1. INTRODUCTION
Mankind began in a rural setting. Sedentary agriculture occurred shortly after plants and animals were domesticated, and people established farmlands, residences and small settlements known as towns or villages. There as several historical sources on the process of urbanization. Some of the studies on urbanization trends in a span of 10,000 years for countries and regions reveal that with a few expectations in the early developed regions such as the Mediterranean, Central/ South America, India and China, the urban population remained non-existent before the 1700s. Despite regional disparities, overall levelsof urbanization were lowfor alongtime in history. The estimated world population living in urban areas until the 1600s was 5%. The statistics gradually increased to 7% in the 1800s and 16% by the 1900s (UN, 2008b). Prior to 1950, urbanization mostly occurred in MEDCs (Most Economically Developed Countries) and the total world population comprised of 34% of the urban population. The extent of urbanization expanded dramatically during the Industrial Revolution in the 1900s and continued during industrialization which led to an increment in the urban population up to 55% by the twenty first century. Furthermore, based on current growth rates, the predicted proportion of the population living in urban areas by 2050 is 66 percent. (UNDESA, 2018).”
Figure 1: World Population
Source: Un Population Division (2022) World Bank
“The increasing population is followed by urbanization of cities which acts as a medium to stimulate innovation and development by the bridging economicand human resources. The development of cities not only aims at improved infrastructure but also access to public amenities, education and social services.Urbanizationtendstooccursidebysidewithmodernization,yet weseeadeclineinpopulation in many cities of the most developed countries. The increasing population density and demands of the urban environment exacerbate problems such as high energy consumption, waste- disposal, poor air and water quality and scarcity of resources (“Urban Threats”, National Geographic). Due to the magnitudeofpopulationgrowth,lackofinfrastructureandhaphazarddevelopment, urbanization,which was as instrument and agent for economic, political, and social progress became the cause of serious socioeconomic problems while putting pressure on public utilities like housing, transportation, sanitation, water, health, and education. This leads to the replacement of population from urban/ inner city to rural residential areas creating a cycle of urbanization.”
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2. THE CYCLE OF URBANIZATION
Throughout the years, cities undergo the cycle of urbanization which are broadly categorised into four stages; Urbanization, Sub-urbanization, Disurbanization and Reurbanization (Van den Berg, L et al., 1982).
URBANIZATION
REURBANIZATION
SUBURBANIZATION
DISURBANIZATION
Figure 2: Cycle of Urbanization
Source: Author
a. Urbanization
Urbanization can be defined as the increase of the number of people residing in towns and cities. It is caused by people moving from rural to urban areas, resulting in an increase in the human population as well as the size of urban areas. Land use, economic activity, and cultural activities all alter as a result of population shifts. Cities are also equipped with increased infrastructure and advanced services and improved transport systems. The increase in population, services and infrastructure development rapidly expands city boundaries that extends and consumes the surrounding urban areas to form megacities. This urban growth is mainly the outcome of the attraction of the urban cores which appear to implement widely an attraction for a job, a better opportunity for schooling and more variety of social services (Urbanization and Urban Development, 1966).”
b. Sub- Urbanization
“The unplanned and rapid urban growth lead to unsatisfactory infrastructures such as inadequate infrastructure, housing, transport, sanitation and health services which have negative social, economic and environmental consequences. Urbanization’s severe social, economic and environmental repercussions result in urban encroachment, the expanding of a city and its suburbsover more and more rural territories. It is also widely known as counter-urbanisation, termed by Brian Berry, an American geographer in 1976 who broadly described it as a succession of social phenomena settlements representing a change in the reverse direction, with the reallocation of population from urban areas such as metropolitan cities concentrations towards smaller urban areas and beyond into rural neighbourhoods. The migration of population occurs due to various reasons which includes the improved building conditions along with conveniency by insurance companies, banks and real estate dealers. The residents migrate from the city core towards the outer neighbourhoods to fulfil their rising consumption and residential needs.”
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c. Dis- Urbanization
Counter-urbanization pushes the cities towards depopulation, abandoned buildings, deindustrialization, economic restructuring, increased unemployment, fragmented scattered families, elevated crime rates, political disenfranchisement, and an uninhabitable environment leading to urban decay. As mentioned by Jürgens (2008), this has been referred to as inhospitality of cities (Mitscherlich 1965), the murdered city (Siedler et al. 1964) the demise of cities (Jacobs 1961), or the de-concentration and erosion of cities (Deutscher Städtetag 1960 cited after Kuhn 2007: 122).
d. ReUrbanization
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Reurbanization is generally described as the population turnaround or return to the urban core. It is an absolute or relative population centralization in the inner city amid a context of population decline in the functional urban region. Reurbanization redefines the city core with addition to its population density. Population alterations occurring due to multiple number of inputs, ranging from the migration of people from inner city population redistribution, suburban-to-urban, rural-to-urban areas, or many various aspects related to demographics and population change (Haase et al., 2011). The earliest model of reurbanization was established to objectively demonstrate the actual reappearance of urbanisation in the late 1970s by Van den Berg, L et al. The authors established a corelation between population and employment and the city core and its boundaries, through four stages.
