Physical Science

shorelines in a harsh environment that currently has limited salmon habitat. These living shorelines may provide critical missing wetland and aquatic habitat to restore juvenile salmon migration corridors. n

Presented during S8: Tropical wetlands and opportunities for climate change adaptation and mitigation – Scientific advancements and innovative tools I, 6/8/2021 8:35AM - 10:25AM ET

THE SWAMP INITIATIVE: INTEGRATION OF TROPICAL WETLAND RESEARCH, CAPACITY BUILDING, AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE GLOBE

Kolka, Randy, USDA Forest Service Carbon-rich tropical wetlands (mangroves and peatlands) are important in climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies and provide numerous ecosystem services such as storm protection, nursery areas for fish, habitat for rare species, long-term storage of carbon, and food, fiber, and fuel for humans. Because of their importance we developed the Sustainable Wetlands Adaptation and Mitigation Program (SWAMP) to assist countries with their accounting and conservation of tropical wetlands. SWAMP is a collaborative effort between the Center for International Forestry Research and the USDA Forest Service through support from the US Agency for International Development. The goal of SWAMP is to provide policy makers and natural resource professionals with credible information and training to make sound decisions regarding the role of tropical wetlands in climate change adaptation and mitigation. The SWAMP objectives are to: (1) Quantify greenhouse gas emissions from intact and disturbed wetlands; (2) Quantify carbon stocks of representative tropical wetlands; (3) Develop carbon modeling tools and scaling approaches using remote sensing; (4) Define roles for tropical wetlands in climate change adaptation strategies; and (5) Promote capacity building and outreach as integral parts of all activities. Over the 10+ years of SWAMP, the integration of research, outreach and policy has led to important changes both at the country scale and globally with regards to REDD+ programs, IPCC reporting, overall awareness of the importance of tropical wetlands in the global carbon balance, and considerably improved governmental responses to changing climate. n

Presented during S8: Tropical wetlands and opportunities for climate change adaptation and mitigation – Scientific advancements and innovative tools III, 6/8/2021 1:15PM - 3:05PM ET

NEW INSIGHTS ON MOUNTAIN PEATLAND RESTORATION IN ECUADOR

Suarez, Esteban, Universidad San Francisco de Quito Lilleskov, Erik Zurita-Arthos, Leo Chimner, Rodney Chimbolema, Segundo Andean high-elevation (páramo) peatlands are an understudied and highly threatened ecosystem. Although these environments provide crucial ecosystem services throughout the Andean region in the form of water regulation, and carbon storage, traditional uses (agriculture, cattle grazing, water abstraction) have profound impacts on their structure and functioning. However, proper management and restoration of these peatlands is greatly hampered by a lack of baseline information and little local experience on available restoration approaches that could be adapted to the conditions of Andean peatlands. Here we report on a countryscale assessment of the conservation status of Ecuadorian páramo peatlands, discuss restoration/conservation opportunities for this ecosystem, and present three-year data on a pilot peatlands restoration project on Northern Ecuadorian peatlands. Preliminary analysis of national data on páramo peatlands shows a markedly contrasting picture. A large proportion of the páramo peatlands of the Eastern cordillera is in excellent condition, probably due to the remoteness and harsh climate of this region and, at least partially, to the presence of several protected areas. In contrast, most páramo peatlands in the Western cordillera either show signs of severe degradation, or have been completely transformed by grazing, agriculture, and water abstraction projects), especially in the central and southern highlands of Ecuador. Damage to many these Western peatlands results from they being the only wet spots in a relatively dry region, which historically put these ecosystems as hotspots for human occupation and use. Although these conditions make it difficult to find opportunities to start new restoration initiatives, our pilot project shows that functional and structural restoration of páramo peatlands can be achieved with low monetary investments and in relatively short periods of time. n

Presented during S9: SWS Career Narratives: 2) Navigating a wetland scientist career: Lessons for the next generation (organized by Gary Ervin, Excerpts by Doug Wilcox), 6/8/2021 1:15PM - 3:05PM ET

