Education & Human Development Issue 2 by Jimmy Hilario

University of Asia and the Pacific School of Education and Human Development

EDUCATION & HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 2015-2016 No. 2

Table of Contents

Education & Human Development 2015-2016 No. 2

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Foreword Celerino C. Tiongco

Education as an Enriching Dialogue between Two Unique Persons

Fr. Ramon Antonio E. Nadres

Recommended Strategies for Teaching Twice-Exceptional Students

Marigin C. Antonio

Early Childhood Educatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Perceptions of Inclusion: A Phenomenological Study of Teaching Students with Special Educational Needs in Inclusive Settings

Krystine Ann S. Ragotero

Home Parenting Practices and the Emergent Reading Skills of Four- to Five-Year-Old Children of Economically Disadvantaged Families

Melissa Antoinette C. Garcia

Content of Effective Parent Education Programs: A Review of Recent Empirical Literature Emerson O. Fababaer 1

Acknowledgments The School of Education and Human Development (SED) of the University of Asia and the Pacific thanks the authors of the articles featured in this issue of Education & Human Development, especially the graduate students who generously shared the results of their research, carried out with the help of their respective Thesis Advisers, Research Coaches, and Course Instructors. Design and Printing: Inkwell Publishing Co., Inc. Editorial Board Ma. Concha B de la Cruz, M.A.Ed. Angelito Z. Antonio, Ph.D. Celerino C. Tiongco, Ed.D. 2

Foreword

“Drawing the best ‘I’ out of each person.” “The cultivation of the mind, feelings, and manners.” “Preparing a student for life.” These are a few broad but concise ways of defining education or describing what it is all about. But in its deepest sense and as Pope Benedict XVI defined it, education is “the inner opening up of a man to his possibilities, in which his external abilities are developed in harmony with his gifts.” The first three statements of the Credo of the University of Asia and the Pacific (UA&P) all refer to education:

We believe • that education is a lifelong process, and that its focal point is and should always be the individual person; • that the primary purpose of education is the integral formation of the human person, the fullest development of everything that is human in the individual; • that it is part of the mission of the school to help and complement the family in the exercise of its educational rights and duties….

All five papers in this issue provide the kind of perspectives of education that the UA&P Credo upholds and that we in the faculty and staff of the School of Education and Human Development (SED) seek to foster in every one of our students, as well as in everyone else we get to reach through our programs, activities, and publications. Indeed, education is, as one of our institutional posters puts it, “our art, our science, our business, our passion.” This issue also features two “firsts” for Education & Human Development: the first article from Indonesia (although the author is a Filipino priest who teaches in a Catholic university in Surabaya) and a paper based on the first-ever SED master’s thesis that used the phenomenological approach as its methodology. The five papers cover a wide range of topics: teacher-student interaction viewed as a mutually enriching dialogue, strategies for teaching “twice-exceptional” students, teaching children with special educational needs in an inclusive setting, the impact of home parenting practices on the emergent reading skills of children belonging to economically disadvantaged families, and effective parent education programs. But in their own ways, the papers touch on several common themes: the primacy and centrality of the human person in the educational process, the unity and inseparability of the personal and social dimensions of education, the innate dignity of every human being, the highly contextual nature of teaching and learning, the irreplaceable role of parents as the first and primary educators of their children, and the need for home-school-community collaboration. While still keeping its intellectual and moral purpose, education is no longer just a practice-intensive profession. It also has become very much research-driven and evidence-based. The reader can get a glimpse of this trend in the papers featured in this issue of Education & Human Development. Celerino C. Tiongco Dean, School of Education and Human Development University of Asia and the Pacific 3

Education as an Enriching Dialogue between Two Unique Persons Fr. Ramon Antonio E. Nadres, Ph.D. Lecturer Faculty of Philosophy Faculty of Business Management Faculty of Medicine Widya Mandala Catholic University Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia

ABSTRACT The struggle between progressive and formal education rages on, with the progressive side slowly but surely gaining ground, thereby driving a process of evolution towards a largely student-centered learning environment. At times, so much emphasis is given to making the educational process center on the student that one gets the sense that the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role is being reduced to the barest minimum, if not being done away with altogether. The implicit view is that education is a learning adventure embraced mainly by the student with minimal help from the teacher. This paper offers a different perspective of education, looking at it as a mutual learning experience that occurs between the student and the teacher through dialogue. What makes the experience special is that even if the teacher participates in the dialogue from a position of greater experience and expertise, she still can beâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and indeed should beâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;open to learning from her student. In other words, the educational process, at its core, consists of an enriching dialogue between two unique persons: the student and the teacher. To illustrate the point, the author applies the idea to a method that he has developed and uses in his university teaching practice and that encourages the teacher to engage the students in a dialogue, while keeping in mind the specific circumstances of the students: the E3T (Engage, Express, Explain, Test) method. He recommends the use of the method as a form of student-centered learning practice, but with the appropriate adaptation to the specific context in which the method will be used (in his case, teaching Indonesian university students with specific attributes, needs, and circumstances and enrolled in specific degree programs). Key words: progressive education, formal education, student-centered learning, educational method.

“Student-centered learning or “learner-centered education” is the current buzzword in educational circles. In truth, it is no longer just a buzzword; rather, it is now a dream, a desire, a goal, or even something that is already in the making. It would be enough to browse through the Internet to find out that many educational institutions—including my own university, the Catholic University of Widya Mandala in Surabaya— are exerting great effort to make student-centered learning a reality. For the benefit of the reader who may not be familiar with this trend in the field of education, the transition towards student-centered learning entails walking away from what may be called the “traditional” system or theory of teaching. In this traditional way, the teacher is seen as the possessor of the desired knowledge and the student as an empty receptacle waiting to be filled with that knowledge. Thus, the educational process simply becomes a transfer of information, requiring active effort from the teacher but a more passive attitude on the part of the student. The student merely needs to be attentive. He should simply accept by faith what the teacher tells him and should postpone questions or original ideas to the time when he would have received enough training to be on a par with the teacher. Three objections can be raised against this view of the educational process: (1) education is not the mere passing on of information; there are skills to be developed, which include the students’ ability to acquire, assess, and organize that information by themselves; (2) the teacher cannot possibly have all the information on a specific subject and is also in a position to learn new things, even from her own students; and (3) there could be many ways of organizing or understanding a certain topic and the teacher’s way is only one of them. One key reason cited in favor of student-centered learning has to do with student interest. An interested student, it is argued, is far more prepared to learn something than an uninterested one. Now, when the student himself is actively involved in the educational process, it seems that the desire or interest to learn increases and the learning and retention of the subject

matter improves greatly.1 Hence, there currently is a general and enthusiastic effort among educators to promote student-centered learning. In this article, I shall concentrate on the use of the Dialogue Model of learning in the context of higher education (i.e., university-level education) for two reasons. First, there is not enough time and space here to discuss the applicability of the model in all the stages of education. Second, my experience with the method comes mainly from my years of teaching in the university. Nonetheless, I do think that the Dialogue Model can be used mutatis mutandis in all levels of education, and I hope to discuss this aspect of the issue in a future book or article. Going Overboard In carrying out the laudable effort of promoting student-centered learning in teaching institutions, there is usually a risk, as sometimes occurs in anything that entails avoiding a certain extreme, of unconsciously going all the way to the other extreme. In the case of student-centered learning, a teacher may make the mistake of desiring to reduce her participation to the barest minimum, to the point that her goal is to make her teaching completely non-intrusive, the idea being this: the less she says, the better. In short, minimum—if possible, zero—intervention is what is desired. If this were the goal of student-centered education, then the endpoint would be to have no teacher at all, with the student working on his own and learning whatever he likes. But, to be realistic about it, letting a student go on his own steam in terms of his education could have the following unwanted consequences: (1) the student can just go and do what he likes, and what he likes may Studies on the effectiveness of student-centered learning may be found in the following: BRANSFORD, John D., BROWN, Ann L., and COCKING, Rodney R., editors, Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School, National Academy Press, Washington D.C. 2000. One empirical study on the subject which supports student-centered learning is: Granger, E., Bevis, T., Saka, Y., Southerland, S., Sampson, V., & Tate. R., The Efficacy of Student-Centered Instruction in Supporting Science Learning, in Science, 5 October 2012: vol. 338, no. 6103, pp. 105108. 1

not necessarily be educationally helpful for him (e.g., playing computer games 24/7); (2) the student may be interested but completely lost as to which direction to take or what to start with; (3) the student may start to learn isolated items sufficiently well but is oblivious of the relationships that exist between the different subject matters he has learned; (4) the student may run out of steam because of the difficulties and just give up. The possibility that these undesired consequences could come about is not remote. It indicates that the teacher still has a significant role to play in the educational process. At the very least, she has (1) more expertise on the subject matter; (2) more experience on how the subject can be logically organized and/ or organized in such a way that it can assimilated effectively by the student; and (3) the ability to be a catalyst of interest because of her attitude towards the subject matter and towards learning in general. What has to change, though, is the model for the relationship between teacher and student. It should not remain this way: the teacher is active and the student is passive; the teacher knows everything and the student knows nothing; the teacher is always right and anything that the student says that is contrary to what the teacher says is necessarily wrong, etc. Rather, it should change towards dialogue, with both student and teacher taking very active roles.

includes learning. When it comes to student-centered learning, it is not a matter of going from one extreme (i.e., the student is 100% passive in the learning process) to another extreme (i.e., absolute 0% teacher intervention). Neither is it a 50-50 thing. Rather, it is the right combination of student participation and teacher intervention. Now, thinking about it carefully, the situation of each teacher in relation to a particular class that she has for a certain school year is always unique—i.e., the nuances of the relationship between this teacher and this class will necessarily be different from the nuances in the same teacher’s relationship with the class the year before and the class that will come next year. There will always be an adjustment, and what worked the year before may have to be tweaked so that it works for the class this year. Further tweaking may have to be done for the class next year, depending on the specific personalities and the capabilities of the students forming that class. In view of these considerations, I propose that educators look at education as an enriching dialogue between two unique persons. Education as an Enriching Dialogue between Two Unique Persons I shall divide this idea into three main points: (1) education is a dialogue between two persons; (2) this dialogue has to be mutually enriching; and (3) the dialogue is unique and unrepeatable. I shall discuss each point at length, but I would like to add that the three points tend to flow into and influence one another.

Striking a Balance Aristotle says that a man becomes perfect because he acquires good habits that lead him to do things in a perfect manner.2 Now, the perfect manner of doing things, according to Aristotle, is doing them according to a golden mean. The golden mean is not a mathematical average between two quantitative extremes. The golden mean is actually an action that is proportionate to the situation. This means that is it not a matter of being not too much of this (one extreme) and not too much of that (the opposite extreme), but rather what is fitting and perfect for the given situation—i.e., what is right. A person who always gets things right is someone that Aristotle would call a virtuous person. If in music there is such a thing as a virtuoso, the same can be said about just any other thing that requires perfection in expertise, including the art of living itself, which

1. A Dialogue between Two Persons By definition, a dialogue involves at least two persons. Otherwise, it would be a monologue. This point just emphasizes the fact that the educational process cannot do away with any one of the two main interlocutors: the student and the teacher. From hereon, unless otherwise stated, references to “student” should be taken to mean an entire class of students—i.e., the entire class will be regarded as if they were one person and viewed as an interlocutor of the teacher. In the so-called “traditional” method, the student

Aristotle, Eudemian Ethics, 1106a26-b28. 7

2. Mutually enriching

is somewhat “done away with” because the only active agent is the teacher. The utterly passive role of the student in such a scenario brings his personality or effective existence down to zero when it comes to the educational process. This situation has certainly brought about many problems reflecting the student’s lack of interest to learn. But overdoing the shift to student-centered learning will also bring problems, as was previously noted. If teacher intervention is brought down to zero, then the process stops being a dialogue and again becomes a monologue. While teacher monologue causes a lack of interest in the student, student monologue reduces the effectiveness of the learning process because of a lack of a guide for the inexperienced learner. The conclusion then is that the educational process should be not a monologue but a dialogue. A dialogue goes in both directions: the student communicates something to the teacher and the teacher communicates something to the student, and in the process they both become more educated—or better said, they educate one another. It is to be expected, however, that the student will gain more in the process than the teacher (although not always so). The dialogue is alive because it is being done by two living beings. It not only communicates words and concepts, but also conveys enthusiasm, value, worth, importance, relevance, and interest in the process of the exchange. The information being conveyed or the skill being taught therefore becomes even more meaningful because it is also at the same time something human and not an isolated dead word or just some other task that has to be done. More on this will be said in the following section. It may be noted, nonetheless, that the different characteristics of the educational process “invade” one another or “slide into” one another. Another characteristic of a dialogue is that it usually occurs between two persons who consider themselves equal or nearly equal. In the teacher monologue, the teacher is seen as highly superior to the student. In the student monologue, the teacher is seen as irrelevant to one’s education. In a dialogue, both of them are important and both are required for the dialogue—for learning—to take place. This equality opens the door for the teacher to learn from the student and not only the student from the teacher.

