1: Female literacy rate (1951-2011) Elementary education has emerged as a key policy to programmatic concern of the Indian Government. Some important schemes have been launched viz. Sarva Shiksha Abhayan (SSA) or Education for All with very ambitious goal launched in the year 2001,Spearfish programs within SSA, National Program for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) and Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya focusing exclusively on girls in educationally backward districts. Another landmark scheme : Mid Day Meal Scheme has been launched to encourage children in rural areas for education. In addition, Mahila Samkhya (Education for Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 268

Equably) program lunched by Govt. of India is an affective way to provide education to economically and socially backward women. This program was launched in 1989 by the Government of India and was operational in few states like Uttar Pradesh, Gujrat and Karnataka. The Mahila Samkhya Programme address several gander issues, including violence against women. It includes a number of innovative nonformal educational programs for women and adolescent girls. This involves enabling women to address and deal with problems of isolation and lack of self confidence, oppressive social customs and struggle for survival, all of which inhibit their empowerment. In the present time , Mahila Samkhya Scheme is active in about 12,000 villages, over than 60 districts in India, including Bihar. It may be added that UNICEF has been active an collaborator with Mahila Samkhya Scheme for a long time. It strives to make women aware, empowered, capable and self-reliant. It has been particularly successful in laagering out of school girls by working with the community to create learning opportunities in alternative centers, residential camps and early childhood development centers. NATIONAL PROGRAME FOR EDUCATION IF GIRLS AT ELEMENTRY LEVEL This program under the existing scheme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) provides additional components for education of underprivileged girls at the elementary level. This scheme is being implemented in educationally backward blocks (EBBs) where the level of rural female literacy is less than the national average and the gender gap is above the national average, as well as in blocks of districts that have at least 5 % SC/ST population having female literacy below 10% as per census data 1991. KASTURBA GANDHI VIDYALAYA: More than 750 residential schools are being setup in difficult areas with boarding facilities at elementary level for girls predominately belonging to the SC/ST/ OBC and minorities. The scheme would be applicable only in identified educationally backward blocks. Whereas per census data 2001, the rural female literacy is below the national average. Among these blocks, schools may be set up in areas with concentration of tribal population, with low female literacy. www.ijsir.co.in

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CONDENSED COURSES OF EDUCATION FOR WOMEN This scheme provides education to adolescent girls who do not have opportunity of joining formal education system to pass primary, upper primary and secondary level examinations and it helps to develop their skills.

REFERENCES 1.

Ali khan mohsin (2001) ,- Women’s education still a distant dream Yojana V. 4, 5 December pp.40-42.

Anju Vyas and Sunita Singh (1993), Women programmes and Schemes/Women studies in India, New Delhi Sage Publication p.-129

Bhasker Rood (1994), Women education and Employment. In. International Encyclopeadia of Women – 2, New Delhi, Discovery Publishing Hence p.6

India, (1996), Department of women and child welfare, states refort p.5

Jayantic (2002), Rural education and rural reconstruction Yojana. V.46, June pp.54-56.

Nisha Singh (2001),- Technology Education and the Indian Women, University News 39(10) pp. 12-14.

Singh O R (2001) , Education and Women’s empowerment social welfare 40(1) pp. 35-36.

Verma Devi, K (2000),- Women’s education – what direction? Social Welfare 40(1) pp.6-8.

CONCLUSION This paper reveals that there has been considerable improvement in participation of girls during the post-Independence period, yet it continues to be below 50% both at primary and upper primary levels of school education. Although the increase in enrolment has been more significant at the upper primary level as compared to primary level have a sufficient progress has been made.

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ROLE OF E-GOVERNANCE TO STRENGTHEN HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA 1

*CHARANJEET KAUR1, PREM MEHTA2 Research Scholar, Department of Education, Sai Nath University, Ranchi ,India 2 Principal, V B College of Education, Rohtak, India

*Address for correspondence: Charanjeet Kaur, Research Scholar, Department of Education, Sai Nath University, Ranchi ,India

ABSTRACT A good higher education system is required for overall development of a nation. A remarkable growth in the higher education sector had made the administration of higher education institutions intricate. Many researches reveal that the integration of ICT helps to reduce the intricacy and enhance the overall administration of higher education. Electronic Governance (e-Governance) is the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) for the planning, implementation, and monitoring of government programs, projects, and activities. E-Governance is expected to help deliver cost-effective and easy-to-access citizen services, and improve processing of transactions both within the government, and between the government and other agencies. E-Governance is understood as a set of activities involving the effective contribution of information and communication technology (ICT) for strengthening administration and management in higher education system . In India, it has declined somewhat over the past three decades due to remarkable increase in the number of colleges and universities and their privatization. It has become very important for the government to keep track of their functioning. Educational institutions may have various requirements that include computerization and management of processes such as registration, admission, student information, classes, time table, transport, attendance, library, salary and expenses, examinations, performance, grades, hostels, security and reports. Many of the software providers allow their clients to choose from the available modules to suit their needs to monitoring of these aspects. In this study, an attempt has been made to discuss the concept of E-Governance and use of latest application in higher education sector. Keywords: E-Governance, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), Indian higher education system (IHS), IMS (Management Information System) INTRODUCTION e- Governance can transform citizen service, provide access to information to empower citizens, enable their participation in government and enhance citizen economic and social opportunities, so that they can make better lives, for themselves and for the next generation. Formation of communication transactions, integration of various stand-alone systems and services between Government-to-Citizens (G to C), Government-to-Business (G to B),Government-to-Government( G to G) as well 270

as back office processes and interactions within the entire government frame work. Through the e-Governance, the government services will be made available to the citizens in a convenient, efficient and transparent manner. The three main target groups that can be distinguished in governance concepts are government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. In eGovernance there are no distinct boundaries. Generally, four basic models are availableGovernment to Customer (Citizen), Government to Employees, Government to Government and Government to Business. Governments are www.ijsir.co.in

