Wilderness Surviva Venturing Merit Badge Fair

WILDERNESS SURVIVAL OUTING STAFF GUIDE BLACK CREEK DISTRICT FEB 17-18, 2012

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TABLE OF CONTENTS First Aid .......................................................................................................................................................... 3 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 4

Common Issues.......................................................................................................................................... 5 Signs/ Symptoms Treatment PREVENTION Foraging ........................................................................................................................................................ 12 Body’s minimum Requirements ............................................................................................................... 13 Wildlife (Older Boy Scouts and Ventures only) ....................................................................................... 14 Trapping .............................................................................................................................................. 14 Preparation ............................................................................................................................................ 16 EDIBLE VS. NON EDIBLE PLANTS ............................................................................................................... 24 Psychology ................................................................................................................................................... 27 Stress......................................................................................................................................................... 28 Natural Reactions ..................................................................................................................................... 31 How to Prepare Yourself .......................................................................................................................... 34 Water Procurement ....................................................................................................................................... 37 Water Location ......................................................................................................................................... 37 Collection ................................................................................................................................................. 40 Purification ............................................................................................................................................... 43 Shelters ......................................................................................................................................................... 45 Factors ...................................................................................................................................................... 45 Types ........................................................................................................................................................ 49 Construction ............................................................................................................................................. 49 Clothing ........................................................................................................................................................ 60 How to dress (preparation for any campout) ............................................................................................ 60 Materials ................................................................................................................................................... 60 Layering .................................................................................................................................................... 61 Survival Kits ................................................................................................................................................. 63 Requirements ............................................................................................................................................ 63 Factors ...................................................................................................................................................... 63 Contents .................................................................................................................................................... 64 Seven Steps of Survival ................................................................................................................................ 65 Steps ......................................................................................................................................................... 65 S.T.O.P METHOD ...................................................................................................................................... 66 Fire Craft ...................................................................................................................................................... 67 Basic Fire Principles ................................................................................................................................. 67 Site Selection/Preparation ......................................................................................................................... 68 Fire material selection............................................................................................................................... 68 How to build a fire .................................................................................................................................... 70 How to light a fire ..................................................................................................................................... 71

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FIRST AID  Basic first aid in the wilderness could be a life saver.  Always be prepared when backpacking for these procedures.  The first concept in survival thought is prevention.

In other words, try to avoid situations that can alter the course of your safety in the wilderness  Accidents do occur.  Are you prepared?  Always be familiar with basic first aid. The Red Cross offers some wonderful programs for basic life support and first aid and I would suggest to anyone that they first, before venturing into the wilderness take these courses. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION So you’re on the trail and problems arise. What do you do?

ANSWER: If you’re prepared, instinct will kick in and all you have learned from your first aid courses will come to you easily. First you must be able to identify the problem in order to apply what you have learned.

Here are some wise and common sense First Aid practices that deal with the basics.

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DEFINITIONS If an accident occurs in the wilderness it will be your responsibility to deal with the situation. The specific sequence of actions when dealing with this situation is: 1. Remain calm, providing your patient with quiet, efficient

first aid treatment.

2. Keep the patient warm and lying down. Do not move this

injured person until you have discovered the extent of the injuries.

3. Start mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration immediately if

the injured person is not breathing.

4. Stop any bleeding.

5. Give your patient reassurance. Watch carefully for signs

of shock.

6. Check for cuts, fractures, breaks and injuries to the head,

neck or spine.

7. Do not allow people to crowd the injured person.

8. Do not remove clothing unless it is imperative.

9. Decide if your patient can be moved to a proper medical

facility. If this is not possible, prepare a suitable living area in which shelter, heat and food are provided.

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SHOCK Shock is a depression of all of the body processes and may follow any injury regardless of how minor. Factors such as hemorrhage, cold and pain will intensify shock.

When experiencing shock the patient will feel weak and may faint. The skin becomes cold and clammy and the pulse, weak and rapid.

Shock can be more serious than the injury itself.

Use the following method to prevent and control shock:

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treating injuries: i. Restore breathing ii. Stop bleeding iii. Treat breaks and fractures 2. If there are no head or chest injuries place, the patient on his/her back with the head and chest lower than the legs. This will help the blood circulate to the brain, heart, lungs and other major organs.

3. If severe head and chest injuries are present elevate the upper body. If chest injuries are present, elevate the injured side to assist in the functioning of the uninjured lung.

4. If the injured person becomes unconscious, place him/her in a face down position to prevent choking on blood, vomit or the tongue.

5. Keep your patient warm and under shelter.

STOPPED BREATHING If breathing has stopped, begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

Place the patient on his/her back and follow these steps:

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open the airway lift the patient’s neck and tilt the head back.

2. Keeping the neck elevated, pinch the nostrils to prevent air leakage.

3. Place your mouth completely around the victim’s mouth and blow, watching for chest expansion.

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4. After removing your mouth, listen for air leaving the patient’s lungs and watch for the chest to fall. Check for an airway blockage if the chest does not rise.

BLEEDING To control bleeding, elevate the wounded area above the heart and apply pressure using gauze, a clean cloth, dried seaweed or sphagnum moss. Use pressure at the pulse point between the injured area and the heart if bleeding fails to stop. If bleeding still persists, use a tourniquet between the injury and the heart. This method should only be used in extreme situations. After bleeding has been controlled, wash the wounded area with disinfectant and apply a dressing and bandages.

FRACTURES A fracture is classified as either a simple (closed) or compound (open). Signs that a fracture is present include:

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at the affected area.

2. The area may or may not be deformed.

3. The victim is unable to place weight on the area without experiencing pain.

4. A grating sensation or sound may be present during any motion of the injured area.

Treatment is as follows:

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in doubt, treat the injury as a fracture.

2. Splint the joints above and below the fracture.

3. If the fracture may penetrate the skin, it could be necessary to apply traction to straighten the deformity.

4. Be sure to pad your splints.

5. Check the splint ties frequently to be sure they do not hinder circulation.

6. Cover all open wound with a clean dressing before splinting.

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DISLOCATION Dislocation happens when the ligaments near a joint tear, allowing the movement of the bone from its socket. It is unwise to treat a dislocation unless you are a trained professional as permanent damage may occur. The affected extremity should be supported using a sling or other device and pain controlled with aspirin or other suitable drugs.

SPRAINS Treat sprains by applying cold to the area hours then once the swelling has subsided, for a day. Apply heat the following day to process. The sprain should be splinted and until the pain has completely disappeared.

for the first 24 let the sprain sit aid in the healing rendered immobile

CONCUSSIONS Concussions or other head injuries are often accompanied by a leakage of watery blood from the nose or ears. Other symptoms may include convulsions, an unresponsiveness of the pupils or headache and vomiting. Keep the injured party warm, dispense a pain killer regularly and allow time for the body to rest and repair.

HEAT EXHAUSTION Heat exhaustion is not uncommon when water is not sufficient.

The body becomes dehydrated and salt-depleted, resulting in 7

nausea, faintness, a weak, rapid pulse and/or cold and clammy skin. Treatment includes plenty of rest, liquid and salt tablets.

SUNSTROKE Sunstroke may occur when the body is exposed to excessive sun.

The body becomes overheated and provides too much blood to the circulatory system resulting in a flushed, hot face, rapid pulse, headache and/or dizziness. Treat sunstroke by resting in a cool area and applying and consuming cold liquid. Prevent sunstroke by wearing proper headgear.

MUSCLE CRAMPS Muscle cramps occur when the muscle accumulates excessive lactid acid or a loss of salt through perspiration. Treatment includes resting, deep breathing and stretching. Restore the salt balance immediately.

BURNS Burns are most commonly followed by shock. Administer a pain reliever immediately, apply gauze covered in Vaseline to the affected area and bandage. The patient should consume more water than usual.

FROSTBITE Frostbite occurs when the tissue of an area, most commonly the toes, fingers or face, is frozen either from direct exposure to the elements or high wind. First degree frostbite turns the area cold, white and numb. When heated the area becomes red and can be compared to a first degree burn. A blister will form after warming with second degree frostbite. Dark skin, gangrene, and a 8

loss of some skin and tissues is common in third degree. Fourth degree frostbite causes irreparable damage. The affected area will remain cold and lifeless and generally a part of the area is lost. With adequate clothing frostbite can easily be avoided.

Superficial frostbite may be treated by cupping one’s hands and blowing on the affected area, warming from another warm hand or, with fingers, placing them in your armpits. For more severe cases, medical aid should be sought.

BLISTERS Blisters are the painful, and common, result of ill-fitting footwear. At the first sign of discomfort, remove boots and socks and place a piece of adhesive tape over the affected area.

If it is absolutely necessary, open a blister by first washing the area thoroughly then inserting a sterilized needle into the side of the blister. Apply disinfectant and a bandage.

HEADACHES Headaches are often experienced in the mountains due to inadequate eye protection, tension in the neck, constipation or “water intoxication”, a swelling of the brain tissue which happens when the hiker has sweated excessively over a period of days and consumed large quantities of water without taking salt tablets. Aspirin may be used to alleviate the pain but one should find the source of headache to prevent further discomfort.

SNAKE BITES Snake bites are not overly common in British Columbia. One species of venomous snake, a rattlesnake is found in the dry belt of the southern interior. If you come across a snake slowly ease back. A snake bite rarely causes death; victims may be left untreated for up to eight hours.

After an attack occurs:

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the person calm, reassuring them that bites can be effectively treated in an emergency room. Restrict movement, and keep the affected area just below heart level 9

to reduce the flow of venom.

2. Remove any rings or constricting items because the affected area may swell. Create a loose splint to help restrict movement of the area.

3. If the area of the bite begins to swell and change color, the snake was probably poisonous.

4. Monitor the person’s vital signs — temperature, pulse, rate of breathing, blood pressure. If there are signs of shock (such as paleness), lay the victim flat, raise the feet about a foot, and cover the victim with a blanket.

