Chaironeia 338: Topographies of Commemoration - John Ma

JournalofHellenicStudies128 (2008) 72-91

CHAIRONEIA338: TOPOGRAPHIES OF COMMEMORATION* Abstract:This articleexaminestwo funerary monuments associatedwiththebattleof Chaironeiain 338: first, the themassburialsurrounded mound,coveringa masscremation, bytheKephissos;second,nearthetownofChaironeia, areconfirmed bya stoneenclosureandtoppedbya colossalstonelion.The acceptedidentifications (themoundis that of theMacedoniandead, the lion monumentthatof Thebandead, in all probabilitythe Sacred Band), and two propositions developed:themounddoes notrelateto thetacticaldispositionsofthebattle,andhencethegenerally ofthebattlemustbe discarded;thelionmonument mustdatetomuchlaterthan338. In develacceptedreconstruction these I examinematerialwhichhas been longknown,butneverconsideredin depth;I notably oping propositions, ofsomeoftheosteologicalmaterialfromthemassburialunderthelion presentwhatI believearethefirst photographs monument.

Moregenerally, thetwomonuments, locatedat different setup bydifferent actors pointsofthebattlefield, andat different offertheopportunity forconsiderations on thedifferent functions of 'memory'surrounding moments, an historical event:theMacedonianmoundreflected theneedsand self-imagining ofthevictorious army,imposinga traceinthelandscape;thelionmonument embedsitselfinpreexisting for a more andmore reflective, topographies, effect. troubled,

'AufChäroneasHeide Im altenSchlachtgefild' in Leide Liegtwie versteint Ein marmorn Löwenbild.'

E. Geibel,Erinnerungen aus Griechenland, stanza20.

'In thisroomareexposedthebonesofthosewhodiedat Chaeronea,withthesword-cuts showing.This has no bearingon art,andis a rather shockingsight.It wouldhavebeenbetterto leavetheseheroesin thegravestheyearnedso nobly.'

MacmillanGuideto Greece(1908).

On 2 August338 BC, in theplainbetweenChaironeiaand theKephissos,PhilipII decisively defeateda coalitionofGreekstates,especiallyAthensandtheBoiotianLeague.1The subsequent settlement confirmed Philip'spoliticaldominanceovertheGreekstates.Thismostévénementiel ofevents,onceheldto symbolizea watershed in Greekhistory, tookplace as a concretehappenit then existed not as a but also as a monumental andcultural ing; construct, just historiographical in a thebattlefrominterrelated phenomenon particular landscape.Thepresent paperre-examines thedetailsofthebattle,ritualpractices, ofmemory. viewpoints: topographies I. CHAIRONEIA AncientChaironeia(Plate 4(a)),2likeitsmodernsuccessors(Kápraina,knownto generations of andthecontemporary dhimosofCherónia), liesinan important lieudepassage,thewest travellers, endoftheKephissoscorridor.Theplainstretches easttowest,aboutthreekilometres widefrom thesouthern mountainrangeto theriver.On theotherside oftheriver,therangeofAkontion * I thank PollyLow,GrahamOliverandPeterRhodesfor theinvitation to givean originally verydifferent paper;I owe theexpression 'culturesofcommemoration' tothem.

Researchforthispaperwas carriedoutthanksto a Philip Leverhulme Prize,forwhichI amgladtothanktheLeverhulmeTrust. Workin Greece was enabled by James Helen Clark,VassiliosPetrakos,IoannaNinou, Whitley, VassiliosAravantinos, IannisPhappas,GiorgiosKorres, Roza Proskynitopoulou, Mika Palaiokrassa.I also thank the followingpersonsforassistance:Kostas Buraselis, ChristopheChandezon(withwhom I trampedaround

Kápraina,and who helpedme withhis Plutarchanand Chaironeianexpertise), AngelosChaniotis,JimCoulton, SylvianFachard,thelate PeterFraser,Tonio Hölscher, AlistarJackson, MariaListon,ParaskeviMartzavou, Josh Ober,Karen Schlott,AntonySpawforth.Mistakesand omissionsremainmyown.

1Plut.Cam. 19.8 Hammond(1973) (7 Metageitnion); 567.

2Paus.

9.40-1,withFrazer(1898); Fossey(1988) 37585; Kountouri (2006).

CHAIRONEIA338

73

PhokisandthepassofParapotamioi, defines thenorthern edgeoftheplain.Theplainleadstowards whichseparatestheplainofChaironeiafromthebasinofElateia.3 An important roadleads fromThebesto Phokis,via Haliartos,thesouthedge of theKopais intothegreatbendthat wheretheroadshiftsfromitseast-westdirection basin,andChaironeia, offthisroad,afterPanopeus. willtakeittothebasinofElateia.ThemainroutetoDelphibranched towardsa crossingon theKephissosandOpous.4 roadleadsnorth-east, FromChaironeiaanother Orchomenos mayhavebeenconnectedwithChaironeiaby tworoads,one alongthefootofMt Akontion, pastthevillageofAkontio(Bisbardi),untiltheKephissosbridge,theotheralongthe rightbankoftheKephissos.5 Chaironeia,at thefootof a double crag,Petrachos,occupies a small north-south valley. vale of thereare threemoresuchvalleys. Firstcomesthewell-watered Reckoningeastwards, thevalleyleads up to a metalled by threechurchesand a monastery; distinguished Lykouressi, a shrineofHerakles;thestreamin thevalleyis the roadtowardsLebadeia. The valleysheltered orHaimon.6Thenextvalleyis thatoftheancientriverMolos:7thelowerpart ancientThermodon savanna.The thirdvalleyleads,byan theupperpartbyMediterranean is takenbyoliveculture, thendowna longslopeto a modern to a small road quarry), plateau(and through garrigue, easy takes nowexclusively 'Keratapass'.8 Moderntraffic Lebadeia. Thisis theoncemuch-frequented thewindingroad at thefootof themountain.The mountainseparatingChaironeiafromthe valleyof Lebadeia shouldnotbe calledThourion,as on modernmaps;thenameshouldbe rewestofChaironeia.9 servedforthemountain is also structured The landscape by man-madelandmarks.Earliestis a Neolithicmound a enclosure, Second,a funerary including (MagoulaBaloumenou)neartheKephissoscrossing.10 as thetomboftheThecolossalstonelion,was erectedeastofthecity.Thishas beenidentified the255 deadmenlaidtorestthereina hasty,offeringbansmentioned byPausanias;specifically, withthecracktroopsoftheThebans,theso-calledSacredBand. poorburialhavebeenidentified totheeastoftheNeolithicmound:thisis the about3 kilometres Finally,thereis a largetumulus, on thebasis ofthesarissa andidentified mentioned Macedonians of the Plutarch, by polyandrion are convincing The identifications level. in cremation the found coin Macedonian and a heads andmutually (see below). reinforcing II. THE BATTLE OF 338 BC We Thereis a standardaccountof thebattle,createdby Sotiriadis,Hammondand Pritchett.11 thearmy;Philiptooktherightwing,theroyalposiknowthatPhilipandAlexandercommanded tion,andprinceAlexandertheleft.Philipis said to have deceivedtheAtheniansby a planned 3 On the plain,Conner(1979) 134 fig.2, 138 fig.4; Belle (1881) 135.

4 Flauberttooktheroadon 10 January 1851,setting outfromMolosontheMalianGulf,andtakingeighthours to reach'Rapurna'as thenameis misspelledin thepublishedversionofhisnotes:Flaubert(1998) 558, fromthe byhisnieceCaroline;sinceR forK is a comtranscription monmistakemadebyreadersofFlaubert'shand,correct to Kapurna.My thanksto S. DordCrouslĂŠforadvice.

5On theroad(unearthed Aravantion a 35 m stretch), IG 7.3170,mennos(1993). AnOrchomenian inscription, tions'theroadto Lebadeia'and 'theroadto Chaironeia'.

6 Sotiriadis(1904) 45-50,(1905) 113-20,fortheHerakleionand Plutarch.Not a cul-de-sac,as claimedin Hammond(1973) 542: a modernpiousinscription (1970) inEaster1912forchildren recordstheVirgin'sprotection

pointof thepilwalkingto themonastery.The starting butis likelyto be Lebadeia,ora grimageis notrecorded, villageon theLebadeiasideofthemountain.

7Sotiriadis (1904), (1905); Hammond(1973) 536-40; Campeia/. (1992).

8Lolling(1989) 221-2. Earlier,e.g.Clarke(1818) 172 ('the antientpaved way to CHAERONÉA'); Hobhouse (1813) 266 ('wild andrugged'road);Stephani(1843) 645 (good road);Flaubert(1998) 559.

9 Campeia/. (1992).

10Sotiriadis (1902), (1910); Tzavella-Evjen(1995).

11Sotiriadis (1958); (1903); Costanzi(1923); Pritchett Hammond(1973) 534-57,withthemeagresources;Kromayer(1905) 16-23; Braun (1948); Rahe (1981), etc.

Buckler(2003) is cautious.See also Bucklerand Beck (2008) fora critiqueofthereceivedversion.

74

JOHNMA

so theAthenianswerepostedoppositePhilip,on thealliedleft;Alexanderdefeatedthe retreat, SacredBand,so theBoiotianswerepostedoppositehim,on thealliedright.Alexandercamped underan oaktree,notfarfromthepolyandrion oftheMacedoniansidentified which byexcavation, givesus an idea ofwheretheMacedonianleftwas; thetumulusis supposedto markthespotof thehardestfighting, no doubtthesitewheretheSacredBandwas overwhelmed byAlexander.

The tumulusoftheMacedoniansanchorsthewholescheme. Sotiriadisreconstructed theoplines to the posing perpendicular Kephissosvalley;butthisdoes notallowthealliesaccesstothe Keratapasstowards Greekstookrefuge.So theGreeklinemusthave Lebadeia,wherethedefeated forward from the of the Macedonian mass tomb.SincetheGreekcampoccupiedthe angled spot HerakleionintheLykouressi the left flank of the Greeklinemusthavestarted westofthis valley, valleyattheridge(behindthemodernmuseum)betweentheLykouressi valleyandtheKapraina withthebesttroops,theBoiotians valley.Hencewe havea longbattleline,nearlydueeast-west, andtheSacredBand,on therefusedrightflank,andtheAthenians thrown forward.IftheMacedonianleftwas indeedlocated'notfar'fromthetumulus, as indicated by 'Alexander'soak', then a greatpartoftheMacedonianbattlelineformed up inan acuteanglebetweenthealliedrightand thecourseoftheKephissos,withitsbackhardagainsttheriveranditsmarshy bed.12 None of thisholds. Thereis no reasonto supposethattheMacedonianmoundmarksany at Marathon,forinstance,thesoros is locatedquitefarfromthe precisespotofthebattlelines; actualbattlefield.

ThedetailaboutAlexander'soak doesnotestablish thelinkbetweenmoundand battlelines:theoak couldhavebeenlocateda kilometre orthreeaway;in addition, thedetailof Alexander'ssleepingtherecouldsimplybe folklore.The SacredBand mightwellhavebeenon theotherwing: the storythatAlexander'shook' the Sacred Band belongsto theAlexander does notvouchforit.13Therefore, thealliedlineformed tothewestofthe Vulgate,andPlutarch entrance oftheLykouressi and stretched across the a valley, Kephissosvalley shortlineallowfor the usual Boiotian The courseof thebattlehad to negotiatethelocal ing deep phalanxes. micro-topography (notablythevariousriversflowingoutofthesouthern ridge),butwe haveno idea how. The Boiotians,including theSacredBand,perhapsfought on theleft,thrown forward to the tactics have faced and hisbest according inaugurated byEpameinondas; theymight Philip The allied with Athenians werekilled,two troops. troopslost, heavycasualties.One thousand thousand madetheirwaytoLebadeia,whencetheycontacted captured.Alliedsurvivors Philipthe nextday. The slaughter-strewn fieldmayhavecontributed to theplaguethatfollowed,ragingin winter338/7.14 Thereis another sourcethatcanbe explored:battlearchaeology.15 In thisparticular case,there aretwosecurely identified massgravesfromthebattleof338 (see below),theMacedonianmound andtheThebanpolyandrion.FromtheMacedonianmoundcomesa setofinstructive finds.First, thehumanremainsfromthecremation.The excavator'sdescription of a vastandthicklayerof number ofMaceashes,75 cmthickinthemiddle,100squaremetresinarea,impliesan important doniandead. Thisis confirmed atChaironeiaMuseum:twolargecrates, bythematerial preserved withbone fragments, sievedoutof theashes.16Secondly,theexcavationproduceda brimming number of metal artefacts, large mostlyweaponsofthedead,heavilydamagedbythecremation andgroundhumidity.