LAND MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH IN WETLANDS

Duever, Michael, Natural Ecosystems LLC I have always liked animals, especially reptiles. I originally kept them as pets, buying some and capturing others in the wild. I studied reptiles in college, and fish populations on my first professional job. As much as I enjoyed working with them, I eventually came to realize that these and

all other critters would only continue to exist in the wild if they had a place to live. This made me shift my focus from the animals themselves to trying to understand the environment upon which they depend, the ecological processes that created and maintained that environment, and how it can be affected by human actions. I have been able to gain experience working in a variety of terrestrial, wetland and freshwater aquatic habitats in a variety of geographic areas, including: 1) the Natural Audubon Society Research and Sanctuary Departments for twenty years at many natural and human-impacted areas across the United Sates; 2) The Nature Conservancy at the Disney Wilderness Preserve mitigation site in central Florida for seven years; and 3) the South Florida Water Management District on several very large restoration projects for the past twenty years. Over the years I have learned many lessons about how I could be most effective in helping to protect, restore and manage natural areas and their critters. Some of the more important aspects of my being able to make a difference include: 1) having a long-term, whole system perspective; 2) having an on-the-ground knowledge of the areas; and 3) working with others with a broad range of expertise and/or knowledge of each area. n

Presented during S6: Wetland Wildlife in Natural, Managed, Reclaimed and Restored Wetlands II, 6/8/2021 10:55AM - 12:45PM ET

CHALLENGING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF WESTERN YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO HABITAT NEEDS AND ACCEPTED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Wohner, Patti, Oregon State University Stanek, Jenna Cooper,Robert King, Sammy Laymon, Steven The focus of many riparian restoration efforts in the southwestern United States is the establishment of vegetative cover, often without re-establishment of flood dynamics. In the absence of flooding and gap forming disturbance, restored forests often senesce without tree recruitment. This has been common in California riparian systems, including those that historically supported federally threatened western Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus; Cuckoo). Multiple hypotheses exist for Cuckoo declines, but breeding ground habitat quality has not been sufficiently explored as a major contributing factor. We used a historical (1986–1996) spot mapping dataset from the South Fork Kern River Valley, CA to identify vegetation characteristics related to territory densities of Yellow-billed Cuckoo and five other sensitive riparian bird species. We found Cuckoo densities were positively associated with increased vertical vegetative structure 1–5 m above ground with a threshold for mean tree height. Sensitive species densities were also related to vertical structure and started to decline with stand height greater than 6–8 m. Naturally regenerated sites had higher densities of most sensitive bird species than planted sites. Our data suggest that traditional restoration practices of simply planting trees without restoring hydrologic processes necessary to develop a complex canopy structure and to sustain early successional habitat on the landscape through a time scale appropriate for early successional stage species is insufficient for long-term population growth of these bird species. Hydrologic management to maintain sufficient soil moisture and partial canopy removal across space and time is one potential alternative to encourage natural regeneration and increased low to mid canopy layer characteristics used by these species of concern. The assumption that current riparian forest can function naturally is not supported by our results. n

Presented during CS10: Hydrology and Sediment, 6/8/2021 10:55AM - 12:45PM ET

EVALUATION OF THE AQUIFER EXPLOITATION POTENTIAL IN A RIVERBANK FILTRATION SITE BASED ON SPATIOTEMPORAL VARIATION OF RIVERBED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Cui, Geng, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Tong, Shouzheng River infiltration is an important part of groundwater resource recharging in riverbank filtration (RBF) sites. It is not only affected by the hydraulic gradient between river stage and groundwater table, but it also depends largely on the riverbed hydraulic conductivity (RHC). However, due to the hydrodynamic conditions and sediment thickness during the scouring and deposition process, the lithology of riverbed sediments undergoes strong spatial and temporal changes, which leads to strong uncertainty of RHC. The way in which river scouring and deposition influence the RHC is still not completely clear, resulting in the inaccuracies in calculation of the rate of river water infiltration to aquifer and in the distortion of regional groundwater resource quantity evaluation. Based on the knowledge of the geological and hydrogeological settings of a typical RBF site in the middle reaches of the second Songhua River in China, we determined the relationship between RHC and sediment particle size by stepwise re-

gression analysis and genetic algorithm. A hydrodynamic and sediment transport model was established based on Delft3D to simulate the spatial distribution of sediment particle size. On this basis, a numerical model of groundwater flow was established using Visual MODFLOW, in which the river boundary was generalized into the third type of boundary condition and RHC zoning was performed to improve the accuracy of the model simulation. We found that the aquifer exploitation potential varies in different hydrological conditions. Groundwater pumping plan should be administered according to the changes in the river hydrological characteristics to avoid a series of ecological and geological problems caused by the excessive exploitation of groundwater. n