• First Stage: Development caused by urbanization and spurred mostly by rural-urban migration contributing to rising population density in the core
• Second Stage: Increase in land prices and traffic congestions in the core drives people to the periphery resulting in suburbanization and decentralization.
• Third Stage: Where the population stagnates or declines in favour of exurban 'hinterland' growth which not only includes the core city but also an inner ring of suburbs.
• Fourth Stage: The rebuilding, redevelopment, conversion plans, and 'backfilling' of the core halt the outmigration tendency, resulting in a relative centralisation of the population in the centre. This is also known as population reversal. (Bourne 1996: 695).”
Figure 3: Cycle of Urbanization
Source: “London: Contrasting Suburbs” (2004) Curriculum Press
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3. IMPACT OF PANDEMICS
Infectious diseases have continued to expand over the globe as humans have. The extent and impact of these diseases expanded drastically after the shift to “Agrarian-society” . In the early years, new opportunities for interaction between humans and animals due to widespread trade led to hastening the growth in number of people affected by of epidemics and diseases such as tuberculosis, smallpox, malaria and influenza. Urbanization escalated the chances of pandemics with expanding cities, exotic trade-routes and increasing interaction with diverse-people and ecosystems. Amongst the several devastating pandemics, the ones which struck civilization the worst killing over millions of people, impacting the socioeconomic configuration of the society and changing the course of reurbanization are the Black Death, Cholera, Spanish flu and Covid-19.
“A pandemic is defined as an epidemic occurring worldwide, or over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting a large number of people.” (Last, 2001)
a. Black-Death (1346-1353)
The “Black-Death” pandemic also-called as “The Plague”, marked the emergence of the long history of epidemics and pandemics in the world. The “Antonine-Plague” was one of the first plague to be documented and is believed to have occurred between the 165 and 180, followed by the Justinianic plague which occurred between 541 and 549 and then the Black Death Between 1347 and 1351, this pandemic wasresponsiblefor adevastingnumber ofdeaths inhuman history, withimmediateandlongterm repercussions for individuals around the world. (Gottfried, 1983) The breakout of the-plague originated in some part of Asia in the early 1200 and spread across the globe. The plague invaded Europe through the Messina-port in Sicily as ships sailed from the overseas via the Silk trade routes and spread rapidly to France and England changing economic conditions, demographics and collapsing the British feudal system (Editors H.C., 2020).
(1346-1353)
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Figure 4: Spread of the Black Death
Source: “How humans have reacted to pandemics through history a visual guide” (2020). The Guardian
The death toll climbed so rapidly and swiftly that the inhabitants of Europe had no time to comprehend what was occurring. The infected people often passed away within three days after exhibiting symptoms. Eventually the plague was responsible for wiping out one-third of the world population and transforming the balance between class power in European societies
“The plague was much more severe in the cities than in the countryside, but its psychological impact penetrated all areas of society. No one – peasant or aristocrat – was safe from the disease, and once it was contracted, a horrible and painful death was almost a certainty. The dead and dying lay in the streets, abandoned by frightened friends and relatives.” (Cantor, 1994)
Theplaguespreadfromthelowerclass tohighersocietywipingcitiesandcollapsingthesocialstructure with its high mortality rate. The epidemiologic measures against the Black Death included quarantine andself-isolationtoreducethedensityofinteractionbetweenpeople. However,duringthe14thcentury, the socio- economic scenario deteriorated as the wages increased due to shortage of labour and taxes increased with stricter regulations of the market (Herlihy, 1997). Self-isolation was only affordable to the city's wealthiest residents who fled to their suburban villas Several medical facilities were constructedorrestored,includingthefirst xenodochiumin oneoftheTransylvaniancities, Cluj-Napoca to house, care and provide for the people fighting the plague (Rusu, 2018) The infected were isolated from the city centres and relocated in the outskirts. TheBlack Death crisis majorly influenced European urban design by encouraging the creation of wider public spaces that allow more opportunities to connect with nature and minimise feelings of isolation.
