The Computer in Architecture:
Introduction
3
The computer in Architecture: A Brief History
6
BIM: Parts to Whole
8
BIM to Parametric
12
Parametric to Integrated CAM
15
The Future of Integrated CAM
18
Conclusion
23
Bibliography
25
Introduction
Modern society has become addicted to a new drug. This drug is ingrained in our everyday lives and has shaped the environment that humans now live in. The majority of the population could be considered addicts since they use it for everyday occurrences; in work, for pleasure, to contact others and to complete tasks otherwise unfinished. They can even use it to remind them of things they need to do. This drug has become such a part of our lives that we do not realize how dependant we have become to this specific tool. The name on the street for this drug would be cleverly disguised and referred to as the computer. Whether one is a diehard crApple fan or a Wintard (negative connotations and nicknames for users who will only work on a specific platform), society has created a tool that has overwhelmed the population and left the modern human “using” day after day after day to complete tasks for work, life and self. This tool has incredible capabilities and is extremely beneficial on multiple fronts. Society uses this drug each day in order to complete tasks we need done. They have tailored each computer specific to the need and each profession has its own strain. One can even modify their drug to be more potent or powerful depending on the need. This drug has been introduced into work environments and the architecture field did not hesitate to incorporate it quickly. The computer inched its way in to architectural offices and has left the oversized tables that were once used to draft the plans, sections and diagrams, in the corner to gather dust and rot away. This step towards the digital workflow in a workplace has been widely accepted in the architecture offices all over the world. The question remains, has this shift and recent addiction been a good or a bad incorporation for architecture? How has the implementation of the computer influenced the design and construction of architecture towards the end of the 20th Century into the 21st? To understand how the computer has impacted the design of architecture, one needs to know the workflow of the design process to construction. In the simplest terms, the process of creating a building has three main stages of design to realization: Design, Construction and Utilization. The first is the design stage. This is broken into multiple parts which include the sketch stage, schematic, design, and finally construction documentation phases. Each stage is necessary for the process in order to design a well rounded and complete building. The sketch phase builds into the schematic design phase and has also been known as the knapkin sketch, since the architect meets the client at a bar, café or any other meeting point. This is typically a quick graphical representation of an idea that is meant to grab the client’s attention quickly and leave him or her wanting a more thorough design of this idea. The process moves in to the schematic and design phases where the knapkin sketch is developed further in to an actual building. Finally, it moves in to the construction documentation phase where the building is prepared for the
construction industry to realize the product. The second part of the process is the physical construction of the building. This has many complex and unique issues of its own. This stage can roughly be broken down into the foundation, construction and finish out of the building. Within each stage certain systems are placed into the building. At the foundation stage, piping and other floor heating and or cooling devices are laid in the floor, or concrete slab. The construction stage takes place and for a typical wooden framed house or building, the wooden studs are placed in the correct areas. In between these studs there is excess space and this allows for insulation, conduit, electric wires, pipes, air conditioning ducts and other systems to be placed within the walls. Finally, the finish out stage makes the building’s interior look good. It covers up the insulation, electric wires, etc with either plywood or gypsum, then tiles and or paint. This leaves a clean finish depending on the architects design. The third part is the utilization, occupation or move in phase. This can only take place once the building has been completely finished and the client is able to move in for residence or business purposes. These three stages make up the design to construction process and are key to understanding the impact the computer has had on this process. Through the introduction of the computer, the process has slightly been shifted and the question remains if this shift is a good and beneficial or destructive change. This question is highly debated since some designers would like to keep the original workflow of the sketch closely related to the final design. Many firms start with a sketch, yet stray far away from it in the final design. They consider it as a design sketch, then lead to the presentation sketch that they show the clients. There are many advantages to this, since it leaves the client with a vague interpretation of the design and gives the architect more time to design the details of the project. Some consider this the representation of the space, the feeling, emotions and exaggerations one would experience while exploring the space of the building. These can be highly effective to gain the contract, but are not necessarily representative of the design or telling of the spaces one would actually encounter, rather the emotions. These architects then move to use the computer as a tool to represent the project through various rendering techniques. This stage of the design development highly utilizes the power and tools on the computer to help create this image representation. The representation of the image is extremely important for the client to be able to visualize the building before it has been built. It is not only useful for the client, but also the designer in order to make critical design decisions that impact the space as well as the price tag. A change in material or type of finish could impact the overall price significantly. In order to produce the image, a three dimensional object is required. This 3D object can be produced through a wide variety of modeling and design programs, and this stage is typically where firms split and use
standard programs of the trade, such as AutoCAD or Revit. Instead of the standard programs, certain firms choose to design non standard architecture where they would create complex geometry, utilizing parametric software such as Grasshopper (a plugin to Rhino) or coding with different languages such as Python or Processing. These two methods will be explained and expanded upon later. Both methods can produce a unique project and a complex design, but they leave a digital thumbprint that other designers recognize. This thumbprint influences the design of a building at multiple levels, including the design, documentation, construction and utilization phases. Many renowned architects have used these techniques in order to design non standard buildings that have this digital thumbprint embedded in the design. One noteworthy firm that uses the computer in this way would be Coop Himmelb(l)au. This visionary firm recognizes the computer as a valuable tool in order to design and construct an iconic building that influences the society that specific project has landed in. They have used innovative technology and manufacturing techniques in each building they have designed and constructed. In a more recent building they have worked on, full computer automation has been incorporated and will be explored in the later parts of this thesis. This thesis will briefly survey the history of the computer in architecture. It will shed light on the first implementation, to how it was adapted for specific purposes, how it has increased productivity and finally how it can potentially impact the future of architecture. Each point has been investigated and broken in to subcategories that progress linearly to paint the story of the computer in architecture within recent years.
