Feasibility Study for a UAS Conservation Program in Virunga National Park, DRC
Project No. 0003 Gilbert Dilis Virunga National Park
Steps for Mankind
April 22, 2015
Document Revision History Rev Rev Description No.
Author
Reviewer
Approver
Rev Date
A
Ryan Cant
Justin Barnes
Ryan Cant
April 2015
Issued as Final
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Table of Contents 1!
PROJECT EXEUCTION SUMMARY ...................................................................................... 1! 1.1! INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1! 1.2! PURPOSE & SCOPE .............................................................................................................. 2!
2!
SCALE OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................................................... 2!
3!
UAV TECHNOLOGIES ......................................................................................................... 3! 3.1! PROTOTYPE UAV BY CONSERVATION DRONE .................................................................. 3! 3.2! BATELEUR UAV BY DESERT WOLF ........................................................................................ 3 3.2.1 KEY FEATURES.............................................................................................................. 5 3.3! ALBATROSS UAV BY STEPS FOR MANKIND ........................................................................ 5 3.3.1 KEY FEATURES.............................................................................................................. 7 3.3.2 AERIAL IMAGING FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, AND WILDLIFE. ........................ 9 3.3.3 OUTPUTS & RESULTS .................................................................................................. 10 3.4! COMPARISON BETWEEN UAV TECHNOLOGY ................................................................ 11
4!
INTEGRATING THE INFORMATION SECTORS ..................................................................... 12 4.1 LAND USE/ COVER MAPPING ..................................................................................... 12 4.2 HUMAN ACTIVITY DETECTION ..................................................................................... 13 4.3 BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS .............................................................................................. 15 4.4 GROUND TRUTHING ..................................................................................................... 16 4.5 INTEGRATING INFORMATION SECTORS ..................................................................... 16
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LACK OF DATA AND AWARENESS .................................................................................... 16!
6!
URGENT NEED FOR CONSERVATION IN VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK, DRC .................... 18!
7!
SOLUTION TO CONSERVATION IN VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK, DRC ............................. 18!
8!
LAW, REGULATIONS, AND CURRENT TRENDS ................................................................... 21 8.2 VIRUNGA NATION PARK, A UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITE .................................. 21 8.3 GOVERNMENT APPROVAL AND SUPPORT ................................................................ 22!
9!
EXPERTISE, COORDINATION AND FINANCING ............................................................... 22!
10!
CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................. 23 10.1 UAV OPERATIONS ...................................................................................................... 23 10.2 BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS ............................................................................................ 23 10.3 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................... 23!
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Figures within Text FIGURE 1.! THE PROTOTYPE OF THE CONSERVATION DRONE USED IN TEST MISSIONS IN SUMATRA, INDONESIA. ............4 FIGURE 2.! APM PLANNER SOFTWARE USED TO PLAN THE FLIGHT PATHS OF EACH DRONE MISSION. ...............................4 FIGURE 3.! THE BATELEUR DRONE AND CATAPULT SYSTEM. ..................................................................................................5 FIGURE 4.! TARANTULA TRAILER SYSTEM FOR LARGE SURVEILLANCE OPERATIONS. ...........................................................5 FIGURE 5.! DISPLAYS THE ALBATROSS UAV BY STEPS FOR MANKIND.... ...............................................................................6 FIGURE 6A.!. THE WINGSPAN (9.8FT.) OF THE ALBATROSS UAV. ............................................................................................7 FIGURE 6B.!. ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS OF THE ALBATROSS UAV. ................................................................................7 FIGURE 7.! DISPLAYS THE ALBATROSS UAV READY FOR TAKE-OFF. ......................................................................................8 FIGURE 8.! DISPLAYS A 3D AERIAL SURVEY MODEL OF USING AGISOFT.. ............................................................................10 FIGURE 9.! UAS REAL-TIME VIDEO COVERAGE DURING A FLY OVER IN THE DRC. ..............................................................12 FIGURE 10.!DISPLAYS LANDSAT TM ECOSYSTE CLASSIFICATIONS .........................................................................................13 FIGURE 11.!THE ILLEGAL CHARCOAL HARVESTING AND WAR ZONES IN VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK, DRC. .....................14 FIGURE 12.!DISPLAYS AN ORANGUTAN DISCOVERED IN A TREE BY CONSERVATION DRONE. ...........................................15 FIGURE 13.!THE MIKENO SECTOR IN VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK. .........................................................................................16 FIGURE 14.!DISPLAYS EIGHT MISSIONS IN ORDER TO SURVEY THE MIKENO SECTOR OF THE VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK.
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FIGURE 15.!DISPLAYS A 60M X 200M (H X W) AERIAL SURVEY TRANSECT IN THE MIKENO SECTOR OF VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK.. .....................................................................................................................................................................20 FIGURE 16.!DISLAYS ILLEGAL FUEL WOOD CARGO BEING CONFESCATED BY VNP RANGERS............................................21
Appendices APPENDIX 1 – CONSERVATION DRONE SPECIFICATIONS! APPENDIX 2 – BATELEUR UAV SPECIFICATIONS APPENDIX 3 - ALBATROSS UAV SPECIFICATIONS APPENDIX 4 - CLASS A ESTIMATE!
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1
PROJECT EXEUCTION SUMMARY 1.1
Introduction
Steps for Mankind is providing Virunga National Park with a feasibility study for a UAS conservation program in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). This project will provide vital statistics on the Virunga Ecosystem. Virunga National Park is tucked in the depths of the Eastern Congo, which is one of the most diverse places on earth. It's a land of unparalleled biodiversity, home to half of all the species on the African continent. Because of the park's wide variations in altitude and rainfall and its location along the seismically active Albertine Rift, its habitats include lava plains, tropical forests, marshes, savannas, glaciers, mountain snowfields, and two active volcanoes—including one, Nyiragongo, with what is arguably the world's most spectacular open-air lava lake [1].Virunga's fauna, which includes elephants, lions, hippos, chimpanzees, and okapi is just as varied few [1]. The park's most prized inhabitants, though, are 200 of the world's 880 remaining mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), which inhabit the lower slopes of several extinct volcanoes that rise from the southeastern edge of the park and cut across the borders of Rwanda and Uganda [1][3]. Due to, economic instability combined with civil unrest, and human impacts, the eastern lowland gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) and the mountain gorilla are being heavily impacted [2]. The eastern lowland gorilla makes its home in lowland tropical rainforests in the eastern DRC. In the last 50 years, its range has decreased from 8,100 square miles—to about 4,600 square miles today [2]. This subspecies may now occupy only 13% of its historical range. There were nearly 17,000 eastern lowland gorillas in the mid-1990s but scientists estimate that the population has declined since then, at around 3000 [2][3]. An accurate accounting of the animals has been impossible for many years because of violence in the region. The main threats to Virunga National Park in 2015 include: o o o o o
Loss of habitat through deforestation; Illegal charcoal harvesting; Illegal hunting; Illegal pet trade. Rebels and the Congolese army
The Park Rangers have been defending the Virunga Ecosystem from poachers, illegal charcoal harvesters, and members of the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), a rebel militia founded by the ethnic Hutu perpetrators of Rwanda's 1994 genocide who have long hunted the park's animals for bush meat, cut down its trees, and built bases in its vast remote areas [1]. Along the way, they have often clashed with park rangers and raped and looted local populations [1]. In addition, Emmanuel de Merode had been a leading critic of oil exploration inside the park, currently being carried out by London-based Soco International. Steps for Mankind aims to support conservation efforts of gorilla bands/troops, all while monitoring charcoal harvesting, deforestation, poaching and illegal pet trade activities. If these issues are not addressed in a serious, urgent and sustained manner, wild gorillas will be soon gone from this earth.