5. Get medical help immediately.

BEE STINGS Bee stings are common and harmless unless you are allergic.

Remove the stinger then apply disinfectant and clod water to reduce the swelling.

A change of diet, dirty cooking utensils or the consumption of tainted water may result in diarrhea which in turn will cause a loss of nutrients and precious body fluids. Take extra care in cleanliness and boil water for an additional three to five minutes to avoid diarrhea.

HYPOTHERMIA When the temperature of your body falls to a level at which your vital organs can no longer function you are experiencing hypothermia or exposure sickness. Hypothermia will develop rapidly and is caused by cold, wet and/or windy weather that chills the body at a speed faster than it can produce heat. A lack of energy-producing food and proper clothing will heighten the speed at which hypothermia will affect you. Always remember to bring extra clothing. It is important to hike at the speed of the slowest member of your party. Take frequent breaks and keep a close watch for members experiencing signs of fatigue.

Exposure sickness generally occurs in temperatures of less than 10 C (50 F).

Symptoms are easily recognizable:

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24 Feeling

cold and constantly exercising to keep warm.

2. Uncontrollable shivering and numbness.

3. Violent shivers. Your mind becomes slow and starts to wander.

4. Violent shivering ceases and muscles begin to stiffen and become un-coordinated. Exposed skin becomes blue and thoughts are foggy. Victim usually lacks the capability of realizing how serious the situation is.

5. Pulse and respiration slows.

6. Victim will not respond and becomes unconscious.

7. The section of the brain controlling the heart and lungs ceases functioning.

Treatment must be quick and efficient:

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the victim to a sheltered area, out of the elements.

2. Remove wet clothing and replace with dry clothes and if possible, a sleeping bag.

3. Wrap warm rocks and place them near the patient.

4. Do not let the victim fall unconscious.

5. Give the victim a warm, non-alcoholic drink.

6. Allow another person in the sleeping bag to share body heat.

7. Exhale warm air near the vicinity of the patients mouth and nose.

HYPERTHERMIA Hyperthermia is a result of the body being overheated due to increased air temperature, solar or reflected radiation, poorly ventilated clothing, a low fitness level or excess bulk.

Symptoms include:

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cramps may occur and should be treated by moving the victim to a shady area and supplying water and salt tablets.

2. Heat exhaustion is a mild form of hyperthermia and includes symptoms such as headache, dizziness, fainting, clammy skin, blurred vision, nausea and vomiting.

Treatment is the same as heat cramps.

3. Heat stroke is the most serious degree of hyperthermia.

The victim will have little or no perspiration, a hot and 11

flushed face, full pulse, and become either apathetic or aggressive. Cool the victim as quickly as possible paying extra attention to the head, neck and chest. If the bodies temperature continues to rise, unconsciousness, delirium, convulsions and ultimately death may occur.

To avoid hyperthermia, avoid strenuous activity on hot days, wear loose clothing and a hat, drink plenty of fluids and take salt tablets.

BODY’S MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS We can define four basic human needs for survival in the wilderness: warmth, water, sleep and food. In a survival situation, the challenge becomes prioritizing those needs according to the circumstances you are dealing with.

Warmth Maintaining an ideal body temperature is crucial. Your body operates within a narrow temperature range. In most survival situations, the challenge is to keep you warm, especially at nights.

Water Since the human body is 75 per cent water, you need a constant supply of water to unction. The average person can survive for three days without water, but it is best not to wait until you run out of water before you look for more.

Sleep As humans we need a certain amount of sleep to remain rational.

Without sleep, your mind may hallucinate, making you unable to make conscious decisions to better your situation.

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An average adult can survive for weeks without food; therefore, food is rarely a first priority. However, in many survival situations your body burns more calories than normal, requiring you to need extra energy. In addition, food is important for your mental state.

TRAPPING Trapping Unless you are an experienced hunter, hunting animals for meat is inadvisable in a survival situation. Hunting is difficult and you will expend a lot of energy to get your food. Instead of hunting consider trapping. Trapping requires less skill and leaves you free to spend time searching for other food sources.

The wilderness survivor needs simple traps that are easy to remember and easy to construct.

Traps 24 h As a trapper, you can set many traps and snares, all working for you simultaneously and for 24 h every day. Regular checking of traps is crucial to minimize any suffering to the animal. Go for small prey, especially birds. All birds are edible, but some taste better than others.

Trails 13

The presence of wild animals can often be determined by their tracks in the snow, sand or soft mud. These trails are excellent places to set snares or traps. Following these trails in your search for prey will often lead to water-holes and feeding places. Animal tracks, and tracking in general, is fascinating.

Prey You must determine what you are trying to catch and set your traps, specifically with those animals in mind. Look for any natural bottleneck along the track where you may use your traps or snares. Position your traps and snares where that animal passes through.

Avoid disturbing the area as much as possible. Don’t alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence. Animals avoid humans and are very suspicious, hide your scent. If possible wear gloves when you handle the trap or hold the snaring material over smoke or underwater for a few minutes.

Deadfall trap A simple and effective way to trap animals is to use the deadfall trap.

The deadfall trap works on the principle that when the bait is taken a weight falls on the prey. This live animal trap can be made to any size.

Warning!

Setting a large version of this trap is risky and difficult to do on your own.

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Trigger An often-shown trap is the figure-four trap.

It’s very effective, but it needs some practice to make. You are unlikely to get it right first time. Your intention should be to create a stable trap, but with a trigger that will cause the trap to collapse, even to the slightest touch.

A horizontal bait bar is balanced at appropriate angles to an upright with a locking bar, which supports a heavy weight pivoting around the tip of the upright, see the figure above.

As a weight, use a heavy log or rock.

Another variation of the trigger mechanism is shown to the right. It’s very simple and no tools are required. Use two long sticks and one short stick. Make sure the contact point of the weight is close to the main support stick. Experiment with configuration.

Snare Trap Using snares to trap small animals is a simple method. Snare wire should be part of your survival kit

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PREPERATION COOKING METHODS Survival cooking or how to prepare food in the wild without any cooking utensils is an essential skill for the wilderness survivor. A good example of a simple cooking method is hot stone cooking.

Hot stone cooking: Simply light a fire above a bed of non-porous stones. Don’t use soft, porous stones with a high moisture content, which might explode on heating. This cooking method is ideal for fish, thin meat slices and frying eggs. · Let the fire burn for an hour or more. In the meantime, prepare your food. · Brush away fire and embers with a handful of long grass. · Cook food directly on the hot rocks. Use it, as you would use a frying pan.

Alternative (use fist size stones): · Dig a pit about 1-2 feet (30-60 cm) deep. The diameter should be equal to the depth. · Pack the bottom of the pit and the walls. · Cover the bottom with the hot stones and add a thin layer of soil on top. · Wrap your meat in fresh green plant parts, such as leaves or moss. · Place the package in the pit.

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路 Add a thin layer of soil on top and then more hot stones 路 Cover with earth or sand.

OTHER Boiling is the best way to cook because the nutrients from the plants and game stay in the water.

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PREPARATION OF FISH AND GAME FOR COOKING AND STORAGE You must know how to prepare fish and game for cooking and storage in a survival situation. Improper cleaning or storage can result in inedible fish or game.

Fish Do not eat fish that appears spoiled. Cooking does not ensure that spoiled fish will be edible. Signs of spoilage are—      

Sunken eyes.

Peculiar odor.

Suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales should be a pronounced shade of gray, not faded.)

Dents stay in the fish’s flesh after pressing it with your thumb.

Slimy, rather than moist or wet body.

Sharp or peppery taste.

Eating spoiled or rotten fish may cause diarrhea, nausea, cramps, vomiting, itching, paralysis, or a metallic taste in the mouth. These symptoms appear suddenly, one to six hours after eating. Induce vomiting if symptoms appear.

Fish spoils quickly after death, especially on a hot day.

Prepare fish for eating as soon as possible after catching it.

Cut out the gills and large blood vessels that lie near the spine. Gut fish that is more than 10 centimeters long. Scale or skin the fish.

You can impale a whole fish on a stick and cook it over an open fire. However, boiling the fish with the skin on is the best way to get the most food value. The fats and oil are under the skin and, by boiling, you can save the juices for broth. You can use any of the methods used to cook plant food to cook fish. Pack fish into a ball of clay and bury it in the coals of a fire until the clay hardens. Break open the clay ball to get to the 18

cooked fish. Fish is done when the meat flakes off. If you plan to keep the fish for later, smoke or fry it. To prepare fish for smoking, cut off the head and remove the backbone.

Snakes To skin a snake, first cut off its head and bury it. Then cut the skin down the body 15 to 20 centimeters (Figure 8-24). Peel the skin back, then grasp the skin in one hand and the body in the other and pull apart. On large, bulky snakes it may be necessary to slit the belly skin. Cook snakes in the same manner as small game. Remove the entrails and discard. Cut the snake into small sections and boil or roast it.

Birds After killing the bird, remove its feathers by either plucking or skinning. Remember, skinning removes some of the food value.

Open up the body cavity and remove its entrails, saving the craw (in seed-eating birds), heart, and liver. Cut off the feet. Cook by boiling or roasting over a spit. Before cooking scavenger birds, boil them at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

Skinning and Butchering Game Bleed the animal by cutting its throat. If possible, clean the carcass near a stream. Place the carcass belly up and split the hide from throat to tail, cutting around all sexual organs (Figure 8-25). Remove the musk glands at points A and B to avoid tainting the meat. For smaller mammals, cut the hide around the 19

body and insert two fingers under the hide on both sides of the cut and pull both pieces off (Figure 8-26).

Note: When cutting the hide, insert the knife blade under the skin and turn the blade up so that only the hide gets cut. This will also prevent cutting hair and getting it on the meat.

Remove the entrails from smaller game by splitting the body open and pulling them out with the fingers. Do not forget the chest cavity. For larger game, cut the gullet away from the diaphragm.