The computer in Architecture: A Brief History
Through time, every aspect of life tends to mutate and change. Science has shown that animals evolved and adapted to their environments. They have also adapted to the tasks necessary to survive. This evolution varies in time and reason, but is typically in response to a need. In a similar manner, certain industries required a change in manufacturing processes in order to be more efficient and be able to repeat tasks over and over. One instance for this would be at the beginning of the 1940’s where the U.S. Air Force researched and enhanced the fabrication process by implementing the computer numerical control (CNC) technology in order to precisely and accurately repeat the fabrication of aircraft parts. (Corser 2010) (Corser 2010) (Corser, 2010) (Corser 2010) 1 The Air force required these parts to be precise and quickly and easily replicated. It was a necessary task to come up with a system that would be able to replicate these parts efficiently. The computer numerical controlled system, or CNC technology, evolved and adapted for the need and was later heavily used in other manufacturing techniques. This time also holds a unique label, known as the “performative turn”, or a shift in the social sciences and humanities. This affected the way we know how to process through life. It opened our eyes to a way that one can understand human behavior in a new light. This change informed the observer with the fact that the environment of the human affects their behavior. This coincided with a shift in the arts and an emphasis placed on the performance, rather than the performer.2 Each of these cultural and scientific changes helped lead to the change in the way society manufactures large or small components in order to construct environments people can live in. This progression transformed the mindset of the forerunners at this time period and allowed them to break the mold of the manufacturing process, to create a new model. A few decades after the first implementation of CNC technology, The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) started work on the Apollo program in the 1960’s.3 This created a shift to the performance in design, since this project required high accuracy and precision. It also needed to create so called “eco-systems” to be designed for the astronauts as well as fallout shelters for the Cold War era. These difficulties were addressed and “emphasis was therefore placed on methods of addressing complex engineering problems, which involved mathematical modeling towards optimization and efficiency.”4 This decision to work towards a high end product that kept the astronauts safe without the lack of performance geared the designers to formulate a
1
Robert Corser, Fabricating Architecture: Selected Readings in Digital Design and Manufacturing (Princeton Architectural, 2010), 13-14. 2 Michael Hensel, Performance-Oriented Architecture (West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2013), 17-18. 3 Ibid., 23. 4 Ibid., 23-24.
new way of design and production. During this same time period, computers were used in the design of aircraft and later in the 1970’s to 1980’s, other industries such as the automobile and ship builders followed suit and incorporated Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) in to the design and manufacturing process.5 CAD and CAM technology were introduced to architecture during the same time period, but it was not used to its full potential. In general, architects have been late in using the newest technologies for design and manufacturing. This is due to many different factors that come together to block the ability to change. At the introduction of the CAD and CAM technologies, “architects began using computers in ways that imitated the manual typing, bookkeeping, and drafting procedures customary to the profession. While CAD changed the way most architects created construction drawings, it did not immediately change the role of these drawings in the production of buildings.”6 Architects started to incorporate the computer technology at hand, but not to the fullest potential. One could say that other industries, such as the ship building or automobile industry, created the software (CAD) for design and the software for manufacturing (CAM) in unison, so that there would be a seamless process from design to production. Architecture chose to pick certain parts that fit with their current design strategy and workflow. In a sense, architecture chose to only use CAD, since it was the closest process to how they currently designed. They merely adapted the latest technology that was similar enough to the current process of drawing tables. This inclusion propelled the design industry for the moment, but inhibited the industry in the long run. They did not recognize the need for CAM, since it did not fit in to any part of the current trade. This decision to exclude CAM from the beginning made it difficult for firms to experiment with the capabilities and production possibilities that CAM technology could produce. One could conclude that the exclusion of CAM has limited the design and production workflow for architects in the years since the introduction of the computer in Architecture. This argument will be expanded and clarified in the following chapters.
5
Corser, Fabricating Architecture: Selected Readings in Digital Design and Manufacturing, 13. Dan Willis and Todd Woodward, "Diminishing Difficulty: Mass Customization and the Digital Production of Architecture," in Fabricating Architecture, ed. Robert Corser (Princeton Architecture, 2010), 180.
