If you sit down for twenty minutes in this business, now they call it a comeback. Judy Garland
The Queen of Comebacks JUDY GARLAND (1922 –1969)
Judy Garland glamour shot, 1943
Through a career that spanned 45 of her 47 years, Judy Garland attained international stardom as an actress in musical and dramatic roles, as a recording artist, on the concert stage and on the radio.
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June 10. Born Frances Ethel Gumm (though nicknamed Baby) in Grand Rapids, MN, the third daughter of small time vaudevillians, Frank & Ethel Gumm.
The Gumm Sisters become regulars on a local radio spot and under the Ethel Meglin aegis, enjoy their motion picture debut as a trio in The Big Revue.
The Garland Sisters headline the Cal-Neva Lodge in Lake Tahoe. During that engagement, Susie finds a finace and Judy finds an agent. The Garland Sisters dissolve when Susie marries musician Lee Kahn.
The Gumm Sisters are introduced to contacts at Warner Bros. who cast them in three additional musical shorts.
1922
October. Judy signs an exclusive contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
Frances makes her first stage appearance, singing “Jingle Bells” at a Christmas show at her father’s theater with older sisters Susie and Jimmie
The Gumm Sisters enroll in a dance school and appear in various productions with the Meglin Kiddies troupe.
The Gumm Sisters change their name to the Garland Sisters, Frances takes the name Judy after a popular contemporary song.
1924
1928
1934
1929
1926
1930
The Gumm family relocates to Lancaster, CA after allegations of Frank’s homosexual affairs surface. Frank takes over, renovates, and manages the Valley Theater in Lancaster.
Ethel Gumm, however innocently, starts her children on a regimen of whatever stimulating or relaxing medication can be legitimately obtained to keep them fittingly sparkling or rested for performances and interviews.
MGM lends Judy to 20th Century Fox, who
was preparing a showcase for Garland in the musical comedy Pigskin Parade, the film that started her fan base.
1936 1935
November. Frank Gumm dies of meningitis while Judy performs one of her first radio guest appearances on the Shell Chateau Hour.
Icon & Color Legend singing & stage career
significant personal moments
radio career
film career
television career
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personal failures (drugs, alcohol, divorce)
MGM slots Judy for
Judy stars in The Wizard Broadway Musical of 1938, of Oz, one of the most winning her a long-term expensive and ambitious Decca recording contract. projects in MGM history and one of the best-loved MGM’s plans for Judy films in cinematic begin to overwhelmingly history. overlap. She assumes a Babes in Arms is released, semi-regular role on network radio show Good a full-fledged musical News as well as becoming comedy co-starring with Mickey Rooney. the vocalist for the oakie College program. Judy stars in four films: Thoroughbreds Don’t Cry, Everybody Sing, Listen, Darling, and Love Finds Andy Hardy, marking the beginning of her on-screen romance with Mickey Rooney.
1937
1938
1939
Judy stars in Presenting Lily Mars, Girl Crazy, and Thousands Cheer while making numerous radio appearances. In addition to her film, records, and radio career, Judy participates in the stateside war effort. She does three tours of duty around the country.
February. Judy wins a special Academy Award Oscar for her 1939 juvenile performances.
March 16. Judy’s first daughter, Liza May Minelli, is born.
Judy stars in Little Nellie Kelly, the first film to highlight her alone.
1940
1943 1941
Ethel Gumm remarries to William Gilmore, a man to whom Judy objected because he and her mother had begun their liaison long before Frank’s death. At age 19, Judy elopes with composer David Rose. The marriage would last scarcely two years.
1946 1945
1948
After an on-again offagain courtship, Judy married for the second time to Vincente Minelli. He was nearly 20 years Judy has her third major her senior but who had collapse in five years successfully directed and must be replaced her in three films. in the films The Barkleys The Garland-Minelli of Broadway and Annie union would collapse Get Your Gun. However, in 1952, partially due to Judy’s increasing reliance she manages to fulfill her roles in Words and on self-medication. Music, Easter Parade, and Minelli’s box office failure, The Pirate. Judy stars in Summer Stock, and though there were delays along the way the film succeeds in its opening week of release. By that time, however, Judy was again on suspension from MGM.
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Judy posing for Vogue, 1941
After twenty-five loyal years with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Judy Garland’s personal issues became too much for the studio. Garland was released from her contract in September 1950.