The dialogue that occurs between the teacher and the student should be enriching for both. Education, according to Altarejos and Naval,3 involves a moving forward, an increase in ability and perfection. Therefore, any activity that occurs between teacher and student that does not produce this improvement is not education. The dialogue is enriching when seen in the teacherto-student direction because, in some sense, the teacher is already an enriched being. She is supposedly already an educated person. But the intervention done by an educated person for the benefit of an uneducated (or less educated) person is not a matter of transferring information. It is rather guidance so that the student can build himself up in knowledge, ability, and character. While the teacher can serve as an example to the student, she can never be the one and only model and neither can her status be the absolute endpoint of the educational process. The student’s personal perfection may be leading to something completely different. Even when they may be talking about the same topics, the teacher may find some topics more meaningful to her, while the student discovers more meaning in some other topics. Yet, the presence of the teacher and her intervention is needed to serve as a catalyst and a guide for the education or self-education of the student. Thus, while a specific teacher cannot be the absolute model of the endpoint for the student’s educational process, she still acts with the benefit of an advantage: the treasure of some expertise that makes it possible for her to be a guide for a learner. In the student-to-teacher direction, the teacher can actually get new insights from the student. Through the student’s questions, she may discover new aspects of the topic that she had never investigated before. She may find new ways of arranging her ideas on the topic that could strengthen argumentation or proof. She may realize better ways of conveying certain concepts or information to her student. She may find a mistake or a bias in her thinking because of some conflict with the way the student sees the same thing. The student 3 ALTAREJOS, Francisco and NAVAL, Concepción, Filosofía de la Educación, 2nd ed., Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, S.A., Pamplona 2004, pp. 170-176.

does not even need to teach her anything. With his questions, he already opens her mind to new ideas and new points of view. Within the educational process itself, she already may discover things that she had never thought of before.

or experienced during my stay in Indonesia, which would not be enough to be able to draw conclusions that would be unquestionably applicable to the entire Indonesia and to all the types of educational environments that exist in the country, but would be interesting enough to make one reflect more deeply on it. Having said that, the most significant consequence that I can point out is that there should be less emphasis on spelling out the lesson plan to very minute detail. As Gary Thomas remarked,5 a very rigid curriculum may make it easy for government authorities to check on the schools and the teachers, but it may also straitjacket the educational process.6 In my (admittedly limited) experience, I have specifically observed the following: 1. The teacher is required to give a detailed description of what is going to be done in each and every session, including explaining what the teacher will be doing, what the students will be doing, and what audiovisual material will be employed. While this requirement will, indeed, compel the teacher to prepare her lessons beforehand, the whole writing process may be so tedious and time-consuming that the teacher is unable to prepare well for the class itself. In fact, one wonders whether writing the lesson plan down to the last detail actually helps improve the lessons. 2. Detailing the lesson plan to this degree may unduly “railroad” the entire educational process—in the sense that the teacher is prevented from venturing into other areas that may be interesting and useful for the present students just because the lesson plan has already promised to do a very specific thing.7

3. Unique and unrepeatable Because of the uniqueness of persons, the dialogue between a teacher and her student in a specific class may be seen as unrepeatable. Of course, there are many similarities among human beings. Thus, there are some very foundational things that will always be the same. Otherwise, what is being studied now will have to be a completely different subject altogether next year, and different again every year after that. The uniqueness stems from the fact that each and every person is unrepeatable. And, if the class is made up of several or many persons, the combination of personalities is also unrepeatable. The teacher, therefore, cannot convey the subject matter in exactly the same way to the last detail every year.4 In the student-centered approach to learning, the teacher will need to be interested in where her students are coming from: What do they already know? What skills do they already have? Are they as interested as the previous class in the same topics covered by this subject? More often than not, their situation will be completely different and the teacher will have to adjust her interventions according to her students’ specific needs and circumstances. Consequences of Education as Dialogue Looking at the present situation of education in Indonesia and comparing it with the ideal of education as dialogue, I would draw a few consequences. Before doing that, however, I would like to clarify that my knowledge of the situation of education in Indonesia is, understandably, incomplete. Therefore, I will be mainly talking about what I have personally seen

5 THOMAS, Gary, Education: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2013, pp. 102-104. 6 It was of some consolation to me that Franz Magnis-Suseno also said the same thing (the newspaper Kompas, 4 May 2005). His comment is quoted in a footnote in SUDIARJA, A., Pendidikan dalam Tantangan Zaman, Penerbit Pt Kanisius, Yogyakarta 2014, p. 19. 7 Presumably, the lesson plan is an instrument for later teacher evaluation. Hence, noncompliance with the requirement for lesson plans could even affect the teacher’s compensation level. These two things psychologically compel the teacher to toe the line and stick strictly to the lesson plan.

4 This is what happens often in 100% teacher-centered learning. It is really mind-boggling to recall how some lecturers— especially some, although not all, of the more elderly ones—would bring out yellowed notecards in class and begin reading them out without even lifting their eyes to the class once in a while to see if the students are able to follow. More amazing still is the thought that some students might consider the situation the most normal thing on earth and thus find no reason to complain.

3. There is also the matter of the weight given in advance to a specific topic in relation to the other topics in the subject, which determines what percent of the grade this topic will affect. Presetting the weight of each specific topic implicitly discounts the possibility that there may be differences in the relevance or usefulness of each topic to different students. In other words, the predetermined weight in effect represents a final judgment on how important the topic is. However, the importance of a certain topic can vary from student to student and from class to class. Putting a weight on each topic from the very start will, in principle, require the teacher to test the students on all the topics. It does not contemplate the alternative of a “quality control” type of testing where the teacher allows the students to choose from a list of topics and asks them to explain the chosen topic or topics thoroughly. For some teachers, if a student does well on several topics, it would be enough proof that he has sufficiently mastered the subject. But the assignment of weights for all the topics forces the teacher to require the students to know absolutely everything about the assigned topics. Such a method goes against, for example, a constructivist approach to education, which focuses on assuring the student’s grasp on some central topics, knowing that, from those central topics, the student can easily go on his own to learn the other related topics. All of these observations suggest the need for a change of attitude as regards the amount of detail that a designed curriculum should have if student-centered learning is to be promoted. The other consequences that I would like to mention are related to some ideas that have been previously discussed: that maximum non-intrusiveness cannot be made the goal as regards the participation of the teacher in the learning process and that teachers should be not only focused on teaching but also open to learning.

Challenges to a Dialogue Model of Learning In focusing on the Dialogue Model of learning, it is not my intention to depict a perfect situation wherein the student enters the class and carries out a very intelligent and seamless dialogue with his teacher, who responds just as beautifully to the student, thus giving the impression of two very cultured persons growing in wisdom through this interaction. The Dialogue Model of learning does not quite work that way. In fact, the model calls for some conditions that have to be met before a sufficiently satisfactory educational dialogue could be achieved (and this is not yet the ideal dialogue envisioned). These requirements may be summarized by the acronym RICES, which stands for Resources, Interest, Critical Thinking, Expression, and Straight Thinking. 1. Resources. Student-centered learning cannot be carried out if the necessary resources are not available to the students. In a Third World country like Indonesia, this is indeed a problem. There are several possible solutions to it, especially considering the resources available on the Internet. But, indeed, one has to look into what is immediately available to the students so that education as dialogue can effectively take place. Resources also include the teacher’s availability for consultation. Due to the financial constraints that a teaching institution usually faces, it is understandable that the teacher often cannot spend the ideal amount of time to counsel each and every student. This is especially true when the teachers also need to do administrative jobs that can take much of a teacher’s time. 2. Interest. Unfortunately, in the rat race-like and comfort-seeking world that we live in today, students can have very varied motives for coming to school. Some may enroll with the goal of getting even just the lowest passing grade in all subjects so that they can get a diploma that will allow them to work. Others may not be interested in learning at all because they have not yet grasped the

4. Expression. The feedback components of the Dialogue Method (the Express and the Test parts of the E3T method, which I will discuss later) will require the student to express what he knows or what he has understood—e.g., from his readings or from the class discussions. However, if the student’s speaking and writing skills are poor or if he has not mastered the language that is to be used, the Dialogue Method might not be effective at all. In principle, any student who has finished SMA should be able to adequately express his ideas verbally and in writing. However, this may not be so in the case of some students. University faculty members will find it difficult to do remediation work (for something that a student should have learned in SMA but did not) while at the same time leading the student through the next phases in higher learning. Nevertheless, each university will have to decide what to do with studentapplicants with poor communication skills: whether to provide the communication training that the students lack or just include good communication skills as a prerequisite for admission. 5. Straight Thinking. This kind of thinking is different from critical thinking. Critical thinking is the ability to discern what is right and what is wrong, what is contradictory and what is not, what is logical and what is illogical. Straight thinking refers to the ability of the student to arrange his thoughts in a way that makes the subject matter understandable to him and understandable to others. Like critical thinking, this is a skill that needs to be acquired while studying the subject itself. However, as in the case of critical thinking, SMA finishers are expected to already have in them the seeds of straight thinking or the dispositions for it. Without this initial readiness or ability, the learning process through the Dialogue Method will be significantly slowed down. Taking all these ideas into account and putting them in the context of my current teaching

importance of it and may thus view their time at school as just one more phase in their lives that they simply have to hurdle.8 But it is difficult for student-centered learning methods to work if the students have very little interest in truly learning something. Depending on the reason for the lack of interest, the following solutions may be tried: the teacher can engage the students from the very beginning of the class by showing why the subject is of interest to them; a process could be put in place for screening the students who wish to enroll in a degree program or in a class so that those who are ready for the subject matter are mainly the ones who are allowed to attend; or, finally, the curriculum can be reviewed to see if a particular subject really fits the goals of the course or degree program. 3. Critical Thinking. For an enriching dialogue to take place, the student must learn how to think critically—i.e., he must be able to discern if there is a contradiction in the information he has received or if there is a flaw in the reasoning or if it is already sufficiently correct. Of course, the student cannot be expected to be a complete expert in critical thinking since his course itself is supposed to develop that skill in the first place. However, without the minimum desire to think critically or without the ability to start thinking critically on the part of the student, the Dialogue Method will not work. Therefore, some basic elements of critical thinking must be present—at least those that can be expected of someone who has graduated from Middle School or SMA.9

This is especially true for a good number of students whose parents can sufficiently provide for their daily needs. Some of these students may not yet realize why their parents are sending them to school, and they do not see the need to exert further effort when they know that food comes to their table, whether or not they do well in school. 9 SMA (Sekolah Menengah Atas or “Higher Middle School”) would roughly be equivalent to high school in the English-speaking world. 8

environment (higher education), I shall now discuss how the Dialogue Method can be adapted to the specific circumstances of a university. Given what I see in general (although there will always be exceptions), my current teaching environment poses the following challenges: 1. There are limited resources available to the students in terms of reference material and time for consultation with the teacher. 2. Many students have difficulties in critical thinking, expression, and straight thinking—a clear indication that middleschool education also needs to improve. 3. Because of a pragmatic attitude towards university education (e.g., the student is just going through it because he needs the diploma or because his parents tell him that he needs to go through university studies), some students may not really be interested in learning. This attitude undermines the learning environment and thus harms the rightful interest of the other students who may really want to learn and of the teacher who may also wish to learn in the process. 4. Students heavily exposed to the “traditional” method in their earlier schooling may find it difficult to adjust to a student-centered learning environment. They may want to be spoon-fed. They may want the teacher to be talking all the time. They may not understand why they have to look for the information themselves. And they may want to be told to the last letter what is going to come out in exams.

through personal research, before tackling them in class. 2. Express. He is then asked to communicate— through a report—what he has learned. 3. Explain. Once the student has made his report and the other students have examined the material together with the reporter in the question-and-answer section, the teacher gives her own explanation of the concepts and how the ideas could be arranged. 4. Test. In order to find out what the students have effectively assimilated during the discussion, a quiz is given in the next meeting. 1. Engage The Engage phase of the E3T method occurs outside the classroom—i.e., outside class hours. The student is given a topic to report on and asked to investigate the different concepts that the topic involves. This allows him to grapple with the concepts in a more relaxed way and at his own time and pace. It does not matter whether he fully understands them at that moment or not. What is important is that the initial questions about the subject matter arise in his mind. This situation in itself already gives rise to interest, which, as was earlier pointed out, is important for learning. It gets the student engaged. For some subjects, I have made it a point to give required readings for everyone, so that not only the reporter gets engaged before the actual class but all the other students as well. To urge them to do the reading, the contents of the required readings are included in some of the questions of the quiz.