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BIM: Parts to Whole
It could be argued that the reason architecture has had difficulty changing the workflow was psychological, due to the fact that change is hard, even if the benefits outweigh the consequences for staying in the same position. For any roadblock in change, multiple reasons keep the change from taking place. One reason that affected the change in architecture could be attributed to the construction industry. They have created a bottleneck, or a place where the process is impeded and not allowed full potential for the designers through the process of standardization. This is best described by the way architects can choose from a certain set of building blocks (i.e. types of steel, concrete, brick, wood, etc.) to design the building. This is a two edged sword, since it is valuable in low budget design or to create the interior/ structure, but standardization has a tendency to limit the overall design of a building. In order to understand this limitation, one must understand the process of the standardized toolset. Manufacturers created products that the architect can choose from in order to design. In essence, standardization is not bad, since it allows for the designers to work with a certain set of predesigned products at a certain scale. This allows for quick specifications of a certain product in order to design a part of the building. It allows for higher efficiency and quicker decisions in each phase of design to construction. One example of this standardization would be the 2x4 plank of wood in America, or 45mm X 95mm in European countries. This is a 1.5” by 3.5” by 8’, 10’ or 12’, or 45 mm by 95 mm by 3000 mm, 3300 mm, or 3600 mm block of wood that has a wide variety of uses, but is typically used in framing a home or low rise building. This is incredibly beneficial, since the manufacturer cuts the wood in bulk and can use a machine, or CAM technique to repeat the processes over and over in order to mass produce the product. The architect then specifies the wood he wants for the project. This process cuts down on production cost of the wood and in turn, cuts down on the building cost. This is great for the consumer, but it does not allow for easy customization, rather it allows for limited customization. This could be considered a bottom up design workflow, rather than a top down. The designer starts with the form and the knowledge of what should “fit” into this form in order to not collapse. They then look to see what components can fit in to the form and verify that the product will stand. For this reason, CAM was likely not introduced to architecture during that time. Achim Menges explains that, “In today’s practice digital tools are still mainly employed to create design schemes through a range of design criteria’s that leave the inherent morphological and performative capacities of the employed material systems largely unconsidered. Ways of materialization, production and construction are strategized only after a form has been elaborated, leading to top-down engineered, material solutions that often juxtapose unfitting
logics.�7 In other words, the specified materials are not chosen based on performative reasons, rather a wide array of decisions that include the economical and traditional route. In a sense, the decision to use certain materials is based on an ulterior motive, rather than the possibility to enhance the building itself. These materials chosen may not even be the best fit for the situation the material responds to. Instead of using a customized material that performs specifically to that situation, a standardized component has been retro fitted to perform in a similar manner. This component is placed in the exact location and is expected to perform in the same way the customized component does. In many situations, this standardized solution is adequate and acceptable and the reason the standardization has taken place. Other industries such as the automobile, ship building and aerospace choose to design specific components for the project. These industries, “are geared to minimize tooling costs by creating a range of standard models from mass produced custom components. On the other hand, construction industries for the architecture of buildings aim to create one off custom designs, but with an economy based on the use of standardized components. Of course, this is a simplistic historical view. However, it aims to highlight the different approaches of the two industry sectors. Both achieve a variety of products while exploiting standardization in different ways to achieve efficiency.�8 In cars, a single component is designed and produced thousands of times for that specific model car. This could be anything from the structure of the frame, the interior seats, the outside panels or the mirrors. Each part was designed specifically for the car and cannot be used in any other car. Specific component design integrates the systems of the car and the overall aesthetics of the car. In a similar vein, NASA would design a single component and produce it once for a spaceship. They would work for many hours in order to design the piece. This process would include simulations that look at certain stresses, temperature ranges and many other factors that would impact the design of this component. They would then move on to the prototyping stage, where they produce scaled models of the component and put it in physical test simulations. Once these simulations are complete and the data is recorded, they take the information back to the drawing table. They see how the component reacted and adjust it accordingly. The structure is integrated and designed specifically for that exact place. It is highly customized and they would never dream of taking a standardized component and slapping it in to the design. There are specific occasions where a certain product would not be worth the time and or money to specialize and research when another company has already done that job. They would then contract those components out, but they are still customized for the specific purpose.9 This process is called 7
Achim Menges, "Material Systems, Computational Morphogenesis and Performative Capacity," in Emergent Technologies and Design: Towards a Biological Paradigm for Architecture (Arbingdon: Routledge, 2010), 44. 8 "Instrumental Geometry," in Fabricating Architecture, ed. Robert Corser (Princeton Architectural, 2010), 25. 9 NASA, "Nasa Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements," ed. NASA (2013).
“design optimization” and is standard in many engineering practices.10 These two examples would be considered a top down design workflow. They design the overall form, and then design the components and structure to make that form. In the building industry, it is not necessary to have each component designed specifically for their building when the architect can grab an off the shelf 2x4 and throw it in the building. This design workflow has been transferred to the Building Information Model, or BIM. Eddy Krygiel defines BIM in his essay, “as the creation and use of coordinated, consistent, computable information about a building project in design.”11 This refers to every single building component that is placed in the design. A single component may be used 100 times in one project and another component 200 times. The BIM model allows each of these items to be tagged and referenced where it is placed. It can be accessed at any point in the design workflow and is easily quantifiable to be placed on schedules. This integration allows for the quick and precise computation and estimation of the project. This process allows for less communication error, as well as time efficiency increased. David Celento explains that, “Changes made to either the digital model or the database automatically update and coordinate throughout the model and spreadsheet. Due to the extent of the previsualization it allows prior to construction, BIM diminishes ambiguity, reduces errors, and generates savings for clients.”12 In certain circumstances, the BIM model is too accurate and the standardized building materials do not include any room for tolerances or error. This has the tendency to mislead and sometimes makes the model too perfect in terms of realistic representation. Despite a few flaws, BIM is incredibly powerful and beneficial in standardized design and in a sense, is the next logical step towards CAM in Architecture. With each new advance in technology, complexity seeps in to the design and requires a new set of standards in order to represent that design. Architectural designs are no different since they are incredibly complex, and continue to add complexity with each new building. Systems that were once not considered are now incorporated in each and every design. A few examples include air conditioning systems, security and data connections. Fifty years ago, a building that would require thirty to forty sheets to document the construction now requires up to four times as many sheets.13 This large increase in information leads to a disintegrated approach of the building documentation and as a consequence, the design. The systems now required in contemporary buildings could be included in the BIM model and help contain the complexity in one model that is
10
Woodward, "Diminishing Difficulty: Mass Customization and the Digital Production of Architecture," 188-89. Eddy Krygiel, "Using Building Information Modeling for Performance Based Design," ibid. (Princeton Architectural), 45. 12 David Celento, "Innovate or Perish: New Technologies and Architecture's Future," ibid., 56. 13 Eddy Krygiel, "Using Building Information Modeling for Performance Based Design," ibid., 47.