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Leaving MGM was a mixed blessing; the pressures were suddenly gone, but so was Judy’s home base. Both her professional and personal friends rallied, yet Garland’s career seemed to be spiraling downward. For a few unstable months, Judy returned to the radio, where she was graciously welcomed. She guest-starred on the bob Hope show among others, reigniting her love for the live studio audience and keeping attention off her professional downturn with dry, self-deprecating humor and collaborations with past co-stars, legends such as Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin.
The London Palladium But it was the variety stage on which The engagement opened on October 16, Judy and her management set their sights. 1951, and while was scheduled to run four By early 1951, her producer and husband weeks, it ultimately played nineteen weeks. Sid Luft managed to book Garland into “Judy at the Palace” was the first of many the London Palladium for four weeks at occasions over the next eighteen years that the beginning of April. Starring at the would be described, as the high point of her Palladium had the prestige of starting life. The New York Post’s critic could only again at the top. acknowledge, “Those who planned and London’s premier variety house booked only the best, and had the capacity to make or break anyone, from small-time novelty acts to major Hollywood names. Despite opening night nerves (she literally fell down on the stage when attempting a bow), Judy was received with heartfelt hysteria by London audiences.
There was critical approval as well. It was the logical progression. After a sixteen year long “detour” in film, Baby Gumm was returning full-time to her natural habitat, the stage. Even her Palladium success was to pale when Judy returned to New York and appeared at the most famous of all U.S. variety theaters, the Palace. Conceived as a vaudevillian mecca in 1913, the Palace began to present a halfhearted melange of movies and small-time acts when live variety shows gave way in popularity to films and radio. It was Luft’s idea that Judy take over the theater as the star of a full, traditional vaudeville bill, and Roger Edens and Chuck Walters quickly assembled a theatrical presentation of pure, undiluted Garland.
worked on her show wanted to make this the greatest act to have ever played the Palace. They succeeded.” The success was repeated during sellout shows in Los Angeles and San Francisco in the spring of 1952, but a further tour was eliminated by Judy’s pregnancy and June marriage to Luft. Theirs was a stormy relationship, but whatever their personal difficulties, Luft had a positive impact on Garland’s stage career. By the time Judy’s second daughter Lorna was born on November 21, 1952, everything was in place for Garland’s film return.
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A Star is Born From its conception, a star is born was prepared as a showcase for Judy’s new level of fame. The title had been first brought to the screen in 1917. Forty years later, the Lufts formed their own company to coproduce a musical remake of the property with Warner Bros. and quickly assembled a remarkable creative team of Garland’s personal friends and admirers of her professional acumen. Given star’s monumental ambitions, there were commensurate problems during its making. Judy labeled herself, director George Cukor, and Sid Luft unrelenting perfectionists in their attempts for it all to be exactly as they wanted, whatever the potential time and cost overruns.
Unfortunately, within days of the opening, Warner Bros. recut the picture, eliminating roughly thirty minutes from every release print and then ordering the destruction of the now excess footage. A STAR IS BORN had seemed a potential box office champion, a probable Academy Award winner, and a Ten Best-list honoree for the year. Instead, personal and press word of mouth bemoaned the deletions, box office fell off, and the picture lost money and year-end accolades.
The shooting schedule for A STAR IS BORN ran from October 1953 to July 1954, but the $4.8 million budget seemed to be justified when both West and East Coast premieres, opening reviews, and the first week’s box office numbers were described by Variety as “little short of phenomenal.”
Film still of Judy and co-star James Mason, 1954
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There was some consolation that spring; although the Oscar for Best Actress went to Grace Kelly, Judy received both a nomination and a son, Joseph Wiley Luft, born on March 29, 1955.
Despite the devastation of A STAR IS BORN, the rest of the decade brought Garland a new level of musical acclaim. In 1955, Judy released a best-selling record, MISS SHOW BUSINESS and premiered as the star of FORD STAR JUBILEE, a “live� 90-minute television performance. A second album, JUDY, was released in 1956, followed by an album of ballads, ALONE (1957) and an album of romantic songs JUDY IN LOVE (1958). A fourth album in four years, THE LETTER, was released in 1959.
