Textile and leather review 2-2020

TEXTILE & REVIEW LEATHER

2/2020 Volume 3 Issue 2 2020 textile-leather.com ISSN 2623-6257 (Print) ISSN 2623-6281 (Online)

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Textile & Leather Review ‒ ISSN 2623-6257 (Print), ISSN 2623-6281 (Online) UDC 677+675 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31881/TLR Frequency: 4 Times/Year The annual subscription (4 issues).

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TEXTILE & LEATHER REVIEW ISSN 2623-6257 (Print)

ISSN 2623-6281 (Online) CROATIA

VOLUME 3

ISSUE 2

2020

p. 49-112

CONTENT ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE 54-63

Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile Industry: Leather & Textile Waste Fibre-Polymer Composite and Nanocomposite - Overview and Review Venkatasubramanian Sivakumar, Resmi Mohan

64-77

Removal of Chromium(III) and Other Physical Parameters from Chrome Tan Wastewater and Recovery of Chromium from the Precipitating Sludge Md. Minhaz Uddin, Md. Jawad Hasan, Md. Didarul Islam, Ashiqur Rahaman, Sayed Md. Shamsuddin

78-91

Laibach, Anti-fashion and Subversion: Over-identification and Universality of a Uniform Tajda Hlačar

92-100

Film Costume as a Visual Narrative Element; Defining the Abstract Emotions of the Film Viewer via Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions Jelena Vojković

POSITION PAPER 101-102

3D Printing in the Apparel Sector: How Environmentally Sustainable is it?

Belinda Carp

103-106

Textile Market – Clothing Industry Facing New Challenges Ante Gavranović

NOTICE 107

RULA Awards 2020 for Best Researcher in Textile Technology Ana Marija Grancarić, Ivona Jerković

Shoes are made for walking.

Ferenc Vasadi · + 36 (0)30 94 69 123 · ferenc.vasadi@soliver-shoes.com shoe.com GmbH & Co. KG · www.soliver-shoes.com

SIVAKUMAR V, MOHAN R. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile… TLR 3 (2) 2020 54-63.

Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile Industry: Leather & Textile Waste Fibre-Polymer Composite and Nanocomposite - Overview and Review Venkatasubramanian SIVAKUMAR*, Resmi MOHAN Chemical Engineering Department, CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), Adyar, Chennai -600020, India *vsiva1clri@gmail.com Original scientific article UDC 675+677:658.567.1 DOI: 10.31881/TLR.2020.04 Received 6 February 2020; Accepted 15 May 2020; Published 16 June 2020

ABSTRACT Proper disposal methods and solid waste management are necessary for all the processing industries such as leather, textile and chemical industry. In this regard, the present paper reviews in detail about the leather and textile waste fibre-polymer composites and nanocomposites as a viable solid waste management strategy. In the paper, several published papers and patents available in this area are reviewed in detail. This approach adopts confinement of leather or textile waste fibres in a polymer matrix as a composite. Nanocomposites of leather waste fibre and polymer with nano-particle reinforcement have been reported to have enhanced physical and other properties. This would not only solve the problem of the disposal issue regarding leather solid wastes containing leather or textile waste fibres, but also provide versatile composite or nanocomposite materials as “Wealth from Waste Approach”. The unique feature of the present analysis and the review paper is that both leather and textile waste management have been covered in the present approach for the first time.

KEYWORDS Leather waste fibre, textile waste, polymer, nanocomposite, waste management

INTRODUCTION Leather processing involves various steps as described earlier, utilizing different chemicals in order to convert putrescible skin/hide into non-putrescible material called leather [1- 3]. Collagen is the main fibrous protein present and mainly responsible for skin/hide formation, having triple helical structure, with different amino acids present in polypeptide chain of single helices. Several molecules of collagen aggregate themselves into hierarchical structures, such as microfibril, fibril, fibre and fibre bundle [4]. Three-dimensional weave of fibre bundles leads to the formation of skin/hide as a matrix, composed of other non-collagenous materials, hair, flesh etc. Hence, skin/hide could act like a semi-permeable membrane, susceptible to physical, chemical and biological treatments – this property is useful and gainfully applied in leather processing.

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SIVAKUMAR V, MOHAN R. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile… TLR 3 (2) 2020 54-63.

Overview of leather processing Leather processing can be broadly classified into four major steps which involve various unit operations using different chemicals and mechanical operations described as follows: I) Pre-tanning - removal of non-collagenous materials and preparation of the skin/hide for the subsequent tanning process: soaking, liming, dehairing (M), defleshing (M), deliming, bating, degreasing, pickling, wherein “M” denotes Mechanical operation employing suitable machinery.

II) Tanning - stabilization of the collagen through cross-linking of collagen by tanning agents in order to provide resistance against biological and thermal action (hydrothermal stability).

The most common tanning methods are: a) mineral tanning (chrome, titanium etc.) - through co-ordinate covalent bond enabling intermolecular as well as intramolecular cross-links for collagen, and b) vegetable tanning (wattle, quebracho etc.) - through hydrogen bonding of condensed tannins of polyphenolic nature with collagen.

After tanning, shaving (M) is carried out in order to adjust the thickness of leather, to be suited for different applications.

III) Post-tanning - to impart required functional properties to the leather a) re-tanning to provide fullness, grain tightness etc. using different synthetic tanning agents known as “syntans”. b) dyeing – to impart colour to the leather using dyes c) fatliqouring – to impart lubrication to leather fibres and provide softness; using different oil-water emulsions known as fatliquors [5].

After tanning, setting (M), drying, stacking (M), buffing (M) - finely cutting the tanned fibres in order to get a napped or a velvet feel; carried out as suited for different applications of leather.

IV) Finishing - to provide protective coating on the surface of leather and to provide an aesthetic look by utilizing different finishing agents, such as a) binders - film forming polymers etc. b) pigments - colour giving particles or dispersions - inorganic (e.g. TiO2) and organic pigments c) lacquers - protective coat for the finishing film - nitro cellulose (NC) etc.

Need for solid leather waste management For every 1000 kg of raw hide processed for leather, only 255 kg of the raw material is converted into usable leather including leather splits. Nearly 745 kg is generated as solid waste in leather processing [6]. Of these, nearly 20–25% are in the form of tanned leather waste such as trimmings, shavings and buffing dusts which pose major environmental concern. As a solid waste management strategy, leather fibres from these solid wastes could be converted into useful products such as composite material along with suitable polymers [7].

A report by UNIDO indicates about 1402.43 tons per year of total leather waste generated for all the leather and leather products industries; for every 11 million tons of raw hides processed, 8.5 million tons of solid waste is generated as per the earlier report by FAO and other reports [8-10].

Typical solid waste generated in a tannery: fleshing - 30%, hair - 2–5%, chrome shaving, chrome splits and leather waste - 20–25%; skin trimmings - 10%; buffing dust - 1%. About 2–6 kg of buffing dust is formed per ton of skin/hide processed [11, 12].

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SIVAKUMAR V, MOHAN R. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile… TLR 3 (2) 2020 54-63.

Characterization of various solid leather wastes Various solid wastes generated from leather processing industry, such as pre-fleshing waste, limed fleshing waste, shavings, buffing’s and leather trimmings have been analysed for their characteristics, such as water content, pH, oils & fats content, nitrogen content, sulphur content (SO2), calorific value, and Cr, Fe, Na and Ca content, which was reported earlier for different types of raw materials [9].

Cr content in tanned leather fibre shavings and buffing’s typically varies in the range of 11-28 mg/g of leather waste [10, 11]. Leather waste materials predominantly contain chromium in the form of Cr (III), whereas, there is a possibility of presence of Cr (VI), which could be analysed through total chromium and Cr (VI) estimation through suitable chemical analysis methods developed by ISO and IULTCS official test methods IUC 8 & 18, such as [13]: I) UV-Vis spectrophotometric method after acid digestion, oxidizing the sample, and with measurement carried out at 540 nm using diphenylcarbazide complexing agent II) inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analyser III) atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) - while Cr(VI) is toxic by nature, Cr(III) is relatively unharmful.

Similarly, significant quantities of textile wastes are generated and composites reinforced with recycled cotton textile waste materials and polymers would also form an attractive option.

Materials and tools for leather waste fibre–polymer composites Polymer composites are versatile materials obtained by utilizing various properties of polymers, such as adhesion, thermal stability and easy adaptability for various material processing techniques, along with other materials in question for composite making, such as fibres, glass, wood etc. Such polymer composites are expected to yield enhanced properties. Therefore, a similar approach could be used for making leather waste fibre-polymer composites.

Various polymers available for leather fibre composites are listed below: A. Thermoplastics: • polyamide (PA) • polyvinyl chloride (PVC) • polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) • polyether ether ketone (PEEK) B. Thermosets: • epoxy polymer C. Elastomers: • natural and synthetic rubber (SR) Various methods and tools for making leather waste fibre-polymer composites are as follows: • twin-screw extrusion process • injection moulding • laminates - composite sheet making

Processing conditions for leather waste fibres Processing conditions for leather waste fibres, such as temperature for making composites, could be selected based on the values of shrinkage temperature of various materials used and based on the type of tanning, which are as follows:

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SIVAKUMAR V, MOHAN R. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile… TLR 3 (2) 2020 54-63.

Untanned skin/hide waste (raw trimmings etc.) - 60-65 °C Vegetable tanned leather waste (shavings, buffing, trimmings) - 70-80 °C Chrome tanned leather waste (shavings, buffing, trimmings) - 85-100 °C

Nanocomposites from leather waste fibres Currently available composites from leather waste fibres lack strength properties required for various applications. Therefore, reinforced nanocomposite material from leather waste fibres is useful. In this regard, leather waste fibre and epoxy-based nanocomposites have been prepared by using nano-TiO2 reinforcement at CSIR-CLRI and reported earlier [7,14]. DSC/TGA of such buffing dust-epoxy polymer nanocomposites exhibit better thermal stability compared to composites alone [7]. Figure 1 shows the image of the scanning electron micrographic (SEM) analysis for the cross-section of the nanocomposite prepared using rubber and buffing dust in the 1:1 ratio with nano-TiO2 (10 wt %).

These nanocomposites have adequate physical and other required properties as a versatile material that can be used for a variety of applications, such as light weight construction materials, automotive nanocomposite, footwear components, electrical switches etc.

Figure 1. SEM analysis of the cross-section of the rubber-buffing dust nanocomposite (in 1:1 ratio) prepared by using nano-TiO2 (10 wt %) (magnification: 1800x)

Various leather wastes generated and their usage A review on the utilization of solid leather waste has been made earlier [15 -17]. Various methods and products obtained by utilizing various solid wastes generated from leather industry are as follows: Raw trimmings - collagen based materials, glue, pet foods Fleshings - fleshing meal Tanned leather splits - chrome splits or vegetable splits: usually smaller cut portions could be used for leather boards etc.

Shavings - parchment like leather, leather board, composites Buffing dust - parchment like leather, leather board, composites Leather trimmings - leather board, regenerated leather, composites www.textile-leather.com 57

SIVAKUMAR V, MOHAN R. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile… TLR 3 (2) 2020 54-63.

Advantages and disadvantages of using leather waste fibres in composite/nanocomposite making Advantages Leather waste fibres could be effectively used in composite/nanocomposite making as filler materials in order to provide better composite matrix, porosity, thermal stability, strength properties etc. Certain properties of leather waste fibres could be complementary in nature to the properties of polymer in question for better composite making. Since leather waste fibres are resourced from inexpensive waste materials, using them could add value to the expensive polymers.

Disadvantages Since they are sourced from waste materials, which come from various places and different types and process conditions, there is bound to be inconsistency in characteristics and properties of these fibres and the same may reflect in the final product made out of these waste materials.

Dimensions of leather waste The dimensions of leather waste fibres, such as shavings, buffing’s and leather trimmings, that are obtained, vary depending upon the degree of force applied, or the extent of fibre cutting on the leather in a single feed by using machines like splitting, shaving or buffing machines, or the extent of manual cutting in case of leather trimmings as shown in Table 1. The geometry of each type of leather waste is not confined to a specific geometry; however, it may be assumed that it is one which falls in closer to the specific geometry.

Table 1. Dimensions of leather waste or fibres obtained S. No.

Leather waste fibres

Dimension (mm)

1

Tanned leather splits

~10 - 30

2

Shavings

~1 - 10

3

Buffing’s

~1 - 5

4

Leather trimmings

~5 - 30 cm (for skins) ~5 - 65 cm (for hides)

In addition, several reports and patents on leather waste fibre-polymer composites are available as follows.

Earlier reports and patents on leather waste fibre-polymer composites Picagli et al., (Patent No. EP0089029 A2; 1983,) wherein a reconstituted leather product is produced from fibrillated leather fibres [18]. The highly preferred leather product is prepared by a process which includes dry-chopping pieces of chrome tanned leather, wet-fibrillating the resulting dry-chopped leather so as to realize an aqueous slurry containing the fibrillated leather fibres, mixing the slurry with an ethylene–vinyl acetate co-polymer binding agent, and optionally, a fatliquoring agent, felting the resulting slurry, removing the remaining water to realize a dried felt having 80–90% solids, and finally, pressing the felt at a temperature sufficient to fuse the binder.

Schmidt, (Patent No. US 6,287,639, 2001) wherein the patent relates to composite materials characterized by a substrate and by a nanocomposite which is in functional contact with the substrate and is obtainable by surface modification of colloidal inorganic particles with one or more silanes of the Rx-Si-A4-x [19].

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SIVAKUMAR V, MOHAN R. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile… TLR 3 (2) 2020 54-63.

Coulson et al., (Patent No. WO2007047848, 2006) wherein leather composites and the methods of making them that include engineered leather substrates or composites are disclosed [20]. The substrate includes leather, non–leather fibres and a binding agent, and can further include cushioning agents, softeners, processing aids and colorants. A composite can include the substrate and one or more additional layers, such as top coat layers, reinforcing layers and cushioning layers. The substrate and/or the composite can be chemically or mechanically embossed. The leather used to form the engineered leather substrate can be derived from post–industrial and/or post–consumer materials. The non–leather fibres can be organic or inorganic, and the composition can also include inorganic fillers, such as calcium carbonate and clays.

Krecke, (Patent No. US 4536430, 1985) wherein a process for the production of a leather base material entails leather waste being divided up into strips or portions by cutting or shearing [21]. The strips or portions are then worked in order to break them up into fine material and individual fibres. The operation of working the strips or portions to cause them to disintegrate may be done by tearing or shredding the strips or portions, or crushing or bruising them. The individual fibres are then separated from the fine material. In order to improve the qualities of the fibre material, an advantageous development of the invention provides that the fibre material is mixed with a plasticizing agent and/or a binder and/or a resin before it is applied in the form of a layer to a surface intended to receive it.

Rajaram et al., wherein the study describes the preparation and characterization of leather particulate– polymer composites (LPPCs) from solid wastes (chrome shavings/buffing dusts) generated during leather manufacturing processes [22]. Nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) and neoprene rubber were the polymers used at different concentrations. The drawback is that the product is a composite based solely on rubber-based polymers, made without incorporating nanomaterials to get a nanocomposite with improved properties.

Ramaraj, wherein the study describes the possibility of using leather waste as reinforcing filler in the thermoplastic polymer composite, acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS), as the matrix, and leather buffing powder as the reinforcing filler to prepare a particulate reinforced composite [23]. The drawback is that the product is a composite based on ABS and leather waste as the filler, and made without incorporating nanomaterials to get a nanocomposite with improved properties.

Ambrosia et al., wherein the study describes the preparation and characterization of polyvinyl butyral-leather fibre composites [24]. The drawback is that the product is a composite based solely on PVB polymer, and made without incorporating nanomaterials to get a nanocomposite with improved properties.

Zeng et al., wherein the study describes the process of synthesizing leather–epoxy interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs); these IPNs have an approximate epoxy concentration of 25 wt % [25]. The flexural and tensile moduli of the IPNs prepared are equivalent to that of the epoxy resin.

Sutton has studied the production of polyurethane film/split leather laminate (US Patent: US 3713938A, 1970) [26]. Salwa et al. have reported the recycling of chrome-tanned leather waste in acrylonitrile butadiene rubber [27]. Mohamed et al. have made the preparation and characterization of polyamide leather waste polymer composites [28]. Tao et al. have studied about the cleaner Al2O3-ZrO2/MMT nanocomposite adsorbent based on Al-Zr tanning waste, JALCA, 109, 39-396, 2014 [29].

Babanas et al. have reported about the plasticized polyvinyl chloride filled with leather waste particles [30].