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specialized institutions that contribute to governance. Representative governments seek and receive citizen support, but they also need the active cooperation of their public servants. Governance is the outcome of politics. [9] Change has been happening at an uneven pace in any growth-oriented industry, and the education sector is no exception. Rapid growth in the field of education has made governance in academic sector a very complex task. The 21st century has witnessed tremendous advancements in technology which has led to far-reaching developments in the administrative system. Costeffective technology combined with the flexibility in learning and administrative activities is essential to enhance efficiency. Computers can be used extensively for educational administration. There are some of the areas where computers can be used for effective educational administration (Ben-Zion Barta et al. 1995). These are given below : ·

General Administration

Pay Roll and Financial Accounting · Administration of Student Data

Inventory Management

Personnel Records Maintenance · L i b r a r y System

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a vital role in supporting powerful, efficient management and administration in education sector. It is specified that technology can be used right from student administration to various resource administration in an education institution (Christiana Maki 2008). Sharad Sinha (2008) mentioned the various administrative challenges for Indian education system of the 21st century as given below: ·

Global and local challenges

Universal and individual challenges · Competition and equity challenges

Extraordinary expansion of knowledge

Moreover, many studies revealed the need for ICT integration into administrative activities of higher education institutions. The various ways of introducing technology in education institution administration are the following (Caroline Salerno 2009): www.ijsir.co.in

Sending e-mail notices and agendas to staff, rather than printing and distributing them · Submission of lesson plans through e-mail

Foster technology growth by asking parents to write e-mail addresses on medical forms.

Insist that all teachers create a class Web page

Attend technology conferences to see what other schools are doing, what other teachers are doing to integrate technology, and what principals are doing to encourage the use of technology in their schools and classrooms

Admissions through web-enabled services

All day-to-day activities of the institution (General Administration)

Staff administration

Single window system for students

[2]

ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOCIETY Higher education is generally understood to cover teaching, research and extension. If we critically analyze the different concept of higher education, it can list the various roles of higher education in the society. Higher education is the source or feeder system in all walks of life and therefore supplies the much-needed human resources in management, planning, design, teaching, and research. Scientific and technological advancement and economic growth of a country are as dependent on the higher education system as they are on the working class. Development of indigenous technology and capabilities in agriculture, food security and other industrial areas are possible because of our world- class higher education infrastructure. Higher education also provides opportunities for lifelong learning, allowing people to upgrade their knowledge and skills from time to time based on the societal needs. The Kothari commission (1996) listed the following roles of the universities (Higher education institutions in the modern Society): (i)

To seek and cultivate new knowledge, to engage dynamically and fearlessly in the pursuit of truth, and to interpret old knowledge and benefits in the light of new needs and discoveries

(ii) To provide the right kind of leadership in all 271

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walk of life, to identify gifted youth and help them develop their potential to the full of cultivating physical fitness, developing the powers of the mind and cultivating right interests, attitudes and moral and intellectual values (iii) To provide the society with competent men and women trained in agriculture, art, medicine, science and technology and various other professions who will also be cultivated individuals, imbibed with a sense of social purpose (iv) To strive to promote quality and social justice and to reduce social and culture differences through diffusion of education (v) To foster in the teachers, students and through them in the society generally, the attitudes and the values needed for developing the good life in individuals and society (GOI, 1996) E-GOVERNANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION India has one of the largest higher education system in the world .Despite having the largest higher education system, the quality of education, in general, cannot be claimed to be the best. Technical and vocational education in India has seen enormous growth in recent years with a large increase in total number of institutes imparting higher education. On one hand, this growth promises to produce more skilled youth to fulfill needs of ever growing Indian industry and on the other hand it poses a huge challenge for the governing bodies like UGC, AICTE, NCVT, NCTE, PCI, MCI, INC, DCI etc and state technical education boards to maintain and improve the quality of education being imparted through these new and existing technical and vocational institutes. But according to data reported by NASSCOM(National Association of Software and Service Companies) in its 2004 report, out of 3 million graduates and post-graduates added to the workforce in India every year only 25% of technical and 10- 15% of non-technical graduates are employable by growing IT, and other sectors. It is a very serious situation. The lack of knowledge, qualities and skills desired by the employers, from the youth, may lead to the problems like unemployment/ underemployment, which will lead to their 272

disapproval and hence their offense will be reflected in terms of an increase in crime and other antisocial activities.[4] Now a days, our education system is untidy, to say the least. It is characterized by substandard technical and vocational institutions lagging good infrastructure and qualified teachers, teacher truancy, obsolete syllabi, inadequate infrastructure, unemployable graduates and a lot more other problems. The scenario has been further worsened due lack of some effective and real time monitoring mechanism and widespread corruption prevalent in government. regulatory bodies that help such substandard institutes to start and remain functional without bothering to maintain any quality at all. Mushrooming of a large number of unrecognized and substandard fake universities/ institutions, distribution of fake certificates of diploma, degree and Ph.D, courses fraudulently, without being caught, is also another outcome of such a untidy system. [5] NECESSITY OF E- GOVERNANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION If the quality of our higher education system has to be improved to make these institutes really word class, then there is no alternative to the introduction of e-governance in this sphere at the fastest possible pace. Implementation of egovernance in technical and vocational institutes will enable their effective and real time monitoring by government/the regulatory bodies and other stakeholders their own managements, parents of the students and the society, thereby forcing them to maintain quality and become more responsible. E-governance process brings transparency in the system, so e-governance initiatives in the field of higher education will help reduce the corruption up to a large extent. The introduction of e-governance in higher education is one such concept that can empower the governing bodies to administer the progress of the education plan in the whole country and serves various stakeholders in a much better ways. E-Governance is becoming a global phenomenon that is increasingly attracting the attention of community citizens including politicians, economists, decision and policy makers amongst others (Naheed et al., 2009). www.ijsir.co.in

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According Info Dev Report (2002) an effective e-governance satisfies these following needs: 路

Providing greater access to government information

路

Promoting public engagement by enabling the public to interact with government officials

路

Making government more accountable by making its operations more obvious and thus reducing the opportunities for corruption

路

Providing development opportunities, especially benefiting rural and traditionally underserved communities

E-Governance in higher education system will enable various stakeholders to control the improved operational efficiency in various key processes like grants, utilization certificates, approval processes, feedback mechanism etc. With deeper visibility and increased operational efficiency the Indian higher education system (IHS) would be implemented not only to satisfy the needs of students by making them more employable but also combat possible competition from foreign universities.