The E3T Method of Learning In the course of teaching at the university level, I have developed a method that seems to fit the period of transition from the traditional classroom methods to a more student-centered learning environment. I have come to call it the E3T approach to teaching. The acronym stands for the four elements found in this learning method: Engage, Express, Explain, Test. Here is a brief summary, followed by a more detailed explanation: 1. Engage. The student himself is asked to meet the concepts and material on his own first,

2. Express The next challenge for the student is to Express what he has learned. This has the effect of deepening his knowledge of the subject matter. It also may lead him to the realization of how little or how poorly he knows the subject matter. This realization is in itself a positive thing. A student who thinks that he knows a subject matter well will not be moved to undertake further inquiry. He will not doubt the correctness of what he already knows. However, a student who gets to see how 12

reporter who is engaged but the other students as well. Interest in the subject matter begins to spread. The question-and-answer portion also shows the lecturer the starting concepts used by the other students in the class. These will give her an idea of how to frame the Explain portion of the process. If the report is not sufficiently prepared, leaving the other students lost about what to ask, the lecturer has to be ready with relevant and leading questions in order to refocus and engage the minds of the students on the more important points of the subject matter. If the students are unable to ask anything, the lecturer has to frame some questions herself, questions that would help the other students anchor their thoughts on the subject matter and compare what they understand with what has been presented in the report. Redirection is a skill that the lecturer should have so that the time of the class is not wasted when a student’s report does not sufficiently provoke his classmates’ interest. In order to provide sufficient time for the Explain portion of the process, the lecturer will have to limit the time for reporting and the time for question-andanswer. The time should be sufficient for the main concepts to be introduced in class and for the right questions to arise in the minds of the students. If this is done, the class will be well prepared for the explanation by the lecturer. A note of caution: without the Explain portion of the process, the handling of the subject matter by an inexpert student will leave the learning process half-cooked and maimed. More often than not, the students need the clarification of the Explain portion in order to perfect what they have so far learned.

poorly he knows the subject matter when he is asked to explain it will be encouraged to find ways of improving his knowledge.10 At the same time, the report that the student gives in class raises questions in the minds of his peers. Having a peer talk to them about the subject matter has one clear advantage: the subject matter is presented to them from the point of view of someone with the same educational background and in more or less the same language in which they would express those ideas. When a university lecturer has been teaching the subject matter for a long time, she may forget how she was when she was still a student. So, she may end up talking “above the head” of her students, somewhat expecting them to know more than what they can possibly know and speaking to them in a language that they are not yet familiar with. As a result, she does not “connect” with the students. The student’s report makes the lecturer aware of where the student is coming from—i.e., what concepts he is using to understand the topic. This point of departure is the foundation upon which the student himself and the lecturer will construct the rest of the knowledge or skill that has to be learned in the course. The question-and-answer portion brings to light queries that the report may have provoked in the other students. At this point, it is now no longer only the 10 The Express phase here is only considered in the form of a verbal presentation. In the past, I also required the written expression of ideas afterwards. Requiring both verbal and written expression would be ideal for learning. Especially since the written expression comes after the discussion, the student’s paper may be expected to be further enriched by the discussion itself. However, in practice, I have had to contend with two problems or limitations: (1) the lack of time to check all the papers submitted (plus the fact that in my case, my mother tongue is not the same as the language used for instruction); and (2) the higher probability in this digital day and age that a paper may simply be plagiarized. Checking whether the paper has been plagiarized requires additional work. Thus, if the lecturer’s time is limited, the written expression could be done away with. The verbal report would be enough. As for the assessment of written expression, I have depended on the midterm examinations and the final examinations. This practice has the following advantages: (1) the student takes an essay exam (something fitting for Philosophy, one of the subjects that I teach), which tests how the student has integrated the various topics in his mind; (2) the student will be asked to depend only on what he remembers from the classes and is not allowed to consult books or notes, thus not giving much room for plagiarism to occur; and (3) the student is asked to write a minimum of three pages, which obliges him to put in more personal analysis and not simply write out things in bullet points—a seemingly prevalent tendency among young people in today’s world that is overrun by digital media.

3. Explain In the Explain portion of the E3T process, the lecturer presents to the student how she herself understands the subject matter. She should not merely repeat a class that she gave the year or the semester before. She now gives the class with the concrete knowledge of what the students already understand and what they do not yet understand. She delivers the class knowing what questions they have in their minds and what difficulties they have met in their research or in listening to their classmate’s presentation. This is a unique moment. It will not be the same as in the previous classes or in the future classes. 13

Having both the teacher and the students engaged in the topic helps in two ways: (1) it sparks interest; and (2) it puts the teacher and the students on more or less equal footing during the discussion. In the traditional classroom setting, the teacher is considered the possessor of the knowledge and the students are like empty receptacles waiting to be filled. This type of setting creates a relationship of superior to inferior. On the other hand, when both sides are engaged, there ought to be a more meaningful and attentive discussion on relatively equal ground. The Explain portion is a moment for comparing and contrasting. The students, especially, will have an opportunity to compare and contrast what the lecturer says with what their fellow student said in his report. If the particular student has done research on his own, even though he may not be the reporter for that day, he will have an even richer experience in this learning process. 4. Test (Feedback) Since the lecturer is unable to see what is going on in the minds of the students, especially those who are too shy to participate actively in a discussion, the quiz to be given in the next meeting becomes a way by which she gets to know how much the students have assimilated. This quiz will also show the strengths and the weaknesses of her own presentation. The results of the quiz will answer the following questions: Did learning occur in the previous class? Was I able to enrich or refocus what the reporter had said? Was I able to connect with the students as regards each subtopic involved? Should I change the way I explain this topic or is my manner of tackling it sufficiently effective? Should I explain it further today? It is not only the lecturer but also the students who will benefit from this feedback. When they receive the results of the quiz, they will be able to answer the following questions: Did I understand the subject matter sufficiently? What does the lecturer consider more important in this particular topic? Am I capable of explaining this topic correctly? Do I need to ask someoneâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the teacher or a fellow studentâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;to explain some aspect of this subject matter to me? Should I do more extensive research?

Conclusions As educational institutions the world over transition from teacher-centered to student-centered learning, two challenges will have to be faced (and this is especially true in Indonesia): (1) the shift might be exaggerated to such an extent that the role of the teacher, at least theoretically for now, becomes negligible; and (2) the transition may prove difficult because both students and teachers have gotten used to teacher-centered learning. A proposed solution for the first challenge is to look at education as an enriching dialogue between two unique persons. This perspective safeguards the important role of the teacher in the educational process. It shows that she has a contribution to the process that cannot be effectively substituted by some practice of the student alone, especially if the student (1) still does not have sufficient sources of information or references (Resources); (2) still does not have interest in the topic because of its unfamiliarity (Interest); (3) could not yet discern what is correct and what is wrong, what is important and what is not (Critical Thinking); (4) has no interlocutor to hone his skills of organizing and expressing his thoughts (Expression); and (5) is still unable to skillfully thread together his thoughts in an organized way (Straight Thinking). For the second challenge, a proposed solution is the E3T (Engage, Express, Explain, Test) method. It is a student-centered learning practice that can keep both teacher and students focused. It facilitates transition from teacher-centered to student-centered learning because, while the student does most of the work, the teacher takes care of a key part of the learning process, the Explain portion. The method is designed for interaction and discussion, for personal research, and, at the same time, for the sharing of thoughts. The method also considers specific conditions or circumstances that apply, for example, Indonesian students to which the student-centered learning approach will have to be adapted. As Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s educational landscape changes, the E3T method may have to be further adapted to new circumstances or be changed completely. But for now, it can serve as a working tool for introducing studentcentered learning methods in schools and universities. One important suggestion I present in this paper is that less emphasis should be given to the submission of a very detailed curriculum. As both Gary Thomas and Franz

Magnis-Suseno11 have observed, using the curriculum to put a leash on the teacher and requiring the repeated submission of so much detailed information on classroom activity are counterproductive and work against the goals of student-centered learning. It also takes so much of the teacher’s time that could be more fruitfully used for the preparation of the actual lesson and the creation of a truly student-centered learning environment.

on Developments in the Science of Learning, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School, National Academy Press, Washington D.C. 2000. KARTONO, St., Menjadi Guru untuk Muridku, Kanisius, Yogyakarta 2011. RUITENBERG, Claudia (ed.), What Do Philosophers of Education Do? (And How Do They Do It?), WileyBlackwell, Oxford 2010. SUDIARJA, A., Pendidikan dalam Tantangan Zaman, Penerbit Pt Kanisius, Yogyakarta 2014. TEGUH WANGSA GANDHI HW, Filsafat Pendidikan: Mazhab-mazhab Filsafat Pendidikan, Ar-Ruzz Media, Jogjakarta 2011. THOMAS, Gary, Education: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2013.

Bibliography ALTAREJOS, Francisco and NAVAL, Concepción, Filosofía de la Educación, 2nd ed., Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, S.A., Pamplona 2004. BRANSFORD, John D., BROWN, Ann L., and COCKING, Rodney R., editors, Committee

11 For non-Indonesian readers who may know little about Franz Magnis-Suseno (whom I referred to in footnote no. 6), this entry in Wikipedia gives an acceptably accurate description of who he is:

Franz Magnis-Suseno (born in Silesia in 1936) is a Jesuit priest of Indonesia. He was originally called Count von Magnis before becoming a Jesuit in 1955. He studied Marxism to combat it as an enemy of the faith. He settled in Indonesia in 1961 and became an Indonesian citizen in 1977 adding the name “Suseno” to his own. Although anti-communist he is concerned with social justice and issues about how “The rich get richer, while the poor get poorer.” He heads the Driyarkara School of Philosophy in Jakarta and is a noted social and political analyst in his nation. In 2007 he turned down the Bakrie Award because of the involvement of the sponsors of the award in the Sidoarjo mud flow incident. He received a Habibie award for interfaith dialogue and in 2015 he received the Mahaputera award, one of the highest awards given to individuals by the Indonesian state. 15

Recommended Strategies for Teaching Twice-Exceptional Students Marigin C. Antonio Graduate Student Master of Arts in Education (Major in Child Development and Education) Program School of Education and Human Development University of Asia and the Pacific

ABSTRACT This review of related literature focuses on students identified as twice-exceptionalâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;i.e., those who are gifted in some areas and learning-disabled in other aspects. The goal of the review is to present some of the available recent research on twice-exceptionality. The author examines the characteristics that define the duality of these special students, identifies strategies that have been shown to be effective in teaching them, and recommends specific teaching strategies that can be used for that purpose. Keywords: twice-exceptional students, gifted and talented/learning-disabled, adaptations, accommodations, differentiated curriculum, recommended strategies.

important to identify these students and to support them in their areas of difficulty while at the same time developing special classes for them to enhance their strengths. This review of related literature looks into recent studies that help answer the question: What are the recommended strategies for teaching twice-exceptional students? To address this broad question, the following sub-questions must also be answered: 1. What are the characteristics of children who are diagnosed as twice-exceptional? 2. What strategies have been shown to be effective in teaching twice-exceptional children?