Swordsarerepresented byhandles(fromxiphĂŞ,straight swords)andblades, 12On thelower Kephissosvalley,Theophr.HP 4.11; Paus. 9.41.7 (marshflowers).

13Buckler (1992) 4801-3considersthatPlutarch'sinformation is goodandmustcomefromhiswritten sources; see also LeitĂŁo (2002). But 'it is said', used hereby denotesbentrovato storiesandsayingsinhisLife Plutarch, ofAlexander:forinstance,2-3 (storiesaboutPhilipand 10.4 Olympias),6.5 (Boukephalas,Philip'sexclamation), toThe(EuripidesquotedtoPaus.),13.2(allegedkindness bans), 14.3 (Diogenes), 36.1 (marvelof dyed clothat

Persepolis),37.4 (DemaratosofCorinth weeps),42.1 (ear coveredwhenlistening to capitalaccusations).

14Theophr.

HP 4. 11.3.

15Foran overviewofthe ofthecommon 'archaeology soldier', Osgood 2005; earlier,e.g. Ingelmark(1939); Carman(1997); Fioratoetal (2000); Salazar(2000) onthe ancient world.On thearchaeology ofthemassgravesfrom thebattleofChaironeia, Clairmont (1983) 240-2(nos.77d3), Pritchett (1985) 136-8,bothwithbibliography.

16Sieve: Cooley(1904) 141 (andphotograph).

CHAIRONEIA338

75

mostbelongingto machairaiorkopides,curvedsabres.17Some smalljavelinheadsarepresent.

One spearpointandseveralbutt-spikes mustbelongtotheusualdoru;otherspearpointsarevery 42 best one is preserved cm),witha centralstiffening long(the ridge,andprobablycome from sarissas.Theyarecomparable toothersarissafindsfromVerginaandDerveni.18 However,many otherelementsdo notseemto be attested in theChaironeiafinds:theflangedbuttspike19 andthe ironsleeveusedtojoin thecornel-shafts in other the Macedonian words, together troopswere armedwithan earlyversionofthesarissa.Thefindsalso includea fewarrowheads.

Oneperfectly three-finned bronzeexemplarmighthavelodgedin thebodyofa Macedonian.Some preserved findsgivea vividimageofMacedoniansoldierson campaign:knifeblades,20 ora well-worn whetcord.Generally, thematerial illustrates sarissastonewitha holefora retaining theforcespresent: armedinfantry, probablycavalry, light-armed javelineers(thecrackAgrianians already?),archers on bothsides. remainsrelating Theothersetofmaterial tothebattleof338 comesfromthemassgraveofthe oftheskeletonsfoundinthegraveinsiston Thebans,on theothersideoftheplain. Descriptions beforetheevacuationof 1940,in visiblewound-marks.21 Some skeletalmaterialwas exhibited, Museum.22 case 93 ofthe'thirdvasesroom'intheeastwingoftheNationalArchaeological battle'.23 The bones showmany offers direct evidence for the 'face of Thismaterial shockingly cutmarks,a typeofwoundparalleled trauma.Shinbonesexhibitmultiple tracesofcirca-mortem combatwith in theskeletonsfromthemedievalmassgraveat Wisby,andreflecting close-range ofblows sword blows.

The skulls bear marks of Several phenomenon multiple edgedweapons.24 it is not in evidence the medieval head is well tothe (though yetpossibletopoint notably paralleled, ofmvivodamagetotheleftfronto-parietal toanyrecurrent regionoftheskull,suchas atpattern 'aft-fore' man a with One received teststoface-to-face cut,followed powerful fighting swords).25 a of the 'furniture from rear of the left to the a de butt-spike probably part parietal, by coup grâce leg' or 'Stabspitze'type(usednotablybytheMacedonians).Thisblowproduceda smallhole theskull surrounded wherethespikepunctured cracks, by a widercircularmarkandradiating or the from the of in otherwords,a depressedfracture ring flangeabove flaring resulting impact horrendous case ('Gamma16', i.e. 'row3, skeleton16', thespike(Plate 4(b)).26In oneparticularly 17Sotiriadis (1903) 309. The materialawaitsdetailed publication.

18Andronikos (1970); Markle(1977), (1980), (1982); ThemelisandTouratsoglou (1997) 109;andmostrecently oftheMacethepublication However, Connolly(2000). doniantombat HagiosAthanassioschallengesConnolly sarissahad large by clearlyshowingthatthe 'infantry' heads:Tsimbidou-Avloniti (2005).

19 Andronikos (1970). Derveni:Themelisand Vergina: forparallels,109.

(1997) 84 withliterature Touratsoglou 20On 'soldier's'knives,Markle(1980), (1982).

21 Frazer (1898) 6.210; also Journaldes Débats, quotedinRev.Arch1880,2.182-3,lurid;New YorkTimes 9 January 1881,p.4 (fromTheAthenaeum).

22Mentionedin pre-WWIIguidesto Greece:forinundKleinasien Griechenland stance,MeyersReisebücher.

(1901) 170; Macmillan's Guide to Greece (1908) 78 (quotedas an epigraphto thispaper);GuideBleu. Grèce is also attested bythepaper (1935) 119. Theprovenance tagsleftwiththeboxesinwhichthematerialwas packed in 1940('thirdsarcophagus room');theboxesstillcontain brokenglassfromthecase. The materialwas notexhibin guidebooks). itedafterthewar(nevermentioned 23Inv.no.A.X.28 A / I, II, IV,V,VI, VIII. Xcupcoveioc I examinedthismaterialin 2005 and 2006: now 6 skulls

(encasedinplaster)andpartsoftwomore,andan assortmentofbonesfromthelowerlimbs(includingtwofeet).

M. Listonkindlysharedherobservations;I remainrehere(andamguiltyofthe sponsiblefortheinterpretations usedby thanperimortem rather circa-mortem, expression enA further forensic skeleton, entirely anthropologists). cased in plaster,has turnedup in theNationalArchaeological Museum(in theceramicscollection,inv.9802: underthisinv.numberin and misunderstood mentioned theGuideBleu (1935) 119 as a 'castofa skeleton').There andperhapsa third, is a secondskeleton, waiting probably see n.76. tobe rediscovered: 164, 171-8.

24Ingelmark(1939) 25 (1939).

E.g. Wakely(1997); earlierIngelmark 26On this (2001) 64-70(I Baitinger typeofbutt-spike, toA. Jackson).Itappearsinthe'second owethisreference tomb'oftheBella TumulusatVergina(Andronikos (1984) 37 fig.16). An examplenowintheGreekMuseumofthe ofNewcastleuponTyne(inv.Ill) bearstheletUniversity a sugofMaK(eôovo)v), tersMAK,perhapsan abbreviation the recorded Foster Brian of 13; Shefton, (1978) by gestion issue'. The hole weaponwouldhave been 'government measuresabout6 mmacross(8 mmat thewidestpoint, wherebone flakedoff).On theNewcastlespike,thediameasures undertheflange, meterofthepoint,immediately

76

JOHNMA

a blowperhapsdeliveredfromtheman'sleftsliced oftheexcavator), to giveitthenomenclature fromtempleto templeacrossthetopoftheforehead,shearingofftheface(Plate 4(c)): thisis drivingpasthimin a mêléeand againstan infantryman, fighting compatiblewitha cavalryman thechargeoftheBritish heavycavalry during hackingdownbackhanded.Suchblowsarerecorded the finds- from are Five at Waterloo.27 d'Erlon's (?) javelin points preserved among corps against thebodies,orsweptintothegravewiththefill? Hundredsof 'bonebuttons'areprobablyeyelets to individualskeletons sandals':thefindswererecordedby proximity fromtrochades,'running (Plate 6(a)).28 The mendied,and wereburied,withtheirbootson. At leastsomeof thehead woundsmighthave been producedby thekopis,theslashingsabreto whoseblows a forward - exactlythetyperepresented centreof gravitylentextramomentum by ironblades fromthe swordcutsgivedirectevidencefortacticsand Macedonianmassgrave.The tracesofnumerous inLivy(derived inaction;thewoundsuffered an indication by 'Gamma16' contradicts weaponry feltbyMacedoniansbeforetheRomangladius.29 fromPolybios)aboutthehorror Froma thigh-bone (possiblybelongingtothesamemanas theskullwiththecoupde grâceto we havetheheightoftwoofthemen:both thebackofthehead),andthesole completeskeleton, taller measuredaround1.79m(5' lOi/2"), significantly thantheaverageGreekmaleoftheClassical period.30The sample(twoindividuals, one incomplete) is tiny, butitis at leastlikelythatthe Thebanfull-time cracktroopswerechosenlarge. The pattern ofwoundsimpliesa lack ofprotectionofthelegs,andperhapsonlylightprotection forthehead. Late fourth-century Atticgrave stilai showhopliteswearingmusclecuirassesbutno greaves;attheriskofa hyper-positivist readI if the of the visual wonder Theban also eschewed and furthermore evidence, ing hoplites greaves, iftheyfought inthe'light'stylefavoured inthelatefifth andearlyfourth underPeloponcentury, nesianinfluence: pilos helmet,no greavesor bodyarmour.If so, theywereat a disadvantage Macedonianphalanx.31 againsttheheavilyarmoured, sarissa-equipped The archaeological materialgivesdirectaccess to an ancientbattle- weaponry, Macedonian casualties,butalso theragewithwhichtheThebanswerecutdownas theyheldout. The encounter transcends thepornography ofviolence('fighting oftheancients'):themodtechniques ernvieweroftheremnants is experiencing a memorial encounter withan oldbattle- similartothe butalso totheexperience oftheancientinhabitviewingofrelicsfromWaterlooortheSomme,32 antsofBoiotia,whoselifeandsurroundings ofteninvolvedinvoluntary battlefield archaeology.33 Thearchaeology ofbattleis a culturalexperience, it when concerns monuments setup especially intheaftermath offighting.

9 mm(thanks toA. Spawforth andA. Parkinforchecking), buttheholeleftbypenetrating woundscanbe smallerthan theweaponsthatinflict them,sincelivingboneflexesas it admitsthepoint(I owe thisinformation to M. Liston). dedicatedat Olympiahave Squareholesin bronzearmour beeninterpreted as butt-spike (1890) punctures (Furtwängler Anderson 152-3;doubtfully, (1991) 24).

27LifeGuardsman JackShawis saidtohaveslicedoff a Frenchman's face'likea bitofapple',inthewordsofan eyewitness,admittedlyin combatwith a cavalryman theEagle ofthe45th (Knollys(1876) 32); whencapturing Régimentde Ligne, SergeantC. Ewart (Royal Scots theface'(and Greys)cutdowntwoinfantrymen 'through onecavalryman theteeth'):Cotton(1862) 60'up through 1; Dalton1904(1971) 258,Ewart'sownwords.Butthese sourcesperhapsdeservecaution. oft-quoted 28Inv.no.A. X. 28 A / III (263 buttons, 13 Xaipcoveiot buttons).The findswerekeptin smallboxes fragmentary labellede.g. It' ß' veicpoû7, 'Row 2, corpse7', butthe originalclassificationis not preserved. A piece of metatarsal (a bonefromthefoot)remainsattachedto one

theidentification as parts button, fragmentary strengthening offootwear.On ancientboots,Morrow(1985),especially an 'unusuallycomplex'formof 63-4,84-5on thetrochas, footwear (also Hdt.1.195for'Boiotianboots');on similar eyeletsfoundontheAthenian Agora,Thompson ( 1954) 515 (associatedwithhobnails, notpresent at Chaironeia).