Basic Infrastructure Model: The private sector invests in infrastructure and the government runs the operations and management of the institutions in turn, making annualized payments to the private investor. Outsourcing Model: Private sector invests in infrastructure and runs operations and management and the responsibility of the government is to pay the private investor for the specified services. Equity/Hybrid Model: Investment in infrastructure is shared between government and private sector while operation and management is vested with the private sector. Reverse Outsourcing Model: Government invests in infrastructure and the private sector takes the responsibility of operation and management. Colleges and universities will need to change radically in the coming years and first think social intranets may be a key to this transformation. BENEFITS OF E-GOVERNANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION

In order to remove the copying of procedures, there should be consolidated information about each university and college to track their performance. The tools of egovernance may enable the universities or colleges to submit the documents online for approval. All agencies should internally coordinate to carry the details from common pool. This would greatly reduce the unnecessary duplication of work in the university. Apart from this, there may be a number of other services that can be provided with the introduction of such type of governance.[1]

(i)

MODELS OF PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION

(ii) Increase in student enrollment ratio.

Recently, the University Grants Commission (UGC) has recommended four models of Public Private Partnership to the Planning Commission and according to an estimate the country requires an investment of over US $ 150 billion in the next 10 years. The four models proposed by the Planning Commission are in terms of basic infrastructure model. [10] www.ijsir.co.in

The benefits of e-governance in an educational sector are improved efficiency, increase in transparency and accountability of educational administrative activities convenient and faster access to services, and lower costs for administrative services. The multi-faceted benefits of e-governance can be described as under these points [7]: Benefit to university Centralized information access from anywhere

(iii) Provide quality e-services, e-participation, (iv) Increase clearness (v) inventive teaching tools (vi) Improved decision making, Private Public Participation (vii) less paper work 273

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Benefits to students (i)

Increase participation in education affairs

(ii) Personalized login for each students (iii) extensive saving in time, cost &efforts (iv) Information & transaction services (v) Job opportunities (vi) Social connectivity for collaboration (vii) Students can access virtual lectures &Seminars. (viii)Students can solve their problems likeexamination queries, result verification etc. (ix) Students can submit feedback to university. Benefits to colleges (i)

Data can be accessed easily

(ii) Electronic data exchange with university (iii) Saving of hidden operational cost (iv) Instant statistical report generation (v) Helpful for NAAC accreditation Overall education system (i)

Long term impact on organization goals

(ii) Improve education system (iii) Empowerment of faculties, students & encouragement of their participation in governance SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The online methods enable more effective education and offer significant advantages over traditional services.[7] Provide E Services – After the implementation e-governance, we improve the delivery of services to students, faculty by providing services like enrollment, examination, result, feedback, requests for documents, requests for certificates, issuing admit cards and ID cards, employment etc.. The system provides timely alert to colleges through SMS /Emails. Egovernance in education provides new ways of communicating to the students, imparting education and organizing and delivering information and services. Improved education system - Egovernance in education sectors allows use of 274

information and communication technologies with the aim of improving education, information, service delivery, encourage student participation in the decision making process, making administration transparent and effective and give universities a new channel of educational unemployment. Also, the system can obtain feedback from industry and students to modify course curriculum if deemed appropriate by the authorities. This will allow all the lesser performing colleges to reduce the gap with better performing institutes. It will be help in the betterment of the higher education in the country and increase the number of employable students. Innovative Teaching Tools – The new technologies offer vast opportunities for progress in all walks of life. With the introduction of new technological initiatives, the structure of higher educational institutions has changed. The changing role of lecturers, the changeable learning environment and the design of eLearning facilities all contribute to a potentially more flexible organizational structure of higher education in rural areas. The future delivery of education will be based through e-Learning technology providing lecturers with superior teaching tools. The online methods enable more effective education and offer significant advantages over traditional teaching methods. This has been possible by technological implementation based environments such as bulletin, boards, virtual lectures and e- Libraries and video conferencing. In e- learning environment can support communication with classmates and lecturers. Private Public Participation – Almost all e-government projecst have found it convenient to involve different private agencies for different tasks through public-private-partnership (PPP) arrangements. These tasks include design and development of application software, population of data and content in the regional language, procurement and installation of networking and computer systems, deployment of software and delivery of services. Centralized Information - E-Governance has provided electronic information infrastructure to simplify service delivery, reduce duplication, and improve the level and speed of service at a lower cost. The centralized information approach www.ijsir.co.in

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of e-Governance keeps all information at one place in electronic form. This approach of making information secure prevents it against any theft or leakage. Use of intranet - Intranet-based training provides a low cost and knock-on savings, that can be a virtual two-way system, with students connected to mentors and teachers receiving real-time feedback and support. Managers with employees scattered among sites and locations, particularly if they are so far flung that they are in different areas, need a cheap and effective way to communicate them. ICT is already proven as the way to access knowledge based information from anywhere to anytime but a limitation of the university that they can’t communicate with other colleges. With the help of above benefits and suggestions it is possible to design a system that is student centric and can provide a variety of services—informative, interactive, and transactional and integrated system across the entire spectrum of the education sector. Central universities, state universities, autonomous institutes, deemed and private universities and affiliated colleges will enter the data and caters the need of MIS of regulating and coordinating bodies.