11
used for everything from design, documentation, construction, maintenance, addition, and eventually, demolition. These systems are compiled in the BIM model and can be pulled up at any time in order to show the documentation of the specific system. Another unique advantage of a BIM model compared to CAD is the ability to run system diagnostics, structural stress tests and other simulations that can influence the design. One example of this is the ability to run a Daylight simulation to see where the daylight penetrates the glazing and at what times. This is incredibly useful when designing for specific climates. In the winter (in the northern hemisphere), generally one would design so there is light hitting southern facing glass so it can naturally heat the building. The daylight tests in unison with the systems diagnostics and simulation tests can produce the amount of energy required to run the home in that time of the year. When the designer changes the placement of the windows, the energy consumption shifts and by default, the cost of the energy is either increased or decreased. This would be considered performance oriented design and is a highly beneficial for the overall building, however, it is still a backwards approach. Another example of a similar simulation would be air ducts in unison with the insulation. A material, such as concrete, is assigned a certain R-Value property. The air is then simulated to run through the building via the HVAC system. Depending on the materials and the properties assigned, the amount of air lost is recorded and the amount of energy required for that certain portion of the building is shown. This is helpful in choosing which material to use for a certain faรงade or part of the building. The cost of choosing one material over another can be shown directly in the BIM model through the simulation. BIM is one way to capitalize on the performance aspect of design due to the multiple simulations and data output that can show the impact of the building over certain periods of time. The BIM model could be compared to the DNA in humans, since it possesses all the information of the building in one place.
14
The above is an illustration of a year day lighting analysis that can be used in order to place the window openings along with material choices that could reflect and or absorb the energy in order to minimize the energy consumption required for the building to operate. 14
Autodesk, "User Study: Revit Solar & Lighting Analysis and Reflectivity," http://autodesk.typepad.com/bpa/2015/07/user-study-revit-solar-lighting-analysis-and-reflectivity.html.
BIM to Parametric
The shift from CAD to BIM is a good first step to fully utilize the computer’s potential in architectural design, but it does not incorporate the CAM aspect, which detracts from the workflow. In recent years, architects have started to include another technique that the automobile and aerospace industries use in their design and production. This workflow is known as Paremetric Design, or in a broader term, Computational Design. Willis and Woodward explain that the “Parametric design processes require the designer to establish clear design goals and then manipulate various design parameters to achieve them. The parameters – usually mathematical descriptions of certain geometric relationships – are inputs the designer makes into a computer program that generate design alternatives.”15 In a sense, the designer defines a set of rules in a competition like manner. These rules are algorithms that link to each other and work together. The actors then compete on this playing field and create the form based on the rules of the competition. These rules can be tweaked in accordance with design preferences to create different outcomes. This leads to the ability to quickly and efficiently create multiple arrays of designs, or iterations that can be used to evaluate and construct the final design. Designers can use various tools in order to produce this type of modeling. Scripting based on computer code, such as Python or Processing, requires knowledge in writing code and exporting it to a program that can then read the code and produce the parametric model. This workflow does not necessarily produce instant feedback, but is highly effective in designing the parametric model. Certain modeling programs adapted direct plugins for these scripting languages, and this streamlines the direct input and output of the script in order to computationally design the form. Grasshopper, which is a plugin for Rhinoceros, (a 3D design program) would be an example of a graphical algorithmic scripting program. This program uses graphs, lines and functions (components) to process data in a unilateral workflow that formulates a script, or definition, that then creates geometry. This is a graphical understanding of the data transfer that takes place. Each element can be broken down into data points that possess the identity, location and output. This script directly affects the workspace of the 3D model in Rhino and can add to the iterative process in design. The components are not the only input used in a parametric script. Other performance based factors, such as stresses, gravity, materiality, wind loads, live and dead loads can be assigned in a script to add to the complexity and realistic output of the final design. This is a huge advantage, since there is direct feedback for the design from the script. It also allows for the optimization of the project in order to increase the performative aspects. These performative analysis aspects are where BIM and Parametric design overlap. Achim 15
Woodward, "Diminishing Difficulty: Mass Customization and the Digital Production of Architecture," 187.