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Figure 5: “The Triumph of Death” by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569)
Source: “The Triumph of Death” (2020), World History
b. Cholera Outbreak (1817-1923)
The first Cholera outbreak was seen in Ganges Delta, Jessore, India caused by rice which was contaminated due to the water. The epidemic spread quickly throughout as the trade routes which were created and used by Europeans carried the disease to countries near India. Cholera had spread to Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia by 1820, resulting in the death of over 1,00,000 people in Java. The infected people aboard ships brought the disease to China and Japan from Thailand and Indonesia in 1820 and 1822 respectively (Macnamara, 1870). It extended beyond Asia in 1812and was introduces to the Persian-Gulf by British-Troops travelling from India. The epidemic eventually spread acrossEurope, reaching Middle East and then Russia gradually (Lee, 2010)
Figure 6: Spread of cholera (1950-2004)
Source: Working group, Synthesis report IPCC (2007)
Thesecondcholeraoutbreakwasdocumentednear1829.The2nd outbreakisbelieved tohaveoriginated inAsia,specificallyIndia andgraduallygrowvia-routes fortradeandmilitaryacross theworld. Cholera had reached Russia again by the autumn of 1830. The disease was seen in Finland and Poland in the spring of 1831, spreading to Hungary and Germany soon after. The epidemic then outspread all over Europe, reaching United Kingdom in late 1831 (Lee, 2010). Cholera reached United States in 1832 and several cases were reported in New York. By 1833, it made its way to Latin-America and South America. The third wave was the deadliest, documented from 1852 to 1859. It wreaked havoc on Asia, North-America, Europe and Africa. The fourth and fifth-cholera pandemic, which lasted from 1863 to 1875 and 1881 to 1896 respectively, were less devastating than previous pandemics. The next cholera outbreak lasting from 1899 to 1923 did not affect Europe and America as severely as Asia, America, Russia and Middle East due to development of health and sanitation departments. (Editors H.C., 2017)
The emergence of cholera coincided with a period of escalating globalization brought on by advancements in transportation technology, a sharp reduction in commute time by steam powered ships and locomotives, and an increase in the commerce industry (Barua, 1992). The disease spread like wild fire and measures similar to the Black Death were taken as an initial strategy including isolations and
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quarantines. Healthcare facilities were constructed for the infected people in the city and the ships arriving at European ports were denied access if they had “unclean licences” (Tognotti,2000). Governments deployed social interventions and conventional healthcare methods in urban regions to minimize the interaction between the infected and healthy people However, when these measures were not effective as a primary tool the authorities studied the disease and found the cause of the disease was the virus spreading contaminated water. Several measures were taken in numerous countries including establishment of local health board and urban planning department to prevent the further spread-ofdisease and improve the sanitary conditions between 1830 and-1850.
Figure 7: Disinfecting Process of Clothes
Source: Tognotti (2000)
c. Spanish Flu (1918-1920)
The influenza was responsible for the demise of 50 million people worldwide, began in Europe in 1918 and then travelled rapidly. At that time, there were no successful medicines or vaccines to cure the deadly influenza strain. The pandemic was called the "Spanish flu" after news services reported an influenza breakout in Spain in 1918 (Editors H.C., 2020). “The influenza virus spread in three waves: the first in spring 1918, the second and most fatal from September 1918 to January 1919, and the third from February 1919 to the end of the year The last years of World War I accelerated the first two waves”(Helton,2020) Thevirusspreadthroughout theAmericanMidwest intheearlymonthsof1918, finally making its way east and crossing the Atlantic Ocean with soldiers deploying for WWI. The infection, which was introduced into the trenches on Europe's Western Front, ravaged the already frail warriors. As the conflict drew to a close, the virus spread around the globe by both commercial and military transports, infecting nearly every country. It had reached Bombay, India by May 1918
Bombay was ravaged during a time when the city's port was busy with shipments of machinery and supplies at the close of World War I, as well as growingdissatisfaction with British control. Both waves of the pandemic hit the city, though the second was more severe and lasted longer, disproportionately impacting the lower caste Hindu population. The pandemic stimulated the construction of public health infrastructure in the city, particularly hospital space, which was scarce at the time and mostly served European and Anglo-Indian elite minorities (Satam, 2020)
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The Spanish flu had a significant impact on reducing growth of cities and limiting outdoor activities for a-while in order to reduce the spread of the flu. The use of public transport had been substituted by walking with less pedestrian traffic while majority of the population remained at home (Eltarabily et al., 2020). The pandemic also acted as an incentive for the development of a new type of housing construction (Mamelund, 2017). New standards were devised and applied, ensuring that each unit had a sufficient quantity of light, space, and fresh air, while also balancing aesthetics and everyday functionality.
d. Covid 19 (2019-Present)
According to the latest reports of World Health Organization, Covid-19 pandemic which was first detected during 2019 in China, has swept over 114 nations and infected over 24 million individuals (WHO, 2022). The cause of the pandemic is a coronavirus strain, SARs-CoV-2 which affects the respiratory system sometimes leading to pneumonia and eventually death.
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Figure 8: Indian soldiers carrying individual killed by Spanish flu
Source: “War and Pandemic” (2020) Times of India
Figure 9: Spread of Covid 19 pandemic
February
19 March
19 March
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Source: “An animated map tracks the spread of the coronavirus” (2020). Business Insider
January ‘19
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The worldwide crisis, which was ignited by the Covid-19 epidemic, is currently unfolding as a multifaceted-health, economic, social and cultural challenge. The epidemic has impacted the economic condition exposing the fault lines of unfairness and poverty making it worse by the day and harder for the urban poor. The virus transmits through contaminated particles in the air but the risk of getting infected increases in close proximity escalating the chances of impoverished people residing in densely populated areas having covid. Developing countries have been impacted the worst, with an estimated 1 billion people living in congested and overcrowded informal settlements with little access to essential amenities (Ghani, 2020). The existing social structure and disparities have been damaged with significant negative health effects on the individuals who are already marginalised in the society. According to the World Bank, approximately hundred million individuals have been forced back into poverty, wiping off much of the progress made in recent years. The economic and educational system have been disrupted due to the closure of commercial and educational activities.