at this level in the model will provide the information to the regulating and accreditation bodies. CONCLUSION Planning for efficient administration of higher educational institutions, increasing global communication skill and to achieve the world class standard, it is necessary to have a improved collaboration and access to information available in all the parts of the world which are possible only by introducing IT in educational sector with e-governance as a security for maintaining standard. The e-governance needs security for smooth information flow, best practice database and enhanced capacity for information analysis etc. Government should support by enacting favorable legislations and updated amendments for maintaining standards in the educational process and improvements in the related field. It requires completely new infrastructure, procedures, policies and working skills for producing and collecting online information. With the advent of ICT, electronic governance is an emerging trend to re-invent the way the government works, becoming a new model of governance. Such a comprehensive and integrated system can also enable authorities to analyze the performance of one of the best performing institutes and compare it with other schools and colleges to identify the gaps. Through e-governance we improve the quality of higher education system in India. Egovernance can create the transparency between the universities, colleges and students. It will bring forth, new concepts of governance, both in terms of needs and responsibilities. Many problems of higher education system can be solved by the Public Private Partnership model and e-governance.

Fig: Use of e-governance in Higher Education

REFERENCES

Users can tap the system and find out the related information needed. The higher education coordinating and regulating bodies could obtain the reports on various issues about future planning like budget, demand of courses etc. The regulatory body has a critical role to play according to this model. These units will be responsible of data integration and will cater the need of various stakeholders. . The MIS working

Ashok Kumar (GIAN JYOTI E-JOURNAL, Volume 1, Issue 2, Jan – Mar 2012) E-Governance in Education Sector

Dr.R.Krishnaveni and J.Meenakumari(International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 1, No. 3, August 2010)Usage of ICT for Information Administration inHigher education Institutions – A study

HarshitaBhatnagar.( International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 5, May-

www.ijsir.co.in

275

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2014; 2(1) 270-276, P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971 2013) e-Governance in Higher Education: A Case Study of IGNOU, New Delhi. 4.

JatinderGarg, SonuBalaGarg and NavdeepChoudhary (Research Cell: An International Journal of Engineering Sciences. Issue Sept 2011, Vol. 4) Effective Implementation of E-Governance in Technical Institutions in India using ICT to Make them World Class.

Mr. Sanjeet Kumar Tiwari, Mr. JubrajKhamari, Anjali Singh.(IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education. Volume 2, Issue 3, Jul. –Aug. 2013) Promoting E- Governance Culture in Higher Education Institutions.

Prateek Bhanti1, Dr. S. Lehri2, Dr. Narendra Kumar (International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering. Volume 2, Issue 8, August 2012) E-Governance: An Approach towards the Integration of Higher Education System in India.

276

RanjeetaKapoor and NishthaKelkar(National Conference on New Horizons in IT - NCNHIT 2013) E-Governance: Higher Education in Rural Area.

Sebahat Bartýn Orman Fakültesi Peyzaj Mimarlýðý Bölümü 2007(Importance of e-education and egovernance: Case of zonguldakkaraelmas university, Department of Landscape Architecture)

SudipSuklabaidya, AngshuMaanSen(International Journal of Emerging Trends & Technology in Computer Science.Volume 2, Issue 3, May – June 2013) Challenges and Prospects of E-governance in Education.

10.

Report of the Working group on Higher Education for the XII Five Year Plan. September 2011

www.ijsir.co.in

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GROWTH OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA DURING THE PERIOD 1950-2005 1

*PREM YADAV1, PREM MEHTA2 Research Scholar, Department of Education, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Principal, V. B. College of Education, Rohtak, India

*Address for correspondence: Prem Yadav, Research Scholar, Department of Education Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Education influences economic development directly and also indirectly. The direct impact is through productivity, employment, composition of the labour force, division of labour, mobility of labour, and other such factors. The indirect impact is through savings, limiting family size, inculcating right attitudes and skills, and by removing obstacles to social change and progress. It facilitates attitudinal changes for modernization and social transformation. This study investigates the growth of higher education in India during the period 1950 to 2005. The objective of this study is to analyze growth of higher education in India using the year wise growth rate formula. The result shows that the there is satisfactory growth of higher education in India During study period. Keywords: Education Influences, Economic Development, Productivity, Employment, Modernization INTRODUCTION Developing countries and developed ones have rapid economic development as the primary objective. Human beings play a crucial role in this development. Gerald M, Meir has aptly remarked: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The key to development is human being and his (her) abilities, values and attitudes must be changed in order to accelerate the process of developmentâ&#x20AC;? (Meir G.M., 1975). Education plays a key role in this process. Theoretical and empirical researches have substantiated the fact that investment in human capital formation of a country plays a fundamental role in improving the efficiency and productivity of human beings, and through them the various factors that complement and supplement the production process. This investment in people, especially through the medium of education has attracted the attention of economists across the world. A properly planned education system contributes significantly to the growth and economic development of a country (Agrawal P., 1982). The modern university system in India www.ijsir.co.in

came into existence during British rule. However, the seeds of higher learning have its deep rooted origin since the vedic times in the form of gurukuls and ashrams. In India, during the British rule, the first three universities were set up in 1857 and the thrust of development was mainly on liberal Arts education. Growth was modest with 18 universities established over a period of 90 years. Most of these followed the model of the three leading universities at Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. At the time of independence, there were 20 universities and about 500 colleges, with an enrolment of less than 150,000. Presently, the Indian system of higher education is one of the largest in the world (Tilak JBG, 2007). REVIEW OF LITERATURE Lakdawala D.T. and Shah K.R. (1978) studied the funding pattern of education in Gujarat state during 1960-61 to 1969-70. The study examined the unit cost in colleges and their economic and optimum size. The study proposed policy actions and revision of funding pattern in higher education. Tilak J.B.G. and Varghese N.V. 277