Throughout the 1950s, Garland toured constantly. Yet, amidst her outstanding successes, she faced constant stress. The strain of the rigorous performance professionalism Judy demanded of herself led to serious physical depletion, laryngitis, and canceled concerts. There were shows in Las Vegas and Brooklyn that were aborted mid-performance because of public rows with audiences or management.
Judy with Joey, November 1955
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1920s
1930s
1940s
frank gumm’s affairs
least severe
In 1926, Frank Gumm was accused of having sexual relationships with his male employees in his Grand Rapids theater. This uprooted the family to Lancaster where similar allegations were again brought against Frank.
distorted body image childhood stardom Garland was born into a family that centered its life around her father’s theater, her parents’ vaudeville acts, and her ability to sing and dance with her older sisters. As a child, Judy was constantly forced to choose between work and play and her studies were sorely neglected. Being born into the Gumm family meant being born into the spotlight, whether Judy wanted it or not.
most severe
From the time she signed with MGM at 13, Judy was constantly compared to older, more “glamorous” girls on the lot. Coupled with her already low self-esteem, Judy suffered from severe depression and body image issues.
addiction to barbiturates & amphetamines Started at a tragically young age & perpetuated by the studio, Garland developed an addiction to amphetamines (uppers) & barbiturates (downers) that laid the groundwork for later mental breakdowns. Despite many attempts at rehabilitation, Judy always returned to her old habits. Eventually, her death would be caused by an inability to wake from her dependence on larger and larger doses of barbiturates.
Alcoholism Battles with alcoholism caused Judy to make numerous negative headlines, particularly in the 1950s and early 1960s. Coupled with her prescription drug addictions, Garland’s alcohol dependency was extremely dangerous to her career, and even more so to her physical and mental health.
1950s
1960s
herron’s homosexuality ethel gumm’s remarriage Judy never forgave her mother for her infidelity or the eventual remarriage to the man she was involved with. When Ethel died, mother and daughter were still estranged and Judy never forgave herself.
bad marriages Her career in show business introduced Judy to all five of her husbands. While she managed successful professional relationships with all of them, none of Garland’s romantic relationships were ultimately successful.
Finding out about her fourth husband’s homosexuality was damaging to Garland’s plummeting career and already fragile ego. The scandal caused a slew of negative headlines.
public meltdowns In final years, the quality of Judy’s concerts were more and more erratic. During one particularly bad show in Melbourne, she appeared an hour late, frail and voiceless, and ended the concert twenty minutes into the show, due to the crowd’s intense heckling.
mounting DEBT Garland failed to pay her taxes and was several hundred-thousand dollars in debt to the IRS, in 1951 and 1952. The financial failure of A Star is Born meant she got nothing back from the investment. A successful run with The Judy Garland Show was intended to secure her family’s financial future, but the TV show’s failure only increased her debt. At the time of her death, Garland still owed the government much more than she had.
There were personal demons as well. Though they had been estranged for many years, Judy was emotionally devastated by the death of her mother in January 1953. In both 1956 & 1958, Garland brought divorce suits against Luft (though reconciliations quickly followed). Despite the top-dollar salary she required, Judy faced increasingly mounting debt.
“Something was wrong. She did not live expensively, she did not entertain lavishly, she didn’t have Rolls-Royces, she wasn’t really all that extravagant in any way. Where was the money? She was the biggest star of her time. Where was the money? It couldn’t have gone to the tax people; they said she didn’t pay them!” Finally, there were Judy’s age-old issues with weight and medication; on a few occasions, there were attempts at suicide when the cumulative effects of her pills meant that she literally did not know what she was doing. By November 1959, all the years of excess coalesced. The pressure, overwork, psychological malfunction, and substance abuse manifested themselves in a virulent case of hepatitis. Garland was hospitalized in New York, and her recovery was seriously in doubt. Beyond that, the doctors were definitive in their consensus that her career was over;
she couldn’t possibly work again.
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Judy waves to fans waiting outside the hospital, 1959
Miraculously, Judy made a full recovery.
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“I knew the doctors were wrong; I just felt too good.” In 1960, Judy Garland was in better health than ever before in her adult life. Virtually medication-free, Judy faced only minimal professional commitments that year: an album, JUDY! THAT’S ENTERTAINMENT for Capitol Records and a re-recording of her greatest hits with additional new material in stereo for a two-disc set. Those London sessions would pave the way to an entirely new stage career. Sid Luft booked his wife into the London Palladium for her first one-woman concert on August 28: no backup chorus, no other acts, just Garland, a full orchestra, and a three-hour program of thirty songs. Such a pure, unencumbered approach was the most potent presentation she could offer. Judy’s obviously robust health, her new maturity, and her voice, created a new level of crossgenerational hysteria wherever she went.