Roll the entrails out of the body. Cut around the anus, then reach into the lower abdominal cavity, grasp the lower intestine, and pull to remove. Remove the urine bladder by pinching it off and cutting it below the fingers. If you spill urine on the meat, wash it to avoid tainting the meat. Save the heart and liver. Cut these open and inspect for signs of worms or other parasites. Also inspect the liver’s color; it could indicate a diseased animal. The liver’s surface should be smooth and wet and its color deep red or purple. If the liver appears diseased, discard it. However, a diseased liver does not indicate you cannot eat the muscle tissue.

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Cut along each leg from above the foot to the previously made body cut. Remove the hide by pulling it away from the carcass, cutting the connective tissue where necessary. Cut off the head and feet.

Cut larger game into manageable pieces. First, slice the muscle tissue connecting the front legs to the body. There are no bones or joints connecting the front legs to the body on four-legged animals. Cut the hindquarters off where they join the body. You must cut around a large bone at the top of the leg and cut to the ball and socket hip joint. Cut the ligaments around the joint and bend it back to separate it. Remove the large muscles (the tenderloin) that lie on either side of the spine. Separate the ribs from the backbone. There is less work and less wear on your knife if you break the ribs first, then cut through the breaks.

Cook large meat pieces over a spit or boil them. You can stew or boil smaller pieces, particularly those that remain attached to bone after the initial butchering, as soup or broth. You can cook body organs such as the heart, liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys using the same methods as for muscle meat. You can also cook and eat the brain. Cut the tongue out, skin it, boil it until tender, and eat it.

Smoking Meat To smoke meat, prepare an enclosure around a fire (Figure 8-27).

Two ponchos snapped together will work. The fire does not need to be big or hot. The intent is to produce smoke, not heat. Do not use resinous wood in the fire because its smoke will ruin the meat. Use hardwoods to produce good smoke. The wood should be somewhat green. If it is too dry, soak it. Cut the meat into thin slices, no more than 6 centimeters thick, and drape them over a framework. Make sure none of the meat touches another piece. Keep the poncho enclosure around the meat to hold the smoke and keep a close watch on the fire. Do not let the fire get too hot. Meat smoked overnight in this manner will last about 1 week. Two days of continuous smoking will preserve the meat for 2 to 4 weeks. Properly smoked meat will look like a dark, curled, brittle stick and you can eat it without further cooking. You can also use a pit to smoke meat (Figure 8-28).

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Drying Meat To preserve meat by drying, cut it into 6-millimeter strips with the grain. Hang the meat strips on a rack in a sunny location with good air flow. Keep the strips out of the reach of animals and cover them to keep blowflies off. Allow the meat to dry thoroughly before eating. Properly dried meat will have a dry, crisp texture and will not feel cool to the touch.

Other Preservation Methods You can also preserve meats using the freezing or brine and salt methods.

Freezing In cold climates, you can freeze and keep meat indefinitely.

Freezing is not a means of preparing meat. You must still cook it before eating.

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Brine and Salt You can preserve meat by soaking it thoroughly in a saltwater solution. The solution must cover the meat. You can also use salt by itself. Wash off the salt before cooking.

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EDIBLE VS. NON EDIBLE Edibility test You can find descriptions of plant edibility tests in wilderness survival literature. The whole idea of an edibility test is that you test the plant step by step. Between every step, you wait and watch for an unpleasant reaction. The procedure is lengthy, it takes many hours. The last step is to swallow a small amount and wait for half a day to see if you get sick.

If you are unlucky and pick the wrong plant, you will have some serious problems. So eating unknown plants is very dangerous, it simply isn’t worth the risk. The only way for you to know which plants to eat and which to stay away from is to learn them. Eat only those plants you know are safe to eat.

Be aware that you must have very good identification of the plant before harvesting it. In summer the amount of blueberries (Vaccinum myrtilloides) that can be harvested from a single field is astounding. On the other hand anyone that has tried hunting moose (Alces alces) can attest that it is rare to find a large enough population to take your pick as to which one you will take home for dinner. Obviously the argument could be held that a moose feeds more people then a basket of blueberries, but the point is that the berries were much easier to find and harvest.

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Dangerous Lookalikes

As previously stated, several plants are dangerous to consume.

What is more dangerous is the fact that several look like very safe to eat plants. Some call these “Good Twin” and “Evil Twin” plants. If Cattail (Typha) is the good twin, with all of its’ useful and edible values, then Blue Flag (Iris versicolor) would have to be the evil twin, due to iridin and glycoside toxins in it . Such toxins would quickly leave the consumer in severe pain. As evidence; a case of confusion between Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) and Blue flag lead to several poisonings of First Nations powwow singers, who use the root of Sweet Flag to soothe their throats after long periods of singing.

Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) has often been confused with Sarsaparilla (Smilax regelii) due to similarly shaped leaves (though Sarsaparilla usually has five leaves, unlike Poison ivy which has three). While Wild rhubarb (Rumex hymenosepalus) has been often confused with Greater Burdock (Arctium lappa) due to similar growing habitats and leaves. What causes even greater confusion is many people referring to the greater burdock as “wild rhubarb”, which it is not even related to.

The only means of lessening the dangers of such misidentifications is to thoroughly learn the differences. Wild plant classes are better than books or videos, because the instructor/teacher can answer questions the student may have. As well, hands on practice beats words written by another person any day of the week when it comes to memory retention.

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Wild Edible Plants Blueberry (fruit) Garlic Mustard (green plant) Gooseberries (fruits) Indian Cucumber Root (tubers) Jerusalem Artichoke (tubers) Mayapple (fruit) Nettles (young whole plant) (& cordage) Ostrich Fern (fiddleheads) (young plants) Trout Lily (tubers) Wild Carrot (roots) Wild Garlic (whole plant) Wild Leeks (whole plant) Agave Root (root) Wild Edible Fungi

PSYCHOLOGY It takes much more than the knowledge and skills to build shelters, get food, make fires, and travel without the aid of standard navigational devices to live successfully through a survival situation. Some people with little or no survival 26

training have managed to survive life-threatening circumstances.

Some people with survival training have not used their skills and died. A key ingredient in any survival situation is the mental attitude of the individual(s) involved. Having survival skills is important; having the will to survive is essential.

Without a desk to survive, acquired skills serve little purpose and invaluable knowledge goes to waste.

There is a psychology to survival. The soldier in a survival environment faces many stresses that ultimately impact on his mind. These stresses can produce thoughts and emotions that, if poorly understood, can transform a confident, well-trained soldier into an indecisive, ineffective individual with questionable ability to survive. Thus, every soldier must be aware of and be able to recognize those stresses commonly associated with survival. Additionally, it is imperative that soldiers be aware of their reactions to the wide variety of stresses associated with survival. This chapter will identify and explain the nature of stress, the stresses of survival, and those internal reactions soldiers will naturally experience when faced with the stresses of a real-world survival situation. The knowledge you, the soldier, gain from this chapter and other chapters in this manual, will prepare you to come through the toughest times alive. TAKEN FROM ARMY SURVIVAL HANDBOOK

STRESS We need stress because it has many positive benefits. Stress provides us with challenges; it gives us chances to learn about our values and strengths. Stress can show our ability to handle 27

pressure without breaking; it tests our adaptability and flexibility; it can stimulate us to do our best. Because we usually do not consider unimportant events stressful, stress can also be an excellent indicator of the significance we attach to an event--in other words, it highlights what is important to us.

We need to have some stress in our lives, but too much of anything can be bad. The goal is to have stress, but not an excess of it. Too much stress can take its toll on people and organizations. Too much stress leads to distress. Distress causes an uncomfortable tension that we try to escape and, preferably, avoid. Listed below are a few of the common signs of distress you may find in your fellow soldiers or yourself when faced with too much stress:           

Difficulty making decisions.

Angry outbursts.

Forgetfulness.

Low energy level.

Constant worrying.

Propensity for mistakes.

Thoughts about death or suicide.

Trouble getting along with others.

Withdrawing from others.

Hiding from responsibilities.

Carelessness.

As you can see, stress can be constructive or destructive. It can encourage or discourage, move us along or stop us dead in our tracks, and make life meaningful or seemingly meaningless.

Stress can inspire you to operate successfully and perform at your maximum efficiency in a survival situation. It can also cause you to panic and forget all your training. Key to your survival is your ability to manage the inevitable stresses you will encounter. The survivor is the soldier who works with his stresses instead of letting his stresses work on him.

Survival Stressors Any event can lead to stress and, as everyone has experienced, events don't always come one at a time. Often, stressful events occur simultaneously. These events are not stress, but they produce it and are called "stressors." Stressors are the obvious cause while stress is the response. Once the body recognizes the presence of a stressor, it then begins to act to protect itself.

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In response to a stressor, the body prepares either to "fight or flee." This preparation involves an internal SOS sent throughout the body. As the body responds to this SOS, several actions take place. The body releases stored fuels (sugar and fats) to provide quick energy; breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen to the blood; muscle tension increases to prepare for action; blood clotting mechanisms are activated to reduce bleeding from cuts; senses become more acute (hearing becomes more sensitive, eyes become big, smell becomes sharper) so that you are more aware of your surrounding and heart rate and blood pressure rise to provide more blood to the muscles. This protective posture lets a person cope with potential dangers; however, a person cannot maintain such a level of alertness indefinitely.

Stressors are not courteous; one stressor does not leave because another one arrives. Stressors add up. The cumulative effect of minor stressors can be a major distress if they all happen too close together. As the body's resistance to stress wears down and the sources of stress continue (or increase), eventually a state of exhaustion arrives. At this point, the ability to resist stress or use it in a positive way gives out and signs of distress appear. Anticipating stressors and developing strategies to cope with them are two ingredients in the effective management of stress. It is therefore essential that the soldier in a survival setting be aware of the types of stressors he will encounter. Let's take a look at a few of these.