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(1991), in their study entitled “Financing of Education in India,” analyzed various aspects of public financing of education in India, particularly the centre-state partnership in deciding the total amount of resource allocation to education, its distribution by levels of education and inter-state differences. The study also discussed possible alternative sources of financing education. The study argued that fee is an important source of additional financing for education in India. Majority of the resources spent on education come from government sources, which has little possibility of any further increase. Therefore, optimum utilization of existing resources and mobilization of additional resources become very important for financing education in the coming years. Another important aspect is the devolution of financial and other authority between the state and districts for evolving policies on financing education in India in the coming years. OECD conducted an economic survey of India (OECD, 2007). It suggested that there is an urgent need to improve education in India. The study found that there are marked differences in educational attainment across gender and social backgrounds. However, higher enrolment is just a first step to better outcomes. More needs to be done to raise the quality of education, including providing stronger incentives for teachers to work and improving both the attendance and completion rates of students and teachers training. Educational reforms at the state-level and in OECD countries suggest that decentralization helps to raise efficiency and should be encouraged. Agarwal Pawan (2006) in his paper on ‘Higher Education in India: The Need for Change’ lays down an agenda for reforms in the higher education sector in India. The paper relates to the growth of higher education in India in relation to the changing funding pattern and suggests ways to ensure that higher education remains both affordable and accessible to all. The author emphasizes the need for greater adaptability in the higher education system so that it continues to provide the needed skills and trained workforce to the economy as it integrates with the world economy. The author also suggests policy measures required to promote, sustain, and enhance world-class research considering the weaknesses in the prevailing regulatory and 278

quality assurance environment. The paper provides a road map for reforms towards improved accountability of the system. ..Mukherjee A.N. in his study “Public Expenditure on Education: A Review of Selected Issues and Evidence” (2007) discussed the role of education in economic development which has been recognized in mainstream economic literature. Divergence between the private and social rate of return from education is the rationale for intervention by the state in ensuring equity in opportunity across the population. The “ New Growth Theories” predict that higher levels of schooling and better quality of workforce will lead to an increase in the growth rate, further strengthening the case for public expenditure on education. The outcome of such research has implications for the financing of education. However, the effectiveness and efficiency of resource allocation by the government has generated considerable debate, both from ideological and technical points of view. It is widely acknowledged that there is a large scope for improvement in both the level and the quality of publicly funded education. New institutional arrangements are being designed to address the deficiencies in incentives and monitoring, thereby improving quality. OBJECTIVE : The specific objective of this study is to examine the growth of higher education in India during the period 1950-2005. HYPOTHESIS: There is no significance growth of higher Education in India during the Period 1950-2005. DATA SOURCE METHODOLOGY

AND

RESEARCH

The study used secondary data available in published sources. The time series data on institutions, enrolment and teachers in higher education in India were compiled from various reports published by the Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Year wise growth rate was calculated by following formula: Growth Rate = (New Value - Old Value / Old Value)*100 www.ijsir.co.in

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Empirical Results Table 1: Growth of Institutions, Enrolment and Teachers in Higher Education in India Year

Universities * Colleges Enrolment ('000)

Teachers

1950-51

578

174

1960-61

1819

557

1970-71

3227

1956

190

1980-81

123

4738

2752

244

1990-91

184

5748

4925

271

2004-05

348

17625

10481

472

Source: Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, New Delhi

Note: * Universities include central, state, private and deemed to be universities as also institutions of national importance established both by the central and state Governments. During 1950-51 to 2004-05, the number of universities has increased from 28 to 418, and the number of colleges from 578 to 17,635. During the same period, enrolment in higher education has also increased from 0.174 million to 10.48 million. The number of teachers has also gone up from around 24,000 in 1950-51, to 4,72,000 in 2004-05. The expansion of higher education after independence was higher during the decades of 1950s and 1960s. This may be because of the growing demand for higher education during this period which was a global phenomenon. The growth of such institutions was comparatively slow during the 1970s and 1980s. However, during 1990s and onwards, the expansion of higher education system has regained momentum. Table 2 : Growth of Higher Education in India (CAGR %) Year

Universities Colleges

Enrolment Teachers

1950-51 to 1960-61

4.86

12.15

12.34

9.96

1960-61 to 1970-71

7.53

5.90

13.38

11.85

1970-71 to 1980-81

2.84

3.92

3.47

2.53

1980-81 to 1990-91

4.11

1.95

5.99

1.06

1990-91 to 2000-01

3.75

6.85

5.48

3.84

2000-01 to 2004-05

11.22

12.14

5.69

4.55

Source: Author’s own calculation www.ijsir.co.in

During the year 1950-51 to 1960-61, the number of universities has grown at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.86% per annum, while colleges at a rate of 12.15% per annum. During 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, the rate of growth was relatively low compared to the earlier period on all parameters. This has increased considerably during the period 2000 and then after when the compounded annual growth rate of universities has been more than 11% per annum and that of students enrolment and teachers being around 5% per annum. In the present times, as shown in table 1.05, as of 2006, the number of institutions has grown considerably during the period 2001 and onwards. This may be because of the efforts made by the government in promoting the establishment of institutions of higher education etc. Table 3 : Number of Universities and Other Academic Institutions till 2006

Academic Institutions Total number up to: Type of Universities and other 1947 1966 1980 1993 Academic Institutions till 2006 Central Universities 3 5 8 10 Institutions recognized as 'Deemed 5 11 12 30 Universities' 2 9 9 10 Institutions of National Importance 18 56 81 112 State General Universities State Agriculture Universities --6 20 25 28 87 130 187 Total

2006 18 95 13 176 40 342

Source: Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, New Delhi

As is shown in the table 3 there has been a sharp increase in the number of state universities and institutions recognized as “deemed to be universities during the recent times” and the total number of universities and other institutions has increased from 28 at the time of independence which has risen to 342 during 2006. CONCLUSION Nevertheless, in spite of these impressive figures, India lags far behind the developed countries with a population of 100 crores. The country has only 417 universities. In contrast to this, Japan with a population of 12.7 crores has 684 universities and The USA, with a population of 27.6 crores, has 2364 universities. Germany with population of 8.2 crores has 330 universities. 279

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The average size of Indian higher education institution in terms of enrolment is much smaller as compared to that of Europe, US and China.