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“If the Judy Garland who once stole Andy Hardy’s heart has gone somewhere over a rainbow of hard knocks and sleeping pills, Garland the actress is here to stay.” Time, 1961
Carnegie Hall Renewed, Garland returned to the United States on New Year’s Eve 1960. Soon after, Luft relinquished her managerial reins to Freddie Fields and David Begelman, two fresh young entrepreneurs in the process of forming their own talent agency. Propelled forward by the Fields/Begelman ambition and her own desire for financial stability, Judy embarked on what would become essentially become a nonstop three-year work schedule.
If the 1950s had won her billing as Miss Show Business and a reputation as “a living legend,” by 1961 , Judy Garland was quite simply “the world’s greatest entertainer.” Judy sang her one-woman concert some forty times that year, from the Newport Jazz Festival to the Hollywood Bowl. But her single greatest success came with an April appearance at Carnegie Hall. Before a jammed-past-capacity crowd of more than 3,000, the rested, ebullient grown-up Baby Gumm gave what was arguably the performance of her life. Capitol recorded the concert in its entirety and JUDY AT CARNEGIE HALL became the fastest selling two-disc set of its time.
Judy’s legendary performance at Carnegie Hall, 1961
The resurgent Garland next returned to starring roles in two 1962 films. She shared top billing with Burt Lancaster in A CHILD IS WAITING, and co-starred with Dirk Bogarde in I COULD GO ON SINGING. Though far from a great money-maker and dismissed for its soap-opera plot, I COULD GO ON SINGING brought more critical respect to Garland’s work. 25
The Great Garland Gamble Perhaps Judy’s greatest popular success of 1962 came in a February CBS special, costarring Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin. It gave worldwide audiences the chance to watch Garland perform segments of her Carnegie Hall album. The ratings, reviews, and public exultation provided an exclamation point to her comeback. By late 1962, Fields and Begelman had parlayed Garland’s return into a huge and thriving business, drawing other stars into their agency on the strength of their accomplishments for her. But it was the success of the TV special that provided her managers the ammunition for their coup de grace proposal: a weekly Judy Garland TV series, beginning September of 1963. All three networks entered into negotiations and Judy capped the year by signing onto a four-season, $24 million offer from CBS.
However, the ongoing activities of the preceding thirty months had exhausted her, and Judy was again dependent on prescription medication to maintain her hectic schedule. There were delays in her 1962 films when she was unable to summon the strength or nerve to reach the set. Judy was also briefly hospitalized with paralysis. Along with everything else, Judy’s marriage to Luft was off and on and off and on again. Yet Garland was hopeful; envisioning her TV series as a real home base and steady income for the first time since MGM. 26
THE JUDY GARLAND SHOW served as a glorious summation of Judy’s concert years. Judy learned and performed dozens of songs new to her repertoire; there were memorable duets with contemporaries like Tony Bennett and Ethel Merman, newcomers Barbra Streisand and Liza Minelli, and old friends such as Mickey Rooney, Ray Bolger, and June Allyson. But the network saddled her with a thankless time slot from which they then refused to move the show.
They stuck Garland with a phony format, fired first producer George Schlatter, forced second producer Norman Jewison to plot the show as a banal variety hour, and then finally allowed third producer, Bill Colleran, to implement an all-music format. By then, however, the show was scheduled for cancellation after its twenty-sixth episode, a victim of the constant, vicious ratings game.
Judy with a guest on her show, 1964
Carnegie Hall, New York City Legendary concert, best-selling record
Palace Theater, New York City The show runs 19 weeks and breaks all box office records
Concertgebouw, Amsterdam Broadcast live on European radio and considered almost on par with Garland’s subsequent Carnegie Hall performance
Ford Star Jubilee The first full-scale color telecast on CBS
Theatre Royal, Dublin Fourteen sold-out performances for an unprecedented 50,000 people
1951
1952
1960
1955 1953
1956
1957
Palladium, London Garland performs her new show twice nightly with biweekly matinees General Electric Theater The first of a series of CBS specials. Only one was broadcast before the show was canceled.