Injury, Illness, or Death Injury, illness, and death are real possibilities a survivor has to face. Perhaps nothing is more stressful than being alone in an unfamiliar environment where you could die from hostile action, an accident, or from eating something lethal. Illness and injury can also add to stress by limiting your ability to maneuver, get food and drink, find shelter, and defend yourself.

Even if illness and injury don't lead to death, they add to stress through the pain and discomfort they generate. It is only by con-trolling the stress associated with the vulnerability to injury, illness, and death that a soldier can have the courage to take the risks associated with survival tasks.

Uncertainly and Lack of Control Some people have trouble operating in settings where everything is not clear-cut. The only guarantee in a survival situation is 29

that nothing is guaranteed. It can be extremely stressful operating on limited information in a setting where you have limited control of your surroundings. This uncertainty and lack of control also add to the stress of being ill, injured, or killed.

Environment Even under the most ideal circumstances, nature is quite formidable. In survival, a soldier will have to contend with the stressors of weather, terrain, and the variety of creatures inhabiting an area. Heat, cold, rain, winds, mountains, swamps, deserts, insects, dangerous reptiles, and other animals are just a few of the challenges awaiting the soldier working to survive.

Depending on how a soldier handles the stress of his environment, his surroundings can be either a source of food and protection or can be a cause of extreme discomfort leading to injury, illness, or death.

Hunger and Thirst Without food and water a person will weaken and eventually die.

Thus, getting and preserving food and water takes on increasing importance as the length of time in a survival setting increases. For a soldier used to having his provisions issued, foraging can be a big source of stress.

Fatigue Forcing yourself to continue surviving is not easy as you grow more tired. It is possible to become so fatigued that the act of just staying awake is stressful in itself.

Isolation There are some advantages to facing adversity with others. As soldiers we learn individual skills, but we train to function as part of a team. Although we, as soldiers, complain about higher headquarters, we become used to the information and guidance it provides, especially during times of confusion. Being in contact with others also provides a greater sense of security and a feeling someone is available to help if problems occur. A significant stressor in survival situations is that often a person or team has to rely solely on its own resources.

The survival stressors mentioned in this section are by no means the only ones you may face. Remember, what is stressful to one 30

person may not be stressful to another. Your experiences, training, personal outlook on life, physical and mental conditioning, and level of self-confidence contribute to what you will find stressful in a survival environment. The object is not to avoid stress, but rather to manage the stressors of survival and make them work for you.

We now have a general knowledge of stress and the stressors common to survival; the next step is to examine our reactions to the stressors we may face.

NATURAL REACTIONS Man has been able to survive many shifts in his environment throughout the centuries. His ability to adapt physically and mentally to a changing world kept him alive while other species around him gradually died off. The same survival mechanisms that kept our forefathers alive can help keep us alive as well!

However, these survival mechanisms that can help us can also work against us if we don't understand and anticipate their presence.

It is not surprising that the average person will have some psychological reactions in a survival situation. We will now examine some of the major internal reactions you and anyone with you might experience with the survival stressors addressed in the earlier paragraphs. Let's begin.

Fear Fear is our emotional response to dangerous circumstances that we believe have the potential to cause death, injury, or illness. This harm is not just limited to physical damage; the threat to one's emotional and mental well-being can generate fear as well. For the soldier trying to survive, fear can have a positive function if it encourages him to be cautious in situations where recklessness could result in injury.

Unfortunately, fear can also immobilize a person. It can cause him to become so frightened that he fails to perform activities essential for survival. Most soldiers will have some degree of fear when placed in unfamiliar surroundings under adverse conditions. There is no shame in this! Each soldier must train himself not to be overcome by his fears. Ideally, through realistic training, we can acquire the knowledge and skills needed to increase our confidence and thereby manage our fears.

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Anxiety Associated with fear is anxiety. Because it is natural for us to be afraid, it is also natural for us to experience anxiety.

Anxiety can be an uneasy, apprehensive feeling we get when faced with dangerous situations (physical, mental, and emotional).

When used in a healthy way, anxiety urges us to act to end, or at least master, the dangers that threaten our existence. If we were never anxious, there would be little motivation to make changes in our lives. The soldier in a survival setting reduces his anxiety by performing those tasks that will ensure his coming through the ordeal alive. As he reduces his anxiety, the soldier is also bringing under control the source of that anxiety--his fears. In this form, anxiety is good; however, anxiety can also have a devastating impact. Anxiety can overwhelm a soldier to the point where he becomes easily confused and has difficulty thinking. Once this happens, it becomes more and more difficult for him to make good judgments and sound decisions. To survive, the soldier must learn techniques to calm his anxieties and keep them in the range where they help, not hurt.

Anger and Frustration Frustration arises when a person is continually thwarted in his attempts to reach a goal. The goal of survival is to stay alive until you can reach help or until help can reach you. To achieve this goal, the soldier must complete some tasks with minimal resources. It is inevitable, in trying to do these tasks, that something will go wrong; that something will happen beyond the soldier's control; and that with one's life at stake, every mistake is magnified in terms of its importance. Thus, sooner or later, soldiers will have to cope with frustration when a few of their plans run into trouble. One outgrowth of this frustration is anger. There are many events in a survival situation that can frustrate or anger a soldier. Getting lost, damaged or forgotten equipment, the weather, inhospitable terrain, enemy patrols, and physical limitations are just a few sources of frustration and anger. Frustration and anger encourage impulsive reactions, irrational behavior, poorly thought-out decisions, and, in some insta nces, an "I quit" attitude (people sometimes avoid doing something they can't master). If the soldier can harness and properly channel the emotional intensity associated with anger and frustration, he can productively act as he answers the challenges of survival. If the soldier does not properly focus his angry feelings, he can waste much energy in activities that

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do little to further either his chances of survival or the chances of those around him.

Depression It would be a rare person indeed who would not get sad, at least momentarily, when faced with the privations of survival. As this sadness deepens, we label the feeling "depression." Depression is closely linked with frustration and anger. The frustrated person becomes more and more angry as he fails to reach his goals. If the anger does not help the person to succeed, then the frustration level goes even higher. A destructive cycle between anger and frustration continues until the person becomes worn down-physically, emotionally, and mentally. When a person reaches this point, he starts to give up, and his focus shifts from "What can I do" to "There is nothing I can do." Depression is an expression of this hopeless, helpless feeling. There is nothing wrong with being sad as you temporarily think about your loved ones and remember what life is like back in "civilization" or "the world." Such thoughts, in fact, can give you the desire to try harder and live one more day. On the other hand, if you allow yours elf to sink into a depressed state, then it can sap all your energy and, more important, your will to survive. It is imperative that each soldier resist succumbing to depression.

Loneliness and Boredom Man is a social animal. This means we, as human beings, enjoy the company of others. Very few people want to be alone all the time! As you are aware, there is a distinct chance of isolation in a survival setting. This is not bad. Loneliness and boredom can bring to the surface qualities you thought only others had.

The extent of your imagination and creativity may surprise you.

When required to do so, you may discover some hidden talents and abilities. Most of all, you may tap into a reservoir of inner strength and fortitude you never knew you had. Conversely, loneliness and boredom can be another source of depression. As a soldier surviving alone, or with others, you must find ways to keep your mind productively occupied. Additionally, you must develop a degree of self-sufficiency. You must have faith in your capability to "go it alone."

Guilt The circumstances leading to your being in a survival setting are sometimes dramatic and tragic. It may be the result of an accident or military mission where there was a loss of life.

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Perhaps you were the only, or one of a few, survivors. While naturally relieved to be alive, you simultaneously may be mourning the deaths of others who were less fortunate. It is not uncommon for survivors to feel guilty about being spared from death while others were not. This feeling, when used in a positive way, has encouraged people to try harder to survive with the belief they were allowed to live for some greater purpose in life. Sometimes, survivors tried to stay alive so that they could carry on the work of those killed. Whatever reason you give yourself, do not let guilt feelings prevent you from living. The living who abandon their chance to survive accomplish nothing. Such an act would be the greatest tragedy.

HOW TO PREPARE YOURSELF Your mission as a soldier in a survival situation is to stay alive. As you can see, you are going to experience an assortment of thoughts and emotions. These can work for you, or they can work to your downfall. Fear, anxiety, anger, frustration, guilt, depression, and loneliness are all possible reactions to the many stresses common to survival. These reactions, when controlled in a healthy way, help to increase a soldier's likelihood of surviving. They prompt the soldier to pay more attention in training, to fight back when scared, to take actions that ensure sustenance and security, to keep faith with his fellow soldiers, and to strive against large odds. When the survivor cannot control these reactions in a healthy way, they can bring him to a standstill. Instead of rallying his internal resources, the soldier listens to his internal fears. This soldier experiences psychological defeat long before he physically succumbs. Remember, survival is natural to everyone; being unexpectedly thrust into the life and death struggle of survival is not. Don't be afraid of your "natural reactions to this unnatural situation." Prepare yourself to rule over these reactions so they serve your ultimate interest--staying alive with the honor and dignity associated with being an American soldier.

It involves preparation to ensure that your reactions in a survival setting are productive, not destructive. The challenge of survival has produced countless examples of heroism, courage, and self-sacrifice. These are the qualities it can bring out in you if you have prepared yourself. Below are a few tips to help prepare yourself psychologically for survival. Through studying this manual and attending survival training you can develop the survival attitude.

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Know Yourself Through training, family, and friends take the time to discover who you are on the inside. Strengthen your stronger qualities and develop the areas that you know are necessary to survive.

Anticipate Fears Don't pretend that you will have no fears. Begin thinking about what would frighten you the most if forced to survive alone.

Train in those areas of concern to you. The goal is not to eliminate the fear, but to build confidence in your ability to function despite your fears.

Be Realistic Don't be afraid to make an honest appraisal of situations. See circumstances as they are, not as you want them to be. Keep your hopes and expectations within the estimate of the situation.