Presented during CS10: Hydrology and Sediment

FLOODPLAIN/STREAMBANK MODULATION OF RIVER LOADS OF SEDIMENT AND NUTRIENTS, FROM REACHES TO WATERSHEDS TO REGIONS

Noe, Gregory, USGS Florence Bascom Geoscience Center Hupp, Cliff Schenk, Edward Hopkins, Kristina Ahmed, Labeeb Metes, Marina Claggett, Peter Doody, Thomas Floodplain/streambank modulation of river loads of sediment and nutrients, from reaches to watersheds to regions Greg Noe, Krissy Hopkins, Peter Claggett, Cliff Hupp, Ed Schenk, Marina Metes, Labeeb Ahmed, Dianna Hogan Floodplains and streambanks play a key role in watershed nutrient and sediment transport and stream water quality; however, current understanding, data density, and tools are insufficient to make spatially-explicit, quantitative predictions of sediment and nutrients fluxes across multiple spatial scales. We measured bank erosion and floodplain deposition over decadal time scales using dendrogeomorphology, sediment characteristics, and reach geomorphology along 67 stream reaches that represent the diversity of geology and land-use of the mid-Atlantic U.S. The magnitude of measured fluxes of sediment and associated N, P, and C of floodplains or streambanks was similar across Valley and Ridge, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain physiographic provinces, while smaller fluxes were measured in the mountainous Appalachian Plateau and Blue Ridge. The average sediment flux of floodplain deposition within a reach was twice that of streambank erosion, with 41 sites being net depositional, and a few sites had substantial floodplain deposition. We developed regression models that used upstream watershed attributes and lidar derived reach-scale geomorphometry to extrapolate fluxes to the larger regional network of reaches. Reach geomorphometry was estimated everywhere LiDAR was available, using a new geospatial toolkit. Preliminary models show moderate predictability of fluxes that enable predictions for each of the stream reaches of the combined Chesapeake and Delaware River watersheds. Summing these predicted reach fluvial fluxes, along with predictions of upland erosion, sediment delivery to streams, and measured river loads, generates high-resolution sediment and associated N and P and C mass balances for the region’s watersheds. The sediment mass balance demonstrates that streambank erosion and floodplain deposition loading are offset and exceed measured river loads by a factor of two. However, floodplain deposition of N, P, and C greatly exceeded streambank erosion. In conclusion, the fluvial exchange of sediment between streams and floodplains is critically important for understanding watershed sources, sinks, and transport of sediment and nutrients. Our approach for measuring and modeling floodplain/streambank fluxes offers a scalable method for developing spatially explicit models of geomorphic and water quality processes. n

Presented during CS6: Climate Disruption, 6/3/2021 6:55PM - 8:45PM ET

ASSESSMENT OF CARBON STORAGE POTENTIAL OF FORESTED WETLAND SOILS AS AFFECTED BY URBANIZATION DEGREE IN TWO PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF VIRGINIA, USA

Ledford, Kathryn, George Mason University Ahn, Changwoo Schmidt, Stephanie This study assessed carbon storage potential in terms of total carbon (TC) and total carbon stocks (TC stocks) in soils of four forested wetlands in Northern Virginia along with associated soil physicochemistry [e.g., soil pH, bulk density (Db), and gravimetric soil moisture (GSM)]. The study sites were selected across two vastly different degrees of urbanization (urban [U]; non-urban [N]) and the two main physiographic provinces of the region (Piedmont; Coastal Plain). Soils were sampled and analyzed at three depth intervals (0-10cm; 10-20cm; 20-30cm). No significant differences were found in TC (3.07 ± 0.31% [U]; 3.82 ± 0.40%; [N]) or TC stocks (2.81 ± 0.35 kg∙m2 [U]; 3.58 ± 0.28 kg∙m-2 [N]) between urbanization degrees (p > 0.05). There was no significant difference in TC stocks by physiographic province (p >0.05), however,