Stage & Television Performance Between 1951 & 1969, Judy Garland gave the best and the worst performances of her career. The vacillating nature of her work corresponded to her abuse and abstinence from pills and alcohol.
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New Frontier Hotel, Las Vegas Garland becomes the highest paid entertainer in Las Vegas, but suffers a debilitating bout of laryngitis and aborts the engagement
1961
best concert appearance
The Judy Garland Show Singular performance with Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin, nominated for four Emmy awards
best television appearance
Judy Garland with Guests Phil Silvers & Robert Goulet Nominated for an Emmy
Boston Common Over 100,000 people (Judy’s largest audience ever) attend her free outdoor concert
1962
average performance
1967 1963
1964
1966
Palladium, London Performance with daughter Liza, recorded as a two-disc LP for Capitol Records Broadcast of the November performance with Liza Minelli
1969
Sunday Night at the London Palladium One-time international coverage of Judy’s London show, noticeable flaws in performance
Palace Theater, New York City The show has a fourweek run with some canceled performances
The Judy Garland Show Garland’s only regular series. Cancelled after one season and only 26 episodes; her least successful TV endeavor
Palladium, Melbourne The audience is angered over her late appearance, inability to remember lyrics, and slurring her speech and Judy left the stage in tears after only 20 minutes
worst television appearance
worst concert appearance
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Drained by the workload but with her children to support, Judy Garland returned to the road. In 1964, she successfully performed at the Sydney and London Palladium. Over the next twenty-two months, there were well received, extended shows across the United States. Most were successful, with audiences of all ages. There were also canceled concerts and rough nights: an unforgivably late arrival and an inability to cope with a partially rowdy crowd in Melbourne, a 103 degree fever that knocked her out at intermission in Cincinnati; a broken arm after opening in Los Angeles; and such bad laryngitis after two nights in Mexico City that she had to forgo the remainder of a two-week booking. Naturally, all such bad news was bandied with somber glee by the press.
Between December 1964 and May 1966, Judy made a dozen guest appearances on television. But given the fate of her series, she appeared to regard the TV medium with much more fear than ever before; thus the quality of her performances fluctuated even more than it did at some of the concerts. The vacillating nature of her work can be traced to Garland’s intake or abstinence from medication. During this era, she tried several times to rid herself of the dependence, but the pressing need for money always meant she had to return immediately to work; there was never the chance to strive to retain or maintain her health. There was also the stigma of
having such an addiction in the first place.
Judy performing at the Sydney Palladium, 1964
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Failed Romances “I think Judy always chose the wrong men. As brilliant as she was, she had no sense about men. And I think that it came out of her insecurity, her disbelief that ‘My gosh! He’ll marry me!’ And she couldn’t believe that someone would really want her.” June Alyson
Despite her professional success, Garland was ever more in debt. Unpaid taxes (and accruing interest) from the 1950s and 1960s were by this point in a standoff against the government attachment of any current salaries; thus there were often no funds with which to pay her bills. After many trial separations, Garland and Luft divorced for good in 1965 after a bitter child custody battle. Garland immediately remarried, this time to actor Mark Herron. But their union lasted only a few months before dissolving when Garland confirmed rumors of Herron’s homosexuality. In 1966, with nowhere else to go, Judy again turned to Luft for career management. In February 1967, Judy was offered a film role in the Twentieth Century Fox feature THE VALLEY OF THE DOLLS, but by April, she’d been fired for failure to perform. This dismissal meant another negative headline, another blot on her professional reputation, but it was acknowledged, even at the time that this was a movie she was smart to forsake. True to tradition, once really down, Judy rallied. From June to December 1967, she came back with a major concert tour, booked for her by Sid Luft. Throughout Luft’s rigorous schedule, she missed only four out of eighty-three shows, one upon receiving news of the “Cowardly Lion” Bert Lahr’s death, and the others when hospitalized with bronchitis. 32
Encore The energy and determination that Judy summoned in 1967 was truly a miracle, but her income was yet again attached by the federal government. Judy, broke and bereft of solution, drifted through 1968 .