29Liv. 31.34.

30 E.g. Bisel (1990), on the 'grave precinctof the ofthefourth cenMessenians',whereadultmaleskeletons turyaverage 1.70 m. Thereare no good publishedandatafromBoiotia(suchas thecemeteries of thropométrie Akraiphiamightprovide).

31On the 'lighthoplites',Anderson(1970).

32TheMuséede l'ArméeinParis displaysrelicsfrom of a Carabinierofficer, Waterloo, notablythebreastplate marredbythehugeraggedholes,entry andexit,leftbya cannonball.On Waterlooandon WWI I owe muchtopaandG. Oliverat a conference persgivenbyL. Yarrington on warandcommemoration (July2004).

33Plut.Dem. 19 ofthenameof (on thefolketymology theriverHaimon);Sulla 21 (Orchomenos).

CHAIRONEIA338

77

III. THE MACEDONIAN TOMB ThemoundintheplainofChaironeiais a Macedoniantomb,buta veryspecialone. It is located in southern Greecerather thanintheMacedonianflatlands; itis collectiverather thanindividual; itwas setup bytheMacedonianstate,rather thanprivately.

The sitewas locatedbeyondtheactualbattlefield, on thenorthern edgeoftheplain,closerto theriverbedthantheroadandthesouthern mountain wall (whichlies overone kilometre away).

A pyrewas erected;theexcavationuncovereditsremains, withindications ofitsconstruction evidenceforthetypeofwoodused(themounlargestones,bronzeandironnails butno recorded tainson bothsidesoftheKephissoscorridor arecurrently notwellwooded). The 'Brandschicht' a sense of the size ofthepyre,butalso ofthedensity withwhichtheMacedoniandeadwere gives piledup.

The graveofferings werenotspectacular: a fewcoins(one Macedonian),34 someceramic,an some and wine, amphora, perhapscontaining strigils weapons. Thattheweaponswereburned withtheirdeadownersis provedbymanyofthembeingfusedtogether.

Thereseemsnottohave been anydefensiveequipmentamongtheofferings.Thereis also a completelack of precious metalor evenbronzevessels;eventhecoinswerebronze. The simplicity of offerings standsin contrast to otherMacedoniantombs,notablyTombII atVerginaandthecistgravesat Derveni.35 The Chaironeiacremation reflected thepracticalcircumstances ofan armyon campaign.Defensive equipment was recoveredand recycled.Gold offerings, thoughpopularat home(and inlavish later after were not left behind in a massgraveawayfrom on,especially creasingly 323), Macedonia.

In spiteof thelack of Macedoniangold,thiswas a grandfuneral.The pyre,bedeckedwith andcremation arebothattested inMaceweapons,madeforan impressive spectacle.Inhumation and connotadonia;nonetheless, cremation, complex costly,probablyhad heroizing, heightened as fighters, thusgeneralizing aristocratic warrior tions;theweaponsemphasizedtheiridentity theMacepracticesand valuesto thedead ofthewholearmy.The grandfuneraldistinguished doniandead fromthehastierburialsoftheiropponents.36 The cremation was partofa widerset ofgestures.In hisaccountofthebattleDiodorostellsus explicitly ofvictory andhence sacrifices, andhonourspaid to thefallen.37 Theseritualsconstitute thenomosandkosmosforthe feasting, dead,to use Arrian's wordsin describingmilitaryfuneralsperformed byAlexanderafterhis victories.38 Arrianhelpsus expandDiodoros'baldmention of 'honours':thekosmosmighthave includeda paradeofthewholearmyin fullarray, perhapsevena funerary agon,hippieandgymnic. All theseritualsexplainthechoiceofthesiteforthecremation: theMacedonianarmyneeded tensofthousands ofmen. Iftheroadattested openspacefortheevents,involving archaeologicsouth of the existed in it have servedbothforthegathering ofthebod338, might ally Kephissos39 ies andforthemovements ofmenandhorsesduringthepost-battle celebrations. was followedby monumentalization.

The remainsofthepyrewerecoveredby a Ceremony mound:in 1902 Sotiriadismeasureditas 7 m highandno less than70 m across. As a comparisows is 9 m highbutonly50 m across;theaveragedimensions ofthetumuli son,theMarathon in theVerginanecropolisare 20 m in diameterand at most3 m in height;thegreattumulus(a TheChaironeiamoundis locatedintheuppersizespecialcase) is 110m acrossand 12mhigh.40 a monumental both southern GreekandbyMacedonianstandards.The structure, by range: large, earthwas removedfromthesurroundings of thepyre:Sotiriadiscould stilldetectthebroad 34Sotiriadis 37Diod.17.86.6.

(1902), (1903), (1904) 50.

35Andronikos 38Arrian, Anabasis1.16.5,2.12.1,5.20,5.25.6.

(1982); Themelisand Touratsoglou (1997).

39Aravantinos(1993).

36See below 40Andronikos pp. 82-3fortheThebans;also Sotiriadis (1982) 188, 192. The forty-cubit-high Alex. 56 forDemaratosof (1904) 50-1 fora mass gravefoundclose to therailway moundrecordedby Plutarch, Corinthis unparalleled track,'notfarfromthe[Macedonian]mound'. (emendto forty feet?).

78

JOHNMA

after2,239years. The fillin themoundcontaineda greatamountoftile dish-shaped depression tothefourth andfifth inconcentrated and dated thesereflect, fashion, fragments sherds, century: a phenomenon wellknowninBoiotia,thescatter ofsherdsincultivated fields,duetothepractice ofspreading At somepoint,an urnwiththeashesofa cremation householdrubbishas fertilizer. was buriedin themound:theremainsof one or severalMacedoniansoldierswho died of their woundsafterthefuneral.

The locationofthemoundprojectedmeaningintothefuture, oncetheMacedonianarmyhad leftthebattlefield.

Itsposition,pushedforward towardstheenemycitiesofThebesandAthens, is aggressive:symbolicconsiderations determined thepositionofthemound,as well as ritual activities.The tombfunctioned as a victory monument anda reminder ofMacedonianpower:it acted as a trophy an institution whichtheMacedoniansdid nothave, as Pausanias states ofAlexander'sbattles.41Thereis anotherway in (9.40.7-9), and as is clearfromthenarrative whichthesiteofthemoundmattered.

Locatedalongtheriverrather thanthehighway, itimitated theNeolithictumulusfurther it to which was connected the road west, perhaps by parallelto the river.By aligningthepost-battle moundon theold tumulus, theMacedoniansclaimedtheheroic statusforthosecrematedand buriedalongtheKephissos,by analogywiththeancientmound. claimedthesamedurability in thelandscapeas theoldermonument, withpolitical Theyfurther for Macedonian and its nature as heroic implications power project.However,theMacedonians didnotassociatetheirmonument witha pre-existing focalpointor landmark, butcreateda new intheplain. The visualimpressiveness landmark ofthemoundinthelandscapeis confirmed by theaccountof E.D. Clarke,who noticedits highprofileas he crossedtheeasternend of the theshapeoftheearthen coneechoesthegrandmountain ofParnassosinthe Kephissoscorridor:42 ofthespotchosenexpressespower. background.The veryarbitrariness Theidentity ofthemoundwas remembered A nearbyoakwas associated bytheChaironeians. withAlexanderandthenightbeforebattle:thetopography ofthispartofthefieldsignified Macedonianvictory, bothinthe'pre-victory' stageofAlexander'ssleepbeforetheclashandinthepostbattlemonument ofMacedonianfighting TheChaironeian tradition shows poweranddomination. theefficacy oftheMacedonianmoundinshapingthelandscapetoexpressive The absence purpose. ofanysherdsaroundthemoundsuggests thefieldsarounditwereno longerfertilized, becausethey wereno longercultivated.If thisexplanation is correct, thefunerary andmonumental natureof themoundwouldhavebeenrespectedintheuse oflocal landscape. * * * document Sotiriadis'1902excavation, andthe Photographs showingthemoundclosetotheriver, workersdeep inside.43Some timeaftertheexcavation, themoundwas denselyplantedwithcyintheplainandis alsobriefly visiblefrom theAthenspresses:theresulting grovestandsoutdarkly Thessalonikitrainas it flashesby (Plate 4(d)). The moundis now difficult to visit. Heavy has eradicatedanytraceofthescoopingoutofthefillanddamagedthemounditself. ploughing Underthecypresstheslopeis steepandtreacherous; at thetopthereareno moretrees,onlythe hackedoutby Sotiriadis.Rushesspringout,tallanddenselypacked,like lip ofthehugetrench sarissas.Peeringbackat Chaironeiaclearlyshowstheunlikelihood ofanyreconstruction ofthe battleplacingthebruntofthefighting as fareastas thisspot. In contrast, theopengroundis suitable fora Macedonianmilitary withtheParnassosas backdrop. funeral, 41See further 42Clarke Pritchett (1974) 262-3. Diod. 16.86.6 (1818) 179-80:themoundbore a Turkish mentions a trophy afterChaironeia, butthismaybe a slip; flag;also Wyse(1871) 160: Veryvisibleevenat a great thetrophyat 16.88.2is a metaphor in a speechby Lyk- distance... island-like,pointingconewiseup fromthe ourgosagainsttheAthenian generalatthebattle,Lysikles. plain'.

QuintusCurtius7.7.14 mentionsMacedoniantrophies 43Coolley(1904). underAlexander, butas partofa highly wrought speechattributed to theking.

CHAIRONEIA338

79

IV. THE LION OF CHAIRONEIA Theothermonument oftheclashof338 is wellknown:thecolossalLionofChaironeia (Plate 5(a)).

Itnowsitson a towering base bythesouthsideofthemodernroad- aftera complicated storyof excavation and re-erection.44 discovery, on 3 June1818,by fourEnglishtravellers, JohnSanders,William The Lion was discovered, accountintheLiteraryGazetteon 24 April EdwardCresy(whopublishedan anonymous Purser, imThetravellers 1824)andGeorgeTaylor(whoseaccountwas publishedforty-odd yearslater).45 furand as of the Lion described identified the head byPausanias, largepaw part mediately huge theLion to theSacredBand, a piece of speculationnotfoundedon Pausanias. therattributing andtriedvainlytoobtainthemfortheBritishMuseum.The reburied, Theyhadthetwofragments thanthe Louis Dupré,who drewotherfragments Lion was seenin 1819bytheFrenchtraveller, Who uncoveredit in themeantime? head and paw discoveredby thefourEnglishtravellers.46 leaderoftheEastern whomAli Pashaappointed is OdysseusAndroutsos, Onepossibility military butmistaken accountthattheLionwas blownup Stereain 1819;thiswouldexplainthepersistent in 1830sThebes).All publishedGreekaccounts insearchforgold(alreadycurrent byAndroutsos ofthe indication of theemotionsat stakein therebuilding this canard (a good strenuously deny in a crosssaw thegreatheadlyinggraffito-covered AfterDupré,manytravellers monument).47 were of circumstances in the actual a low excavation brush-choked mound; discovery shaped, quicklyforgotten.48 was consideredin 1839 by theGreekArchaeologicalSociety.49In 1842 U. Reconstruction torebuildtheLionalongtheplans theking,Othon,forpermission Welckersuccessfully petitioned financed a 24 fttallbase). Theprojectwas tobe entirely C. Siegel(involving ofa Germansculptor and the 1843 revolution of the to came The donors. ensuing griefduring project

by German insultsbythe'uppityGreekmini-country' (Welcker)againstthe'greatGermannation'.Welcker enpassant A rebuilding atleastpublished projectis mentioned Siegel'sprojectforreconstruction.50 were two of the In 1862 casts in I860.51 Dora d'Istria writer the Rumanian largestfragments by takenfortheBritishMuseum.52 withSiegel and the In 1879 theArchaeologicalSocietystartedafresh.Two archaeologists, studiedtheremainsoftheLion. Subsequentexcavationbytheephor L. Phytalis, Teniotsculptor P. Stamatakisuncoveredtheoriginalbase, and a períbolos,preservedup to thetop course. sent no humanremainswerefound.In spring1880 Phytalis, surprisingly, Duringthisexcavation, 44Kawadias ofdis(1902) 27-32(extendednarrative Oikonomos(1938); andultimate fulfilment); appointment Conner(1979), local history; Lappas (1939), a truculent Clairofdiscovery; andcontext onthehistory illuminating mont(1983) 240-2,no.77d;Petrakos (1987); MallouchouDavidson Tufano(1998) 31 andn.84,231. Mostrecently, (2007) 249-53(inaccurate).