Various studies on both natural and synthetic-rubber-based leather waste composites are also available, such as Garcia et al. on natural rubber/leather waste composite foam: a new eco‐friendly material and a recycling approach [31]; Urrego Yepes on the mechanical and rheometric properties of natural rubber composites filled with untreated and chemically treated leather waste [32]; Meşe et al. on the study of effect of chrome-tanned leather scraps in ethylene-propylene-diene monomer rubber [33].

Duan et al. have studied the preparation and characterization of the covalent-integrated polylactic acid and scrap-leather fibre composites, and strength and thermal properties are found to be improved [34]. www.textile-leather.com 59

SIVAKUMAR V, MOHAN R. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile… TLR 3 (2) 2020 54-63.

Joseph et al. have studied the processing and characterization of leather waste-based polycaprolactone (PCL) biocomposites and found that the addition of waste leather buff resulted in the improvement of tensile modulus of neat PCL [35].

A similar study on polylactic acid (PLA) composites filled with waste leather buff has also been made, and it shows the improvement in tensile strength and wet-ability of the composites due to the addition of buffing dust [36].

Madera‐Santana et al. have studied the production of leather‐like composites using chemically modified short leather fibres that went through chemical modification by emulsion polymerization. The treatment significantly improves the thermal stability of fibres. It also reduces their water adsorption capacity, as a coating of PMMA is produced over the leather surface [37].

Saikia et al. have studied the development of a flexible composite from leather waste and evaluated its physio-chemical properties. Flexible composite sheets were made from dyed trimmings, either alone or in combination with natural fibres in various blend ratios [38].

Polymer composites from textile waste Textile processing involves various steps, such as fibre making from cotton or synthetic fibres, yarn spinning, weaving or knitting to make fabric, wet processing of fabric (bleaching, dyeing, finishing), cutting, stitching, garment manufacture [39].

Various types of waste, generated from each stage of textile processing, have been analysed earlier, and they mainly comprise of fibre wastes, yarn and fabric scraps and off-spec fabrics [40]. These are classified as pre-consumer textile wastes and account for about 750 000 tons per year in India [41]. The characterization of textile solid wastes has been reported earlier [42].

The morphology of cotton as well as its various properties, such as cellulose crystallinity, the degree of polymerization and decomposition temperature have been reported earlier [43]. Exposure to dry heat above 149 °C causes cotton fibres to decompose gradually, whereas temperatures above 246°C cause rapid deterioration. Dimensions of various textile wastes and fibres vary.

Thermoset composites reinforced with recycled cotton textile residues, which show strength properties, are increased due to the use of thermoset resins (epoxy, orthophthalic polyester and polyurethane) [44].

The mechanical behaviour of hybrid composites developed from textile waste fabrics, such as cotton, jute and glass, showed enhanced tensile and flexural properties [45].

The natural-fibre textile composite engineering, with a focus on natural fibre-polymer composites, has also been detailed in the book [46].

The properties of wood with recycled-textile composite panels have been studied earlier and it has been found that up to 5 % of recycled textiles in the wooden panel could be used without hampering the mechanical properties [47].

The effects of waste fabric properties, such as fabric tightness etc., on recycled fibre length, the spinnability of recycled cotton fibres and the properties of produced yarns were analysed earlier [48]. A similar study on industrial cotton waste recycling, the reclaimed fibre behaviour and quality prediction of its blend have also been studied [49].

The preparation and structural properties of fibrous-materials-reinforced polymer composites along with laminated hybridization and coupling agents has been studied earlier [50].

Advantages of using textile waste fibres in composite/nanocomposite making The utilization of these huge amounts of cotton and other textile wastes for making possibly useful materials would be beneficial for reducing pollution load on one hand and generating economic value on the other.

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SIVAKUMAR V, MOHAN R. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Leather and Textile… TLR 3 (2) 2020 54-63.

Textile waste fibres such as cotton fibres could be effectively used in composite/nanocomposite making as filler materials in order to provide better composite matrix, thermal stability, strength properties etc.

Certain properties of textile waste fibres could be complementary in nature to the properties of polymer in question which would allow for better composite making. Since textile waste fibres are resourced from inexpensive waste materials, using them could add value to the expensive polymers.

CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD Significant amounts of solid leather and textile fibre wastes are generated worldwide, which needs adequate attention and calls for proper solid waste management strategy. In this regard, the present paper analyses in detail the leather waste fibre-polymer composites and nanocomposites as a viable solution to this problem.

Several earlier works carried out in this regard, available from published papers and patents, are reviewed.

Composites reinforced with recycled cotton textile waste materials and polymers would also form an attractive option. The unique feature of the review paper is that the analyses of both leather and textile waste management have been covered in the present approach for the first time. This approach, as a solid waste confinement strategy, not only solves the problem of the disposal issue regarding leather and textile solid wastes containing leather and cotton waste fibres, but also provides versatile composite or nanocomposite materials as “Wealth from Waste Approach”.

Acknowledgements One of the authors, Venkatasubramanian Sivakumar, is grateful to the support provided by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and CSIR-CLRI, India.

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[31] Garcia NG, Reis EAP, Budemberg ER, Agostini DLS, Salmazo LO, Cabrera FC, Job AE. Natural rubber/ leather waste composite foam: A new eco‐friendly material and recycling approach. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2014 132: 41636.

[32] Urrego Yepes W, Cardona N, Velasquez SM, Giraldo Vásquez DH, Posada JC. Mechanical and rheometric properties of natural rubber composites filled with untreated and chemically treated leather wastes.

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UDDIN M M, et al. Removal of Chromium(III) and Other Physical Parameters from‌ TLR 3 (2) 2020 64-77.

Removal of Chromium(III) and Other Physical Parameters from Chrome Tan Wastewater and Recovery of Chromium from the Precipitating Sludge Md. Minhaz UDDIN1, Md. Jawad HASAN1, Md. Didarul ISLAM2, Ashiqur RAHAMAN1, Sayed Md. SHAMSUDDIN1,2* Institute of Leather Engineering and Technology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh *sdin@du.ac.bd 1 2

Original scientific article UDC 675.024.43:675.87 DOI: 10.31881/TLR.2020.07 Received 25 May 2020; Accepted 14 June 2020; Published 16 June 2020

ABSTRACT This study was adopted to investigate the removal of Cr(III) and other physicochemical parameters of chrome tan wastewater. For this purpose, three precipitating agents, CaCO3, NaHCO3, and MgO, were used to treat chrome tan wastewater. After treatment, it was found, in three different dose trials, that each agent removed almost 97-99.5 % of chromium. At the same time, it was observed that with the increase of doses, removal percentage of TDS, conductivity, and turbidity of effluent were reduced. In the case of NaHCO3 and CaCO3, Cr(III) removal percentage at optimum pH was found to be 99.97% and 99.95% respectively, whereas the maximum removal percentage for MgO was found to be 99.98%. The NaHCO3 and CaCO3 were found to be comparable to MgO for Cr(III) removal from chrome tan wastewater. The recovered chromium concentration in the sludge for NaHCO3 and CaCO3 were also similar to that of MgO. This research suggests that these two precipitating agents can be used in the same way as MgO, for Cr removal and recovery treatments. Moreover, this recovered chromium can be reused, thus reducing the environmental pollution.

KEYWORDS Chromium, precipitation, wastewater, environment, pollution

INTRODUCTION Tanning is the process in which raw, putrescible hides and skins are converted into durable, non-putrescible leather [1]. It is one of the most critical steps in the leather industry towards preserving leather from microbial decay, heat, sweat and humidity [2]. It is reported that one ton of wet salted hide can yield only 200 kg of leather and consequently more than 50m3 of wastewater [3,4]. Chromium compounds are widely used in various industrial operations such as textile dyeing, electroplating, wood preservation, pigmenting, paper and leather industries. The pollutants resulting from these industries contain a large amount of untreated chromium, which is harmful for the environment [5,6]. Chrome tanning was introduced in the 19th century and it has been estimated that almost 90% of world leather production today is the result of chrome tanning [7,8]. In tanning process mainly trivalent chromium is used, unfortunately only 60% to 70% of chromium

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reacts with collagen and the spent liquor i.e. the chrome tan wastewater contains remaining 30% to 40% of chromium [9]. Tanning processes have been developed based on salts of different metals though, for instance aluminium [10], sodium [11], titanium [12], iron [13]. Chromium is used in the tanning industry because the chrome–tanned leather has a high thermal stability and excellent physical properties. Currently, 6.5 million tons of raw hides and skins are made into leather worldwide. Solid waste consists of 56-60 % of fleshing, 35-40 % of chrome shaving, chrome split or buffing dust, 5-7 % of skin trimmings and 2-5 % of hair [14]. Depending on the chrome tanning process, chrome shaving dust in solid waste may contain 2.5 to 5 % of chromium (mostly trivalent chromium) [15,16]. Several researches suggested that wastewater contains 2500 ppm to 8000 ppm and 1300 ppm to 2500 ppm of chromium respectively [17,18]. The major chemical pollutants that come out from the tanning industry are sulfide and chromium; these chemicals spread into the local environment, which makes it harmful for the environment [19]. In Bangladesh, the soil and river water environment is highly affected by the tannery industries, which dramatically distort the ecological balance [20]. The permissible limit (EEPA) of chromium in wastewater is 2 mg/l for trivalent and 0.5 mg/l for hexavalent chromium [21]. A little amount of chromium is necessary for glucose, lipid and protein metabolism of mammals but long-time exposure can lead to various adverse health effects.

There are several methods of removal of chromium from the wastewater, like electrochemical precipitation [22,23,24], cation exchange membrane [25], solvent extraction, coagulation, membrane process and filtration [26], ion exchange [27,28] and adsorption [29-33]. With the exception of the precipitation method, most of the purification methods are costly in terms of installation and maintenance. However, this separated chromium recovery is also difficult and costly as well. Research has shown that CaCO3 has potential to be used in Cr(III) and Ni(II) removal [34]. The MgO is already popular as a precipitating agent [3]. The NaHCO3 also has potential to be used as a precipitating agent since it is already available in tanneries as a neutralizing agent [35]. In our study, NaHCO3, MgO and CaCO3 have been used as precipitation agents to remove chromium from chrome tan wastewater due to high alkalinity, solubility, low cost and availability.

The novelty of this study is that this research has not only shown the chromium removal efficiency of these precipitating agents, but has also made a comparison between the precipitating agents based on their chromium recovery efficiency. Many studies have already described the removal efficiency of several precipitation methods using different alkaline like NaOH, Ca(OH)2, MgO etc. [3]. However, there is very limited data on the recovery efficiency of the precipitating agents. After chromium removal from the chrome tan wastewater, the residual chromium in the precipitate should be re-used rather than be released into the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the recovery efficiency along with the chromium removal efficiency of every chemical precipitation methods. It is also important to mention sludge characteristics, as it will also be released into the soil and the environment. It is an innovative approach of using alkalis like NaHCO3, CaCO3 and MgO to compare their chromium removal efficiency along with the chromium recovery potential from the respective sludge obtained. Due to the high alkalinity and solubility as well as cost and availability, NaHCO3 and CaCO3 have a lot of potential to be used as precipitating agents in place of MgO. The aim of this study is to find out the potential of the mentioned precipitating agents for chromium removal from chrome tan wastewater and to evaluate their effects on the recovered sludge.

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UDDIN M M, et al. Removal of Chromium(III) and Other Physical Parameters from‌ TLR 3 (2) 2020 64-77.

EXPERIMENTAL Materials and Methods Collection of Effluent The spent liquor from the chrome-tanning drum was collected from Samina Tannery, located at tannery estate at Hemayetpur, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh and stored in pre-treated high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles. The spent liquor of the chrome tanning operation was collected just after the chrome tanning was finished. HDPE bottles were pre-treated with 0.5 M HNO3 to remove any possible pollutant in the bottle and to retard any possible oxidation reaction. After that, all of the samples have been stored in a refrigeration system at 4°C before further analysis.

Figure 1. Collection of spent chrome liquor for analysis

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Chemicals and apparatus The chemicals used in this study, such as sodium-bicarbonate (NaHCO3), magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), nitric acid (HNO3), perchloric acid (HClO4) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4), were of analytical grade and purchased from Sigma Aldrich, a German chemical company.

Measuring cylinders were used for measuring different volumes of chrome tan wastewater, supernatant, acid reagents and standard solutions. The dilution of the sample solution was performed using volumetric flasks.

Experiments and analytical methods Chrome tan wastewater characterisation The chrome tan wastewater was characterised for total chromium content (Cr), the pH, total dissolved solids, turbidity and conductivity by using the standard procedure [36]. The pH was measured with the pH meter. TDS, turbidity and conductivity were measured by using the HACH model of the digital reading-meter machine according to HACH instructions.

Removal of chromium through precipitation During this analysis, 250 ml of the sample (wastewater) was taken into 500 ml volumetric flask after screening through 2 mm sieve; then, arbitrary amounts of the considering precipitating agents (CaCO3, NaHCO3 and MgO) were used for the treatment of the effluent. These amounts refer to 0.25 gm/250 ml (1000 mg/L), 0.50 gm/250 ml (2000 mg/L) and 1 g/250 mL (4000 mg/L) doses respectively. The initial pH of CaCO3, NaHCO3 and MgO was 8.3, 9.91 and 9.0 respectively. The precipitating agents were added to each sample separately.

The samples were then mixed for 1 hour at 150 rpm using a magnetic stirring machine. After 12 hours, the treated water (purified) i.e. supernatant solution was collected by filtration with Whatman filter paper no.

42, which was then followed by 30 minutes of settling of the precipitating agent. This supernatant solution was stored in the refrigerator at 4°C before the analysis.

The chemical reaction equations for all the three alkalis are as follows: For CaCO3: (1)

Cr(OH)SO4 + CaCO3 +H2O→ Cr(OH)3 + CaSO4 + CO2 For NaHCO3: (2)

Cr(OH)SO4 + 2NaHCO3 + 2H2O → Cr(OH)3 + Na2SO4 + 2H2CO3 For MgO: (3)

Cr(OH)SO4 + MgO + H2O → Cr(OH)3 + MgSO4 The removal efficiency at different pH values was calculated as shown in Equation 4.

(

(

Ci ‒ Cf % of Cr removal =

Ci

(4)

where Ci is the initial concentration and Cf is the final or supernatant concentration.

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UDDIN M M, et al. Removal of Chromium(III) and Other Physical Parameters from… TLR 3 (2) 2020 64-77.

Determination of chromium concentration in the effluent and supernatant Chromium(III) concentration of chrome tan wastewater, before and after the treatment, were measured by the atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) (Model: Perkin-Elmer model A analyst 200 Illinois USA) followed by the wet digestion method described by Javed et al., 2009 [37]. According to this method, a sample of 5 ml of water was taken into a 100 ml digestion vessel containing 10 ml of concentrated nitric acid and heated for 20 minutes. Sample was then cooled to room temperature. The content was then further heated vigorously after adding 5 ml of perchloric acid until the white fumes appeared and the sample volume reduced to 2–3 ml. The final volume was made to 50 ml by adding deionized water. Chromium concentration (a proper dilution of the sample to make the concentration limit at range) was then measured by AAS method at 357 nm wavelength, range of 0.1 to 15 µg/l (7 intermediate data) with an average of 5 duplicate sample analysis (the calibration curve is shown in Figure 3).

Recovery of basic chromium sulfate For the recovery of Cr(III), the sludge or the precipitate was first heated at 700°C for 2 hours in a muffle furnace for the calcination of the protein part (present in the hide and the skin) and then mixed with H2SO4 in a stoichiometric ratio of 1:3 (the reaction was shown in equation 5). H2SO4 was added into the precipitating sludge dropwise, and after the addition was complete, the mixture was mixed for 30 minutes. This mixture was then filtered with Whatman filter paper no. 42.

2Cr(OH)3 + 3H2SO4 = Cr2 (SO4)3 + 6H2O

(5)

The recovered chromium sulfate solution was evaporated in sunlight and the dry sludge i.e. chromium sulfate was obtained.

Digestion method for the solid sludge for chromium determination A known amount of the sludge was digested in order to measure the concentration of the recovered Cr. By following the USEPA method 3050B [38], the recovered chromium sulfate was digested by acid. Around 300 mg of the dried recovered chromium sulfate was placed in a 50 mL beaker. 5 mL of 8 M HNO3 solution was added to the beaker; a watch glass was used to cover the beaker and the unit was heated to 95°C in a hot plate. Concentrated HNO3 (70%) and heating were successively added until no reaction with the sludge was noticed. The sludge was then digested for two hours at 95°C. After cooling, 1.5 mL of 30% H2O2 was added to the sludge and the temperature was increased to 95°C. H2O2 was added successively and heating was performed until no further reaction was noted. The sludge was then digested for 2 hours at 95°C. After cooling, the solution was filtered through a Whatman filter paper no. 1. 0.05 mL of the filtrate was diluted to a final volume of 50 mL with deionized water for Cr analysis. By atomic absorption spectrometry, the concentration of chromium was determined.