In the past two decades, there has been a growing body of research on children who are both gifted and talented and learning-disabled. Commonly referred to as twice-exceptional, these children are considered intellectually gifted, because they demonstrate outstanding achievement in some areas, and at the same time learning-disabled, because their level of performance in some other area or areas of development is substantially low. Teachers face many challenges in teaching these twice-exceptional children. The most serious challenge is that these studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; giftedness will go unnoticed in favor of addressing their learning disabilities. It is thus

relationship has been used in conceptualizing many strategies for teaching these students. Over years of study and practice, these strategies have been narrowed down to three approaches that are now recommended for use in schools.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Twice-exceptional students or gifted students with corresponding learning disabilities have many characteristics that define their duality. Morrison and Rizza (2007) identified three characteristics as indicators of a twice-exceptional student: (1) evidence of an outstanding talent or ability; (2) evidence of discrepancy between expected and actual achievement; and (3) evidence of a processing deficit. The identification of these students is problematic: although young children may be identified as gifted and having special needs during their preschool years, the focus of early education and intervention is often on addressing delays or problematic behavior. As a result, giftedness may be overlooked and not addressed in ways critical for optimal development (Chamberlin, Buchanan, & Vercimak, 2007). Remediation alone is not helpful for twiceexceptional students because it offers few opportunities to demonstrate gifts and talents and often focuses on weaknesses at the expense of developing gifts (King, 2005). Therefore, the recommended strategies for teaching twice-exceptional students call for adaptation, accommodation, and differentiation in curriculum designed to develop their strengths, interests, and superior intellect, as well as remediate their deficits. Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between the characteristics of twice-exceptional students and the assessments/tools that help in identifying them. This

DISCUSSION OF INSIGHTS FROM LITERATURE REVIEW Characteristics of Twice-Exceptional Students To aptly describe twice-exceptionality, it is necessary to define “giftedness” and “learning disability” first. McCoach, Kehle, Bray, and Siegle (2001) adopted the definitions of giftedness and learning disability given by the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. Office of Education, respectively. “Giftedness” is an attribute of “children and youth with outstanding talent” who perform, or show the potential for performing, at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment. These children and youth exhibit high capability in intellectual, creative, and/ or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership capacity, or excel in specific academic fields. They require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the schools. Outstanding talents are

Fig. 1. Conceptual Framework

Assessments/tools for identifying twice-exceptional students

Characteristics of twice-exceptional students

Strategies proven effective in teaching twice-exceptional students

Recommended strategies for teaching twice-exceptional students

present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor. (p. 403)

and intellectual development and as a discrepancy between intellectual development and the ability to demonstrate that intellect (Chamberlin et al., 2007). Gifted learners with concomitant learning and attention disabilities are frequently under-identified because they seldom achieve at the highest level of their capabilities. Oftentimes, remedial efforts remove these students from their mainstream educational settings and place them in special classes or special schools with limited access, if any, to existing gifted education programs. Research strongly suggests that comprehensive, individualized approaches to diagnosis are necessary (Nicpon, Allmon, Seick, & Stinson, 2011). There is no single diagnostic twice-exceptionality profile that one can discover through the administration of psycho-educational assessment tools; however, patterns exist that could alert professionals to consider both of these possibilities. Also, some twice-exceptional students may experience coexisting psychosocial difficulties that call for a comprehensive evaluation to identify individual strengths and areas of growth so that appropriate programming and intervention can be designed. Thus, the use of multiple (and specifically both formal and informal) measures in assessing diverse abilities, talents, strengths, and weaknesses in order to provide students an opportunity to demonstrate giftedness and special needs is crucial in the diagnosis and identification of twice-exceptionality.

“Learning disability,” on the other hand, is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Such terms do not include children who have learning difficulties that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (p. 404) Therefore, students who are identified as twiceexceptional have typical characteristics that they share with their gifted peers, including strengths in problem solving, verbal vocabulary, creativity, a sophisticated sense of humor, and intense interests in specific areas (Ysell, Prater, & Smith, 2010). They also have a documented superior cognitive ability in forming concepts, abstract reasoning, math reasoning, science, and the arts (Weinfeld, Barnes-Robinson, Jeweler, & Shevitz, 2002) and a propensity for advanced-level content, a desire to create original products, a facility with and enjoyment of abstract concepts, nonlinear learning styles, task commitment in areas of talent and interest, an identification with others of similar talents and interests, and a heightened sensitivity to failure or injustice (Baum, Cooper, & Neu, 2001). At the same time, the giftedness of twiceexceptional students is associated with learning disabilities such as impulsive behavior, distractibility, lack of organizational skills, processing difficulties, limited capacity for social interaction, and low academic self-esteem (Ysell et al., 2010). They may have an identified learning disability in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in written and expressive language, reading, or mathematics. Uneven development in twice-exceptional students may manifest itself both as a discrepancy between physical

Effective Strategies for Teaching TwiceExceptional Students Research on successful programs for twice-exceptional students indicates that the most important component in their education is providing opportunities to develop their talents and engage in activities that further enhance their areas of strength, as well as remediation that teach them how to effectively compensate for their disabilities. By using a variety of adaptations, strategies, and accommodations, students obtain the greatest benefit from special instruction that emphasizes problemsolving, reasoning, and critical thinking (Weinfeld, Barnes- Robinson, Jeweler, & Shevitz, 2005b). Winebrenner (2003) recommended that twiceexceptional students be allowed to experience the same compacting and differentiation opportunities available to other students. Compacting is the “process of allowing highly capable students to demonstrate their previous mastery of some of the required curriculum” 18

(p. 136) and their need for less time than their peers to learn new materials. Moreover, Ysell et al. (2010) noted that “twice-exceptional children are often frustrated by their own inability to focus on a single task, or because they can complete some tasks more quickly than others” (p. 60). All learning activities for these children, including thematic interdisciplinary units, should thus have preassessment opportunities available for students who volunteer to demonstrate prior knowledge and mastery of concepts, ideas, and skills. In some cases, gifted students with specific learning disabilities may be best served by grade acceleration in one academic area, in addition to or in place of extensions, even if the student is working below grade level in other subjects. Students should be allowed to work with a group of students from a higher grade for the subject areas in which they are significantly advanced (McCoach et al., 2001). In developing programs for twice-exceptional students, Baum et al. (2001) suggested the following guidelines: 1. Focus attention on developing students’ talents and strengthening their abilities through enrichment activities. 2. Provide a nurturing environment in which students feel valued and their individual differences are respected. 3. Teach compensation strategies after efforts to remediate skill deficits have helped students reach a level of proficiency. 4. Encourage students’ awareness of their individual strengths and weaknesses. Coleman (2005) identified four variables that can help twice-exceptional students be successful: time, structure, support, and complexity. Flexibility is necessary, as individual students require differing levels of intensity in each of these variables.

students to learn what and how they think, thereby helping students monitor their understanding. This practice also enables teachers to match students’ instruction with their learning needs through ranking of assignments and to design specific learning activities to help students correct their misunderstandings. 2. Structure The concept of structure involves three areas: curriculum and content, pedagogy, and classrooms. For curriculum and content, the students are asked to process their problem-solving more deeply so that they can build meaning. Second, the structure of pedagogy involves the presentation of learning tasks, as teachers help students directly connect new information with their existing knowledge base. Finally, the structure of classrooms has to do with the learning environment that supports the differentiated instructions to meet the students’ need. 3. Support The purpose of support is to build the student’s confidence and foster his or her ability to operate independently with success. This support covers three areas: emotional support (the climate created to nurture the students); external scaffolding (the amount of assistance the student receives to ensure that he or she can be successful); and advocacy (the teacher’s twofold role of being an advocate for his or her students and encouraging students to become self-advocators).

1. Time Since individuals do not learn at the same time, the differences among gifted students with learning difficulties mean that the amount of time required for success will vary, depending on the task and the topic. Dynamic assessments are important because they involve a brief conversation with the

4. Complexity Complexity involves relationships across ideas. High levels of complexity encourage students to think deeply and to generalize meaning to new situations. 19

I will now discuss three sets of strategies that have been shown to be effective in teaching twice-exceptional students: (1) adaptations and accommodations, (2) differentiated curriculum, and (3) strategies in Center Programs. 1. Adaptations and accommodations Adaptation refers to the modification in the delivery of instruction or materials used, rather than modification in content that can affect the fulfillment of curriculum goals. Accommodation refers to the procedure or enhancement that empowers a person with a disability to complete a task that he or she would otherwise be unable to complete because of disability. Weinfeld, Barnes-Robinson, Jeweler, and Shevitz (2005a) created three general guidelines and specific action plans for implementing appropriate adaptations and accommodations for twice-exceptional students: (a) adaptations must be individualized for each student, accommodations must be based on strengths, and the methods used in assessments must parallel those used in instruction; (b) accommodations, with adjustments, must move students from dependence to independence over time; and (c) constant communication between the parents and educators must impact final decision and implementation as to what constitutes appropriate adaptation and accommodation for the student. Baum et al. (2001) pointed out that the use of instructional strategies that accommodate both sets of characteristics to create the appropriate balance between attention to strengths and compensating for weaknesses and then to infuse these strategies into authentic and challenging curriculum is the key to teaching twiceexceptional students. Furthermore, it is important that both educators and parents introduce a supportive and strengthsbased approach to all aspects of the twiceexceptional studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life: in the classroom, 20

in extracurricular activities, and at home (Nicpon et al., 2011). Teachers and parents also ought to consider ways in which they can ease the stressors or environmental triggers that tend to amplify the areas of difficulty so that the characteristics associated with the disability or disorder do not interfere with positive experiences. Educators and parents are called on to explicitly model accepting and affirmative behavior toward the twiceexceptional student so that this strengthsbased approach can be actualized. 2. Differentiated curriculum Twice-exceptional students require a challenging curriculum that considers the unique duality of advanced abilities and learning limitations that each student represents. Research has demonstrated that it is urgent to intervene early with twiceexceptional students and to meet their needs by creating a balance between nurturing strengths and compensating for learning deficits. Baum et al. (2001) explored the differentiated curriculum that Project High Hopes developed, and which addresses the challenges of creating educational experiences that respect the abilities of twice-exceptional students while helping them overcome their learning problems. The use of a differentiated curriculum entails understanding the duality of the needs of twice-exceptional students, finding appropriate instructional strategies to accommodate these needs, and developing problem-based curricula that allow for the expression of individual talents and interests. Project High Hopes was a three-year program that identified talents in engineering, science, performing arts, and visual arts in students with learning and behavior difficulties. The programâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goal was to nurture the talents identified and create a curriculum, which accommodated both their needs as gifted learners and those associated with their disability.

Baum et al. (2001) summarized the paradoxical needs of twice-exceptional students and the ways in which curricular modification can attend to both the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning difficulties and learning needs as gifted students. The summary is shown in table 1. Inquiry, alternate ways to access information, options for communication, creative production, integration of basic skills, and freedom to succeed are the

components that comprise the differentiated curriculum (Baum et al., 2001). The focus is on authentic learning experiences in which instruction is not prepackaged and learning outcomes are not determined. The differentiated curriculum enriches studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; life experiences qualitatively, adding depth through an integrated approach that allows students access to more challenging topics or activities when students demonstrate that the general curriculum or pacing

Table 1 Summary of Needs and Characteristics of Twice-Exceptional Students and Curricular Accommodations for Them

Problems associated with special-needs students

Limited skills in reading and math

Characteristics of gifted students

Curricular accommodations

Propensity for advanced-level content to accommodate the gift or talent

Examples of curricular accommodations

Alternate means to access information

Field trips, visual aids, lectures, taped interviews, books on tape, oral descriptions

Difficulty with spelling and handwriting

Need to communicate creative ideas and knowledge

Alternate ways to express ideas and create products

Slide-tape shows, cartoons, technology outputs

Language deficits in verbal communication and conceptualization

Facility with and enjoyment of abstract concepts

Visual and kinesthetic experiences to convey abstract ideas concretely

Spatial models, graphics, visual, alternate intelligences

Often demonstrate creative nonlinear styles of thinking and learning

Visual organization schemes, e.g., time lines, flow charts, webbing

Diagrams, story boards, higher thinking maps, software programs

Need for intellectual challenges based on individual talents and interests

Interest-based authentic curriculum

Entry points to curriculum based on studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unique profile

Poor organization

Problems with sustaining attention and focus

Inappropriate social interaction Low self-efficacy and esteem

Need to identify with others of similar talents and interests

Group identity based on talent or ability

Shared-interest interaction, collaborative work

Heightened sensitivity to failure

Recognition for accomplishment

Problem-solving that impacts real audiences

Sources: First three columns from Baum et al. (2001); fourth column mine 21

a. Instructional programming

does not provide an appropriate challenge (Winebrenner, 2003). Creativity occurs when teachers design learning experiences that include opportunities for students to explore, experiment, and expand their knowledge base. Students spend much of their class time working on extension activities and are required to participate in direct instruction only when the materials presented have not been mastered. The role of the teacher is more of a facilitator who assists students by making suggestions, asking probing questions to help the students clarify their thinking, and encouraging them in their quest for solutions (Baum et al., 2001).