Figure 10: Residential Building in Brazil, 2020
Figure 11: New York’s Domino Park
Source: Johannes Eisele (2022). Getty Images
Several measures were implemented globally to combat the pandemic which included“citywide lockdowns, social distancing, travel restrictions, quarantines and hygiene maintenance” ((Editors, Wellcome Collection, 2021). These methods were only precautionary while vaccines were being developed to battle the virus. The governments acted with prompt and decisive actions to contain the pandemic while taking into consideration the effect of the virus and the local measures on the citizens. Peoplewereforcedtovacatetheirresidencesandofficesintheurbancoreduetolossofjobsandincome and relocate to the outskirts or countryside where the built fabric was not as dense as cities. The world was compelled to adopt and rely on digitalization as people wanted to be social connected. Online shopping, zoom meetings and lectures aided to increase economic and educational activities. Offices resumed as employees worked from home providing countless opportunities. The technological solutions implemented during the pandemic have permanently transformed the current lifestyle. The goal shifted from immediate response to health crises to long term integrated solutions of planning and development with digital means.
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Source: Victor Moriyama (2022) The New York Times
4 CHANGES IN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING
OF CITIES
The cycle of urbanization is interrupted by epidemics and pandemics and the structure of modern cities is altered as functionality is questioned by local public administration. The changes in the structure and functioning of cities constitute several factors such as
a. Density, Migration and Mobility
b. Economy and Equality
c. Social Structure and Practices
d. Infrastructure
e. Role of Data and Technology
The outbreak of pandemics compelled local governments to focus on urban improvements in the city during the duration of each pandemic.
a. Density, Migration and Mobility
Figure 12: Estimated Deaths during each Pandemic Source: World Health Organization (2022)
Pandemics are facilitated by high density, migrations and mobility which in turn results in constraints on freedom of movement. Prior to the Contemporary era, the restriction on mobility was the primary measure to prevent further transmission of disease. The preventative separation of possibly contaminated people was invented during the Black Death in the fourteenth century. For instance, Viscount Bernabo of Reggio in Italy, commanded that all infected victims be removed from their living quarters in the city and taken to the fields where they may either perish or recover (Philip et al. 2002). Several cities forbade outsiders to enter especially merchants and sailors. Armed guards established a sanitary barrier that was to be adhered to at all costs along transport routes and city entrances and only those with a “sanitary certification” granted by the authorities were free to move in the city. The crowded European seaport of Dubrovnik adopted the approach of quarantining infected people by isolating them for forty days (Stuard, 1992). “Isolation, separation and social control” were the crucial strategies. The infected and uninfected were divided by the transformation of public spaces into hospitals and lazarets. (Grmek et al, 1997) During cholera as well the flu outbreak, public buildings such as schools, religious places, cultural spaces and even prison facilities were shut down. (Tognotti, 2000) Public gathering on the streets was against the law and a curfew was put in place to prohibit nighttime travel in the city. People migrated to the countryside. Cities which offered protection from war and plunder were abandoned by people seeking refuge in the rural areas.
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When it comes to migration and mobility, Covid-19 shares a lot of similarities with earlier significant pandemics but only to a certain level. Covid-19 depicts the modern age in terms of speed, reach, and the number of people impacted. For example, at the time of the Spanish Flu, air travel and international tourism were in their infancy. The management of borders is better now than it was in the early 20th century. Countries were able to effectively control the large scale mobility of their citizens. Another key aspect of Covid-19 is the enormous number of migratory employees who were employed abroad. Threemillionworkerswerestuckinforeigncountriesinthefirst fewweeksofthepandemic (GonzálezLeonardoet.al.,2022).Ascountriesenactedtighterregulations,thisnumberquicklyincreased.Another distinctionfromthepastisthatmanycountrieshelpedtheircitizensreturnhome.Thepandemic'seffects caused a global decrease in migration of about 2 million people. Along with the constraints on large scale international migration the pandemic also resulted in internal migration in countries.
Figure 14: Migration patterns between 2016 -2020 during Covid-19
Source: González-Leonardo et. al. (2022)
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Figure 13: Egyptians fleeing the cholera outbreak using boats on the Nile by CL Auguste (1841-1905.)