All the experiments were conducted in duplicate and results are presented as average of two.

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Figure 2. Removal and recovery of chromium with reduction of other physical parameters

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Chrome tan wastewater characteristics The physicochemical characteristic of effluents is shown in Table 1, which indicates highly contaminated wastewater collected from the tannery. It was observed that the chrome tan wastewater had higher amounts of pollutants e.g. total dissolved solids (TDS) of 57150 mg/L, high chromium content (1002 mg/L), high conductivity (114500 ÂľS/cm) and high turbidity (1050 NTU). Moreover, the pH was 3.1, indicating its strong acidic condition. All of these parameters confirm that this water, if disposed of in an aquatic environment without proper treatment, will pose a serious threat for the nearby environment (water bodies as well as human and plant life) [39]. Therefore, it is obvious that necessary measures should be taken to purify the chrome tan wastewater before it is discharged into the environment.

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Figure 3. Calibration curve of chromium from 0.1 to 15 µg/l concentration.

Table 1. Physicochemical parameters of the tannery effluent Parameter pH

Results 3.1

Cr Concentration

1002 mg/L

TDS

57150 mg/L

Conductivity Turbidity

114500 µS/cm 1050 NTU

Figure 4. Percentage removal of physicochemical parameters via CaCO3 at 0.25gm/250ml (1000mg/L), 0.50gm/250ml (2000mg/L) and 1g/250mL (4000mg/L) dose.

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Figure 5. Percentage removal of physicochemical parameters via NaHCO3 at 0.25gm/250ml (1000mg/L), 0.50gm/250ml (2000mg/L) and 1g/250mL (4000mg/L) dose.

Figure 6. Percentage removal of physicochemical parameters via MgO at 0.25gm/250ml (1000mg/L), 0.50gm/250ml (2000mg/L) and 1g/250mL (4000mg/L) dose.

Comparative effect of pH on chromium removal while using the precipitating agents The pH plays an important role in the removal of chromium by chemical precipitation technique. If the liquor pH is kept in between 5.5 to 12, the produced Cr(OH)3 will not be dissolved [40].

The pH increases with the increase of doses of each precipitating agent. For CaCO3, pH was found to be 7.4, 8.9 and 10.6 for 0.25gm/250ml (1000mg/L), 0.50gm/250ml (2000mg/L) and 1g/250mL (4000mg/L) dose respectively. For NaHCO3, the highest pH (9.87) was found for the 4000mg/L dose and the lowest pH (7.2) was found for the 1000mg/L dose. A similar effect of the dosage on pH was found for MgO as well. In the case of MgO, for 1000 mg/L, 2000 mg/L and 4000 mg/L dose the pH was 7.81, 8.91 and 10.97 respectively.

After adding each dose of the precipitating agents into beakers containing chrome tan wastewater solution, the pH value was noted (Table 2). The initial pH was found to be 7.2 after adding 0.25 g of NaHCO3 to a 250mL solution. The pH increased with the increased amount of NaHCO3. In the case of NaHCO3 basic solution, the highest removal percentage of chromium (99.97%) was found at pH 8.31 and the lowest value (99.70%) was obtained at pH 9.87. The optimum pH value for Cr removal when using NaHCO3 was observed at 8.31 according to the result of the experiment (Table 2). The chromium concentration in the supernatant was 0.3 mg/L, which is far below than the permissible (EEPA) limit (2 mg/L) (Figure 7).

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UDDIN M M, et al. Removal of Chromium(III) and Other Physical Parameters from‌ TLR 3 (2) 2020 64-77.

Table 2. The efficiency of NaHCO3 for Cr(III) precipitation at different pH values pH

Effluent Cr conc. (mg/L)

Supernatant Cr conc. (mg/L)

Removal (%)

7.2

1002.6

0.78

99.92

8.31

1002.6

0.3

99.97

9.87

1002.6

2.94

99.70

Table 3. The efficiency of CaCO3 for Cr(III) precipitation at different pH values pH

Effluent Cr conc. (mg/L)

Supernatant Cr conc. (mg/L)

Removal (%)

7.4

1002.6

5.72

99.42

8.9

1002.6

0.5

99.95

10.6

1002.6

1.86

99.81

In the case of CaCO3, maximum chromium removal efficiency (99.95%) was found at pH 8.9 and the minimum removal was observed at pH 7.4 (Table 3). This is because chrome precipitation is low at lower pH. There is an increase in removal efficiency with the increase of pH, however only after a certain limit; much higher pH causes re-dissolution of chromium into the solution. The chromium concentration was 5.72 mg/L at pH 7.4 and 0.5 mg/L at pH 8.9 (Figure 7). However, at pH 10.6 chrome concentration was 1.86 mg/L. This may be because of re-dissolution of chromium at higher pH. The optimum pH value was 8.9 (Table 3).

Table 4. The efficiency of MgO for Cr(III) precipitation at different pH values pH

Effluent Cr conc. (mg/L)

Supernatant Cr conc. (mg/L)

Removal (%)

7.81

1002.6

1.12

99.89

8.91

1002.6

0.2

99.98

10.91

1002.6

1.25

99.88

From the Table 4, in the case of MgO, the maximum chromium removal was observed at pH 8.91 and minimum was at pH 10.91. The optimum pH value was 8.91. In the case of MgO, the chrome concentration was below the EEPA permissible limit (2 mg/L) at all the resulting pH values (Figure 7). The findings are quite similar to the results reported by Esmaeili et al., 2005, in which the optimum pH was between 8 and 9 [3].

Figure 7. Chromium concentration in the supernatant solution vs pH for the three precipitating agents

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Chromium concentration is high since the reactivity and solubility of MgO is low at lower pH values. The optimum conditions for the three precipitating agents are compared as indicated in Table 5. While comparing the removal efficiency for the three precipitating agents, MgO showed maximum percentage of chromium removal efficiency at pH 8.91 (99.98%) and it is the highest and the best of all three.

Table 5. Chromium removal efficiency at optimum pH for the three precipitating agents Precipitating agent

Optimum pH

Effluent Cr conc. (mg/L)

Supernatant Cr conc. (mg/L)

Max. % of Cr removal

CaCO3

8.9

1002.6

0.5

99.95

NaHCO3

8.31

1002.6

0.3

99.97

MgO

8.91

1002.6

0.2

99.98

Removal of chromium and other physicochemical parameters from effluents Removal percentage of chromium and other physical parameters by several precipitating agents was shown in Figures 4, 5 and 6. This indicates that all of the precipitation agents have almost the same ability to remove Cr(III) from effluents (almost 97-99 %), and also that changing the dose slightly changes the recovery results (though 0.50 g shows the best result).

When chrome-tanning effluent was treated with MgO, it gave a compact, grainy, dense sludge that easily settles. This may be partly explained by Lippmann’s theory [41], which claims that the basicity of the MgO surface is strong enough to precipitate many of the heavy and hazardous metals encountered in chrome tan wastewater streams [42]. This has been shown in Table 6. Besides, the metal precipitates are negatively charged, therefore they cement to the MgO surface to give a compact sludge and denser residues [43], whereas the sludge formed by NaHCO3 and CaCO3 is gelatinous. This is in agreement with the report of Esmaeili et al. (2005) [3]. And when NaHCO3 is employed, the neutralization reaction occurs at a homogeneous phase.

On the other hand, with the increase of the dosage of each precipitating agent, removal percentages of TDS, conductivity and turbidity were significantly reduced which is due to the addition of a large quantity of the precipitating agent, which itself produces cation and anion and the resulting large ionic particles.

Table 6 shows overall TDS, conductivity and turbidity value. In the case all of the precipitating agents it was also shown that increasing the dose to 1 g/250 mL leads to a reduction in Cr removal. This may be due to re-dissolution of Cr from the precipitating surface, or it may be due to the possible aggregation of the precipitating agent in the settling period which reduces the surface area for Cr(III). In this study, NaHCO3 shows better performance among other precipitating agents in terms of removal of all parameters. A 1000 mg/L dose of NaHCO3 approximately reduces 99.72, 82.33, 82.10 and 82.19 % of Cr, TDS, conductivity and turbidity respectively (Table 6). Similarly, MgO and CaCO3 also showed significant reduction of TDS, conductivity and turbidity even at a low dose.

Table 6. Other parameters removal efficiency of the precipitating agents Dose

0.25g/250 mL

0.50g/250 mL

Conductivity removal (%)

TDS removal (%)

CaCO3

67.24

66.58

76.86

44.37

44.88

61.81

NaHCO3

82.10

82.32

82.19

71.05

69.38

MgO

70.22

71.13

80.28

56.77

56.34

Precipitating agent

Turbidity Conductivity TDS removal removal removal (%) (%) (%)

1.0g/250 mL Turbidity Conductivity removal removal (%) (%)

TDS removal (%)

Turbidity removal (%)

23.58

24.58

45.43

75.14

60.61

59.58

71.33

69.43

42.92

41.99

59.62

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Table 7. Chromium recovery efficiency of the three precipitating agents from the precipitating sludge Dose

0.25g/250 mL

0.50g/250 mL

1.0 g/250 mL

Chromium concentration after recovery (mg/l)

Chromium concentration after recovery (mg/l)

Chromium concentration after recovery (mg/l)

NaHCO3

881.3

880.4

874.4

MgO

921.2

908.4

912.7

CaCO3

879.2

891.6

874.2

Precipitating agent

Recovery of chromium from the precipitating sludge According to the title of the study, only the recovery of chromium from the precipitating sludge has been shown. After the removal, the chromium concentration in supernatant was so low that the amount was a lot below the permissible limit. There was not much benefit to recovering chromium as the concentration of chromium was found very low in supernatant and it can be discharged into the environment. After the removal, the supernatant was discharged into the environment. Only the precipitating sludge was recovered and the concentration of the recovered chromium in the sludge has been shown in Table 7. The recovery amount will vary if the recovery method varies.

The recovery of chromium does not follow the pattern like the removal of chromium, considering the chromium concentration in the supernatant, shown in the Table 7. Table 7 shows that, in the case of NaHCO3, increasing the dose of the precipitating agent decreases the recovered Cr concentration. However, in the case of MgO, the concentration decreases with the decrease in the dose and vice versa, whereas for CaCO3, the pattern is quite opposite to that of MgO. All three precipitating agents showed different patterns of change in the recovered Cr concentration. Among these precipitating agents, MgO showed the maximum concentration of the recovered chromium. This might be due to the tendency for the interfacial energy between the liquid phase and the particles of MgO, which plays a dominant role. The maximum concentration of the recovered chromium was found to be 921.2 mg/ L when using MgO. It is likely that the recovered chromium in the sludge is lower than the initial chrome concentration. This is a usual fact as low chrome recovery often occurs due to the incomplete dissolution of the sludge in acids [43]. The leaching of chromium depends on various factors like the type of the acid used, the temperature, the extraction time etc. [44]. The study focuses on a particular recovery method to show the comparative effects of the three precipitating agents on the recovery of chromium from the sludge.

In this study, Cr(III) was recovered from the sludge by treating the sludge with H2SO4. J. Kanagaraj et al. (2008) used the recovered chromium used in chrome tanning from the precipitate, used it to produce leather, and tested the physical properties of the produced leather [45]. Minas et al. utilized the recovered sludge for the production of a chrome-tanning agent that would be re-used in chrome tanning [46].

This recovered chromium has a lot of potential to be used in tanning and some of the post-tanning operations.

CONCLUSION This research has explored the potential of using NaHCO3 and CaCO3 in comparison with MgO, as precipitating agents for the removal and the recovery of chromium from chrome tan wastewater. The removal efficiency of TDS, conductivity and turbidity were also analysed since these are important physicochemical parameters of the effluent. For NaHCO3 and CaCO3, the maximum removal efficiency (99.97% and 99.95% respectively) of chromium was found at pH 8.31 and 8.9, whereas MgO showed the highest efficiency

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(99.98%) at pH 8.91. The highest efficiency of all the three precipitating agents was observed at a dosage of 0.5 g/250 mL (2000 mg/L) for the removal of chromium from chrome tan wastewater. In the case of NaHCO3, the maximum redissolution of chromium(III) was observed at pH 9.87, whereas MgO showed the lowest redissolution of chromium(III) out of the three, even at pH 10.91. The lowest chromium concentration in the supernatant was found to be 0.3 mg/L, 0.5 mg/L, and 0.2 mg/L for NaHCO3, CaCO3 and MgO respectively at the dosage of 0.5 g/250 mL (2000 mg/L). However, in the removal of other physical parameters, NaHCO3 showed great performance, even better than MgO. The removal percentages for conductivity, TDS and turbidity were found to be 82.10 %, 82.32 %, 82.19 % respectively. The maximum concentration of the recovered chromium from the precipitating sludge for MgO was found to be 921.2 mg/L at the 0.25 g/250 mL dose, whereas NaHCO3 showed 881.3 mg/L and CaCO3 showed 891.6 mg/L as the highest concentration of the recovered chromium at the doses of 1000 mg/L and 2000 mg/L respectively. This study suggests that these precipitating agents can be used for the treatment of the tannery effluent. Though MgO showed the highest performance in the removal and the recovery of chromium, the results of other precipitation methods using NaHCO3 and CaCO3 as precipitating agents were satisfactory. NaHCO3, CaCO3 and MgO are highly available at a lower cost compared to other precipitating agents. Moreover, the recovered chromium from the precipitating sludge can be re-used in chrome tanning rather than be discharged into the environment. Thus, the environmental impact of chromium can be minimized.

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[17] Hafez A, El-Manharawy M, Khedr M. RO membrane removal of unreacted chromium from spent tanning effluent. A pilot-scale study, Part 2. Desalination. 2002;144(1-3):237-42.

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[22] Ludvik J, Buljan J. Chrome balance in leather processing. Vienna, Austria: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. 2000.

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[24] Minghua Liu, Hualong Zhou, Huaiyu Zhang. Recovery of chromium (III) from chrome tanning waste water by precipitation and adsorption process. J Soc Leather Technol Chem 2006;90:183.

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[27] Tanaka Y, Moon S-H, Nikonenko VV, Xu T. Ion-exchange membranes. International Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2012;2012.

[28] Hsu H-T, Chen S-S, Chen Y-S. Removal of chromium (VI) and naphthalenesulfonate from textile wastewater by photocatalysis combining ionic exchange membrane processes. Separation and purification technology. 2011;80(3):663-9.

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[31] Liu M-H, Zhang H, Zhang X-S, Deng Y, Liu W, Zhan W. Removal and recovery of chromium(III) from aqueous solutions by a spherical cellulose adsorbent. Water Environ Res 2001;73:322e8.

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[38] USEPA, 1996. Method 3050B. Acid digestion of sediments, sludges, and soils. Revision 2 (December 1996). In: Test methods for evaluating solid wastes: physical/chemical methods, EPA SW-846. Third Ed., Vol. I, Section A, Chapter 3 (Inorganic Analytes), pp. 3050B-1–3050B U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington, D.C. Available at: http://www. epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/test/pdfs/3050b.pdf.

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Laibach, Anti-fashion and Subversion: Over-identification and Universality of a Uniform Tajda HLAČAR University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology, Department od Fashion Design, Student of Master’s Programe Theory and Culture of Fashion, Croatia tajda.hlacar@gmail.com Original scientific article UDC 391:687.152:159.923.2 DOI: 10.31881/TLR.2019.32 Received 4 May 2020; Accepted 18 May 2020; Published 16 June 2020

ABSTRACT The worldwide renowned Slovenian industrial alternative music group Laibach, which was also a member of the multimedia artists’ collective called NSK, has been a subject of many professional discussions. This article attempts to analyse Laibach’s conception of a uniform according to the theory of anti-fashion. As one of the most recognizable elements expressing a mythical, totalitarian aura, inseparably linked with the performers’ distant and constrained attitude, Laibach’s uniform can be erroneously comprehended as anti-fashion clothing, expressing fixed and rigid social environments. The analysis of Laibach’s television interview from 1983, in which the band is directly imitating the ruling ideological language, shows that the strategy of over-identification and subversion represent dominant principles of Laibach’s actions, combining them with the retro-method of using symbols and images of various cultural traditions and periods, as seen in their diversity of clothing worn, including the Yugoslav military uniform, miner and hunting uniforms, jeans and shirts, and even fashionable items.