Twice-exceptional students should receive instruction that focuses on developing their strengths and on improving existing skills in their areas of weakness. Special programs are housed in general education school facilities, enabling students to participate with their nondisabled peers, wherever possible, and they may enter or exit the program at any grade level. Students are typically mainstreamed for physical education and the arts, as well as lunch and other general activities. Students may also be mainstreamed in other subjects in which they demonstrate readiness to handle the academic and organizational demands of those subjects. The program teachers are all special education-certified and they receive further training in the education of gifted and talented students (Weinfeld et al., 2002). The elementary programs focus more on teaching and developing skills and compensatory strategies, while the secondary programs emphasize the practice of these skills and strategies. However, developing the gifts of these students remains the primary focus of the program. Middle school and high school students are generally ready for participation in the mainstream as most students in these levels are able to take more responsibility for their own accommodations and learning, as a result of both the years spent in the program and developmental maturity.

3. Strategies in Center Programs The Montgomery County Public School (MCPS) in Maryland, USA uses a program model that identifies and addresses the needs of twice-exceptional students through a curriculum that is geared to the strengths, rather than the weaknesses, of these students. Weinfeld et al. (2002) found that the MCPS model â&#x20AC;&#x153;identifies gifted students with varying degrees of learning disabilities and develops special self-contained classes for gifted students with severe learning disabilities while those with moderate and mild disability receive services in the general education classesâ&#x20AC;? (p. 227). Twiceexceptional students are guaranteed access to accelerated and enriched instruction that maintains the rigor and high standards expected of all gifted students while those with severe learning disabilities receive appropriate gifted instruction. Students also have the opportunity to participate in a mentor program designed to nurture talents and develop potential. The following are the strategies used in Center Programs such as MCPS for teaching twice-exceptional students, as discussed by Weinfeld et al. (2002). Supporting statements from Winebrenner (2003) have been included, where applicable.

b. School climate For twice-exceptional students, having a comfortable yet challenging classroom climate is essential and addressing their socio-emotional needs 22

c. Instructional skills and strategies

is critical to their achievement. The class should encourage “interactive participation, flexibility, high standards, student participation in cooperative groups, individualized programming, active listening, and practice in conflict resolution-strategies” (Weinfeld et al., 2002, p. 229). Respect for individuality with accommodations that focus on strengths and potential for success rather than remediation is important as it promotes the students’ development and understanding of their unique strengths, thus empowering them to successfully advocate for themselves. Lowering standards, confrontational communication, and inflexible expectations that diminish student individuality are inappropriate and the use of routine and remedial drill and practice that focus on the students’ disability is counterproductive. Likewise, the physical climate in the classroom is one that stimulates through created posters, products, and visible classroom standards. Expectations for performance are also displayed. Multimedia resources and technical tools are available in the classroom. Careful attention is also given to both the physical and social climate in the classroom, thus creating an environment in which needs are supported and abilities are recognized and nurtured. Winebrenner (2003) noted that many students who have learning difficulties are global learners who prefer visual and tactile-kinesthetic formats for learning success. Thus, teachers should offer these students choices of different work areas, provided they do not bother anyone, including the teacher, while they are working; they do not call attention to themselves or to the fact that they are doing something different than other students; and they do the work they are supposed to do.

Teachers use activities that focus on students’ strengths and interests, which allow for self-directed choices. Instruction is multisensory, using hands-on experiences and guided discovery as powerful strategies, especially when introducing new topics; and support and clarification in both oral and written materials are given to the student. Arts are also integrated in the curriculum. Content is taught by teaching concepts first and details second by ensuring that students see the big picture before they try to learn its pieces; skills are integrated into meaningful content rather than taught as separate learning activities (Winebrenner, 2003). Teachers refrain from remedial instruction and rigid task guidelines and do not consider lack of production as a sign of motivational weakness or lower intelligence. Moreover, it has been shown that rote memorization, forced oral reading, text-based instruction, and the use of only teacher-directed activities are not successful practices. Instead, teachers must use “instruction that obviates weaknesses; provides for production of alternative products; provides reallife tasks; provides open-ended outlets for the demonstration of knowledge; designs tasks that fit the student’s learning style; differentiates instruction; and uses collaboratively designed rubrics” (Weinfeld et al., 2002, p. 229). d. Thinking skills Twice-exceptional students are capable of exceptional thinking (Weinfeld et al., 2002). Teachers learn thinking strategies and then teach, model, and practice them in the classroom. They also help students to transfer and apply the thinking 23

strategies that work for them in their areas of strength to their areas of need. They do not assume that students already know thinking strategies and can apply them without ongoing practice. They teach in a way that ties past learning to new content and supplement lectures with visual organizers. They immerse all senses in learning activities through the use of musical chants, raps, rhymes, rhythms, movements, and hands-on experiential learning situations that have been proven to make mastery much easier to achieve (Winebrenner, 2003).

on handwriting instead of content and on quantity over quality, as well as the use of red pens to denote errors, does not work. Instead, using assistive technologies, computers, and software unlocks the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to communicate what they know and understand. Weinfeld et al. (2002) added that

e. Reading The emphasis in reading is on comprehension, listening, and gaining information. â&#x20AC;&#x153;A successful reading program includes the use of literature for stimulating reading interest, oral discussion using supporting text, the development of expository reading, and the use of high interest personal reading material that may be above grade levelâ&#x20AC;? (Weinfeld et al., 2002, p. 230). Beneficial programs are those that offer great opportunities for the development of reading and writing skills and build on abstract reasoning and comprehension skills, as well as explicit instruction in phonological awareness, phonics, and decoding. Books on tape or text-to-speech software that enables students to scan any print material and have the computer read the material to them aloud are appropriate supports to reading. However, traditional approaches such as reading worksheets, round robin reading, and below grade level basal readers are not used.

graphic organizers, mind-mapping strategies, extended time for completion of work, and clear written expectations for writing tasks help the students create writing. Rubrics, proofreading for one type of error at a time, and using a highlighter to indicate corrections aid in self-evaluation of written work. Publication of writing for an audience is a great motivator of the student. (p. 230)

g. Organization Teachers can help minimize the impact of problems with organizational demands of classroom assignments by structuring assignments with very clear directions and steps. The recommended strategies include establishing specific due dates and a time frame for longterm assignments, setting checkpoints for monitoring progress, providing time for organizing materials and assignments, and designating a specific location for students to place completed work. Winebrenner (2003) suggested the provision of specific instruction in organizational techniques, like the use of color-coded notebooks by subject areas or the use of personal desk assistants to keep track of assignments and long-term projects. Teaching students effective strategies also helps them become more self-sufficient learners.

f. Writing Since writing is often difficult for twice-exceptional students, focusing 24

h. Memory

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Twice-exceptional students may have difficulty remembering and sequencing details, although they possess outstanding abstract reasoning abilities and are able to see the big picture readily. Thus the use of the Multiple Intelligences approach, as well as a variety of modalities, motivates the students and makes them more likely to remember the details. Weinfeld et al. (2002) also recommended the use of assistive technology, which fosters independence, and learning techniques that enhance memory, such as mnemonics, visual imagery, outlining, note-taking, and highlighting. Other strategies include sequencing of activities post-lesson or event, teaching information to other students, providing students with environmental cues and prompts, relating information to previous experience, and instructions on listening when given or receiving information. Likewise, Winebrenner (2003) espoused using any available technology (calculators, word processors, spell-check programs, etc.) that will improve students’ productivity and help them concentrate on conceptual content instead of forcing them to focus on less important details.

In summary, gifted students with related learning disabilities—or simply, twice- exceptional students—have many characteristics that define their duality. They share traits that are typical of their gifted peers, but their learning disabilities often mask their giftedness. However, if a student exhibits many of the characteristics previously described, a closer evaluation through assessments is warranted. When educating twice-exceptional students, the recommended strategies can be summarized into three major components: (1) adaptation or instruction on the gifted and talented student’s area of strength; (2) accommodation or the provision of opportunities for learning skills and strategies in academic areas where the student shows disability; and (3) an appropriately differentiated curriculum, which attends to the student’s needs both as gifted learners and learning-disabled. Adaptation, or instruction in the student’s area of strength, emphasizes problem solving, reasoning, and critical thinking and includes extension and elaboration of the regular curriculum. Classroom organization is flexible, yet structured with opportunities for collaborative goal setting, significant peer interactions, and cooperative learning (Weinfeld et al., 2005b). Accommodation, or the teaching of skills and strategies in academic areas in which the student’s deficiency may be noted (e.g., writing, reading, math calculations, organizational skills, text-taking skills, self-determination skills, and social skills), allows students to develop their gifts with even greater success through direct instruction and integration into content. Students also develop awareness of their strengths and weaknesses and the ability to advocate for what they need in order to be successful (Weinfeld et al., 2002). Appropriate differentiation includes instructional adaptations and accommodations that are systematically provided to students through structured assignments, assistive technologies, and team-teaching methodologies (Baum et al., 2001). Finally, creating a learning environment conducive to success, maintaining high expectations, and instilling

Over the years, the Center Program started by MCPS for twice-exceptional students has expanded across the United States, proving the efficacy of the program for “developing strengths; providing classroom organization that is flexible and collaborative to maximize goal setting, self- reflection, problem solving, and self-evaluation; and providing curriculum and instruction that is inquiry based with a thinking focus” (Weinfeld et al., 2002, p. 228).

high hopes in each twice-exceptional student can help to maximize his or her potential. Experts from different disciplines can help teachers develop authentic curriculum for their students, as well as mentor the students. Twice-exceptional students’ motivation for learning increases when their education focuses on realworld experiences and offers mentoring opportunities.

As noted previously, some programs have demonstrated benefits for twice-exceptional students and others show potential. They include a curriculum developed through Project High Hopes (Baum et al., 2001), which was designed with the understanding that twice-exceptional students must be able to use their strengths of creativity, problem-solving skills, and analytic ability in order to benefit educationally. Another example is the program developed through Maryland’s Montgomery County Public Schools (Weinfeld et al., 2002), where gifted students with learning disabilities learn in special classrooms (Center Programs). Further research examining the effectiveness of these and other similar programs is necessary so that program implementation and replication can be facilitated.