Source: “Fleas to flu to coronavirus: how ‘death ships’ spread disease through the ages” (2020). Wellcome Collection
As the virus spread over the countries, the need to limit social interaction arose. Majority of the city population relocated to the suburbs, countryside and outskirts of the city to avoid the increasing real estate prices, pollution and crime rates. The increasing usage of technology allowed people to work remotely and schools to teach and engage students through the internet while sitting in the comfort of their homes. The migration to outskirts granted the citizens to reside in larger living spaces to accommodate these activities and continue working and learning even during lockdowns. These developmentsdecreasedtheneedtoresideintheurbanregionsandthepreferenceschangedtospacious, affordable and sparsely populated residences in the rural areas.
b. Economy and Equality
The plague had a huge impact on the economy of European cities but the negative consequences only lasted for a short period of time. During the plague, the trade routes were closed leading to loss of commercial activity and cultural exchange. The death of millions of people also meant loss of skills and knowledge. However, the long term effects cover a number of less devastating aspects including the redistribution of population and resources as well as effective restructuring of agrarian production with improved productivity. “The pandemic contributed to the creation of a new high-mortality and highincome equilibrium whichservedasthefoundation for rapid economic expansion over the time (Alfani, 2021).” The wealthiest percentage of the population lost a significant proportion of their wealth during the plague and took several centuries to recover from the damage and gain their riches back demonstrating how long lasting the fall in inequality was (Herlihy, (1997)
Figure 15: Real Wages in Europe during the Black Death Source: Alfani (2020) based on Fochesato (2018)
Two major factors played a role in the decline of inequality. First, the rise in wages of the working class with development of safe working environments and fair conditions brought by the labourers powerful bargaining tactics Second, large proportion of the working class were able to afford and purchase properties due to their increased income as well as unexpected availability of the estates. The
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high mortality rate disrupted the inheritance structure that was prevalent in Europe allowing successors toinherit more assetsthandesiredorrequired.Asaresult,the properties were marketedmakingit easier for the scarce labour with high wages to rise in the economy (Platt, 1997) It can be argued that the Black Death outbreak played a role in the demise of feudalism and the emergence of capitalism. However,theimpactoneconomyandinequalitywasnotthesameduringotherpandemics. Eventhough the cholera outbreak began in the urban centre and spread throughout the city through contaminated water and perishables, the poor living conditions and overcrowding of the impoverished accelerated the spread. The repercussions of the pandemic implied that the probability of urban poor infected is higher and the effect of the infection is increase in poverty and decline in living conditions making it a “epidemiological poverty trap” (Alfani, 2008).
Similar to the Black Death, the influenza pandemic in 1918 had short-term effects on the economy. The increment in the income of working class was directly proportional to the mortality rate during the flu. The increase in shortage of manufacturing workers and ban on migration of labour from other cities negatively impacted the wage redistribution resulting in expensive labour (Brainerd, 2003). The economic imbalance led to fall in literacy rate and higher probability of physical disability.
The coronavirus pandemic disrupted the world economy due to the repercussions of measures taken to control the virus. Global tourism decreased due to restrictions on international and local travel affecting the hospitality industry. Trade and commerce declined with reduction in retail footfall during nation wide lockdowns. Several countriesfaced recession due to loss of employment and migration of workers (Jones, 2021). The widespread pandemic has resulted in greater variance in equality following the trajectory of previous pandemics due to poor accessibility and quality of healthcare and increasing unemployment particularlyamongstthelowincome andunprivilegedgroups. Thelower incomegroups have been affected disproportionately as over half of the number of workers from low income nations are unemployed in contrast to just ten percent in nations with high earning. Countless number of people have fallen bellow the poverty line as they are suffering from the pandemic (Editors, Wellcome Collection, 2021). In the long term, infected individuals with severe symptoms will experience long lasting damage to their physical and mental health rendering them unfit to attain education and generate income leading to higher economic inequality.
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Figure 16: Economic Inequality in Europe during Cholera
Source: Alfani (2020) based on World Wealth and Income Database
c. Social Structure and Practices
The Plague triggered a significant rift that altered the European continent’s social, political and cultural ways. The high mortality rate and fear caused by the pandemic strengthened the religious beliefs and practice of Christianity and escalated the formation of cults which questioned the supremacy of clergy. There was a rise in violent protests and mass killings against the Jews as it was believed that they were the carrier of the disease. New institutions for learning were established as the clergy’s were being eradicated and people worried about sending children on lengthy, perilous travels. The spread of new forums for discussion and learning gradually threatened the Christian beliefs. Furthermore, it paved the way for the development of distinct identities and culture which divided the religion and was called the “Reformation” (Cantor, 1994). The pandemic’s devastation influenced new medical research avenues as well. Prior to the plague, the commons believed that diseases were brought upon by heavenly bodies as a punishment of their sins. During the treatment and care process of the infected people, the medical practitioners learned the about contagion (Legan,2015). The “new empirical approach to medicine and treatment gained the support of the medical practitioners acting as origins of the “Scientific Revolution”.”
The cholera outbreak primarily affected the core of cities like London and Paris which was mostly occupiedbytheimpoverishedlabourersresidinginpoorlivingenvironments.Theoutbreakexacerbated the social tensions since the wealthy accused the poverty stricken for transmitting the infection while the poor believed they were being attacked by the wealthy using poison (Rosenberg, 1966). As the outrage increased, the authorities were blamed and people rebelled against the monarchy by protesting on the streets leading to the “Paris Uprising of 1832” and finally the “French Revolution”. The Spanish flu happened during the World War 1 and similar to cholera, the fear and anger amongst the citizens created an environment of distrust between the people and the government (Aassve et. al., 2021). The pandemic produced long lasting societal effects that decreased social trust similar to the plague. Throughout history, pandemics exposed societal flaws that already existed but were not addressed such as insufficient society safety nets, ineffective or corrupt governance methods and negligence from higher authorities. The implications for society included influence on politics, disruption of social order and social tensions.