45Vaux(1866) withCresy's accountfrom1824;TayVaux (1866) and exlor(1870-2) 1.109-14(reproducing pandinghisearlieraccountin TheBuilder,20 Dec. 1862, 's mis(160) againstWelcker protests 908). Taylorfurther ofCresy's accounttotheeditoroftheLiterary attribution Gazette,'Crawford' (whosename,alas,appearsas thatof oftheLion on themodernplaquerecently thediscoverer setup beforethemonument).

46Thisis clearfromDupré's description (Dupré(1825) 22-3, 32), and fromhis engravingof a Tatarbeforethe Lion (pl.17): thehead and whatseemsto be theLion's lowerfront (minusgenitals)arerepresented.

47 AlreadyMure (1842) 218-20; Göttling(1846) is e.g.inJacobsuitably scepticalaboutthetale;itis repeated

Felsch(1969) 136, and Pritchett (1985) 136 n.133. See also Kastorchis(1875), an attackon 'theEnglishman [sc. thatthereconstruction forsuggesting Mahaffy' Irishman] oftheLion wouldbe an easytask,and thatthefailureto Greekneglect. reflected themonument re-erect 48Mure d'Istria 218-20; (1863) 1.95-6;Wel(1842) cker(1865) 2.55-6;Wyse(1871) 158;Flaubert (1998) 559; (1905) 223.

Mahaffy 49The in Praktika1839-40,88 projectis mentioned {nonvidi).

50Welcker (1856) 1-5;also Welcker(1864).

51D'Istria (1863) 96 (proposalbeforetheArchaeological Society).

52Times,12 December1862,p.4 (arrivalofthecast); of theLion of 4 September1863,p.9 (exhibitedin front Knidos); Vaux (1866) 1; Smith(1892-1904) 3.442-4 no.2698 (head,paws). Conner(1979) 140,believesthe cast lost(buriedunderthegreatlawnof theBritishMuseumsinceWWII),butitis infactkeptina BM storeroom me. informs as I. Jenkins off-site,

80

JOHNMA

thefeasibility ofreconstruction, sankdeeptrenches and foundserriedranks againto investigate ofskeletons.Phytalis' and are and notalways soundings report extremely competent useful,though he includes a sketch of his finds the record the excavation of clear; completely onlypublished of thepolyandrion(Plate 5(b)).53 Stamatakisreturned to uncoverthewholemass grave. Six cratesofbonesweretakentoAthens.Stamatakis have contracted malariaduringtheexcamay he died of it in without his excavation notesarelost).54 The vation; 1885, (his publishing findings on how to of themonument or ArchaeologicalSocietydisagreed proceed(fullreconstruction oftheLion,without thebase), andtheprojectfaltered. simplyre-assembly rebuilding In 1894,an offerfrom'foreignarchaeologists and scholars',notablyfromGreatBritain(mediatedbytheBritishSchoolinAthens),to financetherebuilding was turneddownbytheGreek The CrownPrinceofGreece(thefuture Constantine oftheArchaeogovernment.55 I), president ofthemonument, at all costs,in 1896;workstarted logicalSociety,urgedtherebuilding onlyin varioussetbacks.56 Theprojectwas carriedoutbythesculptor LazarosSochos. Photo1902,after graphs,notablyin thearchiveoftheArchaeologicalSociety,document earlystagesofthework: theareawas cleared,theancientfragments thebase shoredup,a castsetup undera shed gathered, to serveas a guidetothereconstruction ofthestatue.57 In 1904,theanastylosis was finished, the enclosurewallscompleted withone courseofnewstonetoprotect theancientstonework.58 TheLionmattered, becauseitwas mentioned inPausaniasas themonument oftheThebanswho fellintheBattleofChaironeia: fromthebeginning theLionwas identified as a monument ofGreek It also offered the of an ancient more than liberty.59 lion-monument, prestigious advantage being modernlionssuchas thoseat Lucerne(1821,fortheSwissguardskilledat theTuileriesin 1792), Waterloo (1826) orBelfort (1879). SiegelhadearliermadetheLionofNauplion,commemorating Bavariansfallenin theGreekwarof Independence.However,theexactcontext, apperanceand hencemeanings ofthemonument arefarlessclearthanitseemedinthenineteenth-century. * * * Whatwe nowsee atChaironeiais a monument of 1902. Theenclosurewall,preserved toitsoriginal heightin 1879,degradedoverthefollowingtwenty years.60By 1902 whatwas leftwas a mereoutline. The originalcoursesare now invisible,and all thatappearsis themisleadingly weathered laid in 1902,whichdoes notshowtheancientinternal cappingstonework buttressing. toa considerable Likewise,thebase,preserved heightwhenexcavated,seemstohavedecayedor beenplundered.Themoderntallbase,builton Sochos'instructions in 1902,is basicallythatproin 1842 he admits was a the posedbySiegel (which only possibility: mainpurposewas togivean idea ofcosts);itdoes notreston anyancientevidence.61 The complex,steppedbase is typicalof 53Kastorchis inMarch1880;report (1879),written by adis (1903) 325, fig.5. The castwas latermovedto the S. KoumanoudisinPraktika1880 (for1879),22-5; Phy- ThebesMuseum(e.g. Praktika1905,22; BCH 60 (1936) talis(1880); reportby Koumanoudisin Praktika(1881) 15),butis no longertobe seen.

58Richardson 16-18;Petrakos(1987) 53 fig.21, draftofPhytalis'plan, (1907) pl. no. 84 (fig.9).

59Kawadias morecompletethanthepublishedversion(butextremely (1902) 29-30 (on thespecialmeetingof difficult to read). theArchaeological Societyof 18 November1896,andthe 54Kastorchis1880 (157-8); Petrakos(1987) 279-82. speechoftheCrownPrince).

60Sanborn Stamatakis'illnessis reportedin theThebesSphinx,24 (1897) 97 (also inCollignon(1911) 233 fig.

June1879 (mentioned, in 152: 'photogr. de l'Inst.arch.');Bintliff probablyby L. Kaftantzoglou, (2004) 146: DAI Parnassos3 (1879) 623-4). I thankProfessor G. Korres Athens,c. 1900); ErlangenUniversityphotographic fordiscussingStamatakis' notes. archive,VS/XII OH (www.aeria.phil.uni-erlangen.de/ 55 Brandt(1894) 46-8,describes BosanquetandTod (1902) 380. Thereis no surviv- photohtml/topographie). inthearchivesoftheBSA. theperĂ­bolos,butwithno indication on preservation. ingcorrespondence 56Times2 December 61The base is discussedin Jacob-Felsch 1896,p.7; Kawadias (1902) 30(1969) 136 1. The unsuccessful warof 1897 mayhave reducedthe no.241 amongancientmonumental bases, but without ofthereconstruction awarenessthatitis a modernreconstruction.

The profile priority project.

57Petrakos (1987) 99 fig.60 (fromseriesinArchaeo- of theSiegel-Sochosbase is apparently inspiredby the logicalSocietyarchive;see also,inthesamearchive,nos. 'Theseion',thetempleofHephaistosabovetheAthenian 2218-21,2225-7,2894,3110,takenin 1903); also Sotiri- Agora.

CHAIRONEIA338

81

in modern'statue-mania' (as seen in Sochos' nextwork,theequestrianstatueof Kolokotronis inAthenson StadiouStreet). front oftheancientparliament whichpartsoftheLion in front ofthemonument, itis impossibletotell,standing In addition, reconstruction topermit Therewereenoughlargefragments areancientandwhicharemodern.62 ofthegeneralshapeofthestatue,as thecastsetup in 1902shows. However,thestatuehasbeen with as can be seeninthebackofthestatue:comparison withrecarving, patchedup extensively, fora massiveclamphave showsthatcuttings incontemporary thecast(documented photographs) Lion's snoutwas probin the mane have the lower of and the details addition, vanished, changed; ancient out of built a modern This is touched statue, (on a steelskeleton, fragments up.63 ably ofcypresstreeson the barrier N. Baianos).64Finally, ofKavvadiasandhisengineer characteristic ontheMacedonianmound, Likethecypresses thereconstruction.65 threesideswas plantedduring monument. thetreesmaketheChaironeiaLion intoa modernfunerary look like?Excavationrevealedan enclosure22.55 m wide, Whatdid theancientmonument 13.45m deep,oriented NNW/SSE,surrounded bya wall 2.18 m high,andwithinwhichthebase oftheLion,3.65 mwideand4.30 m deep,projected.Thewallandbase weremadeoflocalporos.

Thoughit does notseem,fromtheplanpublishedby Phytalis,thatthemasonryof thebase is The bondedwiththatoftheperíbolos,itis likelythatbothbase andperíbolosarecontemporary. executedin thesame topcourseoftheperíbolosandtheuppercladdingofthebase werefurther itself. at Chaironeia from as the marble' 'Boiotian Lion, quarries grey-blue thatsomeblocksfromtheperíboloswallwere mound?Phytalis Wastherea funerary reported thewholeenclosure;however, foundatthefootofthewall,thusrulingoutanymoundoverlaying insidetheperíbolosimpliedthatthesewereprotected stateofthebuttresses thewell-preserved by as a tumulusrisinginsidetheenclosure,withtheLion fill. Phytalisvisualizedthemonument66 In the atThespiaiis reconstructed).67 fromthefront slope(thisis howthepolyandrion emerging thiswas the theLionwas foundinsidea lowmound;butitis notclearwhether nineteenth Century remainsofan ancientmound,orbuild-upfromalluviation.68 Thereis littleevidencefortheoriginalappearanceofthebase,whichwas despoiledofitsporos coreanditsgreymarblecladding.A feworiginalblockslie neartheLion; itis likelythatsome neartheancienttheatre.69 ofthemarblewas reusedin thechurchofPanagiaand in thefountain The now much and reclad still fountain diminished.) originalheightis also exists,though (The The difference in 1818.70 level unclear.The head of theLion was foundjust below ground 62TherecentcleaningoftheLionprevents J.L. theviewer atelyafterdiscovery)andthesketchby thearchitect and Wolfe(executedin 1821), both reproducedand combetweenancientfragments fromeasilydistinguishing Deltion 53 (1998); mentedon inConner(1979); theviewbyDupré(1825) is modernadditions(Archaiologikon in Collignon fanciful.

Chronika2.1, 354-5); see thephotograph 69Some of the originalblocks,witha characteristic (1911) 235 fig. 153. Iron clamps were replacedwith of x cm 5 bronzein 1960:BCHS5 (1961) 748. cm), alreadyappearon a photograph step(12 63Sanborn showingthe 1902 (Arch.Soc. no.2225),andprobablycome fromthe (1897) 98 fora photograph wornstateofthehead;also Belle (1881) 132. top courseof thebase. As faras I can tell,theyare not 64 on Mallouchou-Tufano 99; (1998) published.Theblocksinthechurchhavea steppededge, (1910) Armagnac measurements andKavvadias'policy. butof different ofmonuments, modernrebuilding (4 cm x 5 cm). Fountain: 65Arch.Soc. 2225; also thephotograph, antient fromthesame e.g.Clarke(1818) 175('a beautiful fountain'); Tayexseries,publishedin Petrakos(1987) 99 fig.60; Richard- lor(1870-2) 1.160 ('Of thepedestalI knownothing, builtup in son (1907) pl. 84; Armagnac(1910) 97; herePlate 5(a). ceptthattherewereseveralpiecesofmouldings ?) an ironrailing. theConduitnear'). (mistakenly (1905)225mentions Mahaffy 70 66 a plastermodelofthemonument Cresywritesthatthehead was foundby theroadPhytalisexhibited thatthe what But Street. onZoodochouPigis inhisworkshop hap- side,whichconcurswithKastorchis'indications his horse account of of the base. south in head the died in the model to Taylor's 1909, when, lay Phytalis pened on theheadwouldimplythatitlaynorthofthe stumbling poorhouse?