FURTHER RESEARCH High-level instruction and academic challenges are foremost in the hierarchy of needs of twiceexceptional students. At the same time, they must receive appropriate remediation and help in the areas that interfere with their progress. The goal is to always focus on both the gift and the academic or behavioral need through a multi-tiered approach (Pareles, Omdal, & Baldwin, 2009). The recommended strategies for teaching twiceexceptional students discussed earlier are guided by the six principles that Pareles et al. (2009) adapted from a list developed by the Colorado Department of Education:

References Baum, S. M., Cooper, C. R., & Neu, T. W. (2001). Dual differentiation: An approach for meeting the curricular needs of gifted students with learning disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 38(5), 477490. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons. sacredheart.edu/ced_fac/82. Chamberlin, S. A., Buchanan, M., & Vercimak, D. (2007). Serving twice exceptional preschoolers: Blending gifted education and early childhood special education practices in assessment and program planning. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30(3), 372-394. Coleman, M. R. (2005). Academic strategies that work for gifted students with learning disabilities. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 38(1), 28-32. King, E. W. (2005). Addressing the social and emotional needs of twice-exceptional students. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 38(1), 16-20. McCoach, D. B., Kehle, T. J., Bray, M. A., & Siegle, A. (2001), Best practices in the identification of gifted students with learning disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 38(5), 403-411. Morrison, W. F., & Rizza, M. G. (2007). Creating a toolkit for identifying twice-exceptional students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 31(1), 57-76. Nicpon, M. F., Allmon, A., Seick, B., & Stinson, R. D. (2011). Empirical investigation of twiceexceptionality: Where have we been and where are we going? Gifted Child Quarterly, 55(3),

• Principle One: All children can learn and achieve high standards if given access to a rigorous, standards-based curriculum and research-based instruction. • Principle Two: Intervening at the earliest indication of need is necessary to ensure student success. • Principle Three: A comprehensive system of tiered interventions is essential for addressing the full range of student needs. • Principle Four: Student results improve when ongoing academic and behavioral performance data inform instructional decisions. • Principle Five: Collaboration among educators, families, and community members is the foundation for effective problem solving and instructional decisionmaking. • Principle Six: Ongoing and meaningful family engagement increases the successful outcomes for students. (p. 42) 26

Children Plus, (2)1, Article 6. Retrieved from http://escholarship.bc.edu/education/tecplus/ vol2/iss1/art6/. Weinfeld, R., Barnes-Robinson, L., Jeweler, S., & Shevitz, B. R. (2005b), Experiences in providing adaptations and accommodations for gifted and talented students with learning disabilities. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 38(1), 48-54. Winebrenner, S. (2003), Teaching strategies for twiceexceptional students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38(3), 131-137. Ysell, N., Prater, M., & Smith, D. (2010), Finding the right fit for twice-exceptional students in our schools. Gifted Child Today, 33(1), 54-61.

3-17. Retrieved from http://gcq.sagepub.com/ content/55/1/3.refs.html. Pareles, D. A., Omdal, S., & Baldwin, L. (2009), Response to intervention and twice exceptional learners: A promising fit. Gifted Child Today, 32(3), 40-51. Weinfeld, R., Barnes-Robinson, L., Jeweler, S., & Shevitz, B. R. (2002), Academic programs for gifted and talented/learning disabled students. Roeper Review, 24(4), 226-233. Weinfeld, R., Barnes-Robinson, L., Jeweler, S., & Shevitz, B. R. (2005a). Enabling or empowering? Adaptations and accommodations for twiceexceptional children. TEACHING Exceptional

Early Childhood Educatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Perceptions of Inclusion: A Phenomenological Study of Teaching Students with Special Educational Needs in Inclusive Settings Krystine Ann S. Ragotero Grade School Teacher PAREF Rosehill School, Inc. Master of Arts in Education (Major in Child Development and Education) School of Education and Human Development University of Asia and the Pacific ABSTRACT This study explored the phenomenon of inclusion through the lived experiences of early childhood educators teaching in inclusive preschools and primary schools. The study utilized a phenomenological research approach that sought to capture the voices of eight early childhood educators. The following characteristics were followed in selecting the participants in the study: (1) teachers who are currently teaching early childhood education; (2) teachers who do not have a major degree in special education; and (3) teachers who have taught in an inclusive setting for at least three years. Using phenomenological interview as the main data gathering procedure, the qualitative lived experiences generated first-person narrative accounts, insights, feelings, and metaphorical allusions shared by the teachers on the phenomenon of inclusion. The hermeneutic cycle of analysis was used to illuminate the central meaning and understanding of the phenomenon of inclusion. The process of analysis consisted of the following: (1) immersion; (2) bracketing or epoche; (3) horizontalization and elimination; (4) clustering of invariant constituents into core themes; (5) individual textural and structural descriptions; (6) intuitive and creative synthesis; and (7) reflections and implications. The steps were repeated with all the narrative accounts until the meaning and essence of the phenomenon of inclusion were illuminated. The essence of inclusion as a diverse and multifaced phenomenon was illuminated into the following core themes: (a) inclusion as a strong support system; (b) inclusion as socialization; (c) inclusion as a helping hand; and (d) inclusion as an attitude. Love served as the multi-thematic element of inclusion that shed light on the lived experiences of the teachers. This virtue served as the unifying factor and catalytic energy that ignited their passion to continue pursuing the path of being an educator of inclusion. 28

The study established a basis for transpersonal research methods to gain insight and understanding of the phenomenon of inclusion and unfolded core themes that revealed the essence of inclusion. The study identified challenges to inclusion, which could provide opportunities for policymakers and program providers to improve on the quality of inclusive education. Program providers can begin by focusing on promoting awareness of inclusive education. Keywords: phenomenology, special educational needs, inclusion, lived experiences, hermeneutic cycle of analysis, co-researchers.

considerations” (Appalachia Educational Laboratory, the College of William and Mary, & Virginia Education Association, 1996, p. 5). Hence, inclusion should address the total development of the child. It should not focus on only one aspect of the child’s learning and development. According to Gafoor (2009), “inclusion is an attitude of acceptance of diversities, and attitude toward alternative expectations, to value all types of skills, an attitude of flexibility and tolerance” (p. 3). Inclusion, as a guiding principle for school programs, should also take into account the learning outcomes of all children. It requires an approach that puts the learner at the center of the curriculum. Therefore, individual differences and the diverse learning needs of all children should be considered in curriculum planning and in the development of instructional strategies. According to Odom (2000), three main important learning outcomes should be part of the purpose of inclusion. First, children with SENs should be able to acquire skills in inclusive settings. Second, they should participate as full members of the class. Third, teachers should provide opportunities for children with SENs to establish relationships and to interact with peers and adults. Understanding these important goals for children with SENs in inclusive settings is an important step in designing and implementing instructional strategies, which would consequently lead to meaningful learning outcomes for children.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Definition of “Inclusion” Inclusive education, according to UNESCO (2009), is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners and can thus be understood as a key strategy to achieve Education for All (EFA). As an overall principle, it should guide all education policies and practices, starting from the fact that education is a basic human right and the foundation for a more just and equal society. (p. 8) The definition of inclusion varies from one program to another. Some programs define the existence of inclusion solely on the basis of what they refer to as a “critical mass,” wherein there should at least be an equal number of children with special educational needs (SENs) and typically developing peers. Other programs define inclusion as the participation of children with disabilities in the daily routines of a regular classroom setting. Inclusion also depends on the practices of teachers in the educational setting (Gafoor, 2009; Odom, 2000). In other words, the definition of inclusion depends on the actual implementation of inclusion by program providers. However, the latter should consider that successful inclusion goes much further beyond the physical setting or the placement of children with SENs in the regular school setting. Inclusion is a philosophical framework that guides the actions of schools in providing education for all students. The placement of students with SENs is “based on academic, social, emotional, physical, and age

Principles of Inclusion According to the Joint Position Statement of the Division of Early Childhood (DEC) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children 29

(NAEYC), early childhood programs and services should uphold three main principles to ensure that the needs and priorities of young children with disabilities and their families are addressed. Cate, Diefendorf, McCullough, Peters, and Whaley (2010) cited these three principles: 1. Access. The first principle calls for “providing access to a wide range of learning opportunities, activities, settings, and environments.” 2. Participation. The second principle requires providing “individualized accommodations and supports” to young children who need supplementary aid in order to fully engage themselves in learning and play activities with peers and adults. 3. Support. The third principle refers to “an infrastructure of systems-level support” (p. 3) which serves to strengthen the efforts of people who provide inclusive services to children with disabilities and their families. In other words, inclusion entails providing all kinds of children the opportunity to be educated in the regular classroom setting, ensuring that children participate in daily classroom activities with the necessary assistance and services, and establishing a strong support system allowing the effective implementation of inclusive practices for the benefit of children with SENs and their families.

Manansala and Dizon utilized both quantitative and qualitative methods of data gathering (questionnaires and classroom observations of the research participants). Their findings showed that the shadow teaching scheme helped students with special needs in transitioning to the mainstream and inclusive classroom setting. Shadow teaching allows children with special needs to understand the lessons being discussed in class, thereby boosting their academic performance, improving their psychosocial and language skills, and enabling them to be more independent. Gangan (2007) conducted a quantitative study on the attitudes of regular preschool teachers towards inclusion. The study utilized an attitude scale that sought to measure the feelings and attitudes of the respondents in inclusion specifically in the following areas: training and preparation, curriculum planning, teaching strategies and techniques, classroom management, class size, and instructional materials. Gangan concluded that the selected preschool teachers considered training and preparation the most essential factor contributing to successful inclusive practices. Gangan recommended the offering of training programs that would help prepare teachers who aspire to teach in inclusive settings. Su (2001) sought to draw up a training program to prepare teachers for carrying out their practice in inclusive settings. Prior to the actual proposal of the teacher training program, Su conducted a needs assessment study, which indicated the following training needs of regular classroom teachers: difficulty in relating with children with different disabilities, conflicts with colleagues, and insufficient ability to handle children with special needs in inclusive settings. Su thus designed a training program intended to equip classroom teachers with the knowledge, skills, and strategies for successful inclusive practices.

Related Philippine Studies on Inclusion In the Philippines, only a few studies related to teachers and their views on inclusive education have been done. Manansala and Dizon (2009) conducted a study on shadow teaching as a scheme in attending to students with special needs, specifically those diagnosed with autism and attention deficithyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The study identified the responsibilities of two teachers in the mainstream program (the regular teacher and the shadow teacher) and evaluated the program based on the actual ratings given by the teachers themselves. The study sought to determine if there is a correlation between the evaluations of the shadow teachers and regular teachers on the importance of the shadow teaching scheme, and if there are significant positive relationships between the overall evaluations of the teachers on the proficiency of the teaching scheme.

Empirical Studies on Inclusion Teachers play a very important role in education. Sari, Celikoz, and Secer (2009) looked into the attitudes of preschool teachers and student teachers toward inclusion and their self-efficacy. The study showed the importance of the teacher’s attitude in successful inclusion because of how it affects teacher-student relationship and the means by which students with SENs receive inclusive education. In fact, Dogan (as 30

cited in Aydin & Kuzu, 2013) pointed out that having a positive attitude towards education is equally important as teaching the subject matter itself. In other words, the disposition of teachers towards inclusion affects the means by which they implement inclusive practices and how they interact with their students. Odom (2000) noted that while teachers generally have positive attitudes to inclusion, it is apparent that some are still apprehensive about this educational approach. The latter’s primary concern stems from their lack of knowledge of the different conditions of children. Odom’s study indicated that having a positive attitude to inclusion is not the only factor that determines the implementation of successful inclusive practices. “At the root of a system that embraces full inclusion is well and appropriately trained teachers. Inclusion is found to fail partly due to the inability of teachers to meet the demands of the modified system” (Gafoor, 2009, p. 2). Hence, another factor that determines the success of inclusion is the competence of teachers. Inclusion entails respecting the individual differences of students and being able to implement a variety of teaching strategies. Teachers should be able to develop competencies and pedagogical strategies facilitated by their knowledge, awareness, and attitudes toward inclusion. They should also have ample knowledge of the different conditions of students with SENs. Gafoor (2009) conducted a study on teachers’ attitudes, knowledge, and understanding of inclusion after going through a training program for regular teacher education. The study found that although the teachers increased their knowledge and understanding of inclusion, the program did not have a significant impact on the perception of teachers about inclusion. So, while the proper training of teachers is important in preparation for inclusion, there is a need to strengthen inclusion-related experiences, especially practical real-life experiences that would shape the attitude and perspective of teachers towards inclusion. In short, there is a need for both factual and practical understanding of inclusive practices. Gafoor’s findings indicated that even if teachers attend training programs to prepare them for taking care of students with SENs in an inclusive setting, the success of inclusive practices will still depend on student learning outcomes. In other words, there is still no substitute for having direct experience of teaching

children with SENs in an inclusive setting. Leatherman (2007) conducted a narrative study that examined the perceptions of teachers regarding their inclusive classrooms. The study involved eight early childhood teachers who shared their experiences in teaching students with and without disabilities through open-ended interview questions. The study found a common theme that supported the positive view of teachers towards inclusion. The teachers who participated in the study all expressed their preference for the inclusion of students with special needs in the regular classroom setting. They expressed the belief that they had a crucial role in the education of children with special needs and that inclusion provides a great learning setting for students and teachers. However, the teachers generally felt that they still lacked appropriate training for teaching children with special needs. They acknowledged the need for support from administrators, therapists, and agencies that would help them make proper decisions in the inclusive classroom setting. Allison (2012) conducted a phenomenological study to explore the actual experiences of general and special education elementary school teachers and how those experiences shaped their attitude and views about inclusion. The study discovered both positive and negative experiences of elementary school teachers in the inclusive setting, which affected their attitudes and beliefs regarding inclusion. Allison concluded that the following factors contribute to successful inclusion: “administrative support, mutual respect, a positive work environment, open minds towards inclusion, professional development opportunities, and knowledge of students with disabilities” (p. 44). The study utilized a phenomenological research approach, which is the same methodology I used in my study. As can be gleaned from these empirical studies, three main factors contribute to the success of inclusive education: the attitude, knowledge, and competency of teachers. Nonetheless, there is another factor that needs further research and exploration: the actual experiences of teachers in teaching in an inclusive setting. The “positive and negative experiences of … early childhood regular education teachers are at the core of the issue of successful inclusion” (Smith & Dlugosh, 1999, p. 2). Having firsthand experience of teaching in an inclusive setting allows teachers to have a more realistic and practical understanding of the very nature 31

of inclusion, as shown by Leatherman (2007) and Allison (2012). However, there are still few studies on the lived experiences of teachers in inclusive settings and how those experiences impact their views of inclusion. So, there is a need for further exploration of the very nature of inclusion from the point of view of individuals who have gained a realistic understanding of this phenomenon through their lived experiences.