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Figure 17: Social Structure during the Plague
Source: “Effects of the Black Death on Europe” (2020) World History
The Covid-19 pandemic resulted in a spiking increase in unemployment and inequality which altered the way individuals identify with the society. While some people reconnected with their family and friends due to work from home opportunities, the pandemic challenged the physical and mental health of others as they had to relocate from cities to outskirts due to unemployment during the nation wide lockdown (Eltarabily et, al., 2020). The displaced population suffered from poor accessibility to clean water and sanitation while the women of the society faced inadequate healthcare facilities and unsanitary conditions. Along with increasing responsibility of caring for the family and children, women engaged themselves with jobs and household duties. Various studies suggested “An increase in domestic violence, including sexual, emotional, verbal, economic, and physical abuse, is due to the strict lockdown measures implemented by the Governments in order to contain the spread of novel corona virus” (Ghoshal, 2020). The negative societal impact left people feeling excluded and discriminated against during the pandemic.
d. Infrastructure
The urban strategy in the Renaissance era was drastically altered by the plague in the 14th century as the densely crowded cities became the reason of high mortality. As medical practitioners struggled to find a cure, isolation of the infected people gave rise to quarantine hospitals which were constructed beyond the walls of the cities (Rusu, 2018) The architects and planners decided to increase the extent of cities to inhabit the existing population while decluttering the dense core. They eradicated the slums and other densely populated areas that provided the plagues with favourable conditions for growth and multiplication (Platt, 1997). The streets were widened and residences were made to be less congested and more open to parks to promote natural ventilation. Similarly, several measures were taken in numerous countries during the multiple cholera outbreaks including quarantines and establishment of local healthboardandurbanplanningdepartmenttopreventthefurther spread-of-diseasebetween1830 and-1850. For instance,in London the banks of ThamesRiver wererearranged tomodernise the sewage and drainage system and secure the water supply of the city, particularly the Victoria Embankment which runs from Westminster to the City of London (MIR, 2020). Prior to the restoration, private residences and industrial sites built along the river’s edge dumped all sewage directly into the river. Those have been replaced by gardens and commemorative state monuments and the embankment has become the city’s primary transportation-artery (Eltarabily et al., 2020).
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Figure 18: Construction of Sewer, London
Source: “London's Great Stink heralds a wonder of the industrial world” (2016) The Guardian
During the same time period, the Board of Health of New York City approved Central Park to promote human and environmental health through open urban space. A reservoir was built in the park to provide fresh clean water to the growing metropolis. Cities all throughout the world had followed New York's lead by controlling land usage and eliminating waterborne diseases like cholera by the mid-nineteenth century. (Rose, 2020). Similar to the plague and cholera, the influenza spurred the removal of slums, reformation of tenement, revaluation of waste management systems and forced planners to rethink the urban design of the city. The pandemic led to the redesign of housing typologies with well lit and ventilated spaces (Mamelund, 2017). The flu inspired “Modernist architecture and town planning as architects replaced the dark, filthy, disease-infested city centres with open squares and light-infused, gleaming white buildings both public and private.”
Throughout the course of Covid-19 pandemic, social distancing norms eliminated the requirement of creating public spaces which encouraged social interaction. In places of leisure such as restaurants and parks, physical distancing was imposed by separating the seating distances while in stores, queues were controlled by creating stand points at a distance of two metres. Physical barriers were constructed in places where physical distancing was difficult. At the city level, the densely populated cores were dispersed and relocated to the outskirts due to accessibility to services, loss of employment and requirement of larger living spaces. Several cities also improved the network connectivity by introducing separate cycle lanes to promote the use of private modes to commute instead of public transport. The pandemic also gave citizens the time and opportunity to renovate their house resulting in several interior and exterior renovation projects which changed the meaning of contemporary design.
e. Role of Data and Technology
Advancements in technology have been used to detect, analyse and fight pandemics over the past few centuries. As cholera spread throughout England in the 1850s, several medical practitioners believed in the miasma theory by Florence Nightingale which suggested “that diseases are produced due to unhealthy or polluted vapours rising from the ground, or from decomposed material (Tognotti, 2000).”Amongst them, a doctor named John Snow suggested using“data science method”to resolve the issues raised bythepandemic. Thecitymap of Londonwas coupled withthe data from the water supply
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Figure 19: Cycle Lanes in Amsterdam
Source: “Coronavirus: How pandemic sparked European cycling revolution” (2022) BBC
system to chart the trends and intensity of the disease The map help establish a relationship between the water supply, infected people and presence of the virus which verified conclusively that cholera was spreading through contaminated water and forced the government officials to improve the water supply system (Lee, 2001) During the Spanish Flu, the medical infrastructure in countries lacked required equipment and necessary vaccines. The treatment of infected patients with additional infections was not plausible.