With the performative dimension in the ideological ritual and by emphasizing totalitarian tendencies in contemporary society, Laibach endeavours to show that all changeable multiform clothes are uniforms – timeless, universal and deprived of semiological meaning and thus surpasses the distinction of fashion and anti-fashion or fixed and modish costume. Nearly forty years after the establishment of the group, Laibach is conventionally dressed in regular clothes, nevertheless providing a sentiment of wearing a collective’s uniform.

KEYWORDS Anti-fashion, (military) uniform, band Laibach, retro-avant-garde, alternative culture

INTRODUCTION Laibach, an “avant-garde industrial group” as defined in the magazine Rolling Stone [1], represents an important part of the mainstream Slovenian culture, operating on the fringes of the dominant culture as the most unconventional and provocative part of the Slovenian alternative scene. Since Laibach’s first public action in 1980, when posters depicting a black cross and the word “Laibach” flooded a small Slovenian industrial town Trbovlje, their work has been associated with a totalitarian aspect of their artistic actions.

Laibach performs bare concerts, refusing to create a warm and lively atmosphere, and rather focuses on the atypical frontman’s movement using deliberate theatrical and automated motions in order to estab-

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lish a mythic totalitarian aura. The performers appear distant, constrained and with no individuality, whilst the set, intertwined with architecture, film material and symbolism, perfectly completes the ambience, all with an intention to defy conventions of a rock concert and rather turn it into a totalitarian ritual using discourse of absolute certainty [2].

Laibach has been, not only as a music group, but also as a conceptual art collective known as Laibach Kunst, subject of many professional discussions analysing diverse topics, yet answers concerning their clothing within the framework of the current studies1 are difficult to provide despite their outfit being one of the most fundamental and recognizable elements of their performances from the beginning. Laibach’s uniforms, on the one hand, provoke shock and indignation of the society and on the other, encourage imitation by fans displaying strong affinity.

The main purpose of this paper is to present how Laibach, within the strategy of over-identification, understands uniform as being one of the most prominent elements of the performed totalitarian spectacle, in relation to the anti-fashion concept. By placing Laibach into a socio-political context, explaining the concept of anti-fashion as complex and ambiguous, and analysing Laibach’s activity within the concepts of over-identification and subversion, we want to answer the question of why is Laibach as a collective always perceived as being dressed in a uniform. The methodological approach employed in the paper covers the analysis of traditional print media, web-based media and audio-visual materials, the analysis of scientific articles and a semi-structured interview with Laibach’s member Ivan Novak in July 2018, as well as the participant observation method (as a spectator attending Laibach’s concerts in Celje - June 2018 and in Zagreb - December 2017).

LAIBACH, YUGOSLAVIA AND POST-TITOIST TIME With their industrial, alternative or, as classified by Šuvaković [4], post-avant-garde or retro-avant-garde music, Laibach, at the beginning of the 1980s, entered the public sphere, in the wake of the political situation in Yugoslavia in the previous decade. Officially, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was swamped with uncertainty in the 1980s; especially after the death of the Yugoslavian post-war leader and the dominant figure, Marshal Josip Broz Tito, in May 1980, when Yugoslav state and Yugoslav socialism, characteristic for being different from socialism and communism of other East European countries, especially once Tito cut the ties with Stalin in 1948, gradually started to fall apart [5]. The former socialist state was, especially in the second half of the 1980s, affected by increasing economic, social and political problems; an economic crisis, a rapid decline of living standard, growing social inequality and, most significantly, the rise of nationalism and conflicts between different Yugoslav states (Bosnia and Hercegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and two autonomous provinces Vojvodina and Kosovo) resulted in the decay of socialism [5].

This coincided with the intellectual awakening in Slovenia, the outcome of which was the multimedia artists’ collective called Neue Slowenische Kunst (NSK), formed in 1984 and founded by Laibach, the visual art collective IRWIN (1983) and the performance group Scipion Nasice Sisters Theatre (1983). Laibach and NSK represented the most radical part of the alternative Slovenian subcultural scene in the 1980s; the scene that was in the late 1970s and 1980s known for its strong political connotations [6]. This politically and socially critical art had a great impact on Slovenian transition to a democratic political system and on Slovenia becoming an

Aleš Erjavec in The Avant-Gardes, Utopias and Clothes (2017) concentrates on the analysis of the overalls worn by Dragan Živadinov, the leader of the Scipion Nasice Sisters Theatre - besides Laibach, one of the groups of the Neue Slowenische Kunst collective. The text does not provide a more detailed treatment of Laibach’s clothing, just an overall characteristic of the NSK as an “organization in Slovenia dressed, from their beginning in the early 1980s, in black” [3].

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independent country [7]. Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia, became an independent democratic state in 1991; unlike other former republics and autonomous provinces of Yugoslavia, Slovenia’s transition went fairly peacefully with no major consequences.

The change of the political system and the switch from a socialist economical self-management to a capital market economy also resulted in different approaches to the state’s cultural policy; the art which supported socialist ideology was thus sponsored and instrumentalised by the Yugoslav state institutions and governing structures in socialism. The state’s most important cultural spectacle advocating the ideology of socialism and ideals of Yugoslavian society was the Youth Day, acknowledging Tito’s birthday on May 25. In 1987, a competition for an official propaganda poster for this celebration took place; the poster taking the win was the re-appropriation of the Nazi painting by Rickard Klein from 1936 entitled The Third Reich. Allegory of Heroism created by an NSK sub-group, New Collectivism. This caused great upset leading to a scandal, which only deteriorated the situation in the already unstable former Yugoslavia [5], being considered as a “disguised art form, because the political discourse was reserved for official ideology and politically sanctioned speakers and writers” [8]. The art following radical cultural practices and criticizing the governing party - including Laibach - triggered not only strong reactions of the socio-political sphere but also its negative representation in the mass media of Yugoslav and especially Slovenian society.

Once times of socialism and former Yugoslavia passed and the ideals of the Yugoslavian society - brotherhood, fraternity and equality were nothing but meaningless words, art, and other spheres as well, could enter the free capitalist market. In the new consumer society, art either represented a new opportunity, especially for success, or something unknown and risky [6]. Not even in the post-Titoist time - in the independent democratic state of Slovenia - did Laibach lose their focal point; they merely directed their interests into the new state system, the neoliberal doctrine, the totality of the capital and the question of cultural policy. With turning their gaze towards new topics concerning a modern capitalistic world, Laibach, defined as an explicitly uniform collective [9], has made use of the same techniques using their uncommonly critical approach, together with the collective’s unusual uniformed appearance (Picture 1).

Picture 1. Laibach’s live concert at the Trbovlje Power Station, Slovenia, 1990 [10]

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THE CONCEPT OF ANTI-FASHION: COMPLEXITY AND AMBIGUITY A uniform is an important part of rock and punk cultures since it serves as a performative dimension of the spectacle. Besides Laibach, other groups perform in their representative uniforms as well, such as The Monkees, The Beach Boys, and even The Beatles. The uniform as such is, in fashion analyses, inseparably connected to the ambiguous anti-fashion concept. Although the following discussion concerning Laibach’s phenomenon addresses especially the (military) uniform as a piece of the anti-fashion clothing, defined by the American anthropologist and the main theoretician of anti-fashion Ted Polhemus, we cannot overlook other clothing items outside the fashion system, such as functional clothes in modern society (work clothing, a variety of uniforms), traditional folk costumes, religious and subculture clothes, clothing of nonwestern societies, including Islamic dress, and clothes that were fashionable but have, over time, become representatives of anti-fashion (a T-shirt, jeans, a little black dress etc.).

The problem of the anti-fashion term can be particularly observed in the complex and multivalent relationship between (anti-)fashion and Islamic dress, especially due to the popularity of the topic in fashion studies.

In the monograph Islamic Fashion and Anti-Fashion: New Perspectives from Europe and North America (2013), Tarlo and Mors emphasize that if anti-fashion describes all clothes outside of the fashion system, where fashion is understood as an explicitly Western phenomenon, then all forms of the Islamic dress are automatically and also problematically labelled as anti-fashion [11]. A fine example is hijab; “representing Islamic identity and morality” [12], and embodying political connotations of Islam revival in the 1970s, it was transformed to a fashionable piece worn by middle-class women all around the world [11]. The ambiguity of the Islamic anti-fashion discourse is also shown in an analysis of Muslim minorities in Finland by Almila [13], indicating that the Islamic dress today can be either categorized as anti-fashion, fashion or non-fashion.2 As shown, the concept of anti-fashion is commonly, and often uncritically, understood as any form of opposition to current fashion. Entwistle [14] states that the meaning of non-fashionable clothes originates in the opposition to fashion-dictated aesthetics. Similarly, Wilson claims in her work Adorned in Dreams: Fashion and Modernity (1985): “Even the determinedly unfashionable wear clothes that manifestly represent a reaction against what is in fashion” [15]. A variety of terms has been used for all of the forms of clothes that are considered to be outside the fashion system, such as non-fashion, counter-fashion, clothes that are out-offashion or unfashionable clothes.

One of the first distinctions between fashion and “to be dressed in an unmodern manner” was provided at the beginning of the 20th century by the German sociologist Georg Simmel in the essay The Philosophy of Fashion (1905) [16]. According to Simmel, fashion, as a social epiphenomenon and a product of the modern class society, is a form of imitation and distinction - two fundamental fashion’s functions - at the same time.

Fashion creating, maintaining and justifying social differences is exclusively in hands of only one stratum of the society − upper social classes; therefore, when lower social classes adopt the fashion of upper social classes through external imitation, the fashion loses the function of differentiation, forcing the upper classes to discard it and introduce a new one [16]. A constant change becomes the essence of fashion.

Fashion as a mechanism of social stratification was also discussed in the theoretical approaches of Thorstein Veblen in The Theory of The Leisure Class (1899) and later by Pierre Bourdieu in Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (1979). However, in his sociological approach to the phenomenon of fashion, Simmel goes beyond the classical understanding of the trickle-down theory. Even though he under Anti-fashion of the Islamic dress is understood as a negative response to the Islamic fashion dress, as fashion being morally questionable, while the functionality and conformity to accepted norms are the basis of Islamic non-fashion dress [13].

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stands non-fashion as the dressing of lower social classes within the framework of trickle-down theory and discusses groups that adopt no-fashion as a fashionable manner, being non-fashionable is, according to Simmel, primarily a personal sphere since people as “individuals […] fear that they will be unable to maintain their little piece of individuality if they adopt the forms, tastes and customs of the general public” [16].

Being out of fashion signifies that you are in constant relation to fashion and thus affected by it in such a way that it enables you to express your individuality and your personalised lifestyle. With an established link between fashion and identity, Simmel lays the foundations not only for postmodern fashion paradigm3 but also for its main theoretician Gilles Lipovetsky.

On the contrary, anti-fashion as a concept is often associated with social groups that manifest and symbolize their beliefs, norms and values through anti-fashion clothing. A frequently used term for subcultural clothes is anti-fashion; however, again, not solely one term can be employed.4 Various youth subcultures in the 1960s assumed the leading role of manifesting their beliefs, norms and values through anti-fashion clothing as a product of opposing fashion in liberal democracy. This led to the rejection of social hierarchy by wearing clothes expressing individuality according to the supermarket of lifestyle. Paić [17] assigns a leading role to anti-fashion within the postmodern paradigm of fashion, where haute couture loses fashion hegemony and the fashion centre moves from Paris to London. However, subcultural anti-fashion clothes have also become incorporated in fashion through street style and the work of fashion designers, such as Jean-Paul Gaultier and Vivienne Westwood. The analysis of anti-fashion in the 1970s in a subcultural context emphasized that Vivienne Westwood’s design “enthusiastically embraced punk, and her role underscores the naïvêté of any rigid separation between anti-fashion and fashion” [18]. The distinction between fashion and anti-fashion thus cannot be defined as a total dichotomy.

When considering the dichotomy between fashion and anti-fashion, which is not as accurate and transparent as it may seem at first glance, a key question for further discussion has to be addressed: what are the main characteristics of anti-fashion, if it could not be straightforwardly defined as the opposite of fashion? The concept of anti-fashion was theoretically first defined in an anthropological analysis named Fashion & Anti-fashion (1978) by Ted Polhemus and Lynn Procter, later republished by Polhemus (2011) with a changed subtitle5. However, the most salient basis for the theory of anti-fashion was provided by John Flügel in his book The Psychology of Clothes (1930). Instead of the terms anti-fashion and fashion, he employed the expressions of fixed and modish costume in relation to a different perception of time and place; whilst fixed costume is subjected to changes in space but not in time, modish costume undergoes slow modifications in space but rapid ones in time [19]. Based on different conceptions of time, Polhemus and Procter define anti-fashion as an unchangeable and fixed form of clothing bound up with a specific place and as “all styles or ornament falling outside the system of change organized by fashion” whereas fashion is, as a variable body adornment, characterised by fluidity, dynamics, constant change and novelty [20]. Their definition tends to be problematic since it includes all forms of anti-fashion clothing, thereby not differentiating between traditional clothes or uniforms, and clothes having a negative response to modern fashion as a sign of social status and social role. To critique such an explanation, and using a sociological The division into three paradigms of fashion: modern, postmodern and contemporary, at the same time representing a theoretical approach, is based on the classification by Žarko Paić, given in the book Vertigo in Fashion: Towards a Visual Semiotics of Fashion (Vrtoglavica u modi: Prema vizualnoj semiotici tijela) [17].

4 For example, Lind and Roach-Higgins in Fashion, Collective Adoption, and the Socio-Political Symbolism of Dress (1985) for clothes of subcultural groups use the term counter-fashion.

5 Fashion & Anti-fashion: An Anthropology of Clothing and Adornment (1978); Fashion & Anti-fashion: Exploring Adornment and Dress from an Anthropological Perspective (2011).

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semiological approach to fashion in his work Fashion, Culture and Identity (1994), Fred Davis, a sociologist, introduced the term “non-fashion” for traditional and folk costumes, whilst the term “anti-fashion”, in his opinion, should be restricted to the so-called oppositional dress as a negative response to fashion changes [21]; the latter aspect of anti-fashion is often connected to already discussed subcultures.

If the distinction between fashion and anti-fashion is not perceived as a binary opposition, then anti-fashion of uniform or, using Davis’s term, non-fashion, does not represent fashion’s antithesis as it is placed beyond the organized system of fashion change. An unchanging and fixed uniform6, a military uniform in particular, embodies power and thus represents a symbol of hierarchy while being used as an ideological instrument and as an extension of political structures [22]. Used in a variety of non-military contexts “such as pornography, prostitution, sadomasochism, transvestism, cross-dressing, vaudeville, mardi gras, gay culture, subcultures, and stripograms” [23], a uniform as an anti-fashion item is, nowadays, applied to a range of transgressive and subversive contexts, as in case of Laibach’s collective.

LAIBACH’S TOTALITY: RETRO-AVANT-GARDE, OVER-IDENTIFICATION AND SUBVERSION With a totalitarian spectacle and a subversive provocation being Laibach’s fundamental modus operandi on the one hand and with consciousness, anonymity and collectivism in the core of Laibach’s work on the other, their aim is to deconstruct mass culture, a role of ideology, a state system, popular and rock music, and norms of conventional art [24]. Using classic avant-garde methods, such as collective appearances, public provocations, interference with politics and prewritten programmed statements, Laibach makes use of symbols and signs from different periods and cultural traditions, for example, the Laibach cross, a cogwheel, NATO’s insignias and combines them with Nazi-Kunst, socialist realism, modernism, folk art and pop-elements by using the so-called retro-method known as retro-avant-garde [25]. The influence of avantgarde, defined, by the theoretician of avant-garde art Boris Groys, as the aesthetic of new and the break of traditional art [26], is observed not only in the manifesto Laibach: 10 Items of the Covenant from 1982 [9], first published a year later in the Slovenian magazine for cultural and political issues Nova revija, but also in the aesthetic politicization and radical critique of everyday life through Laibach’s uniform.