1.2
Purpose and Scope
The purpose of this investigation is to provide the framework for how Steps for Mankind will execute the project. The scope of this investigation is as follows:
2
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Scale of the problem;
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Drone Technologies;
•
Integrating the information sectors;
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Lack of data and awareness;
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Urgent need for UAV conservation in Virunga National Park, DRC;
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Solution to Conservation in Virunga National Park, DRC;
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Laws, Regulations, and Current Trends;
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Expertise coordination and financing; and
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Conclusions;
SCALE OF THE PROBLEM The region around the Virunga Volcanoes is very densely populated and no forest is left outside the national park, firewood is always rare. Tropical deforestation and forest degradation is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and biodiversity loss. Making charcoal from the mountain forest trees in the Mikeno Sector is a multi-million dollar business – and a severe threat to the national park [4]. These rapid and widespread land-use changes have severely affected tropical biodiversity. Park Ranger continue to put their lives in danger to crack down on those who are making the charcoal in the park. Despite being a difficult trade to hide – the smoke indicates where there is an oven making charcoal - many people are ale to profit from the instability and continue with charcoal production [4]. Many of the women involved with the charcoal business in the park are wives of the Congolese military who pick up the scraps of charcoal so they can cook for their families [4]. The military are not paid by the government, so their families do what they can to get by. The majority of the men making charcoal in the park come from Rwanda [4]. In Rwanda it is illegal to make charcoal, so many Rwandans enter DRC to make it instead. They take advantage of the fact that the Congolese military provide protection as long as they provide money to enter the park. Large trucks come out of the park, full of charcoal, and it is assumed that there are powerful networks in place [4]. Once Virunga’s Rangers discover the illegal trade, those involved are arrested and taken to the main station at Rumangabo [4]. They are questioned, reprimanded, fined, and deported back to the Rwandan border. Virungas Park Rangers, put their life at risk from these illegal activities, as they have been attacked by the military, because of the enforcement undergoing. In September of 2007, Rangers estimated that 50 people entered the southern sector of the park to make charcoal; that number is now estimated above 1000 [4]. It is estimated
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that at the rate that charcoal is harvested from the park, the entire southern portion of the park will be gone in ten years [5]. An area considered to be perhaps the most biologically diverse and best of its kind, may soon vanish [5]. As global demands for food and fuel wood markets continue to place increasing pressures on land in the tropics, an urgent challenge for conservationists is to be able to accurately assess and monitor changes in forest cover, species distributions and population dynamics. To address these challenges, Steps for Mankind has developed an inexpensive (<$13,000), autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) for surveying and mapping forests, agricultural landscapes, and biodiversity. We describe the development of the Albatross (Fig. 5) and evaluate its potential. Additionally, we discuss the utilization of this system for environmental and conservation applications, which include large-scale mapping of local land cover, monitoring of illegal forest activities (e.g., logging, fires), illegal charcoal harvesting, and surveying of large animal species (e.g., gorillas, elephants, lions, hippos, chimpanzees, okapi etc).
3
UAV TECHNOLOGIES An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a “drone”, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. ICAO classify unmanned aircraft into two types under Circular 328 AN/190.[1] • •
Autonomous aircraft Remotely piloted aircraft
Historically, UAVs were simple remotely piloted aircraft, but autonomous control is increasingly being employed. In recent years, UAVs have been deploys as vital conservation tools. June 2012, WWF announced it will begin using UAVs in Nepal to aid conservation efforts following a successful trial of two aircraft in Chitwan National Park, with ambitions to expand to other countries, such as Tanzania and Malaysia. The global wildlife organization plans to train ten personnel to use the UAVs, with operational use beginning in the fall. In December 2013, the Desert Wolf and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society was selected by the Namibian Government and WWF to help combat rhino poaching [6]. The drones will be monitoring rhino populations in Etosha National Park and will use RFID sensors [7]. These conservation efforts have been extremely successful due to UAV technology. However, UAV technology is still premature, and many issues still exist today. To further understand these issues, Steps for Mankind has reviewed and compared three types of UAVs, which include: • • •
Prototype UAV by Conservation Drone; Bateleur UAV by Desert Wolf; and Albatross UAV by Steps for Mankind.
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3.1
Prototype UAV by Conservation Drone
The Prototype UAV by Conservation Drone is a financially feasible system, but limited in functionality. The UAV can function remotely or autonomously – utilizing an autopilot system know as the ’ArduPilot Mega’ (APM), which has been developed by an online community (diydrones.com). The APM includes a computer processor, geographic positioning system (GPS), data logger, pressure and temperature sensor, airspeed sensor, triple-axis gyro, and accelerometer. By combining the APM with an open-source mission planner software (APM Planner), this remote control model airplane became semi-autonomous. The prototype is based on a popular model airplane known as the Bixler, which is produced by Hobbyking (hobbyking.com). This UAV is relatively inexpensive (<$2,000), lightweight (~650g), and has ample room within its fuselage for installing the APM and an onboard camera. The UAV is powered by a 2200 mAh (milliampere-hour) battery, which allowed it to fly for ~25 minutes per mission, and over a total distance of ~15 km. However, this UAV is not commercially available and is unable to transmit real time video streaming. The drone is also limited to a flight radius of 8km. More details about the Conservation Drone are provided in Appendix 1.
Fig. 1. The prototype of the Conservation Drone used in test missions in Sumatra, Indonesia. (Left:
3.2
Fig. 2. APM Planner software used to plan the flight paths of each drone mission.
Bateleur UAV by Desert Wolf
The current market-leading provider of conservation drone technology is Desert Wolf. Desert Wolf has created a surveillance drone known as the Bateleur fixed wing UAV System. Used as part of the “perching UAV capability” or as a stand-alone system. The Bateleur is an easy to operate, high-performance UAV, which provides advanced situational awareness for its customers. However, the bateleur is autonomous and becomes relatively expensive for the entire UAS. To operate the Bateleur, a surveillance system and ground operation control system is required. The Bateleur and surveillance systems can cost approximately $200,000 - depending on the payload and system options.
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Fig. 3. The Bateleur Drone and catapult system.
Fig. 4. Tarantula Trailer System for large surveillance operations.
3.2.1 Key Features • • • • •
Autonomous; Can be operational during the day and night; Has a mission radius of 30 km; Reconnaissance, identification and geo-location are all in real-time; and Launched via catapult with a choice of autonomous or parachute landing.
With the Bateleur system you have the ability to execute almost immediate, on-demand reconnaissance missions to obtain detailed intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) data in real-time. The Bateleur has been designed for special operations and tactical missions for “over the hill” non line-of-sight operations and situations. The Bateleur is easy to detect due to its operational height of between 30 to 100 meters. The operation radius is limited to 30 km. With a total duration of only 60 minutes airtime and a cruise speed of 100 km per hour, one can do a round trip of only 50 km and back. The Bateleur family carries both an electro-optical (EO) system and a FLIR infrared (IR) camera system in a digitally stabilized gimbal payload bay. One EO will be forward looking for flight and navigation control and the bay-mounted FLIR IR camera will be downward-looking for area surveillance. The bay-mounted system will also then be the stabilized system with on-board recording capabilities, one does not have the risk of “losing” any reconnaissance information, even in the event of link interference or jamming (country specific). This allows for detailed information to be made available for full analysis after the mission and storage for long-term use. Location devices can be used in conjunction, which can include RF ID tag tracer system, crowddispersing pepper gas pellets, laser target designator, search and rescue “follow me” high-powered LED markers. More details about the UAV are provided in Appendix 2.