67Low (2003), based on Schilardi(1977); Clairmont base,undertheroaditself;thisshouldbe consideredemsincethereis no mentionof theincidentin no.48c.

232-4 bellishment, (1983) 68The moundis difficult to recognizeon theearliest his,admittedly laconic,journal(Taylor(1870-2),1.109). evidence,thewatercolour

by Taylor(executedimmedi-

82

JOHNMA

betweenthetopoftheenclosurewallandthegroundlevelin 1879 is aboutonemetre.71 However, thebase couldhavebeenhigher, ifalluviation didnotreachthetopofthebasebythetimetheLion felloff(perhapsbecausethemasterclampin itsbackgave out). At leastitis clearthatthebase stoodoutfromtheenclosurewall,becauseofitsheight, butalso itsmarblesurfaceandmasonry: thesethreefeatures have evoked a fortification a formwhichtheHellenisticmilitary tower, may writer PhilonofByzantion(86.13-18)recommends forthemonuments ofthewardead.

Theperíboloswall does notreston a foundation buton a wide,shallowfoundation trench, course,one blockthickandthreeblockswide;accordingto Phytalis'planthetotalwidthofthis courseis 1.95m. The reasonforthisarrangement is thatthebuildersdidnotwishto disturb the massburial.A possibleexceptionis thebase of theLion,aroundwhicha soundingby Phytalis foundno bodies.72Weretheskeletonsremovedto ensurea stablefoundation undertheheavy stonelion? In thatcase, whereweretheskeletonsreburied?One possibility is thattheywere withinthemodernmonument. placedwithinthebase itself;ifso, theymaystilllie undisturbed Fromthepreliminary we knowthat45 cmbelowthefoundation report, layeroftheperíbolos 254 skeletons werefound,insevenrows,manyshowingthetracesofwounds;inaddition, inrow thecremation ofone 2, betweenskeleton13 and 14,a 'heap ofbonesand ashes' mustrepresent manorperhapsseveralmen,placedthereat a latertime.73 The finds, mentioned earlier(pp. 75-6), are modest:in additionto thebonebuttons(Plate 6(a)), therewerea fewcoins,someceramic Mostoftheskeletons werereburied under5 cmof (Plate 6(b)), andmanysimpleironstrigils.74 with numbered the head each of and there.

In addistill lie earth, one,75 may apparently plaquesby there is one stillencasedintheplasterusedbythe tion, completeskeletonfromthepolyandrion, excavatorsto keep ittogether and transport it: sinceitwas handedoverby theArchaeological SocietytotheNationalMuseumin 1894,itmustcomefromtheexcavationof 1880.76 71 arepresumPhytalis(1880) 348; Petrakos(1987) 53 fig.21.

Archaeological SocietyinthePolytechneion) 72 Phytalis(1880) 348-52. Skeletonswere found ably lost; theyincludedtwo pots, a glass vessel, five 'belowthebase' (mìcoGevxox> hissound- bronzecoins(as well as twolegs andone skull). The ofKprimôcouaioç); werekeptintheNationalMuseumas inv.no.A. X. ingnexttothebase (rjonhisplan)revealednobones(even ferings to a depthof 1.90 m); he dis- 28 A Xcupcoveia IX-XI. Thereare thoughhe drovethetrench II, III, IV,VII (pottery), coveredskeletons ina row,'belowthebase' (mxcoOev iox> now14 itemsofceramic:3 black-glazecups,2 black-glaze mustmean'at a lowerlevel',rather saucers,9 commonone-handled bowls. The pottery was ßaGpoi)). KoVccûGev thanliterally 'underneath': Phytalis ((1880) 352) executed seenbyUre((1913)23 n.4). Sotiriadis mayhaveconducted a sounding'under[lowerthan]thefoundation, at a dis- further soundings:in a postcardto P. Wolters(23 August tanceof 2.30 m fromthewall' (k on hisplan). I assume 1906)hementions sherdsfound'beimLöwenmonument im andStamatakis couldnotexcavateunderthemas- theban.Polyandrion' Phytalis (Braun(1981) 3; manythanksto K. siveporos base (at thistime,over2 m high);however, Schlottforthisreference); theGreeknewspaper Skrip(21 of two Phytalis'drawingseems to indicatesomething(a leg?) November1904, p.3) mentionsthe rediscovery underthebase,inhissoundingimmediately skeletons workonthenewbase. Thestrigils, intheir half-engaged during southofthebase. Thereis no description offinding skele- present beencompleted state,haveoften bythegluingonof tonswhenthebase of theLion was shoredup in 1902 cupulaenexttothehandle;thisseemsunparalleled (Kotera (Kawadias (1902) 27-32;Armagnac(1910) 99: modern Feyer(1993) containsno similarmaterial). cementfoundation).

75Sanborn(1897).

73 76Kawadias oneskeleton Phytalis(1880) 350 (I amnotsurehowtoreconcile (1900) 82 mentions brought hisdiscovery ofskeletons ata depthof45 cm,withthe40 toAthens(thoughthereis no mention inPhytalis'andStacmhe mentions as separating forexamvirginearthfromthelowest matakis'reports).I thankR. Proskynitopoulou courseofthebase,348). I wonderifthe45 cmarein fact iningtherelevant recordsoftheNationalMuseum.There measuredfromthedeepestlevelreachedby Stamatakis' areprobablytwoskeletonsfromthegrave:theBaedeker firstexcavationof theperíbolos,so thatthe skeletons for1905(Eng.trans.),88,mentions indications oftrauma wouldhavebeenfoundat a depthof85 cm(40 + 45); but on 'no.9801' (yetunlocated), whereastheskeleton recently thisdoesnotseemtobe whatPhytalissays. (The account rediscovered attheNationalMuseumis cataloguedas no. inRev Arch.1880,2.182-3,wrongly mentions 9802 - and,beingentirely encasedin plaster,could not reproduced a depthof4 m.) haveshowntracesofwounds.HitzigandBüttner intheir 74The finds attribute these broughtby Phytalisto theVarvakeion noteon Paus., 3 (1907) 522, mistakenly School (and probablylatertakento thecollectionof the skeletonstotheMacedonianmound.

CHAIRONEIA338

83

reflects theunfavourable circumstances ofThebesafterthebatthancremation, Burial,rather has is thepolyandrionof theThebans. The statement tle. Pausaniasstatesthatthemonument the construction would not have allowed on been sometimes challenged politicalgrounds:Philip infunerary thedistancefromthe Butthedifference afterChaironeia.77 ofthismonument practice, andthepoverty ofgravegoods,all argue moundandthelikelysiteofthepost-battle ceremonies, againstthegravebeingMacedoniandespitean overlapinmaterialgoods(bothpolyandriashow must theexplanation thesamepottery, black-glazeflutedcups,andthesametypeofironstrigils; be thattheMacedonianscollectedtheseofferings locally).78 cannotbe strictly However,manymorethan255 Thebansfellinbattle;Pausanias'information thatthegraveis it assumed was has been the Lion From the moment correct. discovered, widely ofcracktroops,famousfor detachment full-time thatoftheTheban'SacredBand',the300-strong Band was wipedoutat Since the itspartin BoiotianandThebanvictoriesofthefourth century. themissing45 in makes the identification the number of dead the attractive; Chaironeia, grave orsimplybodiesthatwerenotfoundon thebattlefield. couldbe survivors, members oftheKadThe 'SacredBand' or 'CityCompany'ofThebeswas foundedaftertheliberation meia in 378.79It foughtagainsttheSpartangarrisonsin Boiotia,and won a notablevictoryat atLeuktrain371,andinthesubroleinthevictory playedan important Tegyrain375; itprobably sequentinvasionsof Lakonia. But a Thebanélitetroophad existedearlier.A groupof 'chosen Thebans',withtheirown leader,had alreadylefta dedicationat Tanagrac. 600. A 300-strong at Plataia in 479; thesame fateprobablybefelltheélite and been destroyed, bandhad fought, Thebantroopswho endured'unbearablegrief at OinophytawhentheAtheniansconquered whenBoiotiafreeditselfin446,andfought recreated Boiotiain458. Theélitebandwas probably in in battleofDelion.80The unitdisappeared the Athenian invasion an 424, victoriously against in beforebeingrecreated taken over a whenThebeswas garrison, by pro-Spartan again,probably and specifically 378. The SacredBand was associatedwiththevicissitudesof Thebanhistory, culture The after defeat. of Theban the of withtheconstant military power re-emergence possibility the reflects and heroic oftheSacredBand,centredaroundathletictraining, titles, homosexuality the unit: the natureof butalso thecommemorative Thebes,81 politicalprojectoffourth-century to use theconceptdevelopedby P. Nora SacredBand was a 'siteofmemory',lieu de mémoire, to theancientworld). (andwhichcan be appliedfruitfully soldiers was simple,butitslocationwas visibleandsignificant.

Theban élite Theburialofthe ofthegreathighwayfromThebes,the It was sitedat thefocalpointoftheplain,theconfluence to Lebadeiaoverthe'Keratapass', andtheLykouresi short-cut valley. Thislocationat a crossofthebattle.As suggestedabove (p. 74), itis possiblethatthe thetopography roadsmayreflect to laststandoftheSacredBandtookplace on thealliedleft;theSacredBandwouldhavefought towardstheKerata.Themassburialcouldhavetakenplaceclosetothisdramatic covertheretreat theclockback site:itis lockedin an emotionaltopography, recallingtheGreekalliance,setting the went before the the to 'pre-battle' time, starting wrong.Specifically, graveis close day point theroad,at to a shrineofHerakles,probablyatthechapelofH. Paraskevion a ridgeoverlooking éliteis buriednearto a shrineofthe thestartoftheLykouressivalley.82The Thebanmilitary 77Costanzi (1923) arguesfortheLion beinga MacebelievesAnth.Pal 9.288,a he further donianmonument; a dedication under fictional

by Philipand alludepigram ingtoDem. Cor.208,torefertotheLion. See also Hammond(1973) 553-7.

78Sotiriadis,in his postcardto P. Wolters(Braun (1981) 3), declares the potteryfromthe Macedonian tobe thesame(Kabirion tumulusandtheLionmonument ware).

79Plut.

(1970) fortheTheban Pelopidas18;Anderson criticism Bandinitscontext.Leitão(2002) offers salutary

butlendstoo muchvalueto Xenophon's of thetradition, on V.D. Hanson'sminimalist silenceandis toodependent ofLeuktra.See nowDavidson(2007) 249interpretation 53.

80'ChosenThebans':NomimaI, no.70. Plataia:Hdt. PindarIsthmian 7; bothpassagesaredis9.67; Oinophyta: cussedinKirsten(1984) 100. Delion:Diod. 12.70.

81On thelinkbetweenTheban affirmation and military Herakles,Ritter(2002) 102-20.

82Sotiriadis (1904) 45-50.

84

JOHNMA

ThebanherocloselyassociatedwithBoiotianmilitarism inthefourth century.UnliketheMacedonianmound,setup ina virginsitecreating itsownspatialmeanings, theThebangravemeshes withpre-existing topography.