Judy relaxing before a show at The Talk of the Town, 1968
There were only a handful of concerts, some excellent and some embarrassingly the result of over-medication. By autumn, Luft and the children had retreated to California, and after a handful of New York television talk show appearances, Judy and new fiance Mickey Deans flew to London where she was booked to appear for five weeks at The Talk of the Town. Though almost translucently frail, she gave full value through most of the engagement. Her support in the UK, Lora Smith, worked backstage and noted Judy’s determination to nail every show, “sometimes in full voice, sometimes in a voice she described to her audience as having been ‘left at the hotel,’ sometimes struggling against the flu, but always with a quip or wisecrack.” In March, she married Mickey Deans and performed three well-recieved concerts in Sweden and Denmark; there were plans in place to further tour Europe and South Africa, to record an album, and to film a documentary in London.
But by June, Judy had just worn out.
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Frail to the point of malnutrition, Judy was unable to rally from her normal, necessary dose of sleeping pills. She passed away at her London home on June 22, 1969. A subsequent autopsy offered positive proof that her death was accidental; she remained a headlined, worldwide news feature for a full week after her death as millions mourned and 22,000 attended her New York City wake.
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Garland’s Hollywood Network “Whether they remember her as Dorothy, Andy Hardy’s girl, or the girl-tramp to Fred Astaire’s boy-tramp; whether they’re thinking of the birth of a star, born in a trunk, a tired little woman at the Nuremberg trials, or a tiny, talented mite knocking the hell out of ‘em on the stage of the Palace, they do remember Judy Garland.”
Andy Hardy Meets Debutante
Thoroughbreds Don’t Cry Life Begins for Andy Hardy
Obituary in Variety
Words and Music
1940
1937
1941
1948
Babes in Arms
MICKEY ROONEY
1939
Girl Crazy 1943
Strike Up the Band
JUNE ALLYSON
1940
Babes on Broadway
ROGER EDENS
1941
For Me and My Gal
BUSBY BERKELEY
1942
Little Nellie Kelly 1940
GEORGE MURPHY
Broadway Melody of 1938
ELEANOR POWELL
1938
ROBERT TAYLOR
La Fiesta de Santa Barbara 1935
THE GUMM SISTERS
Bubbles 1930
MERVYN LEROY
The Wedding of Jack and Jill
1930
BERT LAHR
A Holiday in Storyland
1930
RAY BOLGER
The Big Revue
1929
FRANK MORGAN
The Wizard of Oz
1939
JACK HALEY
Pigskin Parade
1936
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A Star is Born
1954
JAMES MASON SIDNEY LUFT
Love Finds Andy Hardy 1938
Ziegfeld Girl 1941
A Child Is Waiting 1963
Judgement at Nuremberg 1961
Presenting Lily Mars 1943
Listen, Darling 1938
The Harvey Girls LEWIS STONE
LANA TURNER
BURT LANCASTER
1944
SPENCER TRACY
MARLENE DIETRICH
Meet Me in St. Louis
WILLIAM SHATNER
1944
MARY ASTOR
The Clock
TOM DRAKE
1944
MARJORIE MAIN
Summer Stock
ROBERT WALKER
1950
VINCENTE MINELLI
The Pirate 1948
MARGARET OBRIEN LUCILLE BREMER
Thousands Cheer 1943
GENE KELLY
KATHRYN GRAYSON
‘Till the Clouds Roll By 1946
FRANK SINATRA FRED ASTAIRE ANN MILLER
Easter Parade 1948
PETER LAWFORD DEANNA DURBIN
FILMOGRAPHY OF JUDY GARLAND Between 1929 & 1963, Judy starred in 39 films and built an extensive network of friends and colleagues.
Every Sunday
1936
LIZA MINELLI VAN JOHNSON
In The Good Old Summertime
JOEY LUFT
LORNA LUFT DIRK BOGARDE
1949
I Could Go On Singing 1963
Yes, tragic things happened to my mother. But she was not a tragedy. Lorna Luft
designed by Sharon Silverberg photographs appropriated and text selection heavily edited from
Fricke, John. Judy Garland: A Portrait in Art and Anecdote. Bulfinch: Boston, 2003. set in Sentinel (8.5/11.5) & Nobel (10/12) accented with Hoefler Swash and Futura Medium Condensed printed on 28 lb Wausau Ice copy courtesy of Washington University in St. Louis Special thanks to Heather Corcoran created for Visual Information, Fall 2009
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