has been forgotten, ignored or neglected” (pp. 19-20). Phenomenological research allows a person to become aware of himself or herself and the inseparable connection he or she has to the surrounding environment, which is usually followed by selfknowledge and self-transformation. The transformative nature of a phenomenological study inspired me to pursue a nonconventional approach in investigating the very essence of inclusion. Phenomenology takes into account the importance of human experience and the need to illuminate the realities of our world which one might take for granted. By looking into the life-world of people who have directly experienced teaching students with SENs in an inclusive setting, I sought to know their stories—their past experiences—that would shed light on the present and, in keeping with the phenomenological tradition, create new ground for exploration by future researchers and practitioners (Braud & Anderson, 1998).

HIGHLIGHTS OF MY PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY Statement of the Research Problem and Research Questions My study primarily aimed at exploring this central research problem: How do the lived experiences of early childhood educators in teaching students with special educational needs in an inclusive classroom setting shape their perceptions of inclusion and of the challenges to such inclusion? The study thus sought to address the following research questions: 1. How do early childhood educators reflectively describe their experiences in teaching students with special educational needs in an inclusive setting? 2. How do these experiences impact and shape their perceptions of inclusion? 3. What do early childhood educators perceive as challenges to inclusion?

A Phenomenological Approach to Inclusion The foundational question of phenomenology is: “What is the meaning, structure, and essence of a lived experience of this phenomenon for this person or group of people?” (Patton, 2002, p. 104). Phenomenology aims to explore how people construct meaning out of their experiences and, through those experiences, discover a realization about a specific phenomenon. This method allows a researcher to probe deeply into the lived experiences of people by going into the core of those experiences. Using phenomenology as a research method requires being able to capture the voices of the research participants. Phenomenological research provides a specific group of people the opportunity to fully share their experiences. In the process, this method allows them to construct meaning out of their experiences which would consequently lead to the realization of the very nature of the phenomenon from the perspective of a specific person. Phenomenology as a methodology captures the multifaceted nature of a phenomenon (Ramirez, 2007). Hence, using the phenomenological research method can lead to the formulation of a framework that can help future researchers and practitioners understand a phenomenon more deeply. This was also what I wanted to do in my study on inclusive education.

Methodology and Data Collection Pursuing the Path of Phenomenological Research According to Braud and Anderson (1998), there is an ongoing shift in the paradigms of science. There are more expanded research methods and frameworks that aim to explore and dig deeper into the complexities, vastness, and multifaceted nature of human experience. The two authors thus pointed out that in order to investigate the phenomenon of inclusion from the perspective of teachers who have directly experienced the phenomenon, a more personal and subjective research method is required—a kind of research method that would “allow the experiencer to rediscover, remember, and relive aspects of being and of self that 32

The Search for Co-Researchers First-person accounts of life experiences make up the fundamental structure of the experience of a phenomenon. In my study, however, I veered away from thinking and talking about “research subjects.” Instead, in referring to the individuals whose lived experiences I was interested in learning about, I used the word “co-researchers,” a term commonly preferred in phenomenological research. In my study, I explored the lived experiences of early childhood educators teaching in preschool and first to third grade of primary school. To select my coresearchers, I looked for individuals with the following characteristics: 1. Teachers who are currently teaching early childhood education; 2. Teachers who do not have a major degree in special education; and 3. Teachers who have taught in an inclusive setting for at least three years. A total of eight teachers were chosen from different schools known for upholding strong principles on inclusion. The schools that were represented in the study promoted inclusion as part of their educational philosophy and currently accommodate and teach students with SENs. My co-researchers came from two preschools, one public school, and three private schools in Rizal, Cavite, and Mandaluyong. Data Gathering Procedure In phenomenological research, long interviews are typically used as the method of collecting the lived experiences of the co-researchers. Phenomenological interviewing utilizes open-ended questions and comments and is typically executed in an informal and interactive process (Moustakas, 1994). For the study, I conducted one-on-one interviews with five of my co-researchers and a group interview with three coresearchers who taught in the same school. Moreover, in phenomenological research, the primary research instrument is the researcher himself. Hence, I personally collected, analyzed, and interpreted all narrative accounts gathered from the phenomenological interviews with the co-researchers. Before carrying out the actual phenomenological interview, I conducted a pre-interview to inform my coresearchers about the nature and purpose of my study. After the pre-interview, I did a pilot group interview 33

with the three teachers from the same school. Although phenomenology does not require validation of the interview questions through pilot interviewing, the latter was an important step that allowed me to become more familiar with my chosen research method. Pilot interviewing also helped me formulate more detailed probing questions related to the research problem. Data Analysis and Procedure The qualitative lived experiences that I gathered in my study contained first-person narrative accounts, insights, feelings, and metaphorical allusions shared by the coresearchers, all of which I combined with my journal reflections and observation notes. I transcribed verbatim the interviews with the co-researchers. The process of transcribing allowed me to have a deeper connection with the text and to immerse myself in the phenomenon of inclusion from the point of view of the co-researchers. The hermeneutic cycle of analysis (see figure 1), described by van Kaam (as cited in Moustakas, 1994) and Van Manen (as cited in Langdridge, 2007), was used to derive a correct and comprehensive understanding of the text. Hermeneutic analysis “involves the art of reading a text so that the intention and meaning behind appearances are fully understood” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 9) Figure 1. Hermeneutic Cycle of Analysis, derived from van Kaam (as cited in Moustakas, 1994), and Van Manen (as cited in Langdridge, 2007).

Stage 1. Immersion Stage 7. Reflections and Implications

Stage 6. Intuitive and Creative Synthesis

Stage 5. Individual Textural and Structural Descriptions

Stage 2. Epoche

Stage 3. Horizontalization and Elimination

Stage 4. Clustering into Core Themes

After completing the transcription of the interviews with each co-researcher, I followed the following analytical process: 1. Immersion. The first step involved maintaining an intimate connection with the research problem by repeatedly listening to the audio recordings and reading the transcribed interviews until I could fully develop knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon. 2. Bracketing or epoche. This step entailed looking at the phenomenon with a fresh and pure mindset, as if looking at it for the first time, by disconnecting myself from natural and everyday predispositions, biases, and tendencies. Bracketing allowed me to have a fresh vision that helped in examining an object of consciousness from varying perspectives. Looking at a phenomenon from different perspectives is essential for revealing the essence of the phenomenon. 3. Horizontalization and elimination. This step involved thoroughly reading the texts and breaking them down into “horizons of experience,” which refer to statements, expressions, and phrases that are relevant to the experience of inclusion. “Overlapping, repetitive, and vague expressions are also eliminated or presented in more exact descriptive terms. The horizons that remain are the invariant constituents of the experience” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 121). 4. Clustering the invariant constituents into core themes. The invariant constituents were related and clustered into thematic labels. The clustered and labeled constituents made up the core themes of the experience of inclusion. 5. Individual textural and structural descriptions. After clustering the invariant constituents into core themes, the next step was to organize the themes into a coherent textural description of the phenomenon. The textural description pertains to the “what” of the experience of inclusion and aims to provide an accurate and faithful description of the phenomenon based on the firstperson accounts of the co-researchers.

The structural description allowed the process of approaching the object of consciousness or the phenomenon from different perspectives. The process involved using one’s imagination to seek possible meanings embedded in the phenomenon. This step aimed to illuminate the “what” of the experience of inclusion by describing how the phenomenon came to be what it is. 6. Intuitive and creative synthesis. After making the individual textural and structural descriptions, the next step was to integrate the underlying core themes into a unified statement that describes the essence, nature, and meaning of the experience of inclusion as a whole. This step constituted the composite description of the meanings and essences of the experience that represented the group of co-researchers as a whole. 7. Reflections and implications. This final step sought to give closure to the phenomenological research process. Through critical reflection, insights and learnings were drawn out from the research process as a whole. This step also presented implications for practitioners and future researchers. 8. Illumination. I repeated steps 1 to 7 for all accounts of the co-researchers’ experiences until the meaning and essence of the phenomenon of inclusion was illuminated. Findings of the Study The Core Themes The essence of inclusion as a diverse and multifaceted phenomenon is illuminated in the core themes, which emerged from the analyses of the narrative accounts of the eight early childhood educators. These core themes formed four categories: 1. Inclusion as a strong support system 2. Inclusion as socialization 3. Inclusion as a helping hand 4. Inclusion as an attitude Love served as the multithematic element of inclusion which shed light on the lived experiences of my co-researchers. This virtue served as the unifiying 34

factor and catalytic energy that ignited the passion of my co-researchers to continue pursuing the path of being an educator of inclusion. I will now briefly discuss each of the four core themes.

members of the community in the long run. Allowing children to socialize with other children and to actively engage in the daily routines of the classroom serves as a means to instill the value of love for learning. Through socialization, children with SENs are able to feel loved and cared for not only by teachers but by other children as well. Conversely, the inclusion of children with SENs teaches other children to be more appreciative and accepting of other people. Being exposed to diverse kinds of peers enables them to develop values that they can carry with them across the lifespan because inclusion has already created an impact in their lives.

1. Inclusion as a strong support system The backbone of inclusion is the collaboration among people involved in the program, which include the children, teachers, parents, school administration, and allied professionals. A recurring pattern in the narratives of my co-researchers revealed how the success of an inclusion program is dependent on the collaboration between the home and school environment. Inclusion is not only a teacher-student affair; the family also plays an important role in the success of providing inclusive services to children with SENs. Hence, there should be continuity and follow-ups in providing support and modifications in the learning of children with SENs.

3. Inclusion as a helping hand Another aspect of social constructivism, which was a recurring pattern reflected in the narratives of my co-researchers, was the role of the teacher as a “scaffold” or a helping hand. Seefeldt et al. (2009) pointed out the teacher’s role of establishing a relationship that would help the learner accomplish a specific task by providing needed assistance and support. This relationship can also be built between learners and peers with additional guidance from the teacher. Inclusion is based not only on the physical setting or the placement of children with SENs in the regular school setting; the children’s learning outcomes should also be a major basis of whether or successful inclusion takes place. All aspects of the child’s learning—academic, socio-emotional, physical, and individual development—should be taken into consideration.