3.3
Albatross UAV by Steps for Mankind
The future of autonomous UAV – a hybrid between a UAV and a satellite – has been designed by Steps for Mankind. The Albatross drone will be able to carry out long
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endurance observation operating at an altitude between 10-1000m. The new breed of autonomous UAV’s have mission of observation, security, telecommunications, broadcasting, and navigation. The lightweight and portable Albatross Drone is the first commercially-available UAV airplane to stream live media, enabling high-quality aerial footage to be broadcast from anywhere in the world. Designed to 9.8ft. x 6.5 ft. (Figure 6). it’s made with carbon fiber and equipped with a single 1200V motor. The Albatross will be able to take high resolution pictures and maintain a stronger communications system, as it will roam airspace much lower than actual satellites. The Albatross has the potential to include a wide range of applications that current UAV technology is unable to conduct. The UAV is equipped with light weight solar panels and a ultra light lithium sulfur batteries for energy storage. Our UAV system truly is unlike anything currently available on the market. The Albatross was designed by Steps for Mankind and constructed with support from groupe VAMUdeS at the Universitè de Sherbrooke, and Project Phoenix. The Albatross has un-matched characteristics and versatility at an unbeatable price. Used as part of the “perching UAS capability” or as a stand-alone system, the Albatross is the “top choice” for sustainable innovation.
Fig. 5. Displays the Albatross UAV By Steps for Mankind.
The Albatross is an easy to operate (Pix4D mobile app), high-performance UAS, which provides advanced situational awareness for its customers. Our Environmental Information Systems (EIS) offers affordable solutions to create accurate and timely mosaics and models. QGIS is an open source GIS applications that enables us to create extensive inventories of natural resources, verify the enforcement of environmental regulations, and assess the vigor of vegetation with vegetation indices to name only some examples. Output results such as orthomosaics, DSMs, DTMs, contour lines etc. will integrate seamlessly into existing EIS software. Agisoft, Pix4D, and QGIS offers an efficient and affordable way to map and model natural areas, parks, reserves and nature conservation areas so we can focus more time on the analysis of environmental data.
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Fig. 6a., The Wingspan (9.8ft.) of the Albatross UAV.
Fig. 6b.,Additional specifications of the Albatross UAV.
3.3.1 Key Features: • • • • •
Autonomous; Cloud based transmission service with very remote operations; Operation throughout the day and night (480 min of flight time); Has a mission radius of 250-350 km; Reconnaissance, identification, geo-location, real-time video capture, and
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• • •
aerial surveying (post-flight); Lithium Sulphur Battery powered by 40,00 mAh; 60 watt Solar panels power the UAV; and Manual launched system and parachute landing.
With the Albatross UAV you have the ability to execute immediate, on-demand reconnaissance missions to obtain detailed intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) data in real-time. Additionally, aerial imagery surveying is also conducted and can be analyzed post-flight operations. The Albatross has been designed for special operations and tactical missions for “over the hill” non line-of-sight endurance operations and surveying needs. With on-board recording capabilities, one does not have the risk of “losing” any reconnaissance information, even in the event of link interference or jamming. This allows for detailed information to be made available for full analysis after the mission and storage for long-term use. The Albatross UAV carries one aerial surveying camera that capture both electro-optical (EO) system and a infrared (FLIR) camera system in a digitally stabilized gimbal payload bay. The system is fully “autonomous” and needs very little user input. The system will also allow for the more demanding user to take control of the UAS during specialized operations, again without risk to the system. Within a couple of minutes of arriving at the mission site, the Albatross can be assembled and lifted towards the sky, as the UAV is ready to start the mission. The operation radius between 350-450 km allows for proper surveillance of the target area. With a total duration of 360-480 minutes airtime and a cruise speed of 50-100 km per hour. More details about the UAV are provided in Appendix 3.
Figure 7. Displays the Albatross UAV ready for take off. The Albatross usually operates at heights of between 10-100 meters but, depending on the mission, could go up to 500 meters with ease at a speed of 100 km/hr. The solution is to fly the drone at higher altitudes (e.g., 300 m above ground) to minimize such
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perspective discrepancies; the camera focal length could be increased to maintain picture resolution. The Albatross can be fitted with one EO camera that will be forward looking for flight and navigation control and the bay-mounted FLIR camera will be downward-looking for area surveillance. The bay-mounted system will also then be the stabilized system. With on-board recording capabilities, one does not have the risk of “losing” any reconnaissance information, even in the event of link interference or jamming. This allows for detailed information to be made available for full analysis after the mission and storage for long-term use. More details about the UAV are provided in Appendix 3.
3.3.2 Aerial Imagery Surveying for Agriculture, Forestry, and Wildlife Several factors determine the resolution of aerial photographs taken by a UAV, including flight altitude, and the focal length and sensor size of the camera. The APM 2.5 Planner includes a built-in application that allows the user to calculate picture resolution based on camera and flight settings to compensate for movement of the UAV in metering and focusing. Under this setting, our test photographs will be taken at shutter speeds of between f1/320 and f/1000, which effectively avoided motion blur. During flight, the electric motor produces vibrations, which could result in vibration blur in photographs for many drones. As a solution, we included the digitally stabilized gimbal payload bay. This instrument for Stable Placement of ONboard Gear and Equipment (Gimbal) successfully removes vibration blur. This is a vital piece of equipment as precision agriculture calls for continuous land management at a competitive cost, all the while caring about environmental protection. Forestry companies are required to complete extensive pre- and post-harvest inventories of their operating areas to ensure business models are up-to-date, as well as meet industry and government regulations. The project’s scope can included the following tasks in an environmental monitoring data collection project: The project’s scope can included the following tasks in an environmental monitoring data collection project: • • • • • • • • •
Final harvest boundary; Survey suitable terrain for replanting (stocking); Survey final planted blocks to ensure complete coverage; Stream impact from post-harvest; Landslides and slope stability; Agricultural survey’s; Human Activity; Wind throw (blow down) event and mapping; and Wildlife & tree identification.
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Fig. 8. Displays a 3D aerial survey model of using Pix4D With Tau 2 LWIR Infrared (LIDAR) Aerial camera system by FLIR, the high resolution camera can take a series of overlapping (80% x 50% overlap) images in a grid pattern across the area. Agisoft software is then used to “stitch” together these overlapping images into a geo-referenced orthomosaic and DSM. Finally, through a combination of proprietary software processes, the trees were extracted from the DSM, creating a bareground surface image and a method to calculate individual tree heights.
3.3.3 Outputs & Results The I2S solution produced results that matched or exceeded the accuracy that could be achieved through normal field/ground survey methods. Additionally, the high quality of the images allowed a forester to conduct an accurate post-harvest inventory in his office – he didn’t visit the site. The ability of the Scout to take overlapping images (stereo views) enabled the creation of a DSM, which in turn was used to calculate pit/mound volumes quickly and accurately without involving an expensive and time consuming field survey. While the I2S process is not a complete replacement for field survey, it effectively augments the survey process.
Key advantages of Agisoft & Pix4D Software. • • • •
Highly accurate results not obtainable through field/ground survey methods; Reliable and easy to use; Seamless integration with GIS software; and Cost-effective alternative to LIDAR that augments traditional survey methods.