However, mankind has made technological and health infrastructure advancements to fight against epidemics andpandemics. In returnthe coronaviruspandemic hasacceleratedthedigital transformation trends around the world. The development of medical technology such Intensive Care Units and vaccinations have aided in reduction of risk of death and battle Covid-19. Modern science and technological advancements have made it possible to integrate several disciplines such as public healthcare, city planning and geographical factors while researching on the impact of the pandemics giving a“comprehensive and scientific traceability analysis and understanding of diseases (Newlands et. al., 2020) ”During the pandemic, several countries used smart technology, big data and artificial intelligence to keep track of the number of people in contact with the virus and in quarantine to assess the damage and organize strategic responses accordingly while the citizens took advantage of the technology to stay connected to their co-workers, clients and students from their homes (European Parliamentary Research Service, 2021) Remote working is one of the aftermaths which distinguishes the Covid-19 pandemic from the rest. The development of digital technology benefited individuals in several ways like reduction in the time taken to commute to the workplace every day, flexibility in the work schedules, access to more online tools and services. The employment sector benefited in other ways as companies saved on the recurrent expenditure such as rent and maintenance due to work from home scenario. The unconventional work arrangement also allowed companies to employ more qualified individuals from remote locations (Eurofound, 2021) A steep decline in production of goods and services was also observed during the pandemics as the needs of the consumer reduced. This led to economic redistribution. However, with the development and expansion of digital infrastructure the trend shifted to online shopping and door to door delivery and digital delivery of services by organizations.
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Figure 20: Advancements in Technology
Source: “Technological Innovations in Response to COVID-19” (2022) University at Albany
5 POST PANDEMIC URBANIZATION
The pandemics challenged the urban planners and architects to rethink the design and planning of cities integrated with enhanced public health responses, advanced infrastructure, better connectivity, waste management and improved living quality.
a. “Ideal City” by Leonardo Da Vinci
The damage after the plague inspired Leonardo Da Vinci’s vision of an ideal city. In order to prevent the pandemicinfuture DaVinci intendedto construct a cityintegrated with betterconnectivity,services and sanitation. The city was designed with multiple levels where the lower regions would be used by traders and travellers to transport goods and the higher roads which were wider, well lit and ventilated by the citizens (Rosenau, 1974). The city’s upper part would be pedestrian friendly with well planned residential andpublicbuildings withtheaestheticsof Renaissanceera and functionalityas their priority The “poor hygiene problem of medieval cities was resolved by separating the pedestrian and commercial roads.”The plans of city also consisted a network of interconnected underground sewage canal system and slopes and drains throughout the city to guide the flow of rainwater (Melis, 2019). The design emphasises on the use of verticality by using a configuration of staircases on exterior of buildings to access different levels and ensure easy flow to commodities throughout the city while maximising the use of internal spaces. Leonardo’s vision for the city is only preserved in drawings but as modernist and avant-garde movements emerged, planners took inspiration from the “Ideal City” to design cities like Paris in the 19th and 20th Century.
b. Haussmann's Renovation of Paris
The Cholera outbreak forced the planners to reassess the design and construction of Paris, France as the pandemic turned the city into a combination of slums populated primarily by members of socially marginalised groups with poor sanitaryenvironment and narrow mediaeval pathways. During the 18501870s, Baron Haussmann who was a French official was chosen by Napoleon III to oversee the urban renovation of the city (Jordan, 2004). The core of the city underwent significant changes with
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Figure 21: Drawings by Leonardo Da Vinci of an “Ideal City”
Source: Pages from Paris Manuscript B, Google Images
demolishment of the residences of the poor to accommodate buildings for administrative purposes and large open green spaces (De Moncan, 2002). The city was re-envisioned as “a place of wide, regular avenues and boulevards, re-plottedto ease flows of citizens, of traffic, of soldiers and police, of garbage and of sewage” (Gandy, 1999). The strategy aimed to improve the hygiene conditions and standard of life of underprivileged citizens while the relocation of the wealthy class in the city centre resulted in gentrificationleadingtoevictionofsocioeconomiccategories.Theplanningalsofocusedoneradicating the narrow mediaeval lanesas they were difficult tosanitize andconvenient to secure by rebels forriots, social or political protests using barricading.
c. “Contemporary City” by Le Corbusier
Le Corbusier proposed “A Contemporary City for Three Million People” at Salon d’Automne in 1922. The city consisted of three parts: a commercial district compromising of highrise buildings located in the city’s centre representing the “centrality of secular power” encircled by residential neighbourhoods divided in two typologies, where some blocks are organized around internal courtyards where as others were arranged in a linear pattern at right angles to one another. The last belt is a vast open area for expansion in the future with green spaces for workers and industrial areas (Corbusier, 1929) The road network was designed in a way that they intersect through the city axially connecting its periphery to the core while pedestrian traffic flowed through (Guiton, 1981) The layout of the city was based on a few fundamental ideas. First, to ease central district congestion. Second, to populate areas in order to improve commercial connections and last but not least, to increase the green spaces accessible to the people in the city.