Meier G.M (1975), ‘Leading Issues in Economic Development’, Oxford University Press, London.

Mukherjee A (2007), „Public Expenditure on Education: A Review of Selected Issues and Evidence’, Working paper from financing Human Development paper 1, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy.

OECD (2007) www.oecd.org/dataoecd (viewed as on 12-1-2009)

Tilak J.B.G and Varghese N.V. (1991) “Financing of Education in India’, International Institute of educational Planning, Anybool ltd. United Kingdom

Tilak, J.B.G. (2007), ‘Student loan and Financing of Higher Education in India’, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, July, Volume XXI, No.3.

REFERENCES 1.

Agarwal Pawan (2006), „Higher Education in India: The Need for Change www.icrier.org/pdf/ icrier_wp180_Higher_Educaion_in_India_pdf (viewed as on 12-1-2009)

Agrawal, P. (1982) ‘Financing of Higher Education in India’, Ganga Kaveri Publishing House, Varanasi.

Lakdawala D. T. and Shah K. R. (1978) “funding pattern of education in Gujarat state during 1960-61 to 1969-70”.Optimum Utilization of Educational Expenditure in Gujarat, Ahmedabad, sardar Patel Research Institute

280

www.ijsir.co.in

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VALUE-BASED EDUCATION: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT VITAL TOWARDS EFFECTIVE INTEGRATION 1

*VINAY KUMAR1, PREM MEHTA2 Research Scholar, Department of Education, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 2 Principal, V. B. College of Education, Rohtak, India

*Address for correspondence : Vinay Kumar, Research Scholar, Department of Education Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT Value-based education promotes a thought provoking and interactive environment for the students through the values incorporated in the curriculum. It promotes quality education and holistic development of each child for a bright future. Teachers play an important role in helping students imbibe the values. Professional development is vital in integrating values in the classroom. Understanding the principles and aim of values education enable teachers to create effective learning environment for values education. This article suggests steps to construct a value based curriculum towards quality education. This also emphasizes the importance and need for teacher training for better outcome on the topic, and also suggests a plan to prepare teachers as values educators. INTRODUCTION Value based education instills educational and cultural values among students and aims at achieving multi-faceted development of a human being namely intellectual, physical, spiritual, and ethical development. The values incorporated in a value-based curriculum may include cooperation, responsibility, happiness, simplicity, unity, peace, respect, love, tolerance, honesty, humility, and freedom. The main purpose of holistic education is to prepare students to meet the challenges of living as well as academics. Multiple studies have reported that value based education is a holistic approach to studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; education, one that provides complete education of body and mind through innovative approaches and critical educational thinking. Education can be considered as a means to impart general and specific information; teaching skills and most importantly inculcate values. The present system of education is almost wholly geared to the first, a little to the second and only marginally to the third (Burra, 2007). The neglect of ethical values, which www.ijsir.co.in

should form the substratum of any good education, has led to ineffectual, decadent, empty learning. Burra describes in the article that it is the duty of every society to pass on the values enshrined in its scriptures and philosophical texts to each generation, in order, that the spirit of its culture lives on. This can be achieved only when education is value oriented. Education should be a process of acquiring true knowledge. In planning for good values and objectives, the teacher and student will have to cooperate and work together. The purpose of education is to strengthen character in the younger generation which is an answer to many of the problems that face people today. It can bring about a widespread renewal of individual commitment to an active life of principle and this renewal is imperative. Values like truth, right action, love, peace and non violence include in a balanced way the profound moral insights of the great civilizations. LINKING VALUE BASED EDUCATION TO TEACHERS AND TEACHER TRAINING In the 21st century, it is vital to recognize 281

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that value-based education integrated into the school curriculum promotes quality education and positive school environment. Initiatives in schools around the world have stressed upon an all around development of the students by implementing value-based education programs. Yet it is a greatest challenge in education to teach how to imbibe values as it is different from imparting knowledge of mathematics or science. Teachers help student perceive information and transform it to knowledge and to wisdom. At the same time, they help adolescent to develop love of knowledge and try to transform into a good citizen. More than ever, now our young people need to have compassion, adaptability, moral courage, patience, and increased tolerance. Cavazos (2002) noted that teaching values in our schools is a vital part of preparing children for the inevitable challenge and occasional pain of real-life decision making. In the article the writer believes that teaching values can enhance education. Values can be positive or negative, depending on circumstances, and this author adds that a values-based education is an education in thinking, in weighing and making choices, in exploring consequences, and in working through problems to find which approaches are helpful in reaching positive healthy solutions. In an attempt to balance academic achievement and character education, schools and teachers must respect the primary role of the parents and family (Cavazos, 2002). Value-based programs help schools and teachers go hand in hand with the parents by working with them and incorporating values to provide the best educational environment possible for their children. Today’s world is aware of the importance and relevance of value based education. It is sad to note that the teachers today often are “unmindful” of the tremendous responsibility they have but feel contented with covering the curriculum and producing intellectuals rather than humans. Lickona (1993) noted that “Character education is far more complex than teaching math or reading; it requires personal growth as well as skills development. Yet teachers typically receive almost no pre-service or in-service training in the moral aspects of their craft. Many teachers do not feel comfortable or competent in the values 282