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3.4
Comparison Between UAV Technology
The Albatross produced by Steps for Mankind is like no other UAV. It is a profitable alternative over existing technologies. With the integration of renewable energy, the Albatross is extremely efficient in comparison to existing commercial UAVs. Real-time control systems produce a unique multi-component that has useful applications in conservation. By design, the drone utilizes a whole new concept along with benefits from existing technologies and combines those benefits into a single UAS. The key advantages is that the Albatross can fly for longer durations over further distances while processing real-time information faster and produce higher quality geo-referenced aerial imagery. We are developing UAVs at low-cost in comparison to alternative commercially available technology that have been used by the military, agriculture sector, and the film industry. Some ecologists have also started using commercial systems for surveying wildlife [12-15]. However, commercial drones can cost tens of thousands of dollars. For example, a commercially-produced prototype system for wildlife research in Florida cost $35,000 [14]. Surveying drones developed by Sensefly cost in the range of $40,000$80,000. A newer UAV by Silent Falcon is similar in endurance capabilities. However, the UAV is $300,000 and not yet commercially available. The quality of data acquired by the Albatross is comparable to these commercial systems (e.g., sensefly.com). Furthermore, commercial systems often have an integrated photographic camera, but not a video camera. Therefore, not only is our Albatross a magnitude less expensive, but it also allow for much greater flexibility in terms of the sensor system they can carry. Another key advantage of the Albatross over commercial UAS stems from the fact that our UAVs are based on hardware and most software that are being developed by an open-source community (APM 2.5, QGIS). Therefore, as users demand and contribute new features and functionalities, this technology will continue to improve. This communal and crowdsourcing approach is highly efficient and cost effective compared to product development by any single research team. At the same time the cost of producing the Albatross will likely decrease along with the cost of its components (i.e. lithium-sulphur batteries).
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INTEGRATING THE INFORMATION SECTORS 4.1
Land Use/ Cover Mapping
Located at the border between several biogeographic zones, the park protects both tropical rainforest and eastern steppe species, and its range of altitudes adds to the habitat variety. The diversity includes: bamboo and Hagenia forest on the mountains; equatorial forest along the Semiliki; wooded savannah of the Rwindi; steppes; various low savannahs; swamps and transitional habitats; dry thick forest; Neoboutonia macrocalyx forest on the lava plains; wet thick forest; alpine forests; and sparse vegetation above 4,300 m comprising mainly lichens and spermatophyta, although Graminae have been found growing at over 5,000 m. In the images acquired during potential routine routes, we could easily distinguish different land uses, including charcoal harvesting, maize fields, human habitation, forests (Fig. 9), logged areas (Fig. 10), and forest trails. These geo-tagged photographs and the flight paths of each mission could also be superimposed on Google Earth (Fig. 14), which allows for easy visualization of the location of features of interest from the photographs (Figure 10).
Figure. 9. UAS real-time video coverage during a fly over in the DRC. Using commercially available software, we produced geo-referenced mosaics from these aerial photographs (e.g., Fig. 9). These mosaics are essentially near real-time land use/ cover maps, which could be useful for local conservation workers seeking to monitor land-use change and illegal forest activities.
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Figure. 10. Displays Landsat TM ecosystem classifications. An example of a mosaic produced from a routine route, would be similar to the Landsat-based land use/ cover map, but our 3D rendering would be produced in much higher detail (Fig. 10). The pixel resolution of our mosaic (5.1 cm) is 800 times higher than that of the Landsat-based map Google Earth (30 m) displayed in figure 10.
4.2
Human Activity Detection
Video footages And FLIR imaging can complement still images and mosaics, particularly for detecting on-going human activities. In video footages recorded at relatively low altitudes (10-100 m above ground), one could easily detect objects below the UAVs flight path, including individual forest trees, charcoal harvesting, troops and elephants. When the UAV is flying at 300 m above ground, activities in the larger landscape could also be monitored, including fires and recent logging. For example, one could clearly observe plumes of smoke rising from several locations in the landscape. This information could facilitate more targeted deployment of local rangers to patrol the problem areas. The 640- Tau 2 camera can display thermal imagery to distinguish wildlife and human activities within the dense and lush rain forest. Therefore, the UAV could also facilitate enforcement of protected areas, particularly where constraints in conservation resources have led to forest encroaching and illegal forest activities [11]. Furthermore, owing to the negligible cost of operating the UAV, target areas could be repeatedly surveyed at high frequency to monitor potential land use changes and activities.
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Figure. 11. The Illegal Charcoal Harvesting and War Zones in Virunga National Park, DRC.
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4.3
Biodiversity Surveys
When equipped with a still-photograph camera and infrared thermal sensor, the Albatross UAV could document large mammals. A wild orangutan was photographed by Conservation Drone while it was on top of a palm tree feeding on palm heart (Fig. 12). A tame elephant was also photographed, which illustrates how large wildlife species could be surveyed with this technology. Based on the GPS telemetry data sent from these collars via satellite link to a researcher, a UAV could be deployed to the current location of the animal to acquire photographic and video information about its behaviour, habitat and food resource utilization. !
Figure 12. Displays an orangutan discovered in a tree by Conservation Drone.
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4.4
Ground Truthing
Another potential application of the UAV is for ground truthing. Conventional methods of classifying land use/ cover from satellite data requires ground truthing to assess the accuracy and reliability of classification outcomes. Given that the deployment of local workers for ground truthing is often costly in terms of time and financial resources (and practically impossible in the most remote and inaccessible areas), ground truthing is often only carried out for a very limited extent of the area being classified. In principle, the Albatross UAV could be used for ‘drone truthing’ of satellite-based land use classification, since drones could be deployed more quickly and over larger distances than local researchers on the ground.
4.5
Integrating Information Sectors
With the use of UAV technology, “the sky is the limit”. With information collected by the Albatross, Steps for Mankind can create programs that can serve various sectors across DRC. Steps for Mankind’s UAV framework can broadcast real-time aerial surveillance and surveying information of wildlife, natural environments, and potential threats. This can allow for quick reaction times for local enforcement agencies. Additionally, we can develop a strategic monitoring program by using Environmental Information Systems (EIS). This EIS can be developed on Google Earth (KMZ files) to support and determine existing infrastructure. Services such as this can help provide various benefits. One benefit of EIS could be REDD+ validation on the forest inventory to bring in carbon payments to the community that will provide further incentives to protect these forests— and, ultimately, to protect the entire landscape. Information from health and safety can also be supplied. Inform could be supplied to medical personnel field staff, and national agents working in the great apes’ habitats to safely work with the animals and to collect all biological samples and other wildlife health data. By Integrating these systems Steps for Mankind could potentially create a method to inform the locations of diseased wildlife to the public. Another service that could further benefit from this program could be the local communities. Integrating sectors can insure the flow of the latest disease information to remote areas in DRC. This can help guide existing community programs on how to prevent “animal to human” and “human to animal” transmissions of disease. It can also create healthcare programs for the apes, tourists, and villagers of rural communities in the area where all three groups can be effectively serviced.
5
LACK OF DATA AND AWARENESS Lack of data and awareness exist when assessing the impacts associated with Viunga’s conservation programs. Steps for Mankind will tackle these issues in an attempt to “fill-in the gaps”. Most conservation researchers and practitioners currently rely on satellitebased remote sensing for mapping and monitoring land use change [5]. However, remote sensing technology might not be accessible for many developing-country researchers due to financial constraints.