When you go into a survival setting with unrealistic expectations, you may be laying the groundwork for bitter disappointment. Follow the adage, "Hope for the best, prepare for the worst." It is much easier to adjust to pleasant surprises about one's unexpected good fortunes than to be upset by one's unexpected harsh circumstances.

Adopt a Positive Attitude Learn to see the potential good in everything. Looking for the good not only boosts morale, it also is excellent for exercising your imagination and creativity.

Remind Yourself What Is at Stake Remember, failure to prepare yourself psychologically to cope with survival leads to reactions such as depression, carelessness, inattention, loss of confidence, poor decisionmaking, and giving up before the body gives in. At stake is your life and the lives of others who are depending on you to do your share.

Train Through military training and life experiences, begin today to prepare yourself to cope with the rigors of survival.

Demonstrating your skills in training will give you the 35

confidence to call upon them should the need arise. Remember, the more realistic the training, the less overwhelming an actual survival setting will be.

Learn Stress Management Techniques People under stress have a potential to panic if they are not well-trained and not prepared psychologically to face whatever the circumstances may be. While we often cannot control the survival circumstances in which we find ourselves, it is within our ability to control our response to those circumstances.

Learning stress management techniques can enhance significantly your capability to remain calm and focused as you work to keep yourself and others alive. A few good techniques to develop include relaxation skills, time management skills, assertiveness skills, and cognitive restructuring skills (the ability to control how you view a situation).

Remember, "the will to survive" can also be considered to be "the refusal to give up."

WATER PROCUREMENT Water is one of your most urgent needs in a survival situation.

You can't live long without it, especially in hot areas where you lose water rapidly through perspiration. Even in cold areas, you need a minimum of 2 liters of water each day to maintain efficiency.

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More than three-fourths of your body is composed of fluids. Your body loses fluid as a result of heat, cold, stress, and exertion. To function effectively, you must replace the fluid your body loses. So, one of your first goals is to obtain an adequate supply of water.

LOCATION Almost any environment has water present to some degree. Figure 6-1 lists possible sources of water in various environments. It also provides information on how to make the water potable.

Note: If you do not have a canteen, a cup, a can, or other type of container, improvise one from plastic or water-resistant cloth. Shape the plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it.

Use pins or other suitable items--even your hands--to hold the pleats.

If you do not have a reliable source to replenish your water supply, stay alert for ways in which your environment can help you.

CAUTION Do not substitute the fluids listed in Figure 6-2 for water.

Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass around your ankles and walk through dew-covered grass before sunrise. As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, wring the water into a container. Repeat the process until you have a supply of water or until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes mop up as much as a liter an hour this way.

Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point to a waterfilled hole. Siphon the water with plastic tubing or scoop it up with an improvised dipper. You can also stuff cloth in the hole to absorb the water and then wring it from the cloth.

Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices. Use the aboveprocedures to get the water. In arid areas, bird droppings around a crack in the rocks may indicate water in or near the crack.

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Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh water.

Water from green bamboo is clear and odorless. To get the water, bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut off the top (Figure 6-3). The water will drip freely during the night. Old, cracked bamboo may contain water.

CAUTION Purify the water before drinking it.

Wherever you find banana or plantain trees, you can get water.

Cut down the tree, leaving about a 30-centimeter stump, and scoop out the center of the stump so that the hollow is bowlshaped. Water from the roots will immediately start to fill the hollow. The first three fillings of water will be bitter, but succeeding fillings will be palatable. The stump (Figure 6-4) will supply water for up to four days. Be sure to cover it to keep out insects.

Some tropical vines can give you water. Cut a notch in the vine as high as you can reach, then cut the vine off close to the ground. Catch the dropping liquid in a container or in your mouth (Figure 6-5).

CAUTION Do not drink the liquid if it is sticky, milky, or bitter tasting.

The milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good thirst quencher.

However, the milk from mature coconuts contains an oil that acts as a laxative. Drink in moderation only.

In the American tropics you may find large trees whose branches support air plants. These air plants may hold a considerable amount of rainwater in their overlapping, thickly growing leaves. Strain the water through a cloth to remove insects and debris.

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You can get water from plants with moist pulpy centers. Cut off a section of the plant and squeeze or smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.

Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of the ground, cut them into short pieces, and smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.

Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo, contain water.

Cut or notch the stalks at the base of a joint to drain out the liquid.

The following trees can also provide water: 



 

Palms. Palms, such as the buri, coconut, sugar, rattan, and nips, contain liquid. Bruise a lower frond and pull it down so the tree will "bleed" at the injury.

Traveler's tree. Found in Madagascar, this tree has a cuplike sheath at the base of its leaves in which water collects.

Umbrella tree. The leaf bases and roots of this tree of western tropical Africa can provide water.

Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern Australia and Africa collects water in its bottlelike trunk during the wet season. Frequently, you can find clear, fresh water in these trees after weeks of dry weather.

CAUTION

Do not keep the sap from plants longer than 24 hours. It begins fermenting, becoming dangerous as a water source.

COLLECTION You can use stills in various areas of the world. They draw moisture from the ground and from plant material. You need certain materials to build a still, and you need time to let it collect the water. It takes about 24 hours to get 0.5 to 1 liter of water.

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Aboveground Still To make the aboveground still, you need a sunny slope on which to place the still, a clear plastic bag, green leafy vegetation, and a small rock (Figure 6-6).

To make the still- 

Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze or by "scooping" air into the bag.

Fill the plastic bag half to three-fourths full of green leafy vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard sticks or sharp spines that might puncture the bag.

CAUTION Do not use poisonous vegetation. It will provide poisonous liquid.

 

Place a small rock or similar item in the bag.

Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the end of the bag as possible to keep the maximum amount of air space. If you have a piece of tubing, a small straw, or a hollow reed, insert one end in the mouth of the bag before you tie it securely. Then tie off or plug the tubing so that air will not escape. This tubing will allow you to drain out condensed water without untying the bag.

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



Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full sunlight.

Position the mouth of the bag slightly higher than the low point in the bag.

Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into the low point in the bag.

To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the tie around the bag's mouth and tip the bag so that the water collected around the rock will drain out. Then retie the mouth securely and reposition the still to allow further condensation.

Change the vegetation in the bag after extracting most of the water from it. This will ensure maximum output of water.

Belowground Still To make a belowground still, you need a digging tool, a container, a clear plastic sheet, a drinking tube, and a rock (Figure 6-7).

Select a site where you believe the soil will contain moisture (such as a dry stream bed or a low spot where rainwater has collected). The soil at this site should be easy to dig, and sunlight must hit the site most of the day.

To construct the still--

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 

     

 

Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter across and 60 centimeters deep.

Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump's depth and perimeter will depend on the size of the container that you have to place in it. The bottom of the sump should allow the container to stand upright.

Anchor the tubing to the container's bottom by forming a loose overhand knot in the tubing.

Place the container upright in the sump.

Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and beyond the lip of the hole.

Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its edges with soil to hold it in place.

Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet.

Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40 centimeters below ground level. It now forms an inverted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that the cone's apex is directly over your container. Also make sure the plastic cone does not touch the sides of the hole because the earth will absorb the condensed water.

Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it securely in place and to prevent the loss of moisture.

Plug the tube when not in use so that the moisture will not evaporate.

You can drink water without disturbing the still by using the tube as a straw.

You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture source. If so, dig out additional soil from the sides of the hole to form a slope on which to place the plants. Then proceed as above.

If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a small trough outside the hole about 25 centimeters from the still's lip (Figure 6-8). Dig the trough about 25 centimeters deep and 8 centimeters wide. Pour the polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill any polluted water around the rim of the hole where the plastic sheet touches the soil. The trough holds the polluted water and the soil filters it as the still draws it.

The water then condenses on the plastic and drains into the container. This process works extremely well when your only water source is salt water.

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You will need at least three stills to meet your individual daily water intake needs.

PURIFICATION Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is usually safe for drinking. However, purify water from lakes, ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near human settlements or in the tropics.

When possible, purify all water you got from vegetation or from the ground by using iodine or chlorine, or by boiling.

Purify water by- 



Using water purification tablets. (Follow the directions provided.)

Placing 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen full of clear water. If the canteen is full of cloudy or cold water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water stand for 30 minutes before drinking.)

Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional 300 meters above sea level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter where you are.

By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or swallow organisms that can harm you. Examples of such diseases or organisms are-

Dysentery. Severe, prolonged diarrhea with bloody stools, fever, and weakness.

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 



Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to these diseases regardless of inoculations.

Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water--especially in tropical areas--often contains blood flukes. If you swallow flukes, they will bore into the bloodstream, live as parasites, and cause disease.

Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the throat passage or inside the nose. It will suck blood, create a wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding wound may become infected.

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SHELTERS A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects, wind, rain, snow, hot or cold temperatures, and enemy observation. It can give you a feeling of well-being. It can help you maintain your will to survive.

In some areas, your need for shelter may take precedence over your need for food and possibly even your need for water. For example, prolonged exposure to cold can cause excessive fatigue and weakness (exhaustion). An exhausted person may develop a "passive" outlook, thereby losing the will to survive.

The most common error in making a shelter is to make it too large. A shelter must be large enough to protect you. It must also be small enough to contain your body heat, especially in cold climates.

FACTORS Location of your emergency shelter Think of “location” by considering a large piece of your map. In other words, your frame of reference is the whole valley, or possibly the entire mountainside. In deciding where to locate your shelter, you’ll have in mind an area encompassing up to several hundred acres, even a few square miles. If you have seen a water source in the distance, you might travel up to several miles to reach it and build your shelter nearby. Or perhaps your plane crash-landed on a glacier; depending on your environment, your physical condition, and the time of day, you might invest a few hours getting to lower altitude to build your shelter in a better location.

Some general considerations: 

Low altitude is better. It might be pleasantly cooler at higher altitude, but the weather tends to be unpredictable and even dangerous.