Menges explains that, “The transition from currently predominant modes of computer aided design (CAD) to computational design allows for a significant change in employing the computer’s capacity. CAD is very much based on computerized processes of drawing and modeling stemming from established representational techniques in architectural design (Terzidis 2006). In this regard one of the key differences lies in the fact that CAD internalizes the coexistence of form and information, whereas computational design externalizes this relation and thus enables the conceptualization for the material behavior and related formative processes (Hensel and Menges 2006). In computational design form is not defined through a sequence of drawing or modeling procedures but generated through algorithmic, rule-based processes. The ensuing externalization of the interrelation between algorithmic processing of information and resultant form-generation permits the systematic distinction between process, information and form.�16 Parametric and computational design allows the properties of the material to be explored, understood and used to their advantage in the design. The software can link the properties and reactions that the material possesses and hard wire it in to the component for simulation purposes. This allows for a streamlined process to test the performance aspect of the design. This process allows for real time analysis of stresses, day lighting, and other performative aspects that can help to inform the design. Another benefit of parametric design compared to BIM, is that the parametric model can run a data or performance analysis on the current form and directly inform the final product. A plugin to Grasshopper named Kangaroo uses gravity forces, and calculates the material, how heavy it is, the flexibility, the loads, etc, and can assess how the form will change when certain stresses are applied. It then determines the best solution for the original form to morph in to so that it will use the least amount of material possible, without losing the structural integrity necessary to stand. In contrast, BIM programs such as Revit, do not automate the changes once an analysis has been run. They simply show the areas affected by the stresses, and inform the designer where they need to make changes, but it does not automatically make the changes. This gives slightly more direct control to the designer, but it loses efficiency and requires the designer to make the changes instead of the computer. They then have to rerun the analysis in order to make changes until the design is complete and fully optimized. Scripting can either generate the overall form, or be applied to specific instances in a design. One example of a script applied to a certain instance could be the design of a unique steel space frame structure. Different sized beams (based on its height, or rather thickness of the beam) are assigned a tolerance for the distance they can stretch without rupturing. The spacing of the beams are also given a tolerance (i.e. one beam every 3 or 4 meters, in correlation to the 16
Menges, "Material Systems, Computational Morphogenesis and Performative Capacity," 51.
thickness required for that beam) and increases or decreases as the form of the building is created, and then manipulated. The beams change as the manipulation occurs. This increases the efficiency, since the designer no longer needs to determine the adequate size of the beam after the design is complete and hope it fits. Instead, the beams change as the designer creates the form. In turn, these beams, “can be used to generate BIM, and there are efficiencies to be gained by doing so. Parametric software is intended to help the designer handle ‘complex competing design constraints in an interactive way’.”17 This method is beneficial to add to the design of a building. It allows for a streamlined process to design and later, fabricate, using CAM technology through the use of Computer Numerically Controlled machines, or CNC. This shift from BIM to Parametric design is a breakthrough towards the full incorporation of CAM in architecture. It has helped to revolutionize the construction industry and turn projects out quicker and more efficiently.
18
The above is an overview diagram of the plugin Kangaroo, which allows forces to be analyzed and inform the design.
17
Woodward, "Diminishing Difficulty: Mass Customization and the Digital Production of Architecture," 187. Huan Kim, "Kangaroo (Live Physics Engine)," https://sites.google.com/a/umn.edu/digitalresources/tutorials/kangaroo. 18
Parametric to Integrated CAM
When people want to change, something very important tends to hold them back. Even if Architecture wanted to fully incorporate CAM into the design and production process, it could not. The most obvious inhibitor to the full on change is scale. CAD, CAM and CNC technologies work very efficiently at the scale they currently reside: within a warehouse, manufacturing plant or fabrication facility. It has been noted that, “the latest computer-generated architecture repeats the old news that architects are importing technologies of production from the automobile, aerospace, and ship-building industries without questioning why the “smooth morphologies” characteristic of the shapes of these things (which, unlike buildings, move) are being imported as well.”19 A whole building cannot be designed, built, finished out (by means of paint, stone, accents, etc), placed on a truck and shipped to the final location where it would be set and bolted down to the foundations. This would be a miraculous feat, but impossible due to the scale that buildings are created at. This is a possibility for a certain size and type of a building, perhaps a long narrow, single story home, but not a large scale building or museum. For this reason, CAM cannot be fully integrated in to architecture in the same manner that the automobile, aerospace and shipbuilding industries have utilized the technology. There are multiple ways to address the issue of scale. The first method is in cohesion with the standard building practices: build on site. The architect designs parts to be fabricated either off site and brought in, or on site by the construction company. With this method, the scale of the building is not limited. This technique allows for the fabricated parts to be more precise (if fabricated offsite) since the component is built in a factory without the many distractions, inhibitions and extra variables that are common on the building site. The small components are then pieced together in a puzzle like fashion in order to make the whole. This process of parametric design has, “been understood as instrumental for its ability in importing workflow, its rapid adaptability to changing input and its delivery of precise geometric data from digital fabrication and performance analysis.”20 Parametric design allows for the precise and efficient fabrication of these parts based on the certain analysis that has influenced the design. Once the final product has been fabricated, partially assembled, brought to the site, and then fully assembled, it is ready to be placed at the proper place. In unison with onsite production of the other parts, such as the foundation, walls, etc, the parametric element, or elements, showcases the design. The parametric part could be the highlight of the entire project or accentuate the design elegantly and is highly dependent on the project itself.
19 20
Woodward, "Diminishing Difficulty: Mass Customization and the Digital Production of Architecture," 186-87. Achim Menges, "Instrumental Geometry," ibid. (Princeton Architectural), 31.