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Although certain low- resolution satellite images are freely available (e.g., Landsat [landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov] and MODIS [modis.gsfc.nasa.gov]), other sub-meter resolution images can be prohibitively costly (e.g., QuickBird [digitalglobe.com], IKONOS [geoeye.com]). Yet, such high-resolution data are often critical for accurately detecting and tracking land use change at the landscape scale (< 1,000 ha). Furthermore, much of the humid tropics is often obscured from remote sensing satellites due to a persistent cloud cover [6]. As such, cloud-free satellite images for a specific time period and location are often not readily available. Researchers typically have to search from a time series of images to obtain the cloud-free data they require, thus rendering any realtime monitoring of land-use change practically impossible. The second major conservation challenge concerns assessment and monitoring of biodiversity. Currently, this is largely achieved through ground surveys, which can be time-consuming, financially expensive, and logistically challenging in remote areas [7]. For example, ground surveys of orangutan populations (Pongo spp.) in Sumatra, Indonesia can cost over ~$250,000 for a two-year survey cycle. Due to this high cost, surveys are not conducted at the frequency required for proper analysis and monitoring of population trends [8]. Furthermore, some remote tropical forests have never been surveyed for biodiversity due to difficult and inaccessible terrain [9]. Therefore, little reliable data is currently available. Owing to the lack of reliable data about quantity, quality, composition, and seasonal variations, are many issues that governance is struggling with. A huge need to come up with a structured and a well-moderated response to their own needs in required. Lack of data decreases the clarity in tender requirements put forth by many drone conservation companies and leads to miscalculations by private parties. It was also one of the main reasons for the failures of many first generation (1990s to 2000s) and second generation drone programs (2000), The lack of operational data from the first and second generation drone conservation companies, continues to impact the scope of current projects and the financing and regulatory policy. Lack of consistent operational data is the reason for improperly conceived projects whether it is regarding negotiations about preferential incentives, or risk and profit sharing. Due to a lack of awareness about the technology and best practices, the governing ministries, local governments, are expecting magical solutions from supporting NGOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. Steps for Mankind is excited for the opportunity to provide assistance under such difficult circumstances.
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URGENT NEED FOR UAV CONSERVATION IN VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK, DRC The Albatross UAV aims to cover a study area (â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;approx. perimeter 167 km; 552 sq/kmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;), outside and around the parameter of Mikeno Sector of Virunga National Park (Fig. 13). The vegetation of the study site largely covered with dense lush rain forest with some regions comprised of regrowth lowland rainforest that had been selectively harvested for charcoal [9]. The Virunga Ecosystem contains the last few contiguous lowland rainforest habitats for lowland gorillas. This ecosystem is known to contain other important habitats for elephants, lions, hippos, chimpanzees, and okapi [10].
Figure 13. The Mikeno Sector in Virunga National Park.
7
SOLUTIONS TO CONSERVATION IN VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK, DRC The Albatross can conduct flights up to 350 km. The missions are to obtain photographs and real-time footage of land use, human activities, and wildlife within the Mikeno Sector of Virunga National Park. Here, we describe the extent of 8 potential missions (Fig. 14).
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Figure. 14. Displays eight missions in order to survey the Mikeno Sector of the Virunga National Park.
•
•
•
• •
The first missions would be dangerous, in which the UAV is programmed to fly at an altitude of 300 meters above ground for a total distance of ~280 km, over an area that is known to be heavily degraded by charcoal harvesting. The mission would start at the Rumangabo station (Virunga National Park Headquarters) and end at Kakomero oatrol post; We designed the second mission as a transect (200 km) to provide extensive aerial survey of the charcoal harvesting in the area. The mission would start at Kakomero patrol post and enters the FDLR troops control in the Nyamulagira sector of the park, returning again to the Kakomero patrol post. The third mission would cover dense rainforest to study gorilla troops as the UAV makes its way from the Kakomero patrol post to Gatovu patrol post. This mission is approximately 235km; The fourth mission would survey the Mikeno Volcano beginning at the Gatovu patrol post and completing its mission back at the Gatovu patrol post (160 km). The fifth mission is the longest mission that stretches a total of 220km in the center of the Mikeno Sector. The mission aims to survey poaching territory (Kabirizi killing site; June 8, 2007), which starts from the Gatovu patrol post and ends at Bukima patrol post;
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•
• •
The sixth mission is another mission that will survey poaching territory (Rugendo Killings Site; July 22, 2007). This mission is approximately 210 km. The Albatross UAV will begin at Bukima patrol post and complete its mission at the Bikenge patrol post. The seventh mission begins at the Bikenge patrol post and ends at the Jomba patrol post. An approximate distance of 250km. The eighth and final mission is a transect to provide an extensive aerial survey of the Nkunda’s CNDP forces control patrol within Virunga National park boarders. The mission would start at Jumba patrol post, later entering the Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, ending at the Ntebako station (220 km).
Figure. 15. Displays a 60m x 200m (H x W) aerial survey transect in the Mikeno Sector of Virunga National Park. Each mission will consist of a transect that can monitor activities on the ground. These flight missions cover an average of 222 km (min 160; max 280km). The Albatross can cover a total flight distance of 1,775 km, which is predominantly forested landscape. For this mission, the drone will send back real-time video footage from our satellite provider. Additionally, our flight characteristics ensured sufficient overlap (>50%) between photographs to allow for the creation of a geo-referenced mosaic for subsequent spatial analysis (e.g., quantifying areas of different land uses).
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LAW, REGULATIONS AND CURRENT TR\NDS 8.1
Virunga Ecosystem as a UNESCO World Heritage Site
The Virunga National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which helps protect the area from new legislation that would grant large blocks of forest for logging concessions, mining, and industrial plantations. The Virunga Ecosystem is an irreplaceable ecosystem to the people of DRC, providing approximately four million people with clean water for downstream irrigation, agriculture and food production. As a World Heritage Site, the Virunga Ecosystem still remains part of the legal territory of DRC but UNESCO considers it in the interests of the international community to preserve each site. “Therefore World Heritage status gives Virunga special recognition and further support from the international community. On March 16, 2015, the Democratic Republic of Congo’s prime minister has said that his government wants to find a way to explore for oil in the Virunga national park, a Unesco world heritage site , and will engage in negotiations with the UN body to “explore judiciously”. Heavy lobbying by mining, logging, oil exploration has resulted in large carve-outs for forest conversion. The impacts would diminish important ecological services, increase the likelihood of flooding and landslides, and put endangered wildlife at greater risk. Part of the greater Virunga ecosystem has already been lost to charcoal practices (figure 16).
Figure 16, Dislays illegal fuel wood cargo being confescated by VNP Rangers.
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8.2
Government approval & support
This advanced technology support project falls under Steps for Mankind’s Wildlife Crime Technology Project – a groundbreaking project which showcases how technology and wildlife protection can be integrated. The project is also being undertaken in collaboration with Namibia’s Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET). Supporters of the Virunga National Park have long called for the support of technology and surveillance as part of anti-poaching initiatives. Seeing these being implied within two major Namibian parks is thus to their great satisfaction. Although subject to international funding, if the project proves that poaching can be drastically reduced by the help of advanced technology, then one can surely predict the ministry expanding and taking up similar projects in the near future. An added advantage is the tracking of wildlife movement, migration patterns and so forth. These surveillance UAVs may very well prove their pound’s worth in Africa’s last but not forgotten wilderness locations.
9
EXPERTISE, COORDINATION AND FINANCING Adding to the challenges facing UAV programs in Indonesia, a lack of consultants and professional expertise has led to tender documents being developed that are often not clearly scoped, not thorough or are just copied from existing tenders from other companies and do not consider local requirements and policies. This is mainly due to the lack of consultants and professionals who have expertise in designing conservation drone projects. This leads to the stipulation of unreasonable eligibility criteria, one-sided agreements and choosing the wrong partners. Further to this, the Steps for Mankind is young and growing, with a significant influx of new players from other sectors. They all face similar challenges while developing projects such as these, but do not have mechanisms to achieve consensus on their basic requirements, so that those can be communicated to decision makers. At Steps for Mankind, we have developed at Project Execution Plan (PEP). The purpose of this execution plan is to provide the framework for how Steps for Mankind will execute the project. This project execution plan (PEP) is a live document that will be updated at various stages throughout the project, as required. All team members will be made aware of any revisions and the relevant changes to this PEP. The scope of this PEP is as follows: •
Project Execution Summary;
•
Corporate Drivers, Objectives and Challenges;
•
Scope of Work;
•
Assumptions and Design Basis;
•
Key Project Milestones and Schedule;
•
Sustainable Design Opportunities;
•
Risks and Mitigation
•
Roles and Responsibilities;
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•
Communication Plan;
•
Project Delivery Plan; and
•
Engineering Delivery Plan.