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



Higher elevation is better. I know, I know; this contradicts what I just said. But remember, there are lots of factors to consider. Given your area, on a calm, clear night, cold air will tend to pool in the bottoms. There might be 5-10 degree difference climbing just thirty feet in elevation. I’ve actually experienced it.

Level ground is better. Unless it’s raining, and then a gentle slope will prevent your bed from pooling.

Situation of your emergency shelter When deciding on your shelter’s “situation,” take a more focused view. You’ve traveled a couple of miles to the river side, and now you’re looking around for a good spot; that’s “situating” the shelter. For example, you wouldn’t situate your shelter in the flood plain. If it’s going to be hot, you would situate it in the shade. If there’s a cave nearby, you would definitely consider situating your shelter there.

When considering the shelter’s situation, your frame of reference is going to be something between a few dozen square yards to maybe 10 acres of territory. I know that’s a broad range, but we’re not talking about quantized units here — we’re talking about a continuum affected by many variables. It’s not math. It’s more like biology; you look, you think, you decide, maybe you reconsider, you adapt, you remain flexible.

I’ll give you an example — I was shooting the video demonstrating shelter construction, and I decided to build a lean-to against a fallen tree trunk. But while I was gathering my materials I spotted a better place close by. I changed my mind about where to build the shelter, and it only took about 5 minutes to move the materials. Be flexible. Always look to improve your situation.

Also included in the concept of situation is whether you build your shelter on the ground or elevated above it. Elevating your shelter will take extra energy, but it might be necessary.

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Even if you build on the ground, generally you’ll not want to sleep directly on the ground. Make a bed of moss, leaves, grass, or evergreen boughs. Spruce, fir, and cedar are outstanding.

They’ll help keep you warm — the earth is a vast heat sink — and also offer some protection from bugs.

Things to look for: 

  



Fallen trees. The trunks and even the root balls make a good brace for some poles in making a lean-to. They also make decent reflectors for your fire.

Caves. These make awesome shelters.

Boulders, cliffs, and rocky overhangs. If you’re looking for the best natural heat reflector, go with stone.

Dense tree canopy. Think of a big tree as a roof over your head.

Conifers especially tend to shed rain out to the drip line, so building a shelter under one of these puts you way ahead of the game.

Snow drifts. Digging into a deep drift is a quick way to make a snow cave, which provides good insulation and protection from the wind. A real life saver.

Orientation of your emergency shelter To understand how to orient your shelter, just stand where you’ve decided to build it and now decide which way you will face when you sleep. Level ground is nice, but if you’re on a slope, you’ll probably want to sleep with your head uphill.

Also, cool air flows downhill after sunset, so you’ll want to be sheltered from that flow — unless it’s hot and the cool air will relieve you. Or maybe it’s cold and you want to sleep against a South-facing rock — unless you’re Down Under, in which case you’ll want to build against a North-facing rock. If a front is moving through, consider the prevailing winds. See how this works?

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Keep it simple, keep it small In the next article we’ll discuss the actual emergency shelter construction, but before you start gathering your materials, set your mind on the overarching purpose of your efforts. The idea is to get you alive and well through the night, so don’t waste time making it perfect, don’t worry too much about being comfortable, and don’t waste time and energy making it too big.

Making your emergency shelter too large is a double waste — you waste energy making it big to start with, and then it takes a lot more energy to keep it warm.

And just to drill deep into the science of it, I’ll elaborate. I do realize that there is a relatively small marginal cost to make the shelter a little larger. That is, you can give yourself double the floor space without doubling the amount of materials.

But the real problem is heating your space. In the open air, your fire heats the surfaces around it by radiation, not by convection, and radiant energy decreases as the inverse square of the distance. That means that if you double the distance from the fire to your shelter’s back wall (your reflector), the radiant energy striking the wall is not half as strong, but only one-fourth as strong. The smaller the space, the cozier you’ll be.

But even if cold is not a consideration, there’s still no good reason to build the shelter larger, even though the marginal cost is small. Here’s why: the additional size itself gives you no real benefit. You’re not staying there long, so you’re just going to waste the extra space when you leave. In this sense, because the economic benefit of additional size is zero, the marginal cost is actually infinite. In a survival situation, every calorie of spent energy is a calorie you have to recover.

It’s not too radical to say that every spent calorie brings you that much closer to death.

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All that to say: Keep it simple, keep it small. I’m dead serious.

TYPES When looking for a shelter site, keep in mind the type of shelter (protection) you need. However, you must also consider-   

How much time and effort you need to build the shelter.

If the shelter will adequately protect you from the elements (sun, wind, rain, snow).

If you have the tools to build it. If not, can you make improvised tools?

If you have the type and amount of materials needed to build it.

To answer these questions, you need to know how to make various types of shelters and what materials you need to make them.

Poncho Lean-To It takes only a short time and minimal equipment to build this lean-to (Figure 5-1). You need a poncho, 2 to 3 meters of rope or parachute suspension line, three stakes about 30 centimeters long, and two trees or two poles 2 to 3 meters apart. Before selecting the trees you will use or the location of your poles, check the wind direction. Ensure that the back of your lean-to will be into the wind.

To make the lean-to-





Tie off the hood of the poncho. Pull the drawstring tight, roll the hood longways, fold it into thirds, and tie it off with the drawstring.

Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie half of the rope to the corner grommet. Tie the other half to the other corner grommet.

Attach a drip stick (about a 10-centimeter stick) to each rope about 2.5 centimeters from the grommet. These drip sticks will keep rainwater from running down the ropes into the lean-to. Tying strings (about 10 centimeters long) to 49





each grommet along the poncho's top edge will allow the water to run to and down the line without dripping into the shelter.

Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees (uprights). Use a round turn and two half hitches with a quick-release knot.

Spread the poncho and anchor it to the ground, putting sharpened sticks through the grommets and into the ground.

If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or you expect rain, make a center support for the lean-to. Make this support with a line. Attach one end of the line to the poncho hood and the other end to an overhanging branch. Make sure there is no slack in the line.

Another method is to place a stick upright under the center of the lean-to. This method, however, will restrict your space and movements in the shelter.

For additional protection from wind and rain, place some brush, your rucksack, or other equipment at the sides of the lean-to.

To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of insulating material, such as leaves or pine needles, inside your lean-to.

Note: When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body heat to the ground.

To increase your security from enemy observation, lower the lean-to's silhouette by making two changes. First, secure the support lines to the trees at knee height (not at waist height) using two knee-high sticks in the two center grommets (sides of lean-to). Second, angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with sharpened sticks, as above.

Poncho Tent This tent (Figure 5-2) provides a low silhouette. It also protects you from the elements on two sides. It has, however, less usable space and observation area than a lean-to, decreasing your reaction time to enemy detection. To make this tent, you need a poncho, two 1.5- to 2.5-meter ropes, six sharpened sticks about 30 centimeters long, and two trees 2 to 3 meters apart.

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To make the tent-    

Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho leanto.

Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter rope to the center grommet on each side of the poncho.

Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to two trees 2 to 3 meters apart and stretch the poncho tight.

Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the ground pushing sharpened sticks through the grommets.

Follow the same procedure on the other side.

If you need a center support, use the same methods as for the poncho lean-to. Another center support is an A-frame set outside but over the center of the tent (Figure 5-3). Use two 90- to 120-centimeter-long sticks, one with a forked end, to form the A-frame. Tie the hood's drawstring to the A-frame to support the center of the tent.

Three-Pole Parachute Tepee If you have a parachute and three poles and the tactical situation allows, make a parachute tepee. It is easy and takes very little time to make this tepee. It provides protection from the elements and can act as a signaling device by enhancing a small amount of light from a fire or candle. It is large enough to hold several people and their equipment and to allow sleeping, cooking, and storing firewood.

You can make this tepee using parts of or a whole personnel main or reserve parachute canopy. If using a standard personnel parachute, you need three poles 3.5 to 4.5 meters long and about 5 centimeters in diameter.

To make this tepee (Figure 5-4)-  

Lay the poles on the ground and lash them together at one end.

Stand the framework up and spread the poles to form a tripod.

For more support, place additional poles against the tripod. Five or six additional poles work best, but do not lash them to the tripod.

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 







 

Determine the wind direction and locate the entrance 90 degrees or more from the mean wind direction.

Lay out the parachute on the "backside" of the tripod and locate the bridle loop (nylon web loop) at the top (apex) of the canopy.

Place the bridle loop over the top of a free-standing pole.

Then place the pole back up against the tripod so that the canopy's apex is at the same height as the lashing on the three poles.

Wrap the canopy around one side of the tripod. The canopy should be of double thickness, as you are wrapping an entire parachute. You need only wrap half of the tripod, as the remainder of the canopy will encircle the tripod in the opposite direction.

Construct the entrance by wrapping the folded edges of the canopy around two free-standing poles. You can then place the poles side by side to close the tepee's entrance.

Place all extra canopy underneath the tepee poles and inside to create a floor for the shelter.

Leave a 30- to 50-centimeter opening at the top for ventilation if you intend to have a fire inside the tepee.

One-Pole Parachute Tepee You need a 14-gore section (normally) of canopy, stakes, a stout center pole, and inner core and needle to construct this tepee.

You cut the suspension lines except for 40- to 45-centimeter lengths at the canopy's lower lateral band.

To make this tepee (Figure 5-5)-  



 

Select a shelter site and scribe a circle about 4 meters in diameter on the ground.

Stake the parachute material to the ground using the lines remaining at the lower lateral band.

After deciding where to place the shelter door, emplace a stake and tie the first line (from the lower lateral band) securely to it.

Stretch the parachute material taut to the next line, emplace a stake on the scribed line, and tie the line to it.

Continue the staking process until you have tied all the lines.

Loosely attach the top of the parachute material to the center pole with a suspension line you previously cut and, 52

 

through trial and error, determine the point at which the parachute material will be pulled tight once the center pole is upright.

Then securely attach the material to the pole.