Certain projects may incorporate specific aspects of parametric design, while others fully utilize parametric design for the entirety of the project. The former best explains the process referred to in the previous paragraph, while the latter would be an example of a method that could be considered a spliced building process. The structural design is created using parametric software. It is optimized and spliced, or cut in to specific dimensions that can be shipped to the site accordingly. Once it is optimized and specified, the frame is sent to a fabrication facility to build. The pieces are fabricated using CAM technologies, tested for defects then approved to send to the site. While being built, each piece has an identity, or tag, that has been assigned through the Parametric and BIM model. This tag is used in the construction process in order to identify where this specific piece belongs. The tag can be anything from an engraving, a bead weld (as to not take away from the integrity of the steel) or a piece of paper that is taped on the steel. Once everything is complete, the steel is placed on trucks and shipped in to the site. Depending on the size of the span, certain pieces may exceed the maximum size that can be sent on a truck. These oversized structural splices would then be joined on site. Once each piece has arrived on site, they are then laid out according to the tag, or identity and bolted to the foundation. Cross bracing is applied in pre drilled locations and the supporting members are brought in from the same facility. At the same time that the structure is fabricated, the surface and skin are prepared and go through the same process as the structure. They are optimized and fabricated. There are many different techniques that are applicable to the façade/ skin design. A few examples would include folding (a single sheet folded onto itself in a specific pattern), paneling (sheets overlaid on each other in certain dimensions to make a whole), and various other methods that then allow the skin to be placed on top of the structure. Multiple techniques can be used in the same façade to give variance and unique topological identity. These panels are fabricated off site and brought in to be assembled and placed on the building. The BIM model is extremely helpful in the assembly process, since there can be thousands of pieces that are fabricated for the surface alone, each with a specific place on the façade. As Willis mentioned, the Parametric model can be used to generate the BIM model, which is necessary for the installation of the façade pieces. In the same manner that the steel is labeled and given an identity, the panels are labeled and organized in order to efficiently assemble the façade network. In a sense, each panel has an identity of its own and has only one place it belongs in relation to other panels with their own unique identity. The BIM model derived from a parametric model has many advantages, but one in particular. Maintenance is required in buildings as they age, and this is no different in a parametrically designed building. If for whatever reason, a piece of the façade was damaged in natural or human catastrophic events, the designer could retrieve the BIM model, find the identity of the piece that was damaged, send that specific piece (or pieces) to the manufacturer, and place it
back on the building to repair it quickly, efficiently and inexpensively. These unique advantages of parametric design in unison with BIM, allows for a complex and unique building to be designed, fabricated and constructed in a manner that is efficient, streamlined and customized in an economical way. These two methods are typical in the design and construction of a parametric building, but they include a major downfall since neither method fully integrates CAM into the whole building process. Humans are still required in the assembly process, which introduces human error and does not match up to the standard of fully automated manufacturing in other industries, such as the automobile, shipbuilding, and aerospace that have been compared and contrasted previously.
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The above image is the structure of the Dalian International Conference Center in Dalian, China. It represents the splicing method used in designing parametrically informed works of architecture.
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Coop Himmel(b)lau, "Dalian International Conference Center," http://www.coophimmelblau.at/architecture/projects/dalian-international-conference-center/.
The Future of Integrated CAM
In order to produce a project that has a fully integrated CAM process, much research and dedication is required to pursue such a feat. Not many architects or firms would be able to assemble such a project without previous experience or an advantageous and excessive reputation. As a visionary Architecture firm, Coop Himmelb(l)au continuously pushes the envelope in terms of design, process, manufacturing and impact the work of architecture places on an individual when they experience the project first hand. The firm learned from the other CAM based industries, such as aerospace, ship building and the automobile, and continues to develop new technology for design and manufacturing in unison. They lead the way in the architecture industry and break away from the standards that the construction industry has placed on the architects. Wolf D. Prix (Co Principal and founder of Coop Himmelb(l)au) explains this idea in his interview, Baroque Himmelb(l)au, “Computer Technology is essential if we are to actually see our designs realized within a realistic period of time. On the one hand, we use computer technology as a design tool, on the other, it helps us calculate forces and produce all the necessary drawings. But computer technology is only one of the elements that helps us to create our clouds. We introduce other forces into the design process, such as sketching, natural phenomena such as wind, and environmental aspects. For me, the new movement of digital architecture is no more than the design of interior architecture, furniture. It is architecture without a surface. It only affects short term memory and leaves behind no legacy. For me, architecture is about finding a form, an authentic, recognizable new form that speaks its own language and leaves an undistinguishable mark in your mind.”22 When one reads previous writings and interviews from Wolf D. Prix, they understand that he is concerned with the progression of Architecture in the modern world. His vision is to see clouds appear in sculptural form work through the medium of Architecture. In order to create these clouds, he has turned to the computer and tried to harness the full capacity and capability that it can have to affect the design. Until now, Coop Himmel(b)lau has used the computer and specifically parametric design in order to build the sculptural works of architecture that have produced controversy and strong opinions in multiple cities. In an interview over Wolf D. Prix’s new Dalian Conference Center in Dalian, China, he explains that, “he sees architecture as art, and says it should be at the cutting edge. All our buildings have extremely distinctive forms. That may alienate the beholder at first, but like all strange things, when you’ve gotten used to it, you see the advantages of the unusual. So people remember the building, they can describe it. That way 22
Wolf D. Prix, interview by Rene Erven and Barbel van Zanten, 2002.