CONCLUSIONS Inogwabini et al. [34] advised that to increase protected areas in DRC, an assessment of the entire network was necessary before making political decisions. The biological viability analysis is currently ongoing yet that alone is not sufficient and would need cultural, economic, political, social and strategic analyses of protected areas to make decisions that would serve as foundations for the global good. The economic analysis of protected areas will lead to the establishment of privately protected areas as one efficient way to ensure both economic benefits and biodiversity conservation. For those protected areas that will remain state- managed, their legal category should be reassigned to IUCN category VI, there should be properly zoned core conservation areas, seasonal use areas and controlled use areas; and part of their legal management should be devolved to local community leadership. This combination will ensure a more coherent and tangible law enforcement that will be both economically and ethically justifiable. People are part of the conservation equation and must own it to succeed [35, 36]; success in conservation will not endure unless there are institutional capacities to democratically manage DRC natural resources [31]. In turn, this will have to be reconciled with people’s interest in development to produce desired conservation outcomes. This requires proper transfers of rights and obligations to local people to conserve biodiversity through local authorities.
10.1 UAV Operations A key consideration in developing the Albatross is their ease of use for non-specialist operators, who would mainly include conservation workers and field ecologists. Our prototype system already meets this criterion in most operating aspects, especially in the planning of each mission using the APM Planner. Equally noteworthy is the ability of the UAV to take off autonomously with a light toss by the operator. Landing of the drone in a constrained space (<100 x 100 m) providing an auto parachute launching gesture.
10.2 Biodiversity surveys in other ecosystems Both the photographic and video data obtained during test missions were of sufficient quality to identify large animals such as gorilla troops (and their nests in lowlying areas) and elephants. In principle, the Albatross could also be used in other ecosystems, particularly open habitat types such as woodlands or savannas. In those systems, the Albatross could obtain valuable information on wildlife abundance, distribution, as well as habitat and resource utilization. UAVs could also potentially be used for surveying marine animals, such as turtles (based on their tracks on beaches), as well as dugongs in shallow waters. An additional survey method to the UAV could be for community
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planning of renewable energy project being constructed and deployed at the flagship headquarters in Virunga National Park
10.3 Future development To assure the perpetuation in resource values of the property, the Virunga National Park must be managed on a scientific basis and possess a management plan which will facilitate, among others, a better delineation of the different zones. Strengthened surveillance is required to assure the integrity of the Park boundaries. It would reduce poaching, deforestation, and pressure on the fishery resources (which risk increase), notably activities by isolated armed groups. To this end, the strengthening of staff and availability of equipment as well as the training of Park staff are of primary importance. Improvement and strengthening of the administrative and surveillance infrastructures would contribute towards reducing the pressure on the rare and threatened species, such as the gorillas, elephants, rhinos, etc. In view of the important increase in the populations, the establishment of buffer zones in all the sectors is indispensable and a matter of urgency. The use of the Albatross UAV could lead to significant savings in terms of time, manpower and financial resources for local conservation workers and researchers, which would increase the efficiency of monitoring and surveying forests and wildlife in the developing tropics. We believe that our UAV will be a game-changer and might soon become a standard technique in conservation efforts and research in the tropics and elsewhere. The time has come to reflect on how the UAS program can be undertaken sustainably and without being adversarial to local communities; other conservation models have to be looked at and tried. Firstly, to make conservation sustainable DRC needs to solve the long-standing issue of land use and tenure. This will be a long and difficult process but, as was demonstrated in Kenya [17], it can be done if genuine effort is invested. Secured property rights will give more incentives to people to protect the land of their ancestors [18]. Conservationists should help with this process rather than narrowly focusing on requesting more protected areas. Land tenure in DRC has traditionally been through common tenure whereby tribes had a common space that was used by different tribe members. This system prevailed de facto throughout the history of DRC even though de jure land and everything it contains belongs to the state. The consideration here is to identify options for people to acquire legal ownership over lands they possess de facto. Reviewing land tenure is essential now that competing interests are emerging and most cultivable land is likely to be allocated to commercial agriculture. Land acquisition by multinationals will push communities to exert further pressures on existing protected areas. Hence, sorting out the global issue of land tenure is a crucial step in ensuring sustainable protected areas in the long run. Also, to secure cultivable land, multinationals will want to invest only if land rights are legally affirmed and enforced; hence there is a shared interest here. The quest for an inclusive process for creating new protected areas has been debated
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over many years and has culminated in the inclusion of several concerns raised above throughout the DRC into a new conservation law passed early in 2014 whereby local communities are not only to provide their informed consent prior to creating new protected areas (preamble point 3 and article 32) but also are allowed to sustainably use resources located within protected areas for food security (article 20 (2)). Secondly, DRC should look constructively at alternative ways of conserving biodiversity [19], such as allowing people to create privately protected areas. The sustainability and effective protection of protected areas in the DRC should be analyzed using national strategic interests, cultural values and other economic tools, such as the Albatross. DRC should consider the cost of maintaining protected areas under the current regime (state-owned) versus the cost of fully protecting these areas through a different regime. The private sector should be allowed to supply conservation activities, including making income from conserving biodiversity. This can be done either by putting some protected areas under private management or by allowing those who can afford to buy land to create their own protected areas. In order for that to happen, as suggested by proponents of effectiveness and the efficiency of protecting biological diversity [20,21] the current legal framework will need to be challenged. This has been done, to some extent by the new conservation law. The provisions of articles 24 and 38 of this law introduced the notion of private and public-private joint ventures for management of protected areas though this transfer is limited to a 25 year renewable period (article 24). This can work only within a stable and democratic state, that has the means to enforce the law [22] and to ensure that all the implementation decrees (articles 13, 16, 23, 24, 31, 33, 52, 59, 60 and 67) that are indicated in the law are produced and implemented. The success of the conservation project for the periphery of NoubalĂŠ-Ndoki NP in Congo [23] testifies to the potential of achieving biodiversity conservation using other models. The conservation success story of the gorillas of Tayna Gorilla Reserve in Kivu [24] shows that conservation activities can be implemented by local communities and benefit biodiversity. Tayna succeeded while Kahuzi-Biega lost its gorillas, indicating that conservation can be done in different ways and that state-owned protected areas are not necessarily the best option to preserve biodiversity. Thirdly, it must be acknowledged that DRC protected areas are already illegally and extensively used by adjacent communities and other stakeholders. Law enforcement alone is unable to provide the protection needed for biodiversity to sustainably persist over the long term. Even the smallest protected areas such as Nâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;sele NP (34.4 km2) and Mabali Scientific Reserve (1,900 ha), for example [25,26] have suffered. DRC has to become realistic in its approach to conservation, which would imply adjusting the law to the reality existing in most areas: that they are all already multiple use areas. No DRC park can claim to be fully protected; each of them is exploited in one way or the other. Chief Wardens allow communities to enter the parks to fish at their own will in Salonga NP [25] and in Virunga NP [27]; hunting is widespread in Salonga NP [28], in Virunga NP [29]and in both Kahuzi-Biega and Maiko [27]; collecting wood for fuel by local communities in all of these areas is widely acknowledged [30]. These few illustrations among many call for a review of the legal categorisation in order to adapt to the reality. Considerations could be mapped with the Albatross. Given the certainty that there will be insufficient means to ensure an optimum level of conservation in most protected areas, it would be wise to downgrade most protected areas in DRC to IUCN
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Category VI, which they are de facto. It was very courageous of the DRC Government to introduce the possibility of declassifying protected areas (article 35), which is an extreme end of the process being proposed here. The protected area downgrading exercise has to be combined with other tools, including participatory land use planning for zoning of protected areas to delineate different functional areas and the devolution of legal law enforcement instruments to local leadership. This process requires the emergence of an effective democracy in DRC [31] and should be encouraged because DRC does not have the means to fence all protected areas and its population is still very poor yet burgeoning with increasing need for land. These steps are also needed because the struggle over land and natural resources in DRC is evident through the intensive lobbying of DRC by large economic multilateral actors [32]; the sword of Damocles is hanging over biodiversity but more dramatically over human communities. As the case in Tumba-Lediima testifies, the best conservation allies in the current context of DRC might be local communities [33].