- butwhenexactly?After Thestonelionandperíboloscamelater thedefeat, Thebeswastreated exceptionally harshly.The élitewas decimatedby exile and execution,and a pro-Macedonian faction atthesametimePhilipresurrected Boiotiancitieswitha strong anti-Theban installed; past, The faction was expelledin335,as ThebesrePlataiai,Orchomenos, Thespiai.83 pro-Macedonian reactedbyrazingthecity.Neither theyears338-335,northeyearofrevolt, volted;Alexander 335, arelikelycontexts forthemonument, evenifwe cannotknowwhatPhilipdidortolerated;84 inthe case of335Alexander'sswiftreaction doesnotleavetimeforquarrying a highperistone,building andsetting bolos,fashioning up theLion.

Hencea lowerdate.85 AttheearliesttheperíbolosandLionweresetup after3 16, whenThebes was refounded suchas 'Kassandroswouldnothaveallowedthis',or byKassandros.Arguments 'Thebeswouldhavebeenpro-Macedonian' cannothold.86Kassandros'policywas 'revisionist' and thefoundation ofKassandreiareversedPhilip'sdecisionto deprivetheChalkidike idiosyncratic: ofa strong urbancentre.Therefounding ofThebeswas specifically criticized byAntigonos.The erectionof theLion monument, with Kassandros' financial perhaps assistance,would fithis thecitywalls,wouldprovidea context.87 The policy;Kassandros'visitin 3 15,whenhe financed monument wouldrepresent a veryvisiblehomageto theThebanpast,at a timewhenthecity's monuments and dedications werebeingrepaired.If Thebeswas re-integrated intotheBoiotian as late as c. as thiswouldprovidea context fortheLion:fifty 285, recently Leagueonly suggested, andreyearsaftertheoriginalevents,at a momentwhenBoiotianunitywas beingreinvented inforced.Thougha monument to a Thebangroup,theLion was setup in theterritory ofanother Boiotiancity,Chaironeia,and exploitedthatcity'slocal marbleresources:ifunderKassandros, hisauthority willhaveenabledthisgesture, evenifThebeswas notyetpartoftheBoiotianLeague; ifc. 285, themonument was setup withthepermissionof theBoiotianLeague forthenewly Thebes.I cannotsee anywayofdecidingbetweenthetwocontexts, butanylaterdate reintegrated is unlikely.Thereis no stylistic whichrevealsan important argument againstthislatedating,88 a memorialgap ofa generation ortwo,fortherawnessandviolenceofeventsto phenomenon: settleintosomething thatcouldbearablybe reifiedandmonumentalized.89 Ifthissolutionis correct, itwouldexplainthefillbetweenthemassgraveandthefoundation oftheperíbolos.Theshallowfoundations arealso understandable ifthemonument was builtupon a pre-existing massgrave.Theremightbe morebodiesoutsidetheperíbolos:theexcavators were determined to cleartheenclosedarea,butmadeonlysoundingsoutsidethewall (threeskeletons wereindeedfoundtothenorth).90 Is therean eighthrowofskeletons tothesouthsideoftheperíbolos,wheretheexcavationdidnotclearawaythe'low tumulus'in whichtheLion was found?

The SacredBandwouldthushavebeenburiedeightdeep,andthemissingrow(aboutthirty-five ofthreehundred. skeletons)wouldbringthenumberclose tothefullcomplement The sequenceofritualactivity on thesiteis therefore thefollowing.Shortly afterthebattle, thebodiesoftheThebanhopliteswereburiedin a massgrave,tightly packed,withfewofferings (butstillwearingtheirboots),in a phalanxofthedead. Thismassgravemayhavebeenmarked witha simplemonument Laterfuneral tookplace aroundthismass (nowirrecoverable). activity

83Justin9.4.4; Diod.

87Diod.

17.13.5; Paus. 4.27.10, 9.1.8, 19.62.2,63.4; Paus. 9.29. On Kassandros' 9.37.8. urbanism, Touratsoglou (1996).

84 88On return ofthebones Philip'sremovalandsubsequent sculptedlions,Willemsen(1959); Vermeule of theThebanheroLinos showbothharshtreatment and (1972); Knigge (1976); MertensHorn (1986), (1988); 'leniency'(Paus. 9.29.8).

Waywell(1998).

85 89 andmemory insaKmgge(1976) 170(notdisproved byMertens-Horn Mayo(1988) onwarmonuments 52 Mee and 319. cred (1988) n.307); Spawforth (2001) landscapes.

86Costanzi (1923) 63; Hammond(1973) 553-7,re90Phytalis(1880)352. tractedinHammond(1987) 237.

CHAIRONEIA338

85

chosenspotoftheoriginal grave:thedepositofremainsfroma cremation, possiblyat a carefully burialofotherskeletons aroundthe'phalanx'.Othermassburialsmay burial;perhapsthescattered havetakenplace on thebattlefield.91 enclosure(with Thirtyor forty yearslatera monumental was drawnon thearea ofthemass grave;itwas builtwithparticular colossalsculpture) careto avoiddisturbing theburial.

The Lion's headis turnedto itsright, at an angleof40 degreesor so, whichgivesthewhole statueitscharacteristic, introduced dynamicstanceThisis nota feature bySochosinthemodern ofthemonument ofthecastfrombehindmakeclear).Whatis theLion (as photographs anastylosis of gazingat? One answeris ThebesandtherestofBoiotia;theLion's stanceactsas a reminder thedeadmen'scityandofBoiotianhistory.Butthereis a moreimmediate of the Lion's recipient attheMacedonianmound,atleastinitsgeneraldirection.

The gaze. Itlooksacross,ifnotdirectly itforcestheviewerto lookoverhisshoulder, Lionrelatesthetwomonuments; tonoticethehuge Macedonianmound,to thinkofthegeography beyondthemound,ofthewaythemoundtriesto itsown meaningson thisgeography, thusturning theKephissosplainintoa memorial imprint Thistypeof 'intermonumental' meditation is wellknownin another sceneofconfrontation. conin between dedications international shrines as and the such text, competition Olympia Delphi.92 In addition, It is probablycontemporary thechoiceofa lionwas significant.93 witha colossal stonelionatAmphipolis, whosenatureandappearanceremainunclear.94 The choicemighthave the beeninfluenced Macedonian turn of the head on theChaironeiaLion However, by practice.95 is original:thisadaptationofthegeneralmodelofthesittinglion showshow themonument is embeddedin a local contextandin local meanings. setup by Therearetwoearlierlionmonuments nearby.The firstis thelionat Thermopylai, in honourof Leónidas and the300 Spartiates.96 The Chaironeiamonument theAmphiktions andtheThebanélite,who also died parallelbetweentheheroicSpartiates proposeda historical in a nobledefeat.In 479 atPlataiathreehundred élite againsta king,forGreekfreedom, fighting forthePersianKing, Thebans- theancestorsof theSacredBand of 338 - had fallenfighting Greekfreedom; thepreviousyear,atThermopylai, theThebanconagainstthealliancedefending surrendered to thePersians,and itsmenwereapparently branded.The ChaironeiaLion, tingent in proposinga parallelwithThermopylai, erasedtheshameof themedizingof theThebansin thebattleof 338 in a pan480-479,an act of historiography throughmonument;it reframed branchoff Hellenicnarrative.The roadto Opous,evenifin ancienttimesitdidnotnecessarily the highwayexactlyoppositethe ChaironeiaLion as the modernroad does, connectedthe monument andThermopylai, Chaironeia actingas a visualcue fortheimpliedparallel.Thepathosforfreedom, ladencomparison betweenthedefeatbeforeChaironeiaoftheGreekalliancefighting defenceofGreekfreedom andtheearliervictorious duringthePersianwars,was madeearlyon, forinstanceat Athensin Demosthenes'speechOn theCrown,and in an inscribedepigramfor forholyGreece,inthegloriousfieldsofBoiotia'.97 thosewhodied 'fighting is thepolyandrionat Thespiai,probablydatingto 424. The general The secondmonument at Chaironeia:a mass cremation, surrounded by a períbolos, shaperesemblesthearrangement coveredbya mound,witha largecouchantstonelion. The relationbetweenthetwomonuments becausethehistorical is unfavourable. is problematical, background ThespiairesistedtheTheban as a polis of the Boiotian after and was extinguished take-over 378, (or consolidation) League 91Sotiriadis (1904) 50-1.

92Hölscher (1999).

(1974); Jacquemin 93On lionsandanimals ontombs,publicand generally private,Newton(1862-3) 2.2, 494-501; Frazer(1898) 6.210; Lethaby(1918); Vermeule(1972); Stupperich (1977) 68-9; Vermeule(1979) 85-8; Woysch-Méautis (1983) 65; Koch (1984); Oakley (1982) 73-7; Clairmont (2004) 202.

94 Roger(1939); Broneer(1941); Millerand Miller AtticgravesteleforLeon of (1972). The fourth-century no.770; Woysch-Méautis Museum, (National Sinope lionlooksverysimilar (1982) 133no.358)withitssitting toboththeChaironeiaandtheAmphipolislions.

95Ritter (2002) 121-34forPhilipII andHerakles.

96Hdt.7.233; Clairmont (1983) 114-15,no.8a.

97Dem. Corona208; IG II2 5226 (theancientcontext is unclear,andthetextneedsre-examining).

86

JOHNMA

inthe itwas resurrected afterChaironeia, andin335 participated soonaftewards; enthusiastically sackofThebeswithBoiotiansfromothercitiesthathad suffered becauseofThebes.

Did theChaironeiaLion alludespecifically to theThespianpolyandrioriiThe latteris in fact andwas inunliketheChaironeiamonument: theenclosureis larger, containsa masscremation, scribedwithcasualtylists,in imitation ofAthenian thewar the of practice; verypractice burying deadathomerather thanon thefieldalso imitates theThesAthenian habit.98 Ratherthanimitate at Chaironeiamighthavebeencouchedin a local idiom(mound, piantomb,thelionmonument butina rendition ofproblematically massivedimensions períbolosandsculpture), (thecrouching liontowersat 6 m high,incomparison withthesupineThespianlion,about3.30 m longand2 m seemsto alludetotheBoiotiangenre,butalso transcends it,as high).The Chaironeiamonument a reflection ofpreciselythoseThebes-centred tendencies whicharousedstrongoppositionin the fourth The Sacred Band embodied Theban and renewalmilitarism, early century. continuity problematic meaningsafter338, andevenafter316.

Thefirst monumental thelionofThermopylai, enriches oftheLion intertext, anyinterpretation ofChaironeia, itintoa pan-Hellenic narrative ofliberty andremembered bywriting gooddeaths, in an actof selectivememory.The secondintertext, thelionoftheThespians,referstheviewer backto a bitterlocal history.The battleofChaironeiaandthedeathoftheThebanSacredBand werenotsimpleevents.The monument does notbearan inscription, as notedandpuzzledover thedifficulty ofarticulating whatthebattleactuallymeantfor byPausanias.Thisabsencereflects different Boiotians." Butat thesametime,thelackofpreciselyarticulated as would meanings, havebeendefinedbyan epigramora casualtylist,allowedthemonument to operateeffectively: itwas expressiveand 'obvious',thusmobilizing theviewer'sknowledgeintheacceptableforms ofwhathe wantedto remember or referto - thebattleagainstPhilip,thehistory of GreekfreedomfromMarathonto Chaironeia.At thefootof theimpressive butwordlessmonument, forandremembering didtheirwork;Strabospokeofindeterminate getfulness 'publicburialsofthose whofellinthebattle'.

V. CONCLUSION: IN THE SHADOW OF THE LION ThispaperelaboratestwoproposalsaboutthebattleofChaironeia:first, itdissociatestheMacedonianmoundfromtacticaldispositions; it downdates the lion monument fortheSacred second, Bandto c. 316 orlater.Unpackingthesetwosuggestions leadsto studying the commemoration: afterthebattle;theunfinished funercelebratory gestures bytheMacedonianarmyimmediately erecteda generation andhistory topresent itsmessage, later,usinglocaltopography arymonument butalso prevented these same local elements from its by fullyarticulating meanings.

Chaironeiawas a muchmorecomplicated siteofmemory thanthesounding inthis performed forthedeadof338 mentioned Plutarch.