people can take emotional possession of the building.”23 Prix relies on the form of the building to create the emotional bond between the subject and the work of architecture. In his opinion, the feeling can be love or hate, but the idea is to illicit some form of emotion in order to remember that particular building. To create this emotion in humans, Prix argues that the computer is an essential tool to inform the design in unison with other local parameters. These tools are combined and the information is stored in the computer and then used to create the construction and fabrication documents. They are then used to erect the building that will create an emotional attachment with the society it is designed to enhance. This progressive mindset has not changed and the firm recently released a video animation of the design proposal for the MOCAPE Museum of Contemporary Art & Planning Exhibition in Shenzhen, China. This video includes a detailed simulation of how the internal silvery object, or “cloud”, is constructed, rather fully automated by robots. This utilizes fabrication and CAM to a whole new level and at the larger scale. One could argue that this would be the first attempt to make CAM fully integrated into the entire building process, rather than limited only to the fabrication process. The technical animation shows the construction process from start to finish. It starts the building process by showing the stainless steel panels in the manufacturing plant in china. Each stainless steel sheet gets pressed in a machine that automatically creates the mold for the top and bottom. It uses circular rubber cups that create a multi point form based on CNC technology. This manufacturing process is incredibly beneficial since it virtually eliminates the need to route and make the molds separately first, to then press the steel sheets between. Not only does the mold process waste material, it wastes precious time. This is a sustainable approach and cuts down on the manufacturing time. Once the sheets get pressed, they are brought to the site and applied to the steel frame that has been built while the manufacturing of the steel sheets took place. These sheets are then applied using a robotic arm mounted to a crane in order to reach every area of the frame. Every sheet is placed on the frame until the whole “cloud” is covered in stainless steel plates. The protective film is then removed and tack welding is applied to make sure the plates hold together. Once the whole cloud is tack welded, the seams are fully welded to ensure complete strength and solidity. After all the welding is complete, the cloud is watertight and the course grinding takes place. There are two rounds of course grinding on the seams in order to take down the excess steel that has been added to the plates. Once the seams are close to flush, there are two rounds of fine grinding so that the last part of the excess steel is removed. Finally, the seams are polished to give the illusion that the cloud is one complete object in a large
23
Coop Himmelblau, "Dalian Conference Center (Deutsche Welle)," https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jrIjnGD6gY0.
enclosed courtyard.24 This revolutionary process ties the workflow that has previously been broken in the Architectural Construction industry. Wolf D. Prix states in his interview with Evan Rawn, that, “I think this will be the first building which is built by robots, only by robots. From the production of the elements in the factory, up to the construction of the real building, only by robots. If this takes place on a global scale, it will spark a revolution in an industry which has remained largely the same for 5000 years.”25 Through the use of Parametric design, BIM, CAM, and Robotic Fabrication and Assembly, scale is no longer an inhibitor when it comes to the CAD and CAM workflow. Buildings can now be fully automated through the use of the Robot, which will add to the safety on site, increased productivity, higher precision and skilled labor. A consequence and conclusion to automating construction will create a shift and a need for good managers rather than construction workers. It will also require more skilled designers who can program the robots to function and “build” the building. On one downside, it will push construction workers out of a job, but at the gain of a higher quality building and the employment of skilled computer programmers and draftsmen. This shift in the construction industry will only increase the necessity of parametric design and strengthen the workflow from Parametric to BIM to CAM.
26
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26. Multi point forming of the stainless steel sheets. 27. Application of the steel sheets via robotic arm.
Coop Himmelb(l)au is not the only company to start to use automated machines in order to construct buildings. Komatsu is an international leader in the construction and mining business and has had a recent issue with the lack of skilled laborers in Japan in order to construct a site. They have turned to a startup called Skycatch, which has adapted and capitalized on the uses of 24
"We Start the Future of Construction. Coop Himmelb(L)Au Wolf D. Prix & Partner Zt Gmbh," https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R64IEixoYJ0. 25 Evan Rawn, "The Robot Revolution: Coop Himmelb(L)Au Founder Wolf D. Prix on the Future of Construction," http://www.archdaily.com/604422/the-robot-revolution-coop-himmelb-l-au-founder-wolf-dprix-on-the-future-of-construction. 26 Wolf D. Prix, "Facebook Pictures," https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=702157306580364&set=pb.100003583029684.2207520000.1465659609.&type=3&theater. 27 Rawn, "The Robot Revolution: Coop Himmelb(L)Au Founder Wolf D. Prix on the Future of Construction".
the drone technology in order to map the environment of a construction site. The drones can produce 3D scans of the current state and overlay them with the BIM model of the final state in order to start construction. Komatsu has adapted the use of Skycatch in order to automate the machines that operate on the ground. They are able to receive an accurate aerial 3D map of the current situation and relay that to the automated bulldozers that push the dirt around in order to prep the site. This is done in real time and would only be possible with the technology of aerial mapping made possible through the drone. At first, Komatsu had issues with the relay of information and accurate site analysis/3D map to send to the automated bulldozers. The implementation of the drones by Skycatch has drastically improved the margin of error that they once had with a team of surveyors on the ground. This improvement has allowed Komatsu to accurately determine the amount of dirt needed to be moved and reduces the time it takes to do so. A traditional team of surveyors would take approximately two weeks to completely map a site. With Skycatch, it has decreased the time to anywhere from 30 minutes to one day. This incredible reduction in time necessary to map a site, along with a direct, real time data flow to direct the automated bulldozers increases the overall productivity and efficiency in the entire project.28 Automation has shown in the early roots of the construction process that the whole schedule can be moved forward and decrease the overall construction time of a building. These advantages point to the implementation of automation in future construction projects. The process of the computer in Architecture will revolutionize the way architects can design, manufacture and build the works of architecture. Through the use of robotic manufacturing and assembly, architects are no longer limited to standardized building materials, ie, the 2x4, or standard building methodologies. This extreme stance and progression by Coop Himmelb(l)au and Komatsu have created a shift from the Construction industry, which holds the reigns and calls the shots, to the Architect, who directs the construction process. This process has not happened over night, as stated in the case study, and Coop Himmelb(l)au has worked for many years to establish a certain typology in the Architectural world. This extreme hard work, perseverance and dedication should be commended and respected in the architectural world and other professional practices. In a sense, Coop Himmelb(l)au has put the architect back on the pedestal as the complete designer. The architect is no longer confined by the manufacturing process of the construction industry, nor bottlenecked by standard construction processes, workflows or standardizations. The automation of the site work by Komatsu in unison with the automation of the building construction by Coop Himmelb(l)au would connect the two and render the project as a completely automated construction project. These two methods will continue to 28
Ben Popper, "Robo-Bulldozers Guided by Drones Are Helping Ease Japan's Labor Shortage," http://www.theverge.com/2015/10/13/9521453/skycatch-komatsu-drones-construction-autonomousvehicles.