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Gilbert Dilis of the Virunga National Park for allowing us the privilege to investigate the feasibility of a UAS conservation program for the Virunga Ecosystem. In particular we thank Julien Huot (VAMUdeS), Mathieu Houde Lessard (Project Phoenix), and Hans Bock (Xenics). for their logistical support and technical assistance in the research phase of our UAV technology. This project is completed by Steps for Mankind and supplied as part of an on-going effort to conserve the Viunga National Park. Sincerely,
STEPS FOR MANKIND
Ryan Cant, B.Sc., EPt Senior Environmental Scientist
Justin Barnes, B.Sc., Senior Geoscientist
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REFERENCES [1] Rosen, Jon. 'The Battle For Virunga, Africa's Oldest News.nationalgeographic.com. N.p., 2014. Web. 24 Mar. 2015.
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[2] Worldwildlife.org,. 'Eastern Lowland Gorilla | Species | WWF'. N.p., 2015. Web. 24 Mar. 2015. [3] Endangeredspeciesinternational.org,. 'Endangered Species International'. N.p., 2015. Web. 24 Mar. 2015. [4] Endangeredspeciesinternational.org,. 'Endangered Species International'. N.p., 2015. Web. 24 Mar. 2015. [5] Hazard, Leah. 'Charcoal, Corruption And The DRC's Gorillas | Global Envision'. Globalenvision.org. N.p., 2015. Web. 24 Mar. 2015. [6] Worldwildlife.org,. 'An Eye In The Sky For Boots On The Ground | WWF'. N.p., 2015. Web. 8 Mar. 2015. [7] Your African Safari,. 'Google-Funded Surveillance Drones Keeping Watch Over Namibia's Rhinos'. N.p., 2014. Web. 8 Mar. 2015. [8] Meijaard, E., Wich, S., Ancrenaz, M. and Marshall, A. J. 2012 Not by science alone: why orangutan conservationists must think outside the box. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1249:29-44. [9] Abdulhadi, R., Mirmanto, E. and Kartawinata, K. 1987 A lowland dipterocarp forest in Sekundur, North Sumatra, Indonesia: five years after mechanized logging. Proceedings of the Third Round Table Conference on Dipterocarps, ed Kostermans AJGH), pp 255273.
[10] Wich, S. A., et al. 2008 Distribution and conservation status of the orang-utan (Pongo spp.) on Borneo and Sumatra: how many remain? Oryx:329-339. [11] Barrett, M. A., Brown, J. L., Morikawa, M. K., Labat, J.-N. and Yoder, A. D. 2010 CITES Designation for Endangered Rosewood in Madagascar. Science 328:1109-1110.
[12] Sarda-Palomera, F., et al. 2012 Fine-scale bird monitoring from light unmanned aircraft systems. Ibis 154:177-183.
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[13] Koski, W. R., et al. 2009 Evaluation of an unmanned airborne system for monitoring marine mammals. Aquat. Mamm. 35:347-357.
[14] Jones IV, G. P., Pearlstine, L. G. and Percival, H. F. 2006 An assessment of small unmanned aerial vehicles for wildlife research. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 34:750-758. [15] Watts, A. C., et al. 2010 Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems for Low-Altitude Aerial Surveys. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74:1614-1619. [16] Heartofborneo.or.id,. 'Discussion On Conservation Areas Privatization In Indonesia « News & Articles « Heart Of Borneo'. N.p., 2015. Web. 8 Mar. 2015. [17] Kameri-Mbote, P. (2005). Land tenure, land use and sustainability in Kenya: towards innovative use of property rights in wildlife management. International Environmental Law Center, Geneva Switzerland. Working Paper 4. [18] Wells, M., Brandon, K. and Hannah, L. (1992). People and parks: linking protected area management with local communities. World Bank.
[19] Salafsky, N., Margoluis, R. and Redford, K. (2001). Adaptive Management: A Tool for Conservation Practitioners. Biodiversity Support Program, Washington, DC, USA. [20] Balmford, A., Bruner, A., Cooper, P., Costanza, R., Farber, S., Green, R.E., Jenkins, M., Jefferiss, P., Jessamy, V., Madden, J. Munro, K., Myers, N., Naeem, S., Paavola, J., Rayment, M., Rosendo, S., Roughgarden, J., Trumper, K. and Turner, R.K. (2002). Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature. Science, 297, 950–953. DOI: 10.1126/ science.1073947 [21] Stem, C., Margoluis, R., Salafsky, N. and Brown, (2005). Monitoring and evaluation in conservation: a review of trends and approaches. Conservation Biology, 19(2), 295– 309. DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00594.x [22] Inogwabini, B.I. (2007). Can biodiversity conservation be reconciled with development? Oryx, 41(2), 2–3. [23] Stokes, E.J., Strindberg, S., Bakabana, P.C., Elkan, P.W., Iyenguet, F.C., Madzoké, B., Malanda, G.A., Mowawa, B.S., Moukoumbou, C., Ouakabadio, F.K., Rainey, H.J. (2010). Monitoring Great Ape and Elephant Abundance at Large Spatial Scales: Measuring Effectiveness of a Conservation Landscape. PLoS ONE. DOI: 10.1371/ journal.pone.0010294 [24] Mehlman, P.T. (2008). Current status of wild gorilla populations and strategies for their conservation. In: Stoinski, S.H., Steklis, H.D. and Mehlman, P.T. (eds). Conservation in st 21 Century: gorilla as case study. Springer: 3–56. [25] Inogwabini, B.I., Omari, I., Mbayma, A.G. and Zasy, N.G. (2005b). Protected areas of
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the Democratic Republic of Congo: A habitat gap analysis to guide the extension of the network. Endangered Species Update, 22(2), 71–82. [26] Twagirashyaka, F. and Inogwabini, B.I. (2009). Lake TéLé-Lake Tumba Landscape. In: De Wasseige, C., Devers, D., De Marcken, P., Eba’a, R. A., Nasi, R. and Mayaux, P. (eds). The Forests of the Congo Basin - State of the Forest 2008. Publications Office of the European Union : 305–316. [27] UNESCO (United Nations Educational, scientific and cultural organisation). (2010). World Heritage in the Congo Basin. World Heritage Centre. [28] Reinartz, G., Inogwabini, B.I. Mafuta, N. and Lisalama, W.W. (2006). Effects of forest type and human presence on bonobo (Pan paniscus) density in the Salonga National Park. International Journal of Primatology, 27(2), 603– 634. DOI: 10.1007/s10764-006-90209 [29] Kenfack, C.E. (2013). The Virunga Landscape. CIFOR Briefs 2 (18) – available at www.cifor.org [30] Crawford, A. and Bernstein, J. (2008). MEAs, Conservation and Conflict: A case study of Virunga National Park, DRC. International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). [31] Inogwabini, B.I. (2007). Can biodiversity conservation be reconciled with development? Oryx, 41(2), 2–3. [32] Trefon, T. (2007). Industrial logging in the Congo: Is a Stakeholder Approach Possible? South African Journal of International Affairs, 13(2), 101–114. DOI:10.1080/10220460609556805 [33] Inogwabini, B.I. and Leader-Williams, N. (2013). Conservation paradigms seen through the lenses of bonobos. In Sodhi, N.S and Raven P., (Eds). Conservation Biology: Lessons from the Tropics. Oxford University Press. [34] Inogwabini, B.I., Omari, I. and Mbayma, A.G. (2005a). Protected areas of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Conservation Biology, 19(1), 15–22. DOI: 10.1111/j.15231739.2005.00181.x [35] Adams, J.S. and McShane, T.O. (1997). The Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation without illusion. University of California Press. [36] Bawa, K.S., Siedler B. and Raven, P.H. (2004). Reconciling conservation paradigms. Conservation Biology, 18, 859– 860. DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.01838.x