Using a suspension line (or inner core), sew the end gores together leaving 1 or 1.2 meters for a door.

No-Pole Parachute Tepee You use the same materials, except for the center pole, as for the one-pole parachute tepee.

To make this tepee (Figure 5-6)-     

Tie a line to the top of parachute material with a previously cut suspension line.

Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it to the tree trunk.

Starting at the opposite side from the door, emplace a stake on the scribed 3.5- to 4.3-meter circle.

Tie the first line on the lower lateral band.

Continue emplacing the stakes and tying the lines to them.

After staking down the material, unfasten the line tied to the tree trunk, tighten the tepee material by pulling on this line, and tie it securely to the tree trunk.

One-Man Shelter A one-man shelter you can easily make using a parachute requires a tree and three poles. One pole should be about 4.5 meters long and the other two about 3 meters long.

To make this shelter (Figure 5-7)-   

Secure the 4.5-meter pole to the tree at about waist height.

Lay the two 3-meter poles on the ground on either side of and in the same direction as the 4.5-meter pole.

Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5 meter pole so that about the same amount of material hangs on both sides.

Tuck the excess material under the 3-meter poles, and spread it on the ground inside to serve as a floor.

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 

Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter poles at the shelter's entrance so they will not slide inward.

Use any excess material to cover the entrance.

The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind resistant, and the shelter is small enough that it is easily warmed. A candle, used carefully, can keep the inside temperature comfortable. This shelter is unsatisfactory, however, when snow is falling as even a light snowfall will cave it in.

Parachute Hammock You can make a hammock using 6 to 8 gores of parachute canopy and two trees about 4.5 meters apart (Figure 5-8).

Field-Expedient Lean-To If you are in a wooded area and have enough natural materials, you can make a field-expedient lean-to (Figure 5-9) without the aid of tools or with only a knife. It takes longer to make this type of shelter than it does to make other types, but it will protect you from the elements.

You will need two trees (or upright poles) about 2 meters apart; one pole about 2 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter; five to eight poles about 3 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter for beams; cord or vines for securing the horizontal support to the trees; and other poles, saplings, or vines to crisscross the beams.

To make this lean-to-





Tie the 2-meter pole to the two trees at waist to chest height. This is the horizontal support. If a standing tree is not available, construct a biped using Y-shaped sticks or two tripods.

Place one end of the beams (3-meter poles) on one side of the horizontal support. As with all lean-to type shelters, be sure to place the lean-to's backside into the wind.

Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams.

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



Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or grass, starting at the bottom and working your way up like shingling.

Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the shelter for bedding.

In cold weather, add to your lean-to's comfort by building a fire reflector wall (Figure 5-9). Drive four 1.5-meter-long stakes into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs on top of one another between the support stakes. Form two rows of stacked logs to create an inner space within the wall that you can fill with dirt. This action not only strengthens the wall but makes it more heat reflective. Bind the top of the support stakes so that the green logs and dirt will stay in place.

With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack. Cut a few 2-centimeter-diameter poles (length depends on the distance between the lean-to's horizontal support and the top of the fire reflector wall). Lay one end of the poles on the lean-to support and the other end on top of the reflector wall. Place and tie into place smaller sticks across these poles. You now have a place to dry clothes, meat, or fish.

Swamp Bed In a marsh or swamp, or any area with standing water or continually wet ground, the swamp bed (Figure 5-10) keeps you out of the water. When selecting such a site, consider the weather, wind, tides, and available materials.

To make a swamp bed-

 



Look for four trees clustered in a rectangle, or cut four poles (bamboo is ideal) and drive them firmly into the ground so they form a rectangle. They should be far enough apart and strong enough to support your height and weight, to include equipment.

Cut two poles that span the width of the rectangle. They, too, must be strong enough to support your weight.

Secure these two poles to the trees (or poles). Be sure they are high enough above the ground or water to allow for tides and high water.

Cut additional poles that span the rectangle's length. Lay them across the two side poles, and secure them.

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 

Cover the top of the bed frame with broad leaves or grass to form a soft sleeping surface.

Build a fire pad by laying clay, silt, or mud on one comer of the swamp bed and allow it to dry.

Another shelter designed to get you above and out of the water or wet ground uses the same rectangular configuration as the swamp bed. You very simply lay sticks and branches lengthwise on the inside of the trees (or poles) until there is enough material to raise the sleeping surface above the water level.

Natural Shelters Do not overlook natural formations that provide shelter.

Examples are caves, rocky crevices, clumps of bushes, small depressions, large rocks on leeward sides of hills, large trees with low-hanging limbs, and fallen trees with thick branches.

However, when selecting a natural formation-

 

Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow valleys, or creek beds. Low areas collect the heavy cold air at night and are therefore colder than the surrounding high ground. Thick, brushy, low ground also harbors more insects.

Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, scorpions, and stinging ants.

Look for loose rocks, dead limbs, coconuts, or other natural growth than could fall on your shelter.

Debris Hut For warmth and ease of construction, this shelter is one of the best. When shelter is essential to survival, build this shelter.

To make a debris hut (Figure 5-11)-





Build it by making a tripod with two short stakes and a long ridgepole or by placing one end of a long ridgepole on top of a sturdy base.

Secure the ridgepole (pole running the length of the shelter) using the tripod method or by anchoring it to a tree at about waist height.

Prop large sticks along both sides of the ridgepole to create a wedge-shaped ribbing effect. Ensure the ribbing is wide enough to accommodate your body and steep enough to shed moisture.

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



 



Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on the ribbing.

These form a latticework that will keep the insulating material (grass, pine needles, leaves) from falling through the ribbing into the sleeping area.

Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris over the ribbing until the insulating material is at least 1 meter thick-the thicker the better.

Place a 30-centimeter layer of insulating material inside the shelter.

At the entrance, pile insulating material that you can drag to you once inside the shelter to close the entrance or build a door.

As a final step in constructing this shelter, add shingling material or branches on top of the debris layer to prevent the insulating material from blowing away in a storm.

Tree-Pit Snow Shelter If you are in a cold, snow-covered area where evergreen trees grow and you have a digging tool, you can make a tree-pit shelter (Figure 5-12).

To make this shelter- 

 

Find a tree with bushy branches that provides overhead cover.

Dig out the snow around the tree trunk until you reach the depth and diameter you desire, or until you reach the ground.

Pack the snow around the top and the inside of the hole to provide support.

Find and cut other evergreen boughs. Place them over the top of the pit to give you additional overhead cover. Place evergreen boughs in the bottom of the pit for insulation.

See Chapter 15 for other arctic or cold weather shelters.

Beach Shade Shelter This shelter protects you from the sun, wind, rain, and heat. It is easy to make using natural materials.

To make this shelter (Figure 5-13)-57

  

 

 

Find and collect driftwood or other natural material to use as support beams and as a digging tool.

Select a site that is above the high water mark.

Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that it receives the least amount of sunlight. Make the trench long and wide enough for you to lie down comfortably.

Mound soil on three sides of the trench. The higher the mound, the more space inside the shelter.

Lay support beams (driftwood or other natural material) that span the trench on top of the mound to form the framework for a roof.

Enlarge the shelter's entrance by digging out more sand in front of it.

Use natural materials such as grass or leaves to form a bed inside the shelter.

Desert Shelters In an arid environment, consider the time, effort, and material needed to make a shelter. If you have material such as a poncho, canvas, or a parachute, use it along with such terrain features as rock outcropping, mounds of sand, or a depression between dunes or rocks to make your shelter.

Using rock outcroppings-



Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or other material) on the edge of the outcrop using rocks or other weights.

Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it provides the best possible shade.

In a sandy area-  

Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for one side of the shelter.

Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound using sand or other weights.

Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it provides the best possible shade.

Note: If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 30-centimeter to 45-centimeter airspace between the two halves.

This airspace will reduce the temperature under the shelter.

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A belowground shelter (Figure 5-14) can reduce the midday heat as much as 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F). Building it, however, requires more time and effort than for other shelters.

Since your physical effort will make you sweat more and increase dehydration, construct it before the heat of the day.

To make this shelter-

   

Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a trench 45 to 60 centimeters deep and long and wide enough for you to lie in comfortably.

Pile the sand you take from the trench to form a mound around three sides.

On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you can get in and out of your shelter easily.

Cover the trench with your material.

Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights.

If you have temperature centimeters will reduce degrees F).

extra material, you can further decrease the midday in the trench by securing the material 30 to 45 above the other cover. This layering of the material the inside temperature 11 to 22 degrees C (20 to 40

Another type of belowground shade shelter is of similar construction, except all sides are open to air currents and circulation. For maximum protection, you need a minimum of two layers of parachute material (Figure 5-15). White is the best color to reflect heat; the innermost layer should be of darker material.

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CLOTHING HOW TO DRESS How much clothing is enough, and how much is too much? This depends on what we're doing and where. The clothing required for a beach campout in Florida during summer will differ considerably from that needed at a fall hunting camp in Alaska.

Much also depends on the person. Some folks have metabolisms and body fat that allow them to remain comfortable sitting on a frozen lake during a snowstorm while others start shivering if a cloud momentarily obscures the sun.

Much of our decision-making will be based simply upon common sense. If it's winter, we'll need more clothes to stay warm, including a big coat or parka, gloves, a warm toboggan or other headgear, and perhaps some insulated underwear. On a summer outing in the desert, we'll want an outfit that protects our skin from the intense sun while helping us avoid overheating. If we're hiking a full day to our camp in the mountains, it's probably a good ideal to add to our pack a wool sweater, long pants, extra socks and some sort of hat or cap.

MATERIALS Fabrics used to make inner-layer clothing include cotton, silk, polypropylene, MTS 2 (Moisture Transport System) and Capilene.

Although cotton is comfortable when dry, it absorbs and holds sweat next to your skin and takes a long time to dry. It's a poor choice for inner layers when it's cold outside, but okay if it's moderate or warm. Silk is lightweight, comfortable, wicks well and insulates well, but it requires special care when laundered and is not as durable as the next three materials.