domain.” The teachers are trained and qualified to teach disciplines such as mathematics but are rarely trained to teach values which is usually a very challenging thing to do. This may also be because value education does not form a separate subject of study or examination at any stage of the curriculum. Irrespective of why many training workshops are not available for the educators to imbibe values education, there is a strong need for training teachers in the topic for better outcome. The question that arises is “Are teachers trained to implement such curriculum?” So, the question of how well the teachers know to impart such knowledge or be effective in promoting effective learning in values education needs to be answered. IMPORTANCE OF TEACHER TRAINING TOWARDS A GOAL OF HIGH QUALITY EDUCATION Values are essential building blocks on which an education for a humanistic and international society must be built on. This boosts self esteem both personal and cultural; promotes respect and tolerance for others as individuals and as members of ethnic/cultural groups; and creates a sense of belonging. Value based education promotes a secure physical, emotional and political locus within society; a sense of responsibility in relation to social, political, economic, cultural and environmental factors, an appreciation of the importance of learning (Sanyal, 2000). This approach to education can probe a well-rounded development and help students aim the highest (Eidle, 1993). “Practice what you preach is a saying that is very apt for teachers when it comes to values education. Teachers need to be able to imbibe values in their attitude and in action to be able to bring them into their classrooms. Narvaez and Lapsley (2008) looked at education as a valueinfused enterprise and addressed the question of how to train teachers for positive character formation. They noted that teachers implicitly imparts values when they select and exclude topics; when they insist on correct answers; when they encourage students to seek the truth of the matter; when they establish classroom routines, form groups, enforce discipline, encourage excellence. www.ijsir.co.in

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PREPARING TEACHERS AS ‘VALUES EDUCATORS’ AND THE 21ST CENTURY VALUE EDUCATION SCHOOLS Confucius has outlined the ethics of teaching in three beautiful words. “Ren - means an act of utmost love. Yi - refers to moral uprightness. Li indicates etiquettes in personal and institutional life.” According to Confucian theory, only a person who is always a source of love, morally upright and whose behavior not only in personal but also in the institutional life is impeccable, is worthy of being a teacher. An ideal teacher is a guide and source of interest who loves the subject, the profession and last but not the least loves the students. It is very challenging for the 21st century educators to keep up with the changing world unless they are lifelong learners and an effective catalyst to this social and economic change. Today we are in a technological world where things are happening fast. A question that educators ask themselves is whether they are capable of training the young citizens to be the torch barriers of the noble human world. It is not just enough for the young learners to acquire knowledge to earn a living but also require them to be a good citizen and be educated as a whole child. Changing world at different levels raises a big concern to focus on the relevance and importance of value education at the same time emphasizes on the need to train teachers in new techniques to promote a quality system of education with a focus of value based education. Before planning an orientation workshop for teachers, it is important first to understand how to construct a values curriculum for quality education. Following are the steps that administrators and curriculum developers can take to structure the value based curriculum: 1. Articulate vision statements and the underlying principles of value based curriculum 2. Outline values to be integrated in the curriculum 3. Duration and formulation of detailed specific objectives and lesson plans for each value according to age and mental maturity. 4. Selection of appropriate activities, seminars, fieldwork, group-work and projects necessary www.ijsir.co.in

to achieve the objectives 5. Integrating values in every subject based on the needs of the individual and society 6. Organizing these units meaningfully in a coherent simple way 7. Outlining an evaluation plan to assess the manner in which values objective is attained 8. Ongoing scope of open discussion with parents and community about the improvement of the curriculum 9. Modifying and improving the curriculum based on the above step and finalization. 10. Planning teacher training workshop and orientation on value based curriculum to promote understanding of the underlying principles and aim to create robust learning environment After a school has successfully planned a values curriculum, it is very important that the school plans orientation training workshop for teachers to enable them to implement and integrate the curriculum into the class effectively. IDEAS FOR SUCCESSFUL TEACHER TRAINING Multiple schools worldwide have introduced value-based programs as part of their curriculum. These curriculums are getting very popular in the schools in UK and India, and are getting attention in the schools in USA as part of character education. Training and discussion are needed to understand the underlying principles, aim and approach to value based education. Workshops could provide a platform to teachers to practice teaching an activity that imbibe values as well as give them an opportunity to experience it as a child. Through these trainings teachers can not only understand their own values and strengths but also gain a better understanding of their students. Values cannot be just taught students but have to be modeled and imbibed by adults and teachers so that they become part of the character of the individual. The values curriculum promotes a learning environment where values are absorbed progressively and through a variety of activities structured according to the relevance and age of the students. The process of learning 283

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is based on experiences, action and reflection through project-based learning, seminars, groupwork, dialogue, role-play, films and other media presentations, fieldwork.

Telling: A process for developing values that enables a pupil to have a clear picture of a value _ laden situation by means of his own narration of the situation.

Teacher training is needed to help teachers equip with new strategies and techniques to promote values learning. The following components can be included in a 3-5 days workshop for training teachers to integrate values in their classroom and make it an experiential learning:

Inculcating: An approach geared towards instilling and internalizing norms into person’s own value systems.

Persuading: The process of convincing the learner to accept certain values and behave in accordance with what is acceptable.

Modeling: A strategy in which a certain individual perceived as epitomizing desirable/ideal values are presented to the learners as a model.

Role playing: Acting out the true feelings of the actor(s) by taking the role of another person but without the risk of reprisals.

Simulating: A strategy in which the learners are asked to pretend to be in a certain situation called for by the lesson and then to portray the events and also by imitating the character’s personality.

Problem solving: An approach wherein a dilemma is presented to the learners asking them what decisions they are going to take.

Discussing situations, stories, pictures, etc: This technique asks the learners to deliberate on and explain the details in the lesson.

Studying biographies of great men: This is an approach that makes use of the lives of great men as the subject matter for trying to elicit their good needs and thoughts worthy for emulation.