This was remarkably shown in their first television appearance in Ljubljana for TV Tednik (TV Weekly) on the Slovenian national television in 1983. TV-host Jure Pengov interviewed Laibach members, who replied with answers given in advance and staged a sort of media performance; the room abounding in Laibach’s posters and a strong light casting a dark shadow on the members, who were sitting in a distinguishable stiff posture (Picture 2). Due to the black-and-white television at that time, their pieces of clothing resembled Nazi uniforms, although the members of the collective wore Yugoslav Army uniforms. Uniform as anti-fashion was completely aestheticized since Laibach strove towards maintaining some of the canonical elements of the uniform, such as brass buttons, epaulettes and stark colours, stylized with high collars and different military boots; some of the members also wore ties and watches. What especially grabbed spectators’ attention was all members having their arms crossed, which brought into the spotlight the armband with a symmetrical black cross known as the Laibach cross. Together with lights, shadows, movements, blank direct gazes, prewritten statements and military uniforms, they performed a spectacle of a uniformed body.

Their typical body hexis and uniform wearing constitute the habitus of Laibach’s members.

With unchangeable uniforms, it is not meant that all uniforms are the same; the idea is that they are the same among a specific social group, while they necessarily differ from the uniforms of other social groups.

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Picture 2. Laibach’s first TV appearance in 1983, wearing stylized Yugoslav Army uniforms [27]

When considering Laibach’s performativity, it is understood as the main category of artistic action. After the performative turn in the early 1960s as defined by Fischer-Lichte, the new artistic genre is born, so-called action or performance, while “performativity results in performances or manifests itself in the performative nature of acts” [28]. The characteristic elements of Laibach’s music, gestures, clothing and effects create a performative whole; each individual aspect, such as light effects, music, scenography and clothing, are well-defined, nothing is left to chance and only the combination of these individual aspects form a whole, which enables a specific performative spectacle imitating a totalitarian ritual by using uniform as the key symbol of totalitarian power.

Therefore, it is relevant to consider, first, why Laibach chose the military uniform of the Yugoslav Army as their performing clothes and, second, how important were Laibach’s uniforms for the political aspect of media performance. The former can already be deciphered from the newspaper title in Nedeljski dnevnik of 3 July 1983: “Who Made Laibach’s Shirts?” [29], which is a reformulation of the title Who Made Videk’s Shirt? from the famous Slovenian folk tale by Fran Levstik.7 Naming Laibach “cultural workers”, the author of the article labelled their TV appearance as “verbal diarrhoea of guys in uniforms” and recognizing the mythical, totalitarian aura, stated: “There was nothing directly Fascist in the moronic answers of the guys in uniforms, yet the feeling after the show was still immensely nightmarish” [29]. How important uniform and imitation of the totalitarian ritual is for Laibach’s spectacle can also be understood from the following quote from the article: “Because - verbal diarrhoea is verbal diarrhoea, but provocation in Nazi-like uniforms is provocation. Boys, take off this rubbish and play what you can play” [29]. Their clothing representing a military uniform and staged totalitarianism generated outrage in the eyes of the audience; the sociopolitical sphere interpreted Laibach and their image as the incorporation of Nazism and thus insisted on a connection between punk and the ideology of Nazism, which was ‘confirmed’ with members’ aggressive ‘presence’ and the band’s historically problematic German name for the capital city of Slovenia, which was used under Nazi and Italian occupation during World War II [31].8 Consequently, Yugoslavian authorities banned the name ‘Laibach’, its concerts and other activities until 1987. During that time, in November and December 1983, Laibach went on their first European tour named ‘Occupied Europe Tour’, taking place on both sides of the Berlin Wall separating Eastern and Western Europe.

The story is about a little boy Videk who came from a poor family. Because she had to work in the field, Videk’s mother was unable to sew new shirts for Videk and his six siblings. As the youngest, Videk got the most worn out shirt. When the shirt ripped, he wanted a new one more than anything else in the world. He went to the forest where he made a new shirt with the help of animals and plants (lamb, thorn bush, spider, crab, bird). Videk’s siblings envied him for his shirt being so beautiful [30].

8 Interestingly, in 1987, the USA refused Laibach members entry for, paradoxically, being radically communist.

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The misunderstanding that categorises Laibach and their acts as neo-Nazism is engendered by the fact that Laibach does not straightforwardly ironize, critique or satirize ideology and Yugoslavian socialism as the rest of the Yugoslavian punk does. Moreover, by consciously politicising their actions, Laibach has opposed generally accepted ideas about what is considered real art. If the rest of art strives directly for freedom, for the right of individual expression and consequently opposes totalitarian ideologies, then Laibach equates with it. Hence, how is it possible for artists that seem “more total than totalitarianism” at first sight to be actually perceived as a collective campaigning for democratic values [32]? Laibach do not confront totalitarian logic, but rather subvert it; therefore, their aim is not to show the power of ideology with parody, but rather to catch the spectator’s attention with the power of ideology itself by imitating the ruling ideological language and wearing the uniform of a repressive state apparatus. As said in Laibach: 10 Items of the Covenant: “All art is subject to political manipulation (indirectly – consciousness; directly), except for that which speaks the language of this same manipulation” [9 p460], continuing later: “LAIBACH adopts the organizational system of the industrial production and the identification with ideology as its work method (…)” [9 p461]. Only in this way can ideology be deprived of its power. In his essay Why are Laibach and NSK not fascist? (1993), Slavoj Žižek defines their approach as radical ‘over-identification’ with an ideology or, even better, with the State/System [33]. “It ‘frustrates’ the system (the ruling ideology) precisely insofar as it is not its ironic imitation, but over-identification with it – by bringing to light the obscene superego underneath the system, over-identification suspends its efficiency” [33]. As soon as ‘over-identification’ with ideology occurs, the ‘ruling’ ideology is frustrated, as the authority does not anticipate the cultural sphere to respond to their rule with ironic imitation.

LAIBACH’S UNIFORM Laibach’s performing clothes represent a fundamental part of their spectacle, as seen in the case of the TV interview in 1983. The collective, having left behind the typical uniforms, representative of their actions in the 1980s, nowadays, opted for a variety of clothing pieces; from jeans, shirts to suits. This transition, which may be confusing for spectators of their performances, thus addresses a crucial question for further discussion: why have Laibach’s members been perceived, by the general public, as always wearing a uniform despite this not being the case?

Uniforms symbolise authority, status and power and it is, therefore, essential that its wearers and onlookers as well share a common code about its meaning [23]. If we take an example of a clothing piece, like a Yugoslav military uniform, and we analyse it from a semiological perspective, then it is evident that it represents an agreed social role and status and it, therefore, follows the concept of Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistic sign since its meaning is clear due to the strength and stability of the connection between the signifier and signified. The question, therefore, is what happens to the meaning of the Yugoslav military uniform worn

by Laibach?

(Non)fixed uniform and Laibach’s (non)originality Laibach, using the retro-avant-garde method by combining symbols and signs from different periods and cultural traditions, indicates the contrary; the signs associated with uniforms are not (anymore) highly elaborate and precise. At the centre of the sign is the post-structuralist crisis of representation, where the link between the consistent parts of a sign is flexible and no longer predictable [19, 21]. We are not talking about the arbitrariness of the fashion sign based on a three-way relationship between the signifier, the signified and the sign by the French literary theorist and semiotician Roland Barthes in The Fashion System

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(Système de la mode) from 1967, using the structuralist perspective [34]. In this case, this does not suggest total arbitrariness or freedom of the fashion sign since the meaning of the code is systematically controlled at all times [35].

Laibach abolishes the meaning of the sign by taking it out of its context and using the retro-avant-garde re-appropriation principle, which is achieved by combining different, non-compatible signifiers and the signified; as it can be observed in Laibach’s art production, which combines elements of Nazi art, Stalinism and Slovenian national mythology, and also in their music production, which is a mixture of classical music, industrial rock, electronic, popular pop and rock music, including Wagner horns and military beats. The same concept applies to their, often overlooked, uniforms, which are a mixture of different clothing pieces combined according to a socio-political situation and conceptual orientation of their work - from a miner uniform originating in Trbovlje, Laibach’s hometown (1980-1982), a Yugoslav Army uniform ‘borrowed’ at the end of the military service (1982-1987), hunting clothing (1987-1992), ski wear (1992-1996), to a Nazi uniform known for its streamlined silhouette consisting of a tight jacket and jodhpurs, high collars, peaked caps and black leather boots, representing a key symbol of totalitarian power [23], being worn by the collective merely once, in 20039 (Picture 3) [36]. Therefore, the common belief of Laibach being clothed in a (military) uniform all the time is false since today they usually tend to be dressed in regular clothes.

In Laibach’s case, the uniform is not fixed; neither at the level of form since different types of uniforms can be chosen, nor at the level of every individual uniform, since it can be styled with different accessories and Laibach’s symbols. Looking from the semiological perspective, uniform is emptied of its symbolic value and is no longer an accepted anti-fashion sign.

Picture 3. Laibach dressed in a Nazi uniform with armbands displaying the Laibach cross [37]

The Nazi uniforms were borrowed from a Yugoslav filmographic studio. As an experiment, Laibach did the same photo session wearing a Nazi uniform and an American military uniform, and sent photos of both sessions to the media. Expected or not, all of them decided to publish Laibach in the Nazi uniform [36].

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An important part of Laibach’s appearance is accessories. They include all, from a canonical element of military uniform, such as brass buttons, an armband, headwear, badges, pins, pockets to fashionable necklaces and earnings – many of them are also decorated with their symbols, such as the Laibach cross, which first appeared in 1980 on a poster in Trbovlje and tends to be confused with the supremacist work of Kazimir Malevich, The Black Cross (1923). Let us take a step backwards and take into consideration the definition of anti-fashion by Polhemus: “Anti-fashion is composed of body, adornment, and clothing symbols – symbols which have clear iconic meaning within a given culture but which are unlikely to translate successfully when considered from a cross-cultural, global perspective” [20 p51]; for Polhemus, symbols of particular cultures are, therefore, the basis of anti-fashion; however, Laibach separates the symbol from what it refers to by using the retro-avant-garde principle [38], which results in the symbol itself becoming ambiguous. Laibach’s accessories, by being emptied of their meaning, may cause confusion and ignorance amongst Laibach’s fans wearing clothes, various adornments and souvenirs and thus symbolically expressing identity and loyalty to Laibach – similarly to fans of any other performer in pop-rock culture. The key symbolic aspect of overidentification is thus represented not only by Laibach as a collective but also by their spectators10, who, by wearing the Laibach black cross armband on their arms, do not exactly know what it represents.

What also often gets misconceived is the frontman’s headgear (Picture 4), which also happens to be the most recognizable Laibach’s piece of clothing. If we try to understand its origin and meaning, we have already missed the point; therefore, for better comprehension, let us take a look at the 7th paragraph of the manifesto Laibach: 10 Items of the Covenant [9]: “Laibach excludes any evolution of the origin idea; the original concept is not evolutionary but entelechical, and the presentation is only a link between this static and the changing determinant unit. We take the same stand towards the direct influence of the development of music on the Laibach concept; of course, this influence is a material necessity but it is of secondary importance and appears only as a historical musical foundation of the moment which, in its choice, is unlimited. Laibach expresses its timelessness with the artefacts of the present and it is thus necessary that at the intersection of politics and industrial production (the culture of art, ideology, and consciousness) it encounters the elements of both, although it wants to be both. This wide range allows Laibach to oscillate, creating the illusion of movement (development)”.

Although the paragraph refers to music, its essence can be transferred to Laibach’s actions as a whole as well, including their uniform and headwear as its constituent parts.

Picture 4. The theatre performance Also sprach Zaratustra, by the Slovenian Anton Podbevšek Teater [40]

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In his critical analysis of the spectacle in La Société du spectacle (1967), written in the form of manifesto, Guy Debord focuses on the position of the viewer, taking into consideration Latin origin of the word spectacle; it derives from the noun spectaculum or the verb spectare, which refers to seeing or watching what is happening on stage [39].

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Beyond the dichotomy: uniform’s universality The most explicit example of Laibach’s uniform theory is a staged performance called Liberation Day which took place in North Korea in 2015. Becoming the first foreign group to perform in Pyongyang, Laibach has shown that every democratic country resembles totalitarian North Korea; in other words, every democracy has a totalitarian core. For this occasion exclusively, Laibach, typically known for wearing totalitarian-like uniforms, opted for custom-made North-Korean-style costumes – North-Korean suits for men and a hanbok dress for the lady (Picture 5, 6). Wearing traditional North Korean clothes, which can be, at the same time, used as North Korean civil clothes and as Laibach’s uniform, shows that all civil clothes, as well as traditional clothes, are uniforms going beyond cultural diversity and a certain place and time. In the 6th item of Laibach manifest from 1982, the collective stated: “The basis of Laibach’s activity lies in its concept of unity, which expresses itself in each media according to appropriate laws (art, music, film …)” [9]. Uniforms are, therefore, as any other piece of clothing, a universal form emptied of their generally accepted meaning.

Not having a specific origin, Laibach’s uniform, the headwear, or the Laibach cross simultaneously denote timelessness and universality.

Picture 5, 6. Laibach in North Korea [41] [42]

By wearing a uniform, Laibach exceeds the bare distinction between a uniform and other clothes, introduced by the German avant-garde theoretician Bazon Brock [17], who claimed that democracy requires, for its operating, multiform clothing, whereas totalitarian dictatorship requires a uniform. Every member of society wears a uniform and the distinction between the two types of clothing, made by Flügel and later by Polhemus, for Laibach, does not exist. Their uniforms, and consequently uniforms of all people, surpass the fundamental difference between fixed and modish costumes or the dichotomy of fashion and anti-fashion. Uniform, as understood within the framework of the Polhemus’ anti-fashion theory as fixed and unchangeable, in Laibach’s case, tends to acquire characteristics of fashion. By that we do not mean a (military) uniform as being unquestionably a common source of fashion design where fashion appropriates anti-fashion ideas or the so-called canonical elements [23].

Paradoxically, Laibach’s uniform as a totality, is, therefore, not merely an object of timelessness and universality, but also an object of fluidity, dynamics and change due to the use of the retro-avant-garde method.

It is irrelevant what type of uniform or which clothing pieces Laibach wear; whether it is a Yugoslav Army uniform, a Nazi uniform, or a hunting uniform, in which Laibach performed during their probably most stylistic period marked by the song Life is life and the proclamation of being the fourth best-dressed men in Yugoslavia by the Start magazine in 1987 [36], or no uniform at all. At present, Laibach no longer wear typical anti-fashion uniforms (Picture 7), their performing clothing and uniforms consist of all pieces of

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clothes, even of designed fashion items, such as a scarlet red floor-length leather coat created by the Slovenian fashion designer Peter Movrin (Picture 4). Thus, Laibach do not need to wear a uniform; whatever they are dressed in, they always wear a uniform.

Picture 7. Laibach in no-uniform clothes [43]

CONCLUSION Almost forty years after their creation, Laibach tends to be generally dressed in no-uniform clothes, nevertheless providing us with a sense of a collective’s uniform. Together with their recognisable totalitarian aesthetic and provocative use of symbols and signs with no direct communication, Laibach embodies its manifest, Laibach: 10 Items of the Covenant, published in 1983 by using its retro-avant-garde work method as a constant re-appropriation of different symbols and signs, taking them out of their socially accepted meaning. As an indispensable part of Laibach’s performative dimension, uniform as a whole, according to the concept of anti-fashion as a fixed and solid sign of social categories, becomes a subject of constant transformation and change, which, paradoxically, provides it with timelessness and universality.

A uniform, as understood within the framework of the Polhemus’ anti-fashion theory as fixed and unchangeable, in Laibach’s case, by acquiring characteristics of fashion (dynamic and change), surpass the dichotomy of fashion and anti-fashion. By wearing different pieces of clothing going beyond cultural diversity and a certain place and time, everything from a miner uniform at the beginning, the most attention-grabbing Yugoslav military uniform which was often mistaken for a Nazi uniform, hunting clothes, North Korean traditional costumes, classical suits, shirts, trousers to fashionable clothes, Laibach proves that all changeable multiform clothes are uniforms. Every piece of clothing is a timeless universal form of a constantly changing uniform, which is worn by each and every one of us.

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Film Costume as a Visual Narrative Element; Defining the Abstract Emotions of the Film Viewer via Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions

Jelena VOJKOVIĆ University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology, Department od Fashion Design, Student of Master’s Programe Theory and Culture of Fashion, Croatia jelena@rrgr.com Scientific review UDC 791.32:687.16:159.942 DOI: 10.31881/TLR.2019.34 Received 4 May 2020; Accepted 5 June 2020; Published 16 June 2020

ABSTRACT This research is an attempt to try to define the semiotic elements of film costumes that result with certain final feelings of the viewer. Looking through the semiotic theory of both Roland Barthes and Walter Benjamin and the specifics of (theatre and) film costume as a means of influencing the viewer and his/her thoughts, feelings and overall catharsis, the identity of a certain film has been set through an analysis of various elements.