Another papersuggests.Therewereothermonuments by battletookplacein245,another Boiotiandefeat, thistimeagainsttheAitolians.Yetanother battle tookplacein86,betweenSullaandArchelaos,Mithradates' tooka decisive general;Chaironeians andthenameofthetwoleadersoftheChaironeian wereinscribed partinSulla'svictory, contingent on thetrophy setup on Thourion.100 Plutarch in a small Boiotian grewup polis denselytextured withhistorical monuments ofwhichtheLion,nevermentioned was onlyonepart. byPlutarch, The layeringofmemorycontinuesto ourday: theLion has a modernstoryof itsown. Its reconstitution was onlythebeginningofitssecondlife.'AltergewaltigerLöwe long-desired von Chäronea! Eine Thränetratmirheimlichin's Auge, als ich vor Dir stand,Dir schönes 98Low 100 Sotiriadis (2003).

(1904) 50-1;battleof245: Pol. 20.4,Plut.

99For modern see Rainbird on the Aratos 16.1; Camp et al (1992), paralleledin therecent (2003) parallels, 'BrokenHill Digger',or theacrimoniousdebatesabout discovery ofanotherSullantrophy at Orchomenos, as retheWorldTradeCentremonument in LowerManhattan. portedintheGreekpressin December2004.

CHAIRONEIA338

87

unddochf체rimmerverlorenen GriechenSinnbilddes ruhmreich k채mpfenden altehrw체rdiges it offered a satthe of the Lion was that was which lands!' Fornon-Greek broken, visitors, point tobe seen meditation aboutthevariousformsofbrokenness formelancholy starting-point isfying institutions ofnineteenth-century in Greeceold andnew;forthenationalarchaeological Greece, ofinheritance andidentity.101 itwas imperative torebuildtheLion as partofa broadernarrative who had themonument seemsto have lostitsinterest;102 But afterreconstruction, Mahaffy, the'easy' taskofreconstructing theLion,foundthe railedat theGreekstatefornotundertaking in is the Lion modern Greece another The cultural of resultbathetic.103 topic;a pointeris history to 'the of in 1930 as a set a full-size homage fighters 1821' in Vathy replica up providedby bypalmtrees.Back inCentralGreece, Square,surrounded (Samos),whereitstandsonPythagoras routetoDelphipassesthrough themodern Livadhia,leavingtheroadsideLionoffthemaintourist anddoubtlessenlivenscountless circuits.Nowadays,theLion gracesguidebooksandtextbooks, courses.

Greek slideorPowerpoint survey during history projections - topography, monument butill-known HereI exploredwhatwe couldknowaboutthisfamous, old excavationreports(involving'journalsarchaeology')-and in theNational photographs, forwhichtheGreek ArchaeologicalMuseum(Athens),materialfromtheThebanpolyandrion, andon whichI practised'storea publication Servicegenerously permit, granted Archaeological hasnowbeensenttotheChaironeia roomarchaeology'.Thismaterial Museum,thustobe reunited withtheoriginalsiteafter125 years,and soontobe exhibitedagainafternearlyseventyyears' absencefromthepublic. ofcommemoration. aboutcultures invitesus tothink oftheLionofChaironeia Thearchaeology Theban/Boiotianmonutheincomplete ofthevictorious Theseincludethegestures Macedonians, such ortwolater- butalso modernarchaeological setup a generation mentabouta defeat, activity, ofcomthestratigraphy oftheLion. Exploring andlongdrawn-out as therediscovery rebuilding skullof 'Gamma 16' twoobjects. First,themutilated has led to ourencountering memoration tobehold,all thatremainsofa 50-yearold whoselife(c. 388-338)spanned (Plate 4(c)), terrible inBoiotia:104 thistraceofhisviolentdeathraises revivalandmilitarism ofTheban-led theduration ofviolence andmeanings questionsaboutthe'faceofbattle',the'sharpend'ofbattle,thecontexts - to quotetheneurologist manifested man as 'man's to Courville, bywounds inhumanity's Cyril but answered All thesequestionsarechannelled, ofhispast'.105 oftheheadis a heritage tailored, Lion (Plate 5(a)), setoverthebodyof 'Gamma16' a generaalso silenced,bythemonumental abouthis lifeandhisdeath,in tionor so afterhisviolentend,andproposing multiplestatements and attheheartofthedisciplinesofarchaeology oftheparadoxesoftimeandmemory a reminder history.

JOHNMA Christi Oxford College, Corpus 101 also usesE. Geibel's Hettner (1853) 291-7;Hettner at of thispaper: the on the Lion, beginning quoted poem theLion thereservesas an emblemforthefallof Greek to modernGermany andas a warning andculture, liberty ': ('0 schau'indiesenSpiegel| Schau'her,meinVaterland! on the 151-8 See Geibel(1918) 2.155). e.g. Wyse(1871) Lion andtheplainas melancholy (plagiarized experience inBelle (1881) 130-2);Mahaffy (1905) 223-4.

102 inaugLappas(1939) pointsoutthattheceremonial scheduledto coincide urationof therebuiltmonument, withtheFirstInternational CongressofClassicalArchaeology(1905), seemsneverto havetakenplace. A lecture byE. Norden,givenin 1928,is a lateexampleofthemeduninscribed itationbeforethemonument, yet'moreeloof in new than word', meaning thecontext given any quent

Norden(1966) 555. Thereis a fourGermany: post-defeat in Gothicletterson theback of thebase lettergraffito (CDRE), whichI do notknowhowto interpret.

103 'ludi(1905) 225: 'greatdisappointment', Mahaffy crouseffect'.

104At some point beforehis death at Chaironeia - perhaps teethtotrauma 'Gamma16' losttwoofhisfront inan earlierbattle,ortheresultof thetraceofparticipation violenttraining?Thisindividualmighthavebeensevendurteenoreighteen whenLeuktratookplace,twenty-six ingthecampaignandbattleofSecondMantineia.

105 ofviolence,see Carman(1997); On thearchaeology Courvilleis quotedand discussedthere:Wakely(1997) ofdeath,Tarlow(1999).

25; on emotioninthearchaeology

88

JOHNMA BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.K.(1970) MilitaryTheoryand Practicein theAge ofXenophon Anderson, (Berkeley) - (1991) 'Hopliteweaponsandoffensive arms',inV.D. Hanson(ed.),Hoplites:theClassical Greek BattleExperience(London)15-37 M. (1970) 'Sarissa',BCH 94, 91-107 Andronikos, - (1982) 'La Nécropoled'Aigai', in M. HatzopoulosandL. Loukopoulou(eds),Philippede Macédoine (Paris) 188-229 - (1984) Vergina.

TheRoyalTombsand theAncientCity(Athens) V. Deltion40, Chronika2.1, 180 Aravantinos, (1993) 'Aycoyoç (puoncoûàepíou ÀEI1A',Archaiologikon J.(1910) 'De Chéronéeà Delphesparles défilésdu Parnasse',Tourdu Monde 13ème Armagnac, livraison(26 March1910) 97-100 H. (2001) Die Angriffswaffen aus Olympia{Olympische 29, BerlinandNew Baitinger, Forschungen York) Belle,H. (1881) Troisannéesen Grèce(Paris) J.(2004) 'Local history andheritage in Greece',in P. DoukellisandL. Mendoni Bintliff, management andEvaluationofCulturalLandscapes(Meletemata38,Athens)137-52 (eds),Perception aus demGrabderMessenier',inW.K. Kovscovics(ed.), Bisel,S. (1990) 'Die Menschenknochen Kerameikos14 (Berlin)151-9 Bosanquet,R. andTod,M.N. (1902) 'Archaeologyin Greece1901-1902',JHS22 378-94 P. (1894) VonAthenzumTempethal: aus Griechenland Brandt, Reiseerinnerungen (Gütersloh) des österrarchäolog.Instituts Braun,E. (1948) 'Zur Schlachtbei Chaironeia',Jahreshefte 37, 81-9 bei Theben Braun,K. (1981) BemalteKeramikundGlas aus demKabirenheiligtum 4, Berlin) {Das Kabirenheiligtum O. (1941) TheLionMonument Broneer, ofAmphipolis MA) (Cambridge, Buckler,J.(1992) 'PlutarchandAutopsy',ANRWll33.6,4788-830 - (2003) AegeanGreecein theFourthCentury BC (Leiden) Buckler,J.andBeck,H. (2008) CentralGreeceand thePoliticsofPowerin theFourthCentury (Cambridge) J.,Morgan,K. andUmholtz,G. (1992) 'Atrophyfromthebattleof Camp,J.,Ierardi,M., Mclnerney, Chaironeiaof86 BC, AJA96, 443-55 Carman,J.(1997) (ed.),MaterialHarm.ArchaeologicalStudiesof Warand Violence(Glasgow) C. (1983) PatriosNomos.PublicBurialinAthensduringtheFifthand FourthCenturies B.C.: Clairmont, theArchaeological, and Historical Evidence Epigraphic-Literary, (Oxford) Clarke,E.D. (1818) Travelsin variouscountries ofEurope,Asia andAfrica,Partthesecond:Greece, Egyptand theHolyland,Sectionthethird,Volumetheseventh(4thedn,London) dans Vartgrec(Paris) Collignon,M. (1911) Les statuesfunéraires - theMacedonianpikeandcavalrylance:a functional P. with the sarissa Connolly, (2000) 'Experiments Journal Roman Studies view', 11, 103-12 of Military Equipment in Greecein 1818', Conner,P. (1979) 'GeorgeLedwellTaylorandtheLion ofChaeronea.A traveller ApolloMagazine,March1979,134-42 ofChaironeia',RecordsofthePast 3.5 Coolley,A.S. (1904) 'The Macedoniantombandthebattlefield (May 1904)131-43 Costanzi,V. (1923) 'II Leone di Cheroneaetalcunequestionecon esso connesse',Riv.FU. 51, 61-70 A HistoryoftheBattleFoughton the18thJune1815 Cotton,E. (1862) A VoicefromWaterloo.

Mont (6thedn, St-Jean) d'Istria,D. (1863) Excursionsen Roumélieet enMorée(ZurichandParis) Roll Call (reprint ofthe2ndedn,London1971) Dalton,C. (1904) The Waterloo J.N. The and Greeks Greek Love.

A RadicalReappraisalofHomosexuality inAncient Davidson, (2007) Greece(London) Dupré,L. (1825) Voyageà Athènesetà Constantinople (Paris) A. andKnüsel,C. (2000) BloodRedRoses. TheArchaeology Fiorato,V.,Boylston, ofa Mass Gravefrom theBattleofTowton AD 1461 (Oxford) G. (1998) Voyages(ed. D. Barbéris,Paris) Flaubert,