1. Workshops need to be interactive 2. Discussion on underlying principles, aim and approach to values education with mentors 3. Guide teachers in day to day lessons and transactions. Practice teaching an activity, experience an activity as a student and receive feedback from one another 4. Equip teachers to provide as many real-life situations to imbibe a value. Share creative thoughts among each other 5. Open discussion with teachers on new ideas for improving and evolving the curriculum Through value oriented teacher education, the challenge of teacher education to prepare teachers to take care of the holistic education of children can be resolved. New courses and professional programs are being developed by several institutions to enable value education to be integrated in the academic curriculum. National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) is well aware of the challenge in providing value orientation to teacher education and has been conducting orientation programs on education in human values for teacher educators. Titles related to value education available from the NCTE web site are: Education for Character Development; Education for Tomorrow; Report of the Working Group to Review Teachers’ Training Programme; Role and Responsibility of Teachers in Building up Modern India; Gandhi on Education; Sri Aurobindo on Education; and Tilak on Education (http://www.ncte-in.org ). Furthermore, the following approaches can be used for teaching values in character building activities as reported on the UNESCO APIED on Education for Affective Development

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10. Moralizing: The process of working out a sense of morality through active structuring and restructuring of one’s social experiences (e.g. moral reasoning and analysis) 11. Values clarification: Values clarification as a strategy for values development may be considered as learner-centered. It relies heavily on the pupil’s ability to process his beliefs, behave according to his beliefs and to make a decision whenever confronted www.ijsir.co.in

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with a value dilemma. (Ascited in h t t p : / / www.ncte-india.org/pub/rimse/spk4.htm) CONCLUSION Values education help students find their place in the world and build their self-confidence. Values in a school curriculum add a dimension to promote holistic development of the students and benefits their academic achievement. Teachers feel a need to introduce experiential approaches to values education as a means to counter an overly cognitive national curriculum and to address issues of behavior, discipline and social attitudes. The role of teachers cannot be deemed minor in developing good character among students. Values educators must facilitate a student’s personal internalized discovery that one would want to be a values-oriented and values-guided person because through such activity one can feel good about oneself, respect oneself, and esteem oneself well (Eidle, 1993). Professional development sessions allowing educators to interact with each other lets individuals examine and view his or her own beliefs differently by using thoughts and testimonies from others; such experiences permit individuals to make sense of the world around them which is transformative learning (Cranton & King, 2003). There are some training workshops available worldwide for implementing value based education that have tremendously helped teachers develop skills to create a value

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based environment that promotes inspiring and active listening classrooms. Much remains to be done in this direction to make this effort meaningful and worthwhile, keeping in mind what is best for the future. REFERENCES 1.

Arweck, E., Nesbitt, E., & Jackson, R. 2005. Common values for the common school? Using two values education programmes to promote „spiritual and moral development . Journal of Moral Education. 34 (3). 325342.

Burra, H. 2007. Value Based Education: A Need of Today. Associate Content. Retrieved from http:// w w w. a s s o c i a t e d c o n t e n t . c o m / a r t i c l e / 3 5 5 2 0 7 / value_based_education_a_need_of_today.html?cat=4.

Cavazos, L., F. 2002. Emphasizing Performance Goals and high-quality education for all students. Phi Delta Kappan. 83 (9).

Cranton, P., & King, K. P. (2003). Transformative learning as a professional development goal. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 98, 31-37.

Eidle, W., R. 1993. Values education and self-esteem. Education. 113(4).

Lickona, T. (1993). The return of character education. Educational Leadership, 51(3), 6- 11.

Narvaez, D., & Lapsley, D. K. (2008). Teaching moral character: Two alternatives for teacher education. The Teacher Educator, 43 (2), 156 – 172.

National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE). 2013. Retrieved from http://www.ncte-india.org/pub/rimse/ rimse.htm

Sanyal, B., C. 2000. Need for value-based education in the twenty-first century. Here-now4u Online Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.here-now4u.de/ ENG/need_for_the_value-based_educa.htm

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & INNOVATIVE RESEARCH (A Bi-annual Official Journal of Sky Institute, a constituent Institution of BALA JI FOUNDATION established under Societies Registration Act 1860) AIM & SCOPE The International Journal of Scientific & Innovative Research (IJSIR)is a bi-annual published on line/ offline journal which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini reviews, short communications and notes dealing with all branches of science, technology, engineering health and agriculture. All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review, those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) contributing significantly to further the scientific knowledge in science, technology, engineering, health and agriculture will be published without delay. The subjects will cover all the disciplines and branches of science, technology, engineering, health and agriculture.

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Results All findings presented in tabular or graphical form shall be described in this section. The data should be statistically analyzed and the level or significance stated. Data that is not statistically significant need only to be mentioned in the text – no illustration is necessary. All tables and figures must have a title or caption and legend to make them self-explanatory. Results section shall start after materials and methods section on the same page. Discussion This section should follow results, deal with the interpretation of result, convey how they help increase current understanding of the problem and should be logical. Unsupported hypothesis should be avoided. The Discussion should state the possibilities the results uncover that need to be further explored. There is no need to include another title such as “Conclusions” at the end of Discussion. Results and discussion of results can also be combined under one section, Results and Discussion. Acknowledgements Should be given after the text and not in the form of foot-notes. References Should be numbered consecutively in the order in which they are first mentioned in the text (not in alphabetic order). Identify references in text, tables and legends by Arabic numerals in superscript in square brackets. References cited only in tables or figure legends should be numbered in accordance with the sequence established by the first identification in the text of the particular table or figure. Journal Articles Singh N., Verma P., Pandey B.R., Gilca M. Role of Withania somnifera in Prevention and Treatment of Cancer: An Overview. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research. 2011; 3(4): 274-279. A Book Singh N, Gilca M. Herbal Medicine – Science embraces tradition – a new insight into the ancient Ayurveda. Edn 1, Lambert Academic Publishing (Germany), 2010, pp. 115-116. A chapter in a Book Nadkarni KM, Indian Materia Medica. Edn 3, Vol. I, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, 2000, pp. 242-246. A Report World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2004: changing history. Geneva: WHO; 2004. Conference Proceedings Stock A, Signal Trasduction in Bacheria. In the Proceedings of the 2004 Markey Scholars Conference. 2004, pp. 80-89. A Thesis Strunk, JL. The extraction of mercury from sediment and the geochemical partitioning of mercury in sediments from Lake Superior, M.S. thesis, Michigan State Univ. East Lansing, Ml, 1991 Illustrations Tables – Should be typed on separate sheets of paper and should not preferably contain any molecular structures. Only MS word table format should be used for preparing tables. Tables should 288

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