Furthermore, it has been noticed that psychological results by one observing a film can be various and lean more on known philosophical and psychological tendencies i.e. Freud’s theories or the ones of M. MerleauPonty or Lacan. To make it less verbatim, the example for the analysis that has been chosen is the 1982 science fiction film Bladerunner directed by Ridley Scott. With surreal messages and multi-layered meanings of its visual and audio presentation, it seemed like a perfect starting point for the research of the subconscious mind of the viewer. Finding a non-invasive approach to viewer’s impression, the costume itself could be observed both independently and in correlation with other film elements. By combining the results of all film levels via a visual psychological test by Robert Plutchik, known as Plutchik’s wheel of emotions, it is plain to see that a final impression still lies in a personal analysis. We find a prevalence of certain thoughts that lead the viewer to change his/her perception and, ultimately, to catharsis.

KEYWORDS Film, aura, authenticity, psychoanalysis, emotion, catharsis

INTRODUCTION Although the philosophical tenets of every film are complex, they favour a personal analysis. But the story itself comes from a book or a screenplay and it is very simple and easy to understand in its structure, which contributes to the atmosphere, as do other elements which will be presented in this analysis, including costumes as a very important piece of visual information. This approach is aimed at breaking down costumes in order to show the process of collecting impressions during watching which lead to a final catharsis in the viewer. The method whereby I will collect the impressions which appear while watching a film involves showing emotions via Robert Plutchik’s method and his diagram, the wheel of emotions and theory presented in 2011 [1].

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THEORETICAL FRAME Aura of art form In his essay, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, Walter Benjamin looks on art and its existence in a world in which everything is gradually losing its value. I will use this theory in an attempt to link the notion of an exalted work of art and the notion of artificial repetition present in the film’s dramatic composition and to show what the original means in relation to a replica.

The human sensory reaction to a work of art is not just biological or natural but also historical. In Marxist terms, Benjamin looks on changes in art that are provoked by changes in the economy. Through reproduction, a work of art becomes more produced and less unique, getting farther from its primary purpose, becoming a means. What makes the work authentic is the presence of a magical or supernatural force which stems from its uniqueness, and it is manifested in the perceptive space between the work and the consumer.

Due to the mass reproduction of works of art in modern times, that aura is missing. The aura is a consequence of the existence of a work of art in space and time, and it is linked to the idea of authenticity, whereas a reproduced work (of art) is never fully present. Authenticity cannot be reproduced because, paradoxically, it disappears due to the very fact that everything is reproduced. At the same time, an original also loses in importance and authority because it is reproduced. The viewer constantly tries and needs to bring the work closer, thereby contributing to the loss of the work’s aura. If the copy is near the viewer, he/she lives in a replicated reality and moves towards the destruction of uniqueness. Traditional art requires distance and contemplation, whereas modern approaches put themselves at the front and appear as imperatives.

They become a distraction (as opposed to contemplation). The distraction has a social role: it replaces the viewer’s thoughts with moving images and the viewer stops thinking. That is how the masses think, looking for a way out in what is empty; while contemplation is seen as the author’s domination over the masses, art absorbs the viewer, while in the case of a distraction, the viewer swallows a work of art. Looking at that through film, dealing with art is actually a state of distraction or distancing – the audience examines but is mentally absent. The end result is ennui and loss of the time and space in which one can think.

Art originated from ritual and was dependent on its aura, whereas in modern times it is free of its dependence on ritual. As a result, experiences related to ritual and tradition are lost, and thereby the autonomy of art is lost, too [2]. Benjamin sees tradition and ritual as mostly negative, but both, of course, depend on the degree of localised knowledge, individual thinking and life circumstances, an individual’s uniqueness in the same life circumstances. If a work of art is taken out of the context of tradition, it is put in an entirely new atmosphere and given new meaning. In that case, the link with ritual and tradition is lost and the work lacks autonomy.

Benjamin looks at ritual and tradition as a connotation of local knowledge, individual life surroundings, an individual’s uniqueness and his/her personal world, and he has a markedly melancholic attitude because of the loss of said values [3]. On the other hand, the loss of tradition gives a work of art the opportunity to manifest itself in a new life environment for a reader, viewer or listener.

A work of art is separated from its past and is brought into new connotations via the consumer and his/her perception. It is given an entirely new function through the reaction of the masses, it is separated from the initial idea and policy, and is measured through an individual or a group reaction (such as viewers’ reaction to a film).

A film frees the viewer from the limiting modern environment through acceleration or “entering the frame”, thereby widely expanding images and notions. Benjamin compares that effect with Dada’s intention to use caricature to show the absurdity of the modern world and point out unpredictability in creativity [4]. Dadawww.textile-leather.com 93

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ists shuffle the everyday and artistic segments and conventions in order to oppose dominant assumptions.

Benjamin points out the importance of active use or tactile experience over optical or contemplative use.

Art should be participative and interactive [4]. As an example, he mentions tourists who contemplate a building in an unknown city, while the participation of the building’s user is tactile. However, tactile use does not come consciously but through habit – even an absent-minded person can develop habits. Thereby the art of today becomes art which educates or builds habits.

This dual process of the destruction and reconstruction of meaning becomes important for the renewal of humankind.

In film (television and photography), we notice that the scenes presented are understandable and acceptable only from the position and angle in which they are shot. An artificially created reality without the shooting equipment which appears completely real actually gives the false impression of a work of art because it is in truth a new reality. Works of art are also made of differently treated parts. For example, an artist paints a painting in segments, whereas a film is created by splicing previously cut parts. Films also contain aspects of the unreal and can be seen via the smallest segments (image, frame), stopped, accelerated and slowed down, analysed via the tiniest details.

Art has always been prone to reproduction. For example, before the age of mechanical reproduction, books were copied by hand. TV and radio are media manipulated by switches which turn on and off, accelerate and slow down moving images. But Benjamin does not think that every modern technology is progressive and that only certain of its consequences lead to the politicisation of art [4].

Humankind becomes a contemplated object in itself, an object of observation and, according to Benjamin, becomes alienating. This becomes the accepted form of creating and consuming culture. Every time a new medium experiences this progressive form, it distances people from expected reactions and provides new channels for experimental activity and new perspectives, creating a new and stronger system.

Benjamin calls this whole endeavour the “politicisation of art” – objects which are separated from the traditional and the conventional can be reshuffled in new ways by an active user. The art of reproduction is not just a result of technological development, but also a consequence of the political need to use art as a tool for the communication of certain ideas and rituals [5]. That is his response to the aestheticization of politics [6].

Perhaps originals have not disappeared completely, but the culture people experience in everyday life is generally mass-produced. Some segments are stimulated without the referenced original. The change Benjamin has noticed is the growing propaganda or mobilisation of the power of images (revolutionary newspapers, pamphlets, posters), but it is prone to manipulation and myth creation, notably if manipulated by power-wielders. In that case, imposed imperatives create an anxious world without personal reaction.

The loss of distance between the primal meaning and its implementation into propaganda can create an indifferent world in which a revolution becomes a potential danger. If the audience consumes a work of art but is imprisoned in myth or imposed subjectivity, the revolutionary power of art is brought into question.

Danko Grlić notes that the aura refers to the unrepeatability of a work of art which characterises a specific work as exalted and as one which carries some spiritual values, which is what we are looking for in every film analysis. Interestingly, Danko Grlić also notes that art has a human mission, to say what the human world must be like in order to remain human – art will be able to do that when the technical civilisation stops dictating what art should be like [7]. That once again proves the multiple layers of dramatic composition and experience, allowing us to undergo a catharsis and look at the film through theory and practice.

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Authenticity of a work of art Benjamin says that, with the appearance of photography, the artistic process of creating by hand was replaced by the eye looking through the lens. What ensues is the technical reproduction of the art of painting: the painting as the old form and the photograph as the new. Unlike a painting, which could be reproduced only manually, a photograph undergoes technical reproduction. What certainly contributes to the impression of and enriches the path to a catharsis is that in the case of photographs in motion (film), we add the sound impression by giving the ear a role in the creation of a work of art [8].

A specific work of art is comprised of the “here and now”. They refer to the physical presence of the work (here) and the relationship to the work (now). Still, this research deals with feelings after watching a film, with how and why it is created, with explaining why the viewer feels the way he/she feels and why this is a long-lasting state, not just the state pertaining only to the moment of watching.

The abovementioned “one-off existence” of a work is certainly a prerequisite for the subsequent impression we are trying to trace. Talking about Benjamin, Grlić says that the progress of technique hides not just the loss of the authentic in a work of art, but also the inauthenticity of people and their survival [6]. Grlić says that technique has intended its development for the development of the technical, which will take issue with “humanity” because the later is unpredictable. Human individuality does not have the constant and standardised course that technical development demands, which is why said development brings its authenticity into question [7].

Regardless of the possibility to technically reproduce a work and its repeated use, this film certainly proves its auracity even after watching.

Film Walter Benjamin dedicated his philosophical life to the changed role of art at the turn of the 20th century.

The change was mirrored in the arrival of photography, and later film, and he claims that they led to the death of the aura and the expansion of perception [6]. The aura also refers to the meaning of symbols, which I’m showing in this analysis of the costumes within a certain science fiction film. Symbols always point to something outside or refer to a work’s special status which ranks it as a classic [10].

Benjamin posits one of the most significant, broadest and bravest tenets in film theory. A text from 1920 in his unfinished work The Arcades Project deals with the past, the present and the experience of recognising an object through its imposed values at a specific moment of perception. He analyses being in the now and compares it to what we call the present in chronological time.

What introduces film into that theory is its dependence on the process of editing and editorial thinking. He examines the interaction of the present and the past through the historical-materialist philosophy of time.

He defines the present as a distillate of the past, positing the following argument: the dialectic penetration and actualisation of the previous context brings into question the current action or view. Benjamin even compares such action with the lighting of the flame of the past by means of the latent ember of the past that is contained in the present. He also highlights the discontinuity of film in the continuity of film, using it as a tool in man’s adaptation and his perceptive extensions in the age of modern progressive technology. It is necessary to learn to read images in motion, withstand the constant metamorphosis of photography and recognise the sequences which make a film. The ability to accept and process images which are presented to us, while being stretched in every direction, sets multitasking as a canon of perception, and this way of adopting information has been noticed in all the areas of art.

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Semiotics The semiotics in any film is connected and carefully worked out in every segment of its impression and leads to a complete catharsis caused by the viewer’s understanding of the author’s poetics. Such an analysis stems from my need to define the feeling which appears after the viewing and which cannot be linked to only one segment of the film. For example, the melancholy I experience while watching a film needs to be proven through an analysis of the segments and their semiotic values. I am of the opinion that such an analysis may be applied to any work of art which we can break down to units of its effect. If we approach a work selectively, we will collect a score of impressions which we place within a set form of research.

The psychologist Robert Plutchik considers eight unconventional emotions as basic: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, anticipation, anger and disgust. His graphic model, the wheel of emotions [11], illustrates those eight emotions in numerous variations, showing how they relate to one another, including the possibility that at certain moments one emotion can very easily turn into another, even a complete opposite. In that way, we can clearly perceive emotions, which can sometimes be unexplainable and overwhelming. Ranked by intensity (colour) and oppositeness (position), they create an interesting illustration of a person’s current emotional state – the darker the colour, the stronger the emotion. The more we know about emotions, the better we understand how various emotions are interlinked and how they can change over time.

A film’s costume greatly affects the viewer and fashion itself. Clothes in the form of costumes which have great semiotic significance and influence sociocultural circumstances become iconic costumes. Since film, as a series of photographs in motion, contains sign language in all its segments, we find those values also in the costume which an actor wears, the clothes, the fashion within a film. In that way, viewers can relate to a certain character, thereby accepting a piece of clothing or the impression thereof as iconic. The costume is related to a number of exit forms: film, character, actor and the viewer’s impression. Costumes are not just functional, they are images which function independently and, by not relying on a character, a body or narration, they have a metaphoric role and provide a deep/deeper context for a character’s look [12].

A film character with iconic status necessarily gives the character’s costume iconic significance – a viewer can recognise a character just by a picture of a piece of clothing, without having watched the film [13]. Thereby a (film) costume, alongside other elements, becomes a semiotic unit of a certain cultural context. As for the visual system code, visual communication is always coded in such a way that the community understands it – if a certain code is considered transparent, that is so only because all members of a community recognise and can read the code. The viewer, and thereby the community, is influenced by the image – the image in motion – of a film [14].

A film’s costume is part of film’s semiotics which divides language into linguistic and visual signs. I aim to analyse the costume through elements of Barthes’s, Saussure’s and Benjamin’s theories and their previously mentioned semiotics, based on the signifier and the signified. I’m taking the example of the spoken and written word tree, which is a material image and the manifestation of a notion – the signifier and the material image (of a tree) that is attached to that word – signified – and which creates a kind of concept. Tree has different connotations with regard to the signified, i.e. the mental image of the person adopting the word.

According to that key, clothes also carry certain meanings which create emotion towards and within a character, whereby iconic costumes represent a wider context, not just the one within a film. Moreover, it is understood that in every film (realistic or fictional) objects/costumes are not real objects/costumes, only references. Acting, especially non-verbal acting, in theatre and in film suggests that a costume assumes the role of a visual narrator. Such a costume must satisfy certain expectations on the observer’s part and be visually satisfying. The clothes, hairstyle and fashion accessories within a costume are culturally coded and indicative, jointly creating the artificial personality of a character.

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Below the mind Film, being primarily a visual artform, serves us the psychological references in form and content, which lead us to our final result [18]. The fact that film and psychoanalysis originated together at the turn of the 20th century further emphasizes this connection. Film and psychology tend to be a base of the process; on the other hand, psychoanalysis becomes an upgrade of understanding the layers of viewers’ impression.

Freud’s work Interpretation of Dreams is a key title for the development of psychoanalysis in film. It has helped Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis gain an edge in serious scientific circles. Moreover, film is a scientific invention, and Freud has linked his innovative interpretation of dreams to the science of psychology.

Another moment in the rise of the psychoanalytic film theory was Jacques Lacan and his revolutionary approach to Freud’s base foundations [19]. The most common subject for understanding the given topic was his essay Mirror Stage as Formative I function, as Revealed in Psychoanalytic Experience that influenced the approach to the act of spectatorship. That brought us to understanding the self-identity and how we approach film per se, giving it a value that puts us in a role of a co-maker rather than just a viewer. Referring to a young child that has only one way to observe him/herself in the mirror, Lacan concludes that one sees the wholeness of itself without experiencing it entirely.

Freud’s and Lacan’s theories degenerated psychoanalytic film theory that fabricated a bridge between scientists and artists. In time when psychoanalysis was at the height of its impact on film, main novelties in analysing viewers impression were introspection and reflexivity [18].

This notion can be crucial for understanding the layers of a film and what it means for the viewer/spectator.

The spectator looks for known semiotic keys (programmed by a specific social order) to translate the technical language of film into his/her Freudian subconscious area [19].

It is also important to point out another Freud’s peer, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, who explains psychoanalysis as a certain form of subjectivation manifested in the creative conquest of ourselves. That being said, it is more than clear that the base for understanding any artform lies in the viewer. In his essay, Film and the new Psychology, he points out that one uses a certain film vocabulary, a syntax and that is why he/she is not influenced by it [18]. That brings us closer to the conclusion of this essay.

ANALYSIS BY EXAMPLE: Costume In order to make the best analysis possible, we’ll take as an example the two main characters of Ridley Scott’s science fiction film Blade Runner (1982). One of the most popular science fiction films that is constructed of a series of psychoanalytic intertextualities for the characters as well as the viewers. The direct link to its complex dramaturgical thread and how the dreams reflect our reality and vision sets Freud’s “I dream, therefore I am” in a right perspective for this thesis. It also brings a new tool to analyse the film itself along with the aftertaste of the audience [18].

The two characters are a male and a female and their obvious polarity makes it easier to compare them with each other. They also give us the most information within the context of the story.

By merging and combining the results of respondent viewers we apply it to Plutchik’s graphic wheel and along with other segments of the film come up with a solid graphic view of emotions.

Man’s noir costume for the character of Deckard (Harrison Ford) Characteristics: 1940s business clothes have a big influence on film noir - the good and the bad guys have a similar costume/clothing, a markedly elegant look - suit, hat, trench coat.

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Inspiration and influences: Phillip Marlowe in Robert Altman’s The Long Goodbye and Humphrey Bogart in The Big Sleep.