Coastal Plain wetland soils had higher TC than the Piedmont wetlands (4.32 ± 0.41%; 2.57 ± 0.22%, p < 0.05). Db and GSM were significantly different along urbanization degree and physiography, and were highly correlated to TC, being able to estimate the total variability of TC to a significant degree (R2 = 0.39 and R2 = 0.47, all p < 0.05). The outcome shows that urban wetlands fairly mirror the carbon storage potential of non-urban wetlands and more likely so in the Coastal Plain than in the Piedmont, especially in their top 10 cm of soils. Further studies may be warranted across an urbanizing landscape to elucidate carbon storage potentials of urban wetlands that can combat urban carbon emissions. n

Presented during CS7: Identification, Delineation, and Functional Assessment, 6/8/2021 8:35AM - 10:25AM ET

RATE OF IRON MONOSULFIDE FORMATION IN S-RICH WETLAND SOILS

Duball, Chelsea, University of Wyoming Beaudette, Dylan Vaughan, Karen Andersen, Megan Indicator of Reduction in Soil (IRIS) films are a unique tool used to measure anaerobic conditions, in contribution towards hydric soil identification, and therefore wetland identification. IRIS films are typically used to quantify anaerobic conditions in soils via the visualization of iron (Fe) reduction, whereby the orange ironoxide (Fe3+) paint on the film disappears under reducing conditions when Fe3+ is reduced to soluble Fe2+, thus leaving behind the white color of the bare polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film. Alternatively, under oxidationreduction levels well below the range of Fe-reduction, sulfate (SO42-) reduces to sulfide (S2- and H2S), which is prone to react with the orange Fe3+ paint on IRIS films, resulting in the precipitation of insoluble, blackcolored iron monosulfide (FeS). While only a few studies have investigated the precipitation of FeS on IRIS films, it is understood that FeS forms exclusively under strongly reducing soil conditions. However, the Hydric Soils Technical Standard only includes visual evidence of Fe-reduction on IRIS films in the criteria used to quantify anaerobic soil conditions. Therefore, the rate of FeS formation on IRIS films remains relatively unknown and current IRIS methods may not capture anaerobic conditions accurately in S-rich systems. Our study investigated the rate of FeS formation to identify the amount of time needed to capture the maximum precipitation of FeS on IRIS films. To determine the rate and magnitude of FeS precipitation on IRIS films, five replicate films were deployed in a wet, gypsum-rich soil, across eleven different time periods ranging from 2 minutes to 30 days. Results show that FeS can precipitate on IRIS films in as short as two minutes and the highest average amount of FeS (82%) precipitated in just one day. After one day, the percentage of FeS precipitated on IRIS films decreased and visual evidence of Fe-reduction (white color-change) became more apparent. Our results suggest that the recommended 30-day deployment period for IRIS films is too long to accurately capture the precipitation of FeS on IRIS devices, especially in S-rich systems. These considerations should be incorporated into standard IRIS protocols used to quantify anaerobic conditions in soils. n

Presented during S14: The Role of Wetland Health and Recovery Assessments in Water Supply Decision-Making I, 6/10/2021 3:35PM - 5:25PM ET

HYDROPERIODS OF CYPRESS DOMES IN WESTCENTRAL FLORIDA, USA

Cameron, Cortney, Southwest Florida Water Management District Hancock, Michael The depth and duration of standing water in wetlands are critical factors defining habitat type and overall ecologic value in the landscape. A better understanding of these relationships can improve our ability to define limits of hydrologic impacts, beyond which wetland functions can be greatly damaged. The Southwest Florida Water Management District and Tampa Bay Water have been monitoring water levels in wetlands in west-central Florida for over 40 years. The District’s database includes water level data for over 500 wetlands, most with 10 to 40 years of at least monthly daily data. From this database, 41 cypress dome wetlands lacking substantial anthropogenic impacts on hydrology were selected for analysis of annual hydroperiods, defined here as the number of days per calendar year that water levels exceed a specific depth. The effects of data sampling frequency and length of data on hydroperiod calculations were also evaluated. On average, the cypress domes had at least some surface water present for approximately 215 to 325 days per year and were fully inundated for approximately 5 to 20 days. We find that approximately twice monthly water level data collection for ten years represents a minimum data sampling frequency and data length target for characterizing cypress dome hydroperiods. The results provide insights into how hydroperiods can vary in time and space while delineating typical baseline hydroperiod ranges for cypress domes in the west-central Florida study area. More broadly, and applicable to wet-

lands worldwide, the work underscores the need to contextualize hydroperiods relative to depth threshold and data collection characteristics in order to better understand hydroperiods within and between wetlands. n