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Appendix 1 – Conservation Drone Specifications © Conservation Drone Items
Specifications
Hobbyking Bixler ($100) Weight (g)
650
ArduPilot Mega (APM) ($265)
Computer processor, GPS, Data logger, Pressure & Temperature sensor, airspeed sensor, triple-axis gyro, and accelerometer
Camera 1 (Canon IXUS 220 HS) ($500)
4000 x 3000 pixels
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
6.17 x 4.55 mm
Camera 2 (Pentax Optio WG-1 GPS) ($400)
4288 x 3216 pixels
Charge-coupled Device
6.17 x 4.55 mm
Camera 3 (GoPro HD Hero) ($300)
1080 x 720HD (60 FPS); 320min
Battery (mAh) ($30)
2200
Flight time (min)
25
Total Distance
15 km
APM Planner Overall Price ($)
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Appendix 2 – Bateleur UAV Specifications
Wing Span
2100mm
Max take of weight
3.5 kg
Bateleur Jet
Electric Turbo Fan
Bateleur Prop
Electric Brushless motor
Endurance
25m – 15km
Bateleur Jet
6000 mAH; 15min
Bateleur Prop
10000 mAH; 45min
Cruise Speed
50-100km/h
Max Speed
140km/h
Surveillance Speed
38km/h
Operation Altitude
30m – 300m AGL
Max Ceiling
3000m ASL
Wind Speed Max
50km/h for take off
Real time telemetry and data link
Up to 20km
Real time video link
Up to 10km
Real time UAS
Control up to 25km
Guidance
3D GPS waypoints or Semi-Autonomous
Mission radius
30km
Bataleur Cost
Approx. $80,000
Pangolin C3: Ground Control Station
Approx. $5,000
Additional Surveillance Equipment Required (ie. Black Widow Trailer System)
Approx. $110,000
Total Cost for Complete Set-up
Approx. $195,000
NP15-ENV-VNP-PRO-0237
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Rev A April 22, 2015
Appendix 3 – Albatross UAV Specifications Albatross UAV Items
Specifications
AIRFRAME
Wingspan: 3000mm or 9.8ft
Price ($)
MTOW: 10+KG or 22lbs Endurance: 6-8Hrs Range: Limited to Endurance Cruise Speed: 18M/S / 40MPH Max Level Speed: 40 M/S / 90MPH Takeoff: 40-100ft Glide Ratio (L/D): 28:1 – 30:1 AIRPLANE
Engine Type: Electric Battery Type & Capacity: Li-S (40,000mAh) IR Sensor: Available with use of thermal imaging. Advanced Features: Large and versatile Payload Capacity, Adaptable Payload Bay Analog Payload Link 1: Analog Unencrypted Video Transmission @ 1.3GHZ Digital Payload Link 2: Digital Encrypted Video Transmission @ 5.8GHZ Telemetry Data Link: Digital Transmission @ 915MHZ Command and Control Link: 433MHZ UHF Transmission / 2.4GHZ
Custom body package
Requires NDA
$3,650
Surveying camera (FLIR) and HD video camera + Flat Mapping Gimbal
Requires NDA
$3,923
Requires NDA!
$3,355
Solar cells
Requires NDA
$1000
Software: Pix4D
Per month: $350 or Annual Subscription: $3,500
Antennas RX and TX + upgrades
NP15-ENV-VNP-PRO-0237
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Rev A April 22, 2015
Engineering & Construction (min)
umbilical custom installation
Overall Price ($)
Airplane Approximately
NP15-ENV-VNP-PRO-0237
Page 34
$335 $12,263
Rev A April 22, 2015
Appendix 4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Conservation Class A Estimate
NP15-ENV-VNP-PRO-0237
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Rev A April 22, 2015
Table 1. Class A Cost Estimate Project Name: Client Name: Project Manager: Project Scientist: Client Proj Manager: Client Proj Engineer: Date:
Task
UAS Conservation Program for Virunga National Park Gilbert Dilis Ryan Cant Justin Barnes Gilbert Dilis
Project Number: Project Start Date: Project End Date: Accounting Type: Project Group: Risk Classification: Rev #:
April 23, 2015
Description Rate
NP15-ENV-VNP-PRO-0237 TBD TBD Non Reimbursable Standalone A A
Project Manager (Hrs)
Senior Scientist (Hrs)
Project Coordinator (Hrs)
160
170
130
33 24 1 8 0
9
4 2
16 16 24
24 4 20 24
49
33
Intermediate QA/QC Consultant (Hrs) 115
Senior UAS Technician (Hrs)
EIS Specialist (Hrs)
HSE Advisor (Hrs)
140
160
120
8
8
0
8
8
8
222 29 168
Total (Hrs)
Total ($)
Labour Project Management and Planning Planning, Project Management Safety Plan, General Review, Technical Support Meetings Field Work Mob (1 trip) UAV Supervision and Reporting Systems testing DeMob (1 trip) Analysis and Reporting Data Review and Logs Report Writing Project Presentation and Close-out
(Project Set-up, 4CastPlus) (Health & Safety Review, Project Risks, Safety Plan) (8 x 1hr each)
1 8 0
Mob to site (Toronto, YYZ - Kigali, KGL) (14 days of Video Surveillance and Daily Field Reports) (Pre and Post Flight Caliberation, 2hrs/per day) DeMob from site (Kigali, KGL - Toronto, YYZ) Data Review Final Conservation Report Formal Presentation of UAV Conservation Study
Total Labour
2 2 1
1 4 2 2
25 32 16 16
189 26 112 28 23 32 16 16
10
262
229
8 0
0
160 160
0
160
8
70 26 26 18 413 56 280 28 49 268 198 70 48
799
10,330.00 4,100 3,330 2,900 52,250.00 7,105 35,000 3,920 6,225 40,920.00 30,620 10,300 7,920
$ 111,420.00
Non-Labour Third Party/Field Expenses Albatross UAV Construction Equipment and Materials Quality Control Testing Other Expenses Field Expenses
Expenses Mob/demob, Installation, Expenses, Materials Back-up Supplies Incase of UAV Damage Flight Testing by Groupe VAMUdeS Expenses and Disbursements Accommodations, Meals, Vehicle, Fuel
20,263.00 12,263 6,000 2,000 6,350.00 6,350
Total Non-Labour
Notes: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Mob and DeMob is includes a 12hr day (Flight Duration is 24hr) + flight ticket ($2,000). Construction Equipment will be refunded ($18,263) if UAV is not damaged. Field Expenses: deduct $3,000 If accomidations and meals are supplied at camp. Scope of analysis and reporting are supplied in the PEP.
Macintosh HD:Users:ryancant:Dropbox (Personal):3-Environmental & Geosience Group:3.1-Environment:NP15-ENV-VNP-0237:NP15-ENV-VNP-Research 20 June Cost2012 Est_Subtotal.xlsm
$ 26,613.00
Labour Subtotal Non-Labour Subtotal Third-Party Mark-up (10%) Contingency (20%) Other Direct Costs (8%)
111,420.00 26,613.00 2,661.30 27,606.60 11,042.64
Estimate Total
$ 179,343.54
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