Woman’s noir costume for the character of Rachel (Sean Young) Characteristics: femme fatal; red lipstick, low collar, skirt, high heels, fur coat, long gloves, cigarettes.

Inspiration and influences: old Hollywood glamour, clothes with sharp lines and wide shoulders, a retrofuturist pastiche, the influence of custom-made suits – suiting, tailoring, shoulder pads, tight waist, soldier’s silhouettes, achromatic grey and beige, the use of silver threads to create a subtle light play, references to the 1940s, 1950s and 1980s.

Given Barthes’s classification of characters by five image codes, I will illustrate how we can read in the meanings of the abovementioned characters’ costumes which bring us to a certain state or emotion [15].

The character of Rick Deckard in the context of a human 1. Hermeneutic code: composition of elements in an image - clothes intended for office work as well as protection from the rain, a man with a uniformed business style.

2. The seme of the image and its connotations: the smallest unit of meaning – the shirt signifies tidiness, uniformity, practicality; the tie signifies formality, sophistication, norm, professionalism in every occasion, courteousness; the brown leather belt signifies practicality; the tweed trousers signify tradition, being comfortable while working; the brown trench coat signifies a detective.

3. The symbolic and cultural code of the image: the context of the character, a servant of the law; for Deckard, the colour of the shirt signifies that, although uniformed, he is not subject to norms, he is a rebel; the tie signifies that he respects norms, it matches the shirt, because he is an individual after all; the brown leather belt signifies that he cultivates tradition and past times, it signifies wistfulness; the tweed trousers mean being comfortable while chasing possible replicants; the brown trench coat signifies that he is an unhappy wistful man doing an inhumane job.

The character of Rachel in the context of a ‘positive’ replicant 1. Hermeneutic code: composition of elements in an image – immaculate conservative business clothes, hair and makeup; womanly appearance.

2. The seme of the image and its connotations: the smallest unit of meaning – the jacket signifies a business context, professionalism, uniformity; the tight skirt signifies elegance, modesty, unavailability; the pumps signify a classic style, elegance, domination; the Pompadour hairstyle signifies attitude, courage, individuality; the red lipstick signifies elegance, femininity, nurture; the cigarette signifies vice, elegance (Hollywood’s Golden Age).

3. The symbolic and cultural code of the image: the context of the character, a replicant or a human? For Rachel, the jacket signifies that she is obliging, cold, an assistant subject to human norms, an intelligent, strong and fatal woman who may at the same time, judging by the costume’s lines, be non-human; the tight skirt signifies that she is submissive, quiet, feminine, unavailable, imprisoned, reserved; the pumps signify that she is boxed in, imprisoned, well-mannered, cultivated; the Pompadour hairstyle signifies maintaining an identity, copying what is in fashion, the need to dress up, the need for humanity; the red lipstick signifies maintaining an identity, attempting to prove her humanity, it’s the result of a traumatic experience because she doesn’t know her origin, trivialising the situation.

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This model of breaking down the meaning of the parts of the costumes’ visual context greatly contributes to understanding the characters, the dramatic composition and, finally, the film, as well as the other elements which create an impression and lead to a catharsis. In analysing a film, it is necessary to write down the emotions that appear while watching it.

Following is the conclusion of the costume analysis: - key feelings elicited by the man’s costume: trust, panic, fear, wistfulness, interest, anticipation, caution - key feelings elicited by the woman’s costume: calmness, admiration, wistfulness, sadness.

The final result in this case is visually presented by combining these two categories [16].

Moreover, we use a graphic presentation of the research and the findings; mentioned alongside every segment of the film during the research are the emotions elicited in the viewer, and I illustrate every segment separately so that eventually we can join them into a single graphic and a coloristic presentation, thus gaining insight into the atmosphere of the work of art, its aura, how it changes the viewer’s state as well as perception and leads to a catharsis.

Colours are added to the emotions by Plutchik’s method as well as the numerical value. The repetition of the emotions resulted in a specific graphic presentation in which the pattern and intensity of the colours point to the final result: which emotion (emotions) is prevalent and what quadrant of the diagram it is in.

CONCLUSION Moving images can serve as vehicles of philosophical consideration. Many philosophers deeply negate the importance of the moving image, for example Plato’s Republic, which mentions a cave and a shadow play that becomes a reality for those used to its manifestation [17]. The link with Plato’s presentation and the elaboration of the film’s impression is strong: in both cases we sit in a dark environment, listen to sounds and watch moving images, but in our case we do it voluntarily and we are free to move from reality to fiction and vice versa. We consciously allow ourselves to be seduced, we deliberately negate disbelief and toy with the impression of reality.

One can learn from film in every case: if it is like the real world, we learn new ways of dealing with it; if it is the complete opposite, we learn to understand and compare the possible and the existing, and we are aware of the limits of the real. Cinema was created for entertainment, but film is certainly a subject which provokes the thought process on the basis of the visual, and its potential to raise philosophical topics (aside from personal ones) has often seemed neglected and unappreciated in practice. Even when a film doesn’t have the intention to convey a deeper thought via its screenplay, director, actors, visuals etc, the final product may result in a catharsis because the meaning and significance of any form of art is not entirely in the creator’s control.

With this research, I arrive at an explanation of the sensations in the viewer with some overviews on various philosophical and psychological directions that could be stepping stones for this kind of approach to film analysis. Also, the personal feeling of melancholy I mention at the very beginning and the aura of this work of art can be explained through the repetition of wistfulness and anticipation while watching the film. That something which causes a change of the emotional, even spiritual, state must certainly be conditioned by something, and the fact that such a sensation is repeated in the same way every time we watch the film confirms its deeper intention. The poetics of the author (or a group of authors) is synthesised in a single message carried by every signified in the work, it is presented and implemented almost imperceptibly and has key significance for considering the film.

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This theoretic and graphic presentation of the analysis of any segment allows for a deeper analysis of the material. It is important to decide at the very beginning what the starting research categories are, analyse each separately and finally make an analysis of all the set parameters (emotions that surely come from the unconscious mind) in order to get a graphic presentation of the viewer’s abstract impression and relationship to the work of art.

By doing that, we can materialise any abstract artistic manifestation into a scientifically measurable category.

REFERENCES [1] Gu S, Wang F, Patel NP, Burgeois JA, Huang JH. A Model for Basic Emotions Using Observations of Behavior in Drosophila [Internet]: Frontiers in Psychology, Emotion Science, 24. April 2019. Available from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00781/full [2] Benjamin W. Umjetničko djelo u razdoblju tehničke reprodukcije. Život umjetnosti, časopis za pitanja likovne kulture. 2006, 78/79, 22-32.

[3] Jukić T: Melancholia for Modernity. Notes on Walter Benjamin [Internet]. ResearchGate, October 2017.

Available from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319184865_Melancholia_for_Modernity_ Notes_on_Walter_Benjamin [4] Eiland H: One Benjamin’s theory of Film [Internet]. The Promise of Cinema, October 2016. https://www. thepromiseofcinema.com/index.php/on-benjamins-theory-of-film/ [5] Amresh S: Politicizing Art: Benjamin’s Redemptive Critique of Technology in the Age of Fascism [Internet].

ResearchGate, September 2015. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/35162491_ Politicizing_Art_Benjamin’s_Redemptive_Critique_of_Technology_in_the_Age_of_Fascism [6] Crnković M: Utjecaj filma i fotografije na auratsku vrijednost umjetničkog djela. Bilten studentskih radova iz filozofije [Internet]. 2015, 81-90. Available from https://hrcak.srce.hr/183342 [7] Grlić D: Umjetnost i filozofija. Beograd: Nolit; 1998 [8] Andy McLaverty-Robinson: An A to Z of Theory: Walter Benjamin: Art, Aura and Authenticity (Internet): Ceasefire, June 14, 2013. Available form https://ceasefiremagazine.co.uk/walter-benjamin-art-auraauthenticity/ [9] Grlić D: Misaona avantura Waltera Benjamina. Zagreb: Globus; 1984Walter Benjamin, Estetički ogledi, Školska knjiga, Zagreb 1986.

[10] see image 1. Plutchik’s model of emotions [11] Stella Bruzzi: Undressing Cinema: Clothing and identity in the movies: Clothes, Identities, Films, 1997 [12] Richard Dryer, Stars, 1979 [13] Kress G. Leeuwen T; Reading Images - the grammar of Visual Design [Internet]. ResearchGate, December 2017. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322105004_READING_IMAGES_-_ THE_GRAMMAR_OF_VISUAL_DESIGN [14] Pirjo A: Film Costumes as Icons – three representations of a hero’s iconic film costume [Internet]. Lauda, 2014. Available from https://lauda.ulapland.fi/handle/10024/60752 [15] see image 2. Final results - costume analysis [16] Shanahan T: Philosophy and Blade Runner. UK, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014 [17] Lauretis T: Freud’s Drive: Psychoanalysis, Literature and Film, UK, Palgrave Macmillian, 2008 [18] McGowan T: The Real Gaze, Film Theory after Lacan, NY, State University of New York Press, 2008

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CARP B. Textiles Sustainability and Communications TLR 3 (2) 2020 101-102.

3D Printing in the Apparel Sector: How Environmentally Sustainable is it?

Belinda CARP Business Consultant belinda@belinda-carp.com Position paper UDC 687:004.92:502.131.1 DOI: 10.31881/TLR.2020.PP02 Received 6 May 2020; Published 16 June 2020

INTRODUCTION 3D printing is a process of making three dimensional (3D) solid objects from a digital file. The object is made using an additive process, which means that successive layers of material are laid down until the object is created. Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced horizontal cross-section of the eventual object.

The process enables complex shapes to be produced, using less material than in traditional manufacturing methods.

3D printing processes are being used in manufacturing, medicine, architecture, custom art and design. Applications in textiles range from fashion and sportswear to medical devices and aerospace.

3D PRINTING IN THE APPAREL SECTOR USA-based Alvanon is a company which specialises in garment fit, and the company did some research into how fashion businesses are using 3D technology to improve their processes. It discovered that, although companies hoped 3D would help to shorten lead times, this did not happen initially. Also, it was hoped that the use of the technology would result in the elimination of physical sample production. It is true that fewer samples are now being produced, but this stage has not been completely eliminated.

3D PRINTING COMBINED WITH AUGMENTED REALITY (AR) Augmented reality (AR) is a type of technology which superimposes a computer generated image on to a user’s view of the real world. Through the use of advanced 3D AR, samples can be produced digitally, and users are able to try garments on virtually. A number of apparel brands, including Burberry, are using the technology. www.textile-leather.com 101

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3D PRINTING COMBINED WITH ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) USA-based Body Labs is a tech company that develops artificial intelligence (AI), which was purchased by Amazon in October 2017. The company creates 3D models of real people from photos, and claims to achieve “better than 2 cm accuracy” from the images it produces. The Body Labs demo shows people using a selfie to connect them to “shape doppelgangers” on Instagram in clothes which “look good”.

Footwear brands which use 3D printing include: • Adidas - In 2015 the company launched Futurecraft 3D, a 3D-printed running shoe midsole which can be tailored to the cushioning needs of an individual’s foot; • Nike - In 2013 Nike Football debuted the Nike Vapor Laser Talon with a 3D printed plate which, the company claims, improves a footballer’s “zero step” (the step taken when gaining control of the ball); • New Balance - In 2013 New Balance announced the use of 3D printing to produce spike plates customized to the individual needs and desires of their elite athletes.

It should be noted that: • 3D Printers use a lot of energy – although not as much as, for example, a clothes dryer in your home; • 3D printers can release toxic chemicals in the air – ultra fine particles which can be breathed in. However, building an enclosure will keep the fumes from being emitted into the air; and • 3D printing on demand and rapid prototyping can potentially lead to an increase in the number of disposable consumer products, which is not environmentally sustainable.

However, in terms of environmental responsibility, 3D printing has a number of advantages including: • reduced waste – additive manufacturing means no offcuts of materials; • reduced cost – fewer wasted materials; • reduced water pollution – due to no dyeing, or finishing processes; • reduced air pollution – in contrast with traditional textile processing; • reduced capital required – set up costs are lower and less complex; • faster innovation – reducing lead times; • faster prototyping – enables design amendments to be made quickly and cost effectively; • on-demand production and small runs – in contrast with traditional manufacturing; • simplified supply chain and logistics – new parts can be made onsite; • revolutionized retail experience - products can be made and repaired onsite; and • reduced emissions and distribution costs – garments can be manufactured on site.

3D printing also enables: • functionality in a single garment – such as water- and stain-repellence; • smart functionality in a garment – such as heart monitors in sportswear; • customization in small quantities – in contrast with traditional manufacturing; and • smaller manufacturing operations to compete – localizing production facilities.

CONCLUSION The benefits of 3D printing have some way to go in the textile and apparel industry before they are fully realized – but brands are innovative. Those which use technology to improve their environmental sustainability will benefit not only from increased efficiency and reduced costs, but also from an enhanced reputation among their workforce and their consumers. 3D printing is not yet mainstream, but its place is secure in the more sustainable textile and apparel sector of the future.

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GAVRANOVIC A. Textile Market – Clothing Industry Facing New Challenges TLR 3 (2) 2020 103-106.

Textile Market – Clothing Industry Facing New Challenges Ante GAVRANOVIĆ Economic Analyst Position paper UDC 687:339.13 DOI: 10.31881/TLR.2020.PP03 Received 3 May 2020; Published 16 June 2020

INTRODUCTION Fashion has serious economic, environmental and social effects. McKinsey’s Global Fashion Index states that over a hundred billion pieces of clothing are produced annually. A Greenpeace study shows that in Germany, for example, 60 new garments are bought per person per year. The production, transport and use of goods (washing, drying, ironing) cause more than 850 million tons of CO2 emissions each year. In short, it is an industry that is seriously damaging the environment.

The fall in clothing prices in the last 20 years has enabled the purchase of an increasing number of garments.

Analyses show that now, on average, we have five times more clothes than our grandparents had. This favourable trend in spending, however, also has its flip side of the coin: we feel great until we discover what is actually hiding behind this trend. In reality, this continuous accumulation of cheap clothes is possible only due to the constant reduction of production costs. This, in turn, has very serious consequences for our health, our planet, but also for the life and economic position of workers in the clothing and textile industry as a whole.

FASHION SECTOR AND ECOLOGICAL APPROACH All serious analyses show that the fashion industry contributes to the decline in the quality of life and the survival of our planet. It’s hard to imagine how a sock or a T-shirt could be partly responsible for climate change. Research in recent years has determined exactly how much of this problem is actually present.

The fashion sector accounts for more than 8 percent of all the impacts on the global climate - more than all international air travel and boat travel combined - and consumes 104 million tons of non-renewable resources each year. Between 2000 and 2015, the fashion industry doubled its production, from 50 billion items produced annually to 100 billion items.

Consumers are becoming aware of the pollution problem caused by fashion. A report from the Global Fashion Agenda showed that in 2019, 75 percent of consumers considered sustainability very or extremely www.textile-leather.com 103

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important. Consumers are increasingly dissatisfied with the status quo in this regard and want to advocate for a more sustainable future. At the same time, fashion is a global industry whose annual production value exceeds $ 2.5 trillion. Its supply chains are huge and international, ranging from the production of raw materials (cotton, wool, plastic to oil) to factories where people sew clothes and warehouses where they are stored until we buy them. There are two sharply conflicting interests.

When we think of the most polluted industries in the world, we tend to focus on the obvious culprits like oil and gas. But why not the global fashion sector, which is responsible for about 8 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions? Therefore, the main question in 2020 is the following: can we start with the big, structural changes needed to build environmental governance in this huge industry?

Here are four reasons that inspire hope in occurrence of these changes: • the changes will be beneficial for the overall business, • brands will make greater use of best practices, • consumers will increasingly demand changes in terms of ecology, • the development of technology will increase production efficiency.

INCREASED TRANSPARENCY IS REQUIRED More than 60 million people work in the clothing industry worldwide, most of them in developing and emerging countries, and there are still 16-hour shifts in many manufacturing sites. All this is behind every quickly and cheaply bought T-shirt. Consumers are becoming increasingly aware that such a relationship is not sustainable. Likewise, the European Union’s “Green Plan” imposes entirely new views on environmental protection, which poses new major challenges for the clothing industry.

A coalition of unions, human rights groups and labour rights advocates highlighted in a joint report that clothing and retail brands have dramatically increased the release of data on their supply chains in the last three years. Since 2016, the Coalition has been an advocate of transparency, minimum standards and supply chain transparency that allows advocates, workers and consumers to discover where certain products come from.