revolutionize the building industry and make nonstandard architecture not only more accessible, but affordable to design and build. These processes address the goal of digital fabrication, but at the large scale instead of the medium or small; it allows for the mass customization of architecture at a relatively affordable price. The shift to a more complete BIM to CAM process has created a new era in the architectural design and fabrication world. This standard has completed the adaptation of the computer that lacked in the 1970’s and 1980’s, when the computer was first introduced to Architecture. Coop Himmelb(l)au has created a bridge between the CAD and CAM process that will only enhance and push architecture beyond the current limitations.
Conclusion
The question as to whether or not the computer in architecture has been a good thing is still highly subjective and specific to individual opinion. Based on the arguments given above, logic would conclude that the computer has increased the efficiency, workflow and production in the architecture and construction industries. This in turn has allowed for increased capitol to flow throughout the different architecture firms, construction companies, manufacturing plants and businesses that require works of architecture. This has affected the economy and produced new acquaintances throughout the different industries. Each industry has shared ideas through collaboration and has increased the knowledge within individuals. Architecture has benefited highly from this information sharing and the computer has influenced the way firms work. From the very roots of the computer implementation, the architecture field has shown to adapt quickly, but only use certain parts. The architecture industry decided to pick and choose the elements that suited the current workflow, rather than utilize the package product. This is best explained through the decision to only incorporate CAD into the design process, rather than explore CAD and CAM in unison. This has set Architecture back a few years and the industry has had to catch up to the times and current manufacturing processes. Even today, the manufacturing techniques for other industries, specifically NASA, are much more specific and have higher design regulations and processes for developing the final product.29 These specifications allow for a much higher quality and detailed product that performs in a certain place. These would not have been possible had they not worked closely with CAD and CAM in the developmental stages. Architecture has been closely tied to the construction industry, which has been slow to change and adapt the CAM techniques. The logical conclusion is that architects are slow to fully (or at least partially) incorporate CAM into the design process due to the lack of exploration in the early implementation of CAD and CAM. The two were designed to be used together, but since the architecture industry chose to only use half, they are slowly incorporating CAM in buildings during the current time period. Buildings are designed for a specific place and area, so they should be fully customized to perform to the best they can. The use of the computer, specifically through Parametric, BIM and CAM will continue to create buildings tailored to specific areas for performance. The ability to track sun data and inform the design to place windows and opening where energy will be gained in the winter while avoiding the sun in the summer is invaluable. Other examples from informed parametric design will create buildings that react to the environment and work to minimize energy costs, if not regain them fully. The shift from the physical drawing tables, to the digital has drastically affected architecture as a 29
NASA, "Nasa Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements."
whole. The design is no longer in two dimensions; rather it can be visualized before the project is even built through the 3D render. Another area that will take off very soon is the use of Virtual Reality (VR). From the 3d object that firms design, they can place it in a program that renders the image on CR glasses that are placed on the head. Oculus Rift and HTC Vive are two products that have worked to design products that give the best VR experience possible. One can actually stand up and walk around in physical space, then walk around in the virtual space that they have designed. This illusion makes the person feel as though they are physically in the space. This will have another huge affect on architecture firms in the near future. People will be able to virtually walk around in the house or office they are about to design or buy and determine if the spaces are adequate or not. This virtual space will impact the clients and give huge advantages to the designers. They will be able to make decisions rapidly with more confidence than before. The digital age will be limited only to the imagination and available strictly through the use of the computer. When an addict has used a certain drug for a long time, there is a need to move to something harder. This is a deep psychological and physiological reason, because the endorphin levels have been radically shifted. What once could get a person high, only allows them to feel “normal�. They have to move on to harder drugs. In the same vein, architects’ senses have been dulled by the stagnant and elongated use of the current computer platform. The machines that once produced glossy images are no match for the Virtual Reality programs that exhaust the computers internals and fry the components to near blackness. The use of the computer in Architecture will only continue to enhance the design, construction, and utilization phases of the design to realization process. Architects will become more dependent on the computer as buildings become more complex. This is due to the fact that large amounts of data are required to experience the buildings in the virtual world as well as the physical. This dependency will require a stronger drug and our addiction will not be eased quickly by a subpar machine. This drug will not only benefit the architects, but society as a whole. The design of beautiful buildings will continue to impact the people who inhabit them and continue the shift from the physical to the digital via the computer.
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