Polypropylene is great at wicking sweat away from the skin, but sometimes retains odors and gets scratchy after washing. MTS 2 offers polypropylene's benefits without its drawbacks. It's as comfortable as cotton and available in a variety of weights for different conditions. Capilene also is a comfortable, wicking fabric, with a special chemical treatment to help spread sweat throughout the fabric so that it evaporates quickly.

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Five commonly used mid-layer fabrics are cotton, nylon, MTS 2, Capilene and wool. Cotton is a common choice for warm-weather camp clothing because it's lightweight, comfortable and cool, HOWEVER, COTTON BECOMES WET AND DOESN’T DRY QUICKLY. REMEMBER, COTTON KILLS. Nylon is soft, lightweight and durable but nonabsorbent. Clothing made from it is available in styles for both warm and cold weather uses. Some campers wear wicking mid layers made with MTS 2 or Capilene to insulate and keep the skin dry.

And wool, which insulates well even when wet, is used in fullsleeve shirts, pants, over-shirts, sweaters, jackets and other moderate to cold-weather clothing.

Wool is one commonly used insulator, but pile and fleece, which are available in a variety of styles and thicknesses, are the choice of many campers because they're comfortable, warm (even when wet), fast drying and lightweight (half as heavy as wool).

Wind-proof liners are added to many of today's pile and fleece garments so they'll keep the weather out, unlike old pile/fleece clothing.

A wide variety of fabrics that offer varying degrees of water resistance and breathability are used in making outerwear. Among the least expensive options are fabrics like PVC that are completely waterproof but which provide very little breathability. These can be extremely uncomfortable when it's hot or you're very active. Waterproof/breathable fabrics such as Gore-Tex are more expensive, but they're good performers in a wide range of weather conditions, making them the best choice for your money in most situations.

LAYERING As the name suggests, inner-layer clothing (most of us still refer to it as underwear) is worn next to your skin. Its main function is wicking the sweat from your skin during high aerobic activity so you stay comfortable without being damp. It also provides extra insulation. Except for basic items of underwear worn every day, most of these items are used under moderate- to cold-weather conditions when you need some added warmth and you plan to be active.

Mid-layer clothing is basic clothing you wear every day -- long pants, long-sleeve shirts, shorts, T-shirts, etc. -- to provide protection in moderate to warm conditions. Mid-layer items often are worn alone on short trips in good weather. Each piece should be comfortable, lightweight and durable.

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Insulation-layer clothing (shirts, pants, vests, jackets, pullovers and sweaters) provides additional warmth whenever conditions are such that inner-layer and mid-layer clothing won't keep us comfortable. The best items are not only warm, they're lightweight and non-bulky, too, and they "breathe" to let sweat and excess body heat escape.

Outer-layer clothing (tops and bottoms) protects the wearer from elements such as wind, rain and snow. The best items are breathable, just like insulation layers, and keep the user dry and warm in harsh weather conditions or extended periods of rain.

When selecting outer-layer clothing, considerations go beyond just the type of fabric to use. You also should consider if the clothes allow for a full range of motion during your usual camp activities; how easy or difficult it is to get in and out of the clothing when adjusting layers; whether or not the waist, cuffs, and neck can be sealed tight for bad weather but also easily opened for extra ventilation; and such features as the number of vents to enhance breathability, the number of pockets for storing gear items, and the presence or absence of a hood, storm flaps and sealed seams.

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SURVIVAL KITS REQUIREMENTS BSA’s Ten Essentials 1. Map & Compass 2. Matches & lighter 3. Tarp/temp shelter 4. Whistle/signal mirror 5. Food & Water 6. Extra Clothing/ sunglasses/cap 7. Headlamp or flashlight 8. Fire Starter 9. First Aid Kit/sunscreen 10. Knife or Leatherman

FACTORS The environment is the key to the types of items you will need in your survival kit. How much equipment you put in your kit depends on how you will carry the kit. A kit carried on your body will have to be smaller than one carried in a vehicle.

Always layer your survival kit, keeping the most important items on your body. For example, your map and compass should always be on your body. Carry less important items on your load-bearing equipment. Place bulky items in the rucksack.

In preparing your survival kit, select items you can use for more than one purpose. If you have two items that will serve the same function, pick the one you can use for another function. Do not duplicate items, as this increases your kit's size and weight.

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CONTENTS                            

ITEM 1 - Contents, Survival Tips & Guidelines ITEM 2 - Pencil & 3 Blank Sheets Waterproof Paper ITEM 3 - Small Swiss Army Knife ITEM 4 - 550 lb.test Para Cord (20 ft.)

ITEM 5 - Removed & Replaced with small, LOUD whistle!

ITEM 6 - Small Lighter ITEM 7 - Magnesium / Flintbar Firestarter ITEM 8 - Mini LED Flashlight ITEMS 9 and 10 - 30ft Fishing Line and 6 Fish Hooks ITEM 11 - 50ft Fishing Line ITEM 12 - Mirror ITEM 13 - Compass ITEM 14 - Needles(3) and Heavy Upholstry Thread (10 ft) ITEM 15 - Safety Pins (3) ITEM 16 - Survival Blanket ITEM 17 - Painter's Tarp 9'x7' ITEM 18 - Water purifying straw ITEM 19 - Water Purification Tablets (20) ITEM 20 - 5 feet of duct tape, wrapped around ball point pen ITEM 21 - Surgical Suture, Sterile ITEM 22 - anti-diarrhea pills (4), Motrin (6) in a watertight capsule ITEM 23 - Ziploc Freezer Bags (2) ITEM 24 - Slingshot kit ITEM 25 - Small Rectangular Cooking Tin RECENTLY ADDED ITEMS ITEM 26 - Fresnel Lens ITEM 27 - Scalpel Blades ITEM 29 - MilSpec Snare Wire (10 ft)

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SEVEN STEPS OF SURVIVAL STEPS In order of importance: 1. S.T.O.P.: Stop, Think, Observe, & Plan 2. Provide first aid 3. Seek shelter 4. Build a fire 5. Signal for help 6. Drink water 7. (Don’t worry about) food

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S.T.O.P. METHOD Do What :

•

•

•

•

Stop

Think

Observe

Plan

How to do it:

•

Hug a tree / relax

•

Seek safety (from weather, water, animals)

•

Seek shelter (from cold, rain, heat)

•

Seek visibility (so you can see and be seen).

•

Are there any immediate dangers?

•

What went wrong?

•

How can I help myself?

•

Am I hurt?

•

What equipment do I have that may help?

•

What's the weather going to do?

•

Assess conditions, crew, gear, location.

•

Develop a new plan based on your observations.

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FIRE CRAFT In many survival situations, the ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and preserves food, it also provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves calories our body normally uses to produce body heat. You can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from animals. It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use fire to produce tools and weapons.

Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can detect the smoke and light it produces. It can cause forest fires or destroy essential equipment. Fire can also cause burns carbon monoxide poisoning when used in shelters.

Basic Fire Principles To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not burn directly.

When you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in the air, burns.

Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining a fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go out. The correct ratio of these components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.

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Site Selection and Preparation You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire consider-    

The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.

The materials and tools available.

Time: how much time you have?

Need: why you need a fire?

Security: how close is the enemy?

Look for a dry spot that-  

Is protected from the wind.

Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).

Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.  Has a supply of wood or other fuel available.

If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil from the spot you have selected.

Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is little chance of the fire spreading.

If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This wall will help to reflector direct the heat where you want it (Figure 7-1). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut down on the amount of wind blowing into the fire. However, you will need enough wind to keep the fire burning.

CAUTION Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated.

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In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. It conceals the fire and serves well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or Dakota fire hole (Figure 7-2)-  

Dig a hole in the ground.

On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.

Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.

If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire (Figure 7-3). Trees with wrist-sized trunks are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and lay them side by side on top of the snow. Add one or two more layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those below it.

Fire Material Selection You need three types of materials (Figure 7-4) to build a fire-tinder, kindling, and fuel.

Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat--a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a device that generates sparks, charred cloth will be almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry.

Prepare this cloth well in advance of any survival situation.

Add it to your individual survival kit.

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Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should be absolutely dry to ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire's temperature so that it will ignite less combustible material.

Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.

How to Build a Fire There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation you find yourself in will determine which fire to use.

Tepee To make this fire (Figure 7-5), arrange the tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee or cone. Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, feeding the fire. This type of fire burns well even with wet wood.

Lean-To To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of the stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick. Light 70

the tinder. As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

Cross-Ditch To use this method (Figure 7-5), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the ground. Dig the cross 7.5 centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the cross.

Build a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder to provide a draft.

Pyramid To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer of small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, each layer smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that burns downward, requiring no attention during the night.

There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the material available in the area may make another method more suitable.

How to Light a Fire Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning. They fall into two categories: modern methods and primitive methods.

Modern Methods Modem igniters use modem devices--items we normally think of to start a fire.

Matches Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with a dependable striker pad.

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Convex Lens Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars, camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and apply it to the fire lay.

Metal Match Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed.

Place the tip of the metal match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as above.

Battery Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each terminal.

Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

Gunpowder Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the case.

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Primitive Methods Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early ancestors.

Flint and Steel The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames.

Fire-Plow The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.

Bow and Drill The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 78) is simple, but you must exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method: 

Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression in one side. Use 73







it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.

Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2 centimeters in diameter and 25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction).

Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10 centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimeters from the edge on one side of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression.

Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a string. The type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage.

You tie the bowstring from one end of the bow to the other, without any slack.

To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board.

Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill (Figure 7-8). Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.

Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and require practice to ensure success.

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HELPFUL HINTS Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible.

Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.

Add insect repellent to the tinder.

Keep the firewood dry.

Dry damp firewood near the fire.

Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.

Carry lighted punk, when possible.

Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.

Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn't provide enough friction.

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