CHAIRONEIA338

89

andPopulationofAncientBoiotia(Chicago) Fossey,J.(1988) Topography GreekMuseum,University Arms and P. Greek Armour, ofNewcastleuponTyne Foster, (1878) (NewcastleuponTyne) Frazer,J.(1898) Pausanias' DescriptionofGreece(London) Fundeaus Olympia{Olympia4, Berlin) A. (1890) Die Bronzenunddie übrigenkleineren Furtwängler, Geibel,E. (1918) Werke Leipzig) (ed. W. Stammler, de leoneChaeronensis K. (1846) Narratiode Chaeroneaatquepraesertim pugnaemonumento Göttling, (Iena) N. (1973) Studiesin GreekHistory(Oxford) Hammond, - (1987) ReviewofPritchett (1985), CR 37, 236-7 Reiseskizzen H. (1853) Griechische (Braunschweig) Hettner, inEuropeandAsia,to Albaniaand otherProvincesofTurkey Hobhouse,J.(1813) v4Journey through duringtheyears1809 and 1810 (London) Constantinople, im in Olympia.KunstundGeschichte T. (1974) 'Die NikederMessenierundNaupaktier Hölscher, Instituts des DeutschenArchäologischen v. Chr.',Jahrbuch 89, 70-111 späten5. Jahrhundert Armour B. (1939 ) 'The Skeletons',in B. Thordemann, fromtheBattleofWisby1361 Ingelmark, 1.149-209 (Stockholm), derStatuen unddieAufstellung Statuenbasen M. (1969) Die Entwicklung Jacob-Felsch, griechischer (Waldsassen) à Delphes(Paris) Monumentales A. (1999) Offrandes Jacquemin, Athenaion év xox> E. 4, 304-9 Kastorchis, (1875) Tlepi Xccipcoveta', - (1879) Tlepi xox>év Xaipcoveía',Athenaion8, 486-506 - (1880) 'Äp%aio^oyiKaieíôrjaeiç',Athenaion 9, 157-61 P. èxaipeíaç arcòxr'qév exei 1837 iôpuaecoçocoxíiç Kawadias, (1900) laxopíotxy'qApxocioXoyiicfiç 1900 xoû (Athens) ué%pi - (1902) "'EkGeoiçxcovTteTtpayuivcov xfjç'Exaipeiaç', Praktika9-36 inderantikenWelt(Bonn) Geschichte und E. Kirsten, (1984) Landschaft von Löwen 'Zum U. Kantzas',Ath.Miti 91, 167-73 Knigge, (1976) Guardsman the Shaw W. (London) Life Knollys, (1876) MuseumJournal12,59-72 derHelena',JP Getty Koch,G. (1984) 'Zum Grabrelief Ath. Mitt.3, 301-422 aus 'Die antiken Körte,A. (1878) Sculpturen Boeotien', am Die KoteraFeyer,E. (1993) Stngilis(franklurt Main) 2000-2002:ilpcoxeç6kxiut|G£iç oxnvXocipcoveux , E. (2006) 'ÄvocGKotcpiKec Kountouri, epyccoieç 779-97 2 Kai Erepeãç 'EXXáõaç (Volos) ApxaiokoyiKàëpya OeaaaXíaç Studien27, 1-34 Wiener J.(1905) 'Zu dengriechischen Schlachtfelderstudien', Kromayer, (Athens) Lappas,T. (1939) fOAécovxfjçXcupcoveiocç Leitão,D. (2002 ) 'The legendoftheSacredBand', in M.C. NussbaumandJ.bihvola(eds), lhe òleep oj Reason:EroticExperienceand SexualEthicsinAncientGreeceandRome(Chicago) 143-69 JHS 38, 39-44 W.R.(1918) 'Greeklionmonuments', Lethaby, 1876 und1877 (Berlin) aus Griechenland Lolling,H. (1989) Reisenotizen Greece:ideologies,societiesandcommemoration warin fifth-century Low,P. (2003) 'Remembering 35, 98-111 Athens',World Archaeology beyonddemocratic J.(1905) Ramblesand Studiesin Greece(5thedn,London) Mahaffy, xcovap%aicovuvr||Li£icov EÂÀaòa, MallouchouTufano,F. (1998) fHócvocoxriÀxoari axr|vecoxepri 1834-1939:xò ëpyoxr'qév 'A0f|vaiç'ApxaioJloyiidiç 'Exaipeíaç Kai xfjç'Ap^aio^oyiicfiç Tripeaíaç (Athens) MarkleIII, M. (1977) 'The Macedoniansarissa,spear,andrelatedarmor',AJA75, 323-39 - (1980 ) 'Weaponsfromthecemetery atVerginaandAlexander'sarmy',in K. Vavouskos(ed.), 2300 xpóvia u£xàxòvGávaxóvxo') (Thessaloniki)243-67 Méyccç AÀiÇocvôpoç.

- (1982 ) 'MacedonianarmsandtacticsunderAlexandertheGreat',in B. Barr-Sharrar andE. Borza 87-111 Times Hellenistic (Washington) (eds),Macedoniaand GreeceinLate Classical and Early 62-75 Review as politicalmemory, Geographical 78, Mayo,J.M.(1988) 'Warmemorials A. (2001) Greece.An Oxford ArchaeologicalGuide(Oxford) Mee, C. and Spawforth,

90

JOHNMA

M. (1986) Die Löwenkopf-wasserspiessen des griechischen Westerns im6. und5.

Mertens-Horn, Jahrhundert v.Chr.im Vergleich mitdenLöwendes griechischen Mutterlandes (Mainz) - (1988) 'Studienzu griechischen Rom.Mitt.93, 1-61 Löwenbildern', blocksfromtheStrymon', Arch.Delt. 27, 140-69 Miller,S. andMiller,S. (1972) 'Architectural K.D. Greek Footwear and the Morrow, (1985) DatingofSculpture (Madison,Wisconsin) ReisenundStudien(Leipzig) Müller,H. (1887) Griechische Mure,W. (1842) Journalofa Tourin Greeceand theIonianIslands(Edinburgh) Newton,C. (1862-3)A HistoryofDiscoveriesat Halicarnassus,CnidusandBranchidae(London) inKleineSchriften Norden,E. (1966 ) 'Heldenehrungen', (Berlin)552-64 J. Death in ClassicalAthens:theEvidenceoftheWhite Oakley, (2004) Picturing Lekythoi (Cambridge) Oikonomos,G. (1938) Ta eraxovexr|xíiçev Aor|vaiçApxaioAoyiKTÍç 'Exaipeiaç. AoyoçTtavnyupiKoc too rpajijiiaxécûç xoûlx>ii$ox>Xíox> (Athens) Soldier.AnArchaeology Osgood,R. (2005) TheUnknown oftheCommonSoldier(Stroud) V. (1987) ?Hev Äörivocic Petrakos, ap%aioX<oyiKr| èxaipeía. fHioxopia xcov150 %póvcov xr|ç1837-1987 (Athens) L. (1880) '"Epewai év xcprcoÀ/uavôpíco Phytalis, 9, 347-52 Xaipcoveíaç',Athenaion W.K. (1958) 'Observations on Chaironeia',A¿4 61, 307-11 Pritchett, - (1974) TheGreekStateat War,part2 (Berkeley) - (1985) TheGreekStateat War,part4 (Berkeley) oftheSacredBand at Chaeronea',AJA85, 84-7 Rahe,PA. (1981) 'The annihilation P. (2003) 'Representing theBrokenHill WarMemorial,New Rainbird, nation,dividingcommunity: SouthWales,Australia',World 35.1,22-34 Archaeology R. (1907) Greecethrough theStereoscope(New YorkandLondon) Richardson, S. (2002) Bildkontakte.

GötterundHeroeninderBildsprachegriechischer Münzendes 4.

Ritter, Jahrhunderts v.Chr.(Berlin) au Lion d'Amphipolis', BCH 63, 4-42 Roger,J.(1939) 'Le monument War Wounds in Graeco-Roman Salazar,C. (2000) TheTreatment of (Leiden) Antiquity Sanborn,F. (1897) 'The Lion ofChaeronea',TheNewEnglandJournal22.1 (March1897),97-103 D. (1977) TheThespianPolyandrion Ph.D. thesis) Schilardi, (424 BC) (Princeton A.H. (1892-1904)A CatalogueofSculpturein theDepartment Smith, ofGreekand RomanDepartments, BritishMuseum(London) G. (1902 ) 'ävocgkcupti 8t>oxuußcov xíivXaiocoveíav',Praktika53-9 Sotiriadis, rcapòt - (1903) 'Das Schlachtfeld vonChäroneaundderGrabhügel derMakedonen',Ath.Mitt28, 301-30 - (1904) Ai Tcccpà xòv Kal 'Etaxxeíav XTjv Xcupcoveíav, 'Opxojxevòv xtjv avaamcpaí, Praktika35-57 - (1905) 'Untersuchungen in BoiotienundPhokis.1. Topographisches überChaironeia.Das Stadtflüsschen Haimonunddas Herakleion', Ath.Mitt30, 113-20 - (1910) 'Ai év Xccipcoveíoc Kai Kaxà xr'vOcoKÍôaàvaoracpai', Praktika122-30 L. (1843) ReisedurcheinigeGegendendes nördlichen Griechenlands Stephani, (Leipzig) R. und im klassischen Athen(Münster) Stupperich, (1977) Staatsbegräbnis Privatgrabmal and Commemoration: an Archaeology Tarlow,S. (1999) Bereavement ofMortality (Oxford) G. The an Architect, Taylor, (1870-2) Auto-biography of Octagenarian beinga RecordofhisStudiesat HomeandAbroad,during65 Years,Comprising amongtheSubjectsTheCathedralsofEngland, FranceandItaly,theTemplesofRome,Greeceand Sicily,withExplanationsoftheirVariousStylesandPlans,fromMeasurement; also, IncidentsofTravel,and SketchesofOtherBuildingsand Objects on hisRoute,FromNotesandMeasurements duringToursthrough England,France,Italy,Greece and Sicily,1816-17-18-19(principally onFoot),withRe-visitsin 1857 to 1868,2 vols. (London) I. (1997) Oi xacpoiiox>Aepßevio')(Athens) Themelis,P. andTouratsoglou, H.A. 'Excavations in theAthenian Thompson, (1954) Agora:1953',Hesperia23, 31-67 I. 'Die andG. Brands(eds),Basileia. Die Touratsoglou,(1996 ) BaupolitikKassanders',inW Hoepfher Paläste derhellenistischen Internationales in Berlin vom16.12.1992bis Könige.

Symposion 20.12.1992 (Mainz) 176-81 M. (2005) MaKeôoviKoixácpoiaxov Ooívixa Kai oxov'ÄyiovAOavaGio Tsimbidou-Avloniti, 0eocaXovÍKT|ç(Athens) Tzavella-Evjen,H. (1995) 'Avacncacpucèc ëpeweç axrjvXaipcoveia',Ep. HetBoiot.Mel. 2.1, 630-7

CHAIRONEIA338

91

Ure,P. (1913) Black GlazePottery fromRhitsonainBoeotia(LondonandNew York) in 1818', oftheLion at Chaeronaea,bya partyofEnglishtravellers 'On the W. Vaux, (1866) discovery 1-11 2nd ser. the Transactions 8, of RoyalSocietyofLiterature, C. (1972) 'GreekFunerary Animals,450-300B.C.', AJA16, 49-59 Vermeille, E. (1979) AspectsofDeath inEarlyGreekArtand Poetry(Berkeley) Vermeule, headinjuriesin osteoandanalysisofviolentandnon-violent J.(1997) 'Identification Wakely, material',in Carman(1997) 24-46 archaeological Waywell,G. (1998) 'The Lion fromtheLion Tombat Cnidus',in O. PalagiaandW. Coulson(eds), (Oxford)235-42 RegionalSchoolsinHellenisticSculpture di Annalie Bulletini F.G. (1856) 'II leonedi Cheronea',Monumenti pubblicatidalVlnstituto Welcker, Archeologica1-5andpl. 1 Corrispondenza - (1864) 'Der Löwe vonChäronea',inAlteDenkmäler5.62-72 - (1865) Tagebucheinergriechischen Reise (Berlin) vomDach des Zeustempels F. (1959) Die Lowenkopj-wassenspeier (Olympische Willemsen, 4, Berlin) Forschungen des animauxetdes êtresfabuleuxsurles monuments D. (1982) La Représentation Woysch-Méautis, la à V de findu IVesiècle av.J.-C.(Neuchâtel) archaïque époque grecs: funéraires Greece T. (London) of Wyse, (1871) Impressions

PLATE 4

CHAIRONEIA 338

JHS 128 (2008)

(b) SkullfromtheThebanmass grave,showinga coupde gr창ce witha buttspike

(a) Chaironeiaand surroundings afterSotiriadis(1903)

(c) SkullfromtheTheban graveGamma16,with massivehead-wound

(d) The gravemound oftheMacedonians

JHS 128 (2008)

CHAIRONEIA 338

(a) The Lion (photoChr.Chandezon)

(b) Phytalis'soundings

PLATE 5

PLATE 6

CHAIRONEIA 338

JHS 128 (2008)

withbox (a) Bone buttons, and skeletonnumber: row5, fromskeleton16

(b) CeramicsfromtheThebanmassgrave

(c) The Lion the through stereoscope