Presented during S14: The Role of Wetland Health and Recovery Assessments in Water Supply Decision-Making I

THE PECULIAR NATURE OF FLORIDA’S SANDHILL WETLANDS, PONDS & LAKES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH THE REGIONAL AQUIFER

Nowicki, ReNae, EcoHydrologix LLC / School of Geosciences, University of South Florida Rains, Mark Embedded in the sandhill of west-central Florida (xeric communities on rolling hills and ridges of marine sands) are a peculiar type of wetland, pond, and lake referred to locally as the “sandhill” type. Formed in karst and completely surrounded by uplands, their peculiarity lies in their distinct hydrologic cycle, which ranges widely over both time and space. The high points of these cycles, which occur infrequently, create a false sense of normality that is not met during the remainder of the cycle, when surface water may be shallow or absent for extended periods of time. This, and the sometimes depauperate ecology that establishes in response, produces fodder for myths and misunderstanding of their true ecohydrologic nature. Their peculiarity is a function of their connectivity to a regional water-supply aquifer, the Upper Floridan aquifer (U Fldn)—part of the massive Floridan Aquifer System, which underlies all of Florida and portions of five other states. This connectivity sets them apart from other types of isolated wetlands, ponds, and lakes in Florida, including cypress domes, freshwater marshes, wet prairies and the numerous lakes densely dotting the landscape. It also sets them apart from isolated wetlands beyond the state, like the Carolina Bays of the Atlantic Coast, kettle ponds of Alaska, prairie potholes of the Great Basin, and isolated ponds and lakes elsewhere. Hydrologic control by groundwater of a regional aquifer places sandhill wetlands, ponds, and lakes at the far end of the hydrologic continuum, opposite rain-driven features and more distinct than groundwater-driven features of a surficial aquifer. Presented here are lessons learned from recent research into sandhill wetland, pond, and lake ecohydrology: physical and chemical evidence of their connectivity to the U Fldn; a model for their mechanisms of connectivity; and models for their resulting ecohydrology. Sandhill features, while unique, contribute important functions on the landscape and are vulnerable to increasing uncertainty associated with expanding groundwater use, shifts in federal environmental protections and a changing climate. Lessons learned are intended to advance understanding and inspire further study for their long-term management and protection. n

Presented during S14: The Role of Wetland Health and Recovery Assessments in Water Supply Decision-Making II, 6/10/2021 5:55PM - 7:45PM ET

ESTIMATING INTERMITTENT STREAMFLOW RATES BETWEEN GEOGRAPHICALLY ISOLATED WETLANDS AND RIVERS USING WATERSHED TERRAIN AND HISTORICAL RUNOFF

Fouad, Geoffrey, Monmouth University Rains, Kai Lee, Terrie In regions where wetlands regularly/seasonally flood, wetland overflows can produce intermittent streamflow in tributaries that connect geographically isolated wetlands to distant rivers. The lack of comparable, region-wide information on the location and magnitude of intermittent streamflow generated by wetlands has hampered efforts to adequately prioritize and protect wetlands and the natural tributaries connecting them to rivers. The present study combines national long-term streamflow data and high-resolution light detection and ranging (LiDAR) terrain data to organize wetlands along tributaries and estimate the streamflow rate between wetlands and rivers in a 1505-square-kilometer area north of Tampa Bay, Florida. Gaged streamflows at the outlets of watersheds are converted to runoff per unit area (i.e. meters per square kilometer) assuming different parts of the watershed have the same potential to generate runoff. LiDAR data are used to map the area upslope of each 0.76 × 0.76 meter (2.5 × 2.5 feet) grid cell. Upslope area is then multiplied by runoff depth to generate a cubic meters per second grid, which is used to classify tributaries according to flow magnitude. Calculated average annual or monthly runoff is used to estimate intermittent streamflow across the region for wet and dry seasons, and for years before and after groundwater pumping cutbacks from large municipal well fields. Field surveys are used to verify intermittent streamflow at tributaries classified with flow rates at and below the one cubic foot per second average annual threshold used to designate federally protected waterways in the United States. n