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Figure 22: Avenue de l'Opéra, created by Haussmann, painted by Camille Pissarro (1898)
Source: “Haussmann's Renovation of Paris” (2022) Wikipedia
Source:
6 CONCLUSION
The goal of urban planning and design is to improve people’s lives by responding to the existing and future trends of urban development in the city. In the past, reurbanization of cities consisted of revival of the city core with focus on organization and quality of public and private spaces. The process prioritised the access to services and facilities as well as internal connectivity in the city. However, the study on the impact and response to the pandemics revealed that with each pandemic, “the course of reurbanization shifted towards the modernization of urban governance, where planning and design played a significant role in collaboration with the society to shift from passive crisis response to active crisis avoidance.”The post pandemic reurbanization emphasizes on the following aspects:
a. Building Resilience
The impact ofpandemics exposedissuesinthe structureandfunctioning of cities,includingtheabsence of regulations and measures during health crisis and lack of societal trust between the citizens and the government authorities. The public administrations struggled as people refused to believe in the existence of the virus, denied vaccinations and conducted “socially irresponsible behaviour violating quarantine and lockdown restrictions ”Maintaining and fostering trust between the people and the authorities as well as the pandemic victims is crucial while building resilient cities Adaptable and flexible responsive strategies should be used to regulate and manage a city during a crisis depending on its severity and conditions. The administrative infrastructure should be strengthened by establishing communication between community organizations and government officials to strategize integrated approaches.Diversificationinindustrial sectorwithadynamicapproachtoeconomywithallowcitizens better access to jobs, education and skill training. The medical infrastructure which maintains a patient friendly environment while retaining financial and administrative effectiveness during times of tranquilly should also prepare for scenarios with chaos and havoc during a pandemic. The vulnerability of situations from a social perspective should be assessed and analysed to provide facilities based on the requirements. As described by the organization for economic cooperation and development,
“
Resilient cities have the ability to absorb, recover and prepare for the future shocks (economic, environmental, social & institutional). The cities promote sustainable development, well-being and inclusive growth.”
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Figure 23: Le Corbusier’s’ Contemporary City (1925)
“Le Corbusier’s contemporary city” (2014). The Charnel House
b. Decentralization and Poly-Centralization
The densely populated cities and high commercial activities are amongst the few similarities between the previous pandemics where as the speed and pattern of dispersion of urban cores are the noticeable difference. The swift and quick spread of the diseases highlighted the adverse impacts of urbanization and “the negative effects ofvariousagglomeration phenomena at different spatial scales from the global to the local.” Thepandemictriggeredtheimplementation of telework or remote working which relieved the commercial centre of densification and congestion. The relocation of employees to the outskirts and suburbs eliminated the need to commute for long hours in the public transport. The decentralization of the work locations impacted the urban mobility patterns increasing the need for private transport infrastructure. The remote working system can be replaced by the construction of a commercial hub system which consists of multiple commercial hubs of smaller scale distributed throughout the city at regular intervals with residential quarters and essential services in close proximity. Similar to commercial sector, several essential public services in the city are centralized and operated by a single organization. Decentralization and privatization of public services such as medical facilities and waste management is required to achieve efficient administrative operations. The goal is to create polycentric cities which follow the theoretical background of “15-minute city” proposed by Carlos Moreno in 2016 where the “citizens can fulfil six essential functions within a 15-minute walk or bike from their residence: living, working, commerce, healthcare, education and entertainment.” The formation of a polycentric city will ease the distribution of goods and services and also accommodate the trend of online shopping, remote education and telemedicine.
c. Digital Totalitarianism
Advancement and innovation in technology is a crucial factor contributing to the development of various sectors such as healthcare, commerce, banking, telecommunications etc. By using big data and artificial intelligence to anticipate and forecast the pandemics as well as to acquire medicines and supplies, the public health organizations and health care facilities can reduce the impact of any health crisis in the future. The banking organizations are taking advantage of the technological developments as well Developments in electronic banking have succeeded in making contactless payments the norm increasing the need for digitization in the new era.“Collaborations between governments, financial institutions and the telecommunication and network providers can result in creation of better digital infrastructure which can improve the bandwidth for businesses and society.”The retail sector shifted to a new business model integrating e-commerce, online shopping and automated delivery to adapt to the changing needs. In addition, the education facilities such as schools, colleges, universities adopted digital education and learning systems which have altered conventional teaching pedagogical methods and in person classrooms and lectures. The pandemic demonstrated that local communities can work together to tackle issues at the societal level using digital platforms as a tool. The creation of such platforms for individual residential buildings or neighbourhoods using social networking can assist people to stay connected, share interests, goods and services and collaborate with each other. The strategy will help reduce psychological tension during any future crisis by fostering a sense of community and involvement among the populace. A flexible and reliable approach to city management and operations is possible through the enhanced implementation of digital totalitarianism.
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