A report called “The Next Fashion Trend: Accelerating Supply Chain Transparency in the Clothing and Footwear Industry” describes how dozens of brands and retailers are publicly disclosing information about their supplier factories. This has become a generally accepted step towards better identification and addressing of work abuse in clothing supply chains.

Aruna Kashyap, a senior human rights adviser at Human Rights Watch emphasizes that transparency is not a ‘magic cure’ against labour rights violations, but that it is crucial for a job that describes itself as ethical and sustainable, and that all brands should accept transparency in the supply chain, but that, in the end, there is a need for laws that require transparency and apply crucial human rights practices.

Supplier transparency is a powerful tool that promotes corporate responsibility for apparel workers in global supply chains. The Coalition informed us that voluntary corporate action is limited. It would be more effective to enact national laws requiring companies to take due diligence of human rights in their supply chains, including, at least, public disclosure of the factories they use. Responsible business initiatives should stop making excuses for companies that want to continue to keep their supply chains opaque. Governments have an important role to play in enacting legislation that would require companies to take care of human rights in their global supply chains and be transparent about their products. Such legislation is key to creating a level playing field and protecting the rights of workers in their supply chains.

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39 companies have so far complied with the transparency standard. Among them are 22 companies that are on the list of 72 companies with which the Coalition began its arduous journey. Of the total number of companies the Coalition eventually contacted, 31 of them do not meet transparency criteria and standards, and 21 of them refuse to make relevant data public.

The United States-based Fair Labor Association has taken significant steps to ensure supply chain transparency among its members. In November 2019, it issued a requirement that all brands and retailers must publicly disclose supply chain data, compliant with the Transparency Pledge standard, and make the information available in open data formats by March 31, 2022.

“GREEN BUTTON” At the end of last year, German Federal Minister of Development Gerd Müller presented the “Green Button” that should revive the old ideal of good spending. It is a state textile label that guarantees that participating companies meet 26 minimum social and environmental standards: they must guarantee minimum wages and prohibit children and forced labour. They must comply with safety and health regulations in the workplace, such as providing protective clothing against chemicals during dyeing, pause regulation, and maximum hours.

What can the “Green Button” do? Not much at first, as its use is voluntary. No company is forced into the certification process.

The “Green Button” can hardly set new standards. Under stricter conditions, this could become a simple indicator for consumers on how to do something better. Researchers at the University of Bonn have found that labelling can, in fact, influence purchase decisions.

FUTURE OF SUSTAINABILITY IN FASHION INDUSTRY The C&A Foundation commissioned a special study based on the Delphi method that would reflect the perspectives in the fashion industry. This means that the study is done with a selected team of experts, but also with the aim of making the results available and usable for the sector as a whole and thus contribute to the debate on the future of sustainability in this industry. Focusing on the future of sustainability in the fashion industry, the study raises the question: • How much change does the industry have to go through to achieve sustainability, in terms of net positive impacts on environmental recovery as well as for working conditions and poverty? Or in other words: How far are we from achieving net positive sustainability?

• What are the options for strategies aimed at achieving net positive sustainability? What barriers should be overcome?

• What are the new paths or pathways to achieving net positive sustainability in the fashion industry?

Of course, there are caveats that come with this study. As with all predictions of the future, we encounter many unknown factors. However, on the one hand, we get a well-informed view of what we can probably expect if we continue on the path we are currently on. Most of the concepts (offered by the study) are based on already existing “signals of change”. However, there are those who assume “radical implementation”.

In fact, all of these concepts are estimated to be achievable by 2035, i.e. within a maximum of 16 years.

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GAVRANOVIC A. Textile Market – Clothing Industry Facing New Challenges TLR 3 (2) 2020 103-106.

TOP 7 CONCEPTS At the level of assessed concepts, we single out the “top 7” concepts - those to which special attention should be paid. Those are: • Increased global awareness: information campaigns that enable industry’s concentrated efforts to create global awareness of the need to shift the paradigm towards sustainable fashion.

• Fibre and processing innovations: new types of fibres and processing technologies enable low-energy and/or low-water use in processing, recycling and maintenance of clothing.

• Extremely detailed sustainability reporting that increases accountability.

• Worker-led initiatives: most of the fashion companies have already built in the procedures for ensuring the protection of human rights led by the workers. They are based on an industrial code of conduct on human rights, devised by the workers and aimed at the long-standing violations that industry workers experience first-hand.

• High concentration (i.e. increased collaboration): key players in the fashion industry act together either through property ownership or through formal alliances. It is easy to identify key players, and together they are able to implement sustainable solutions throughout the industry.

However, for balanced prioritization, we highlight the two leading concepts that have the greatest impact on the restoration of the natural environment, as well as on working conditions and employee poverty.

These two concepts are: • Extended manufacturer responsibility: most countries around the world apply greater manufacturer responsibility (for products intended for customers or unsold goods) by requiring fashion companies to reduce waste.

• (Living) wages in the fashion industry: wages for a fair and decent life in the fashion industry are a global standard and are overseen by local authorities and global institutions.

CONCLUSION The whole motivation of the fashion industry comes down to chasing the lowest possible production prices.

There are still many developing economies willing to work for lower wages. Fairer wages would certainly lead to more responsible production with an increased impact on resource use. The problem is that the fashion industry has profited from the overexploitation of outsourcing work in poor countries and regions.

Changes in this regard would represent a radical transformation within the industry itself.

In fact, a well-designed system, a common agreement in all the countries with cheap production, should be established. The fashion industry continues to demand the highest quality products at the lowest possible cost, and this will always be to the detriment of the workers. As long as the search for cheaper manufacturing destinations continues, there will be no great benefits from all (good) intentions. There will be no standard of transparency.

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GRANCARIC AM, JERKOVIC I. RULA Awards 2020 for Best Researcher TLR 3 (2) 2020 107.

RULA Awards 2020 for Best Researcher in Textile Technology Ana Marija GRANCARIĆ*, Ivona JERKOVIĆ University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology, Zagreb, Croatia *ana.marija.grancaric@ttf.hr Notice

Sponsored by the International Research Councils, this year, Prof. Vladan Koncar, PhD, Prof. Ana Marija Grancaric, PhD and Ivona Jerkovic, PhD student are RULA Awards holders for the Researcher Leadership Award, Best Researcher in Textile Technology in 2020. These Awards have got selected for the excellence of the paper published in Journal of Fashion Technology and Textile Engineering (2018), entitled - Textile Sensors Validatıon to Perform In Situ Structural Health Monitorıng of Textile Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites.

RULA (Research under Literal Access) International Research Leadership Award is intended to celebrate research excellence and to increase trans-disciplinary exposure.

RULA Awards Incorporated with the World Research Council strives for the collaboration of innovate ideas, experimentation, research theses, journals & periodicals on multifarious topic all over the world for dissemination of research creativity to bring all under one roof.

This Awards is original token for appreciation and recongnition towards the act of Excellency in various disciplines. IJRULA is self-governing, high quality research promoting organization that encourages researchers in all the fields of science, engineering and technology. Scientists, Medical Science & Healthcare Professionals and Engineers involved in research can make most of this growing global forum to promote research covering their original research activity or its extended version. Hence, they can be accessed and utilized by everyone for the development of science and technology. IJRULA is an online platform where scholars, researchers, medical & healthcare professionals, engineers, scientists and others to get promoted for their research work. IJRULA respects and believes that research is fundamental for the development of science and techno-logy thereby acting as a platform for paraprofessional. This platform is a place where a researcher can have a prestigious recognition towards his research work.

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Instructions for Authors TEXT LEATH REV 3 (2) 2020 108-111.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS EDITING YOUR MANUSCRIPT Please use our template to edit your article before submitting for review.

• Volume of a manuscript should not exceed 10.000 words, without Tables, Figures and Images.

• Title of a manuscript should not exceed 15 words.

• Full names and surnames of the authors, as well as full names of the author’s affiliation – university, institute, company, department, town and country should be clearly given. Corresponding author should be indicated, and their e-mail address provided.

• Abstract of a manuscript should be no longer than 250 words.

• Keywords should contain 3-7 items.

• SI units should be used throughout.

• Abbreviations should be used according to IUPAC and ISO standards and defined when first used.

• Footnotes should be avoided. When their use is absolutely necessary, they should be numbered consecutively using Arabic numerals and appended at the end of the manuscript.

• References should be cited using Arabic numbers in square brackets, according to the Vancouver referencing style. Please use our Quick Reference Guide (or look at the next page) • Figures and illustrations with a title and legend should be numbered consecutively (with Arabic numerals) and must be referred in the text. Images should be numbered as Figures. Additionally, Figures should be supplied as a separate file saved as jpg or tif at 300 dpi minimum. Type size in the description of axes should be proportional to the size of the Figure.

• Tables with a title and optional legend should be numbered consecutively and must be referred in the text.

• Acknowledgements may be included and should be placed after Conclusions and before References.

CATEGORIZATION OF ARTICLES Distinguishing scientific from professional articles The importance of usefulness of a article is not determined by whether it is scientific or professional. The difference between a scientific and a professional work is the originality of the results of research, debate and conclusions obtained by verified scientific methods. A professional paper can be more important for spreading knowledge and profession and economically more useful in application, but this does not mean it is a new contribution to the increase of scientific knowledge.

The received manuscripts are categorized into: Original scientific papers means it is the first publication of original research. It must be presented so that the research can be repeated giving results with equal precision within the limits of the trial error, which means that the correctness of analyses and conclusions can be checked.

Scientific review is a complete review of a issue or a field of research based on already published work but contains original analyses synthesis or suggestions for further research. It has a more comprehensive introduction than the original scientific paper.

Preliminary communication includes new scientific results demanding urgent publication while the research is underway. This kind of article does not have to ensure the repetition and checking the presented results.

It is published only with the author’s obligation to publish the original scientific paper when the research is completed.

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Instructions for Authors TEXT LEATH REV 3 (2) 2020 108-111.

Conference paper is the work presented at a professional conference organized on local, regional or state level. It will be published if it has not been published in full in Proceedings, as a report, a study etc.

Professional paper deals with the issues in the profession. It gives professional instructions and suggestions for how to solve the issue (technique, technology, methodology).

Professional review is a complete review of a professional issue (technique, technology, methodology) based on already published work indicating the best ways for solving the issue.

The papers that are not categorized include: Presentation and communication from practical experience deals with solving the problem of particular laboratory, institution or industry and serve to inform interested parties of the solution applied.

Position paper is an essay that presents an arguable opinion about an issue.

Commentary is paper connected with actual news and condition in science and textile/clothing industry.

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE Vancouver referencing style consists of: • citations to someone else’s work in the text, indicated by the use of a number, • a sequentially numbered reference list at the end of the document providing full details of the corresponding in-text reference.

In-text citations • Insert an in-text citation: o when your work has been influenced by someone else’s work, for example: ▪ when you directly quote someone else’s work ▪ when you paraphrase someone else’s work • General rules of in-text citation: o A number is allocated to a source in the order in which it is cited in the text. If the source is referred to again, the same number is used o Use Arabic numerals in square brackets [1], [2], [3], … o Superscripts can also be used rather than brackets o Reference numbers should be inserted to the left or inside of colons and semi-colons o Reference numbers are placed outside or after full stops and commas Multiple works by the same author: Each individual work by the same author, even if it is published in the same year, has its own reference number.

Citing secondary sources: A secondary source, or indirect citation, occurs when the ideas on one author are published in another author’s work, and you have not accessed or read the original piece of work. Cite the author of the work you have read and also include this source in your reference list.

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Instructions for Authors TEXT LEATH REV 3 (2) 2020 108-111.

In-text citation examples The in-text citation is placed immediately after the text which refers to the source being cited: ...and are generally utilized as industrial textile composites.[1] Including page numbers with in-text citations: Page numbers are not usually included with the citation number. However should you wish to specify the page number of the source the page/s should be included in the following format: …and are generally utilized as industrial textile composites.[1 p23] Hearle [1 p16-18] has argued that...

Citing more than one reference at a time: The preferred method is to list each reference number separated by a comma, or by a dash for a sequence of consecutive numbers. There should be no spaces between commas or dashes For example: [1,5,6-8] Reference List • References are listed in numerical order, and in the same order in which they are cited in text. The reference list appears at the end of the paper • Begin your reference list on a new page and title it References • The reference list should include all and only those references you have cited in the text • Use Arabic numerals [1], [2], [3], …

• Full journal titles are prefered • Check the reference details against the actual source - you are indicating that you have read a source when you cite it Scholarly journal articles • Enter author’s surname followed by no more than 2 initials (full stop) • If more than 1 author: give all authors’ names and separate each by a comma and a space • For articles with 1 to 6 authors, list all authors. For articles with more than 6 authors, list the first 6 authors then add ‘et al.’

• Only the first word of the article title and words that normally begin with a capital letter are capitalized.

• Use Full journal titles • Follow the date with a semi-colon; • Abbreviate months to their first 3 letters (no full stop) • Give the volume number (no space) followed by issue number in brackets • If the journal has continuous page numbering through its volumes, omit month/issue number.

• Page numbers, eg: 123-129.

Digital Object Identification (DOI) and URLs The digital object identifier (DOI) should be provided in the reference where it is available.

Use the form as it appears in your source.

Print journal article – Ferri L de, Lorenzi A, Carcano E, Draghi L. Silk fabrics modification by sol-gel method.

Textile Research Journal. 2018 Jan;88(1):99-107.

▪ Author AA, Author BB, Author CC, Author DD. Title of article. Title of journal. Date of publication YYYY Mon DD;volume number(issue number):page numbers.

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Instructions for Authors TEXT LEATH REV 3 (2) 2020 108-111.

Electronic journal article – Niculescu O, Deselnicu DC, Georgescu M, Nituica M. Finishing product for improving antifugal properties of leather. Leather and Footwear Journal [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2017 Apr 22];17(1):31-38. Available from: http://revistapielarieincaltaminte.ro/revistapielarieincaltaminteresurse/en/ fisiere/full/vol17 -nr1/article4_vol17_issue1.pdf ▪ Author AA, Author BB. Title of article. Title of Journal [Internet]. Date of publication YYYY MM [cited YYYY Mon DD];volume number(issue number):page numbers. Available from: URL Book – Hu J. Structure and mechanics of woven fabrics. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Ltd; 2004. 61 p.

▪ Author AA. Title of book. # edition [if not first]. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Pagination.

Edited book - Sun G, editor. Antimicrobial Textiles. Duxford: Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier; 2016. 99 p.

▪ Editor AA, Editor BB, editors. Title of book. # edition[if not first]. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Pagination.

Chapter in a book - Luximon A, editor. Handbook of Footwear Design and Manufacture. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2013. Chapter 5, Foot problems and their implications for footwear design; p.

[90-114].

▪ Author AA, Author BB. Title of book. # edition. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Chapter number, Chapter title; p. [page numbers of chapter].

Electronic book – Strasser J. Bangladesh’s Leather Industry: Local Production Networks in the Global Economy [Internet]. s.l.: Springer International Publishing; 2015 [cited 2017 Feb 07]. 96 p. Available from: https://link. springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-22548-7 ▪ Author AA. Title of web page [Internet]. Place of Publication: Sponsor of Website/Publisher; Year published [cited YYYY Mon DD]. Number of pages. Available from: URL DOI: (if available) Conference paper – Ferreira NG, Nobrega LCO, Held MSB. The need of Fashion Accessories. In: Mijović B. editor. Innovative textile for high future demands. Proceedings 12th World Textile Conference AUTEX; 13-15 June 2012; Zadar, Croatia. Zagreb: Faculty of Textile Technology, University of Zagreb; 2012. p. 1253-1257.

▪ Author AA. Title of paper. In: Editor AA, editor. Title of book. Proceedings of the Title of the Conference; Date of conference; Place of Conference. Place of publication: Publisher’s name; Year of Publication. p. page numbers.

Thesis/dissertation – Sujeevini J. Studies on the hydro-thermal and viscoelastic properties of leather [dissertation]. Leicester: University of Leicester; 2004. 144 p.

▪ Author AA. Title of thesis [dissertation]. Place of publication: Publisher; Year. Number of pages Electronic thesis/dissertation – Covington AD. Studies in leather science [dissertation on the internet].

Northampton: University of Northampton; 2010. [cited 2017 Jan 09]. Available from: http://ethos.bl.uk/ OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.579666 ▪ Author AA. Title of thesis [dissertation on the Internet]. Place of publication: Publisher; Year. [cited YYYY abb. month DD]. Available from: URL This quick reference guide is based on Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (2nd edition). Please consult this source directly for additional information or examples.

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