Presented during S14: The Role of Wetland Health and Recovery Assessments in Water Supply Decision-Making II

FIELD VALIDATION OF THE NATIONAL HYDROGRAPHY DATASET AND A REGIONAL HYDROGRAPHY DATASET IN TAMPA BAY, FLORIDA, USA

Fransbergen, Savannah, University of South Florida Fouad, Geoffrey Rains, Kai Rains, Mark Wetlands lacking surface-water connections to downstream waters are often afforded less protections than their hydrologically connected counterparts, thus, it is important such connections be accurately mapped. We conducted field validation and GIS analysis to assess the accuracy of surface-water flowpath networks depicted in two hydrography datasets, the National Hydrography Dataset (NHD) and a Regional Hydrography Dataset (RHD) in the Northern Tampa Bay area. The RHD, a product developed for local water management purposes, combines LiDAR data with long-term streamflow records to generate a cubic meter-per-second grid which is then used to predict the location and magnitude of streams and other waterways during specific seasons, months, or annual averages. Our study area (150,500 ha) includes more than 6,000 small wetlands and waterbodies (mean: 7 ha) which comprise approximately 27% of the landscape. We looked for wet-season flow at 241 field sites (2019, 2020) where flow was either predicted by the NHD or the RHD, or between wetlands where no flow was predicted by either dataset. When the NHD or RHD predicted the presence of a flowpath, one was observed in the field greater than 80% of the time. However, the RHD depicted a far more extensive network than the NHD (RHD: 1,698 km, NHD: 931 km). This resulted in 70% more individual wetlands and 43% more wetland area connected by surface-water flowpaths to downgradient wetlands and waterways. Wet-season field work revealed that both products under-estimated surfacewater connections between wetlands, but the wet-season RHD performed better than the annual average RHD (e.g., a 31% lower error of omission) and considerably better than the NHD (e.g., a 54% lower error of omission). These results indicate landscape-level estimates of hydrological connectivity differ between hydrography datasets, with regional and seasonal input leading to greater accuracy. However, these results also indicate that accurate site-specific determination of surface water connections, particularly where one is not predicted to occur, may still require field verification. n

Presented during S4: Novel approaches to quantifying synergistic interactions between climate and land-use change on prairie-pothole wetlands I, 6/1/2021 8:35-10:25AM ET

3-D HYDROLOGIC MODELING OF THE DYNAMICS OF WETLAND HABITAT NETWORKS IN THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS

Liu, Ganming, Bowling Green State University Links between climatic forcing and wetland habitats can be conceptualized using a graph-theoretical approach, which treats open-water wetlands as nodes to map habitat connectivity and wetland networks for ecological analysis. The first and most crucial step in creating such networks, however, is to characterize the dynamic behaviors of the nodes, i.e., the occurrence of wetlands with ponded water. This study applied a 3-D, fully integrated surface and subsurface flow model, HydroGeoSphere (HGS), to simulate the hydrologic dynamics of wetlands in the northern Great Plains (NGP) and to characterize the resulting habitat networks as responses to climatic variability. Results show HGS was able to simulate water movement in both surface and subsurface domains and capture spatially-explicit, dynamic behaviors of wetlands (e.g., “fill-spill”, coalescence, and disaggregation) as they responded to wet and dry climatic conditions. Our network analysis based on the HGS results illustrated broad differences in network connectivity, ranging from near total fragmentation of wetlands to strong ecological connectivity, as the climate varied from drought to deluge. In other words, wetland networks in the NGP could easily shrink, degrade, or even collapse when the climate becomes drier. The use of HGS in assessing wetland habitat connectivity in this study obviously presents a novel application of sophisticated hydrologic models and demonstrates their potential to solve critical ecological and water-resources problems in the NGP. n

Presented during S4: Novel approaches to quantifying synergistic interactions between climate and land-use change on prairie-pothole wetlands I

SIMULATING CATCHMENT RESPONSE TO CLIMATE AND LAND USE CHANGE USING CATCHMENT CLASSIFICATION AND VIRTUAL BASIN MODELLING

Spence, Christopher, Environment and Climate Change Canada Mekonnen, Balew Whitfield, Colin Wolfe, Jared Pomeroy, John Shook, Kevin He, Zhihua