2. Inclusion as socialization One major theme in the narratives was the importance of allowing children with SENs to participate in ongoing classroom activities as regular children. Children with SENs should no longer be confined inside a box that limits their capacity to learn and discover new knowledge and skills just like other children. Seefeldt, Feeney, and Galper (2009) emphasized an important aspect of social constructivism: allowing learners to develop critical-thinking and problem-solving skills through everyday experiences and interaction with people they encounter. Hence, through inclusion, children with SENs are given the opportunity to experience what it means to be part of a learning community. Letting them participate in the daily routines of the classroom prepares them to serve as active

4. Inclusion as an attitude Inclusion goes beyond providing services and support to children with SENs. It entails a positive attitude that respects and accepts the individual differences of all learners. 35

Aside from the key players involved in providing inclusive practices (the teachers, parents, and students), another stakeholder impacts the kind of learning environment that the students form part of: the community. Love and acceptance should come not only from the teacher but also from the people surrounding the child with SENs, which include the parents, other children, and the community. When the child with SENs is surrounded by an environment that promotes feelings of love, acceptance, and belonging, he stands a much better chance of growing as a learner and a person. Gafoor (2009) described inclusion as an attitude of accepting differences among people and giving importance to all kinds of skills. It is likewise an attitude of being more flexible and tolerant towards others, instead of having a rigid set of expectations on what they should be as individuals.

to continuously work together. As revealed by the narratives of my co-researchers, love was the catalyst that allowed them to remain passionate and committed to their vocation as teachers of inclusive education. The elements of the inclusion web, which reflect the four core themes, cannot be separated from one another. These elements should work with one another so as to achieve a strong inclusion program for children with SENs. The connection between the key players and the elements of the inclusion web generates values that also serve as aids to the success of the inclusion program. A strong support system between the home and school environment leads to better cooperation between them. Promoting socialization, despite individual differences, fosters acceptance among students. Lending a helping hand to students with SENs extends the patience of parents, teachers, and other children. The attitude of the community that readily accepts children with SENs creates a healthy learning environment, which gives hope to parents and the opportunity for children with SENs to contribute to the community. The inclusion web is formed with a circular image, which reflects how inclusion occurs as a lifelong process. The arrows indicate how one core theme can lead to another because these themes should work together to maintain a strong inclusion program. The arrows also show how each key player can benefit from the interplay among the core themes.

Creative Synthesis: The Inclusion Web A phenomenological study usually concludes with a creative synthesis. For my study, I chose the image of a web as the creative representation of the essence of inclusion as revealed in the narratives of my eight co-researchers. In fact, I gave the image the name “inclusion web.” Neither the image nor its name came from any related literature. The idea was inspired by an insight shared by one of my co-researchers who said that the inclusion program should be “tahi-tahi” or stitched together. My “inclusion web” (see figure 2) represents the interwoven nature of an inclusion program. The success of inclusion is defined by how the four core themes that emerged from the narratives of my co-researchers work together so as to solidify a strong program that would benefit the following key players: home and school, regular students, students with SENs, and the community. Inclusion involves a strong relationship among these key players. In turn, such a relationship creates a healthy learning environment that ensures quality learning for each student. Love, the fundamental virtue of inclusion, serves as the unifying factor that combats the challenges to inclusion and strengthens the will of the key players

Figure 2. The Inclusion Web 36

settings in selected preschools in Paranaque and Muntinlupa. Unpublished undergraduate thesis, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines. Langdridge, D. (2007). Phenomenological psychology: Theory, research and method. Harlow, England: Pearson Education. Leatherman, J. (2007). I just see all children as children: Teacher’s perceptions about inclusion. The Qualitative Report, 12(4), 594-611. Manansala, M., & Dizon, E. (2009). Shadow teaching scheme for children with autism and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder in regular schools. Education Quarterly, 66(1), 34-49. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Odom, S. L. (2000). Preschool inclusion: What we know and where we go from here. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(1), 20-27. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Ramirez, M. (2007). Quality graduate school research: Contribution to national sustainable development. In Research Journal: Asian Social Institute. Manila: ASI Research, Communications and Publications Department. Sari, H., Celicoz, N., & Secer, Z. (2009). An analysis of pre-school teachers’ and student teachers’ attitudes to inclusion and their self-efficacy. International Journal of Special Education, 24(3), 29-44. Seefeldt, C., Galper, A, Feeney, S. (2009). Continuing issues in early childhood education (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill. Smith, M. & Dlugosh, L. (1999, April 19-23). Early childhood classroom teachers’ perceptions of successful inclusion: A multiple case study. The Annual Conference of the American Educational Research Association. Lecture conducted from US Department of Education, Montreal. Su, H. (2001). A proposed training program for teachers in preparation for inclusive setting. Unpublished master’s thesis, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines. UNESCO. (2009). Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 0, 1-33.

Inclusion is not a linear phenomenon with a beginning and an end. Time, commitment, and constant effort are needed to continuously promote the values of cooperation, acceptance, patience, and hope among the key players involved in the inclusion program. The creative model of inclusion that I drew up in my study emphasizes the importance of love as the virtue that generates all other values. Love reveals itself as the central element that integrates the core themes of inclusion, each of which is connected to this virtue. In that sense, the inclusion web represents the heart of each of my co-researchers, which in its loving beating defines the essence of inclusion as revealed by each coresearcher’s lived experience of teaching students with SENs in inclusive settings. References Allison, R. (2012). The lived experiences of general and special education teachers in inclusion classrooms: A phenomenological study. Canyon Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 1(1), 36-47. Appalachia Educational Laboratory, the College of William and Mary, & Virginia Education Association. (1996). Inclusion of special needs students: Lessons from experience. A joint study. Aydin, A., & Kuzu, S. (2013). Teacher candidates’ attitudes towards inclusion education and comparison of self-compassion levels. Us-China Education Review B, 3(6), 470-479. Braud, W., & Anderson, R. (1998). Transpersonal research methods for the social sciences: Honoring human experience. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Cate, D., Diefendorf, M., McCullough, K., Peters, M. L., & Whaley, K. (Eds.). (2010). Quality indicators of inclusive early childhood programs/practices: A compilation of selected resources. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute, National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center. Gafoor, A. (2009). Inclusive education: Does the regular school teacher education programme make difference in knowledge and attitudes?. International Conference on Education, Research and Innovation for Inclusive Societies. Gangan, B. (2007). A study on the attitudes of regular preschool teachers towards the practices in inclusive 37

Home Parenting Practices and the Emergent Reading Skills of Four- to Five-Year-Old Children of Economically Disadvantaged Families Melissa Antoinette C. Garcia Preschool Teacher 1 Child Development and Education Center* School of Education and Human Development University of Asia and the Pacific Master of Arts in Education (cum laude) (Major in Child Development and Education) School of Education and Human Development University of Asia and the Pacific ABSTRACT This quantitative analytic study looked into the possible relationship between the level of emergent reading skills of children of economically disadvantaged families and the home parenting practices of these children’s parents. Four measures of emergent reading skills were considered: phonemic awareness, alphabet knowledge, narrative competence, and print awareness. For home parenting practices, the following aspects were focused on: parental presence, involvement with schooling, leisure and entertainment, cultural visits and activities, and discipline. Correlational research design was used in gathering and analyzing data that were collected through survey questionnaires and individually administered emergent reading assessment. The study showed that the children who took part in the research were on a par with the normal emergent reading development, that their parents were involved in the children’s reading development, and that the children benefited from constant parental presence, involvement, and positive discipline in their families as reflected in the level of their emergent reading skills. Leisure and entertainment, as well as cultural visits and activities, seemed to have enhanced the children’s affinity to printed materials. However, the study also indicated that the children lacked educational and study resources—an understandable consequence of their coming from economically disadvantaged families. Keywords: emergent reading skills, economically disadvantaged families, home parenting practices, parental presence, parental involvement, positive discipline.

The Child Development and Education Center is the preschool and teaching laboratory of the School of Education and Human Development, University of Asia and the Pacific. 38

systems of social and cultural organization. In addition, development in literacy typically occurs through a form of apprenticeship. This apprenticeship begins early in children’s lives as they are exposed to practices that provide opportunities for learning about reading and writing (Sulzby & Teale, 1991). Since the parents are the primary and most constant significant adults in their children’s life, their role in their children’s literacy development is crucial to whatever success in literacy learning children may achieve. Studies have shown that when parents are involved in their children’s academic lives, the children do better. In particular, parental investment in the form of home learning is associated with children’s early linguistic and cognitive development and emergent literacy which are precursors to school success, especially in reading (Whitehurst et al., 1999). More recently, a research trend toward direct observation of literacy-related activities within the home has been noted. Rather than relying on the quantification of material resources or on parental reports of literacy-related behaviors, researchers have begun to document the variety and scope of literacy events within the home through detailed ethnographic descriptions and microanalysis of parentchild interactions during such events. This changing emphasis is leading to a better understanding of the role of the family in literacy development and how this role varies in different sociocultural communities (Baker, Sonnenschein, Serpell, Fernandez-Fein, & Scher, 1994). Undoubtedly, taking a look at what is happening at the home would clarify and say a lot about the reading development of children because a child’s home environment indispensably contributes to his literacy development—as a child’s ability is the sum total of his interaction with his care takers and his environment. However, this parental involvement is typically not present in socially disadvantaged families due to parents’ decisions on how to allocate limited resources—e.g., money, time, and energy (Foster, Lambert, Abbot-Shim, McCarty, & Franze, 2005).

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The Importance of Emergent Reading Development Reading skills provide a critical foundation for children’s academic success. Children who read well read more and, as a result, acquire more knowledge in numerous domains (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1991; Echols, West, Stanovich, & Zehr, 1996; Morrison, Smith, & Dow-Ehrensberger, 1995). Moreover, there is strong continuity between the skills with which children enter school and their later academic performance. Children who experience early difficulties in learning to read are unlikely to catch up with their peers (Baydar, Brooks-Gunn, & Furstenberg, 1993; Stevenson & Newman, 1986; Tramontana, Hooper, & Selzer, 1988). In fact, Juel (1988) reported that the probability that children would remain poor readers at the end of the fourth grade if they were poor readers at the end of the first grade was 88%. Children who enter school with limited reading-related skills are at high risk of qualifying for special education services. Juel added that (in the context of the U.S.) the majority of schoolage children who are evaluated for special education services are referred to special education specialists because of unsatisfactory progress in reading. Reading Development Context: Emphasis on the Home The study that I conducted had two basic premises: first, the roots of literacy lie in infancy; and second, the literacy of young learners starts at home with the parents as their first teachers. There is much in recent literature that sheds light on literacy development in a fuller sense. Literacy in general—and reading in particular—is not regarded as simply a cognitive skill to be learned, but a complete sociolinguistic activity. Thus, the social aspect of literacy has become significant, and literacy learning is being investigated not just in the research laboratory but also in the home and community settings. I also based my research on a theoretical framework that emphasizes the social and cultural contexts of development. In accordance with Bronfenbrenner, I believe human development occurs in a context of overlapping and interdependent

Reading Development and Socioeconomic Status The quality of education suffers as poverty takes its toll. In the Philippines, thousands of children are unable to go to school or even learn how to read properly, 39

while those given a chance may find their studies hampered by the lack of financial resources. Economic disadvantage, along with the shortage of educational books, is a major cause of illiteracy among Filipino children (Ticzon, 2011). Morrow (2005) also noted that children from poor families lack background experiences. This limitation holds back their vocabulary and language development and thus the general level of their literacy. Children from different levels of socioeconomic status (SES) have been found to differ significantly in their exposure to print (e.g., parent-child reading), opportunities to engage in literacy-related activities, and the availability of literacy-related materials (e.g., books) at home (D’Angiulli, Siegel, & Hertzman, 2004; McCormick & Mason, as cited in Heath et al., 2014; Payne, Whitehurst, & Angell, 1994; Scarborough & Dobrich, 1994; Smith & Dixon, 1995; Teale, 1986). These differences may translate into early variations in the emergent literacy skills needed for reading. Disadvantaged families generally have very few books or printed materials in their homes and their children’s literacy development may not be their top priority. In a study on urban homes in the Philippines, the materials found were mostly household items and a few plastic toys which would not provide much intellectual stimulation or challenge for exploration (Dela Cruz, 1979). Studies have shown that children from low-SES families have consistently performed poorly on literacy measures than their middle-class counterparts. More specifically, economically disadvantaged children tend to perform less well on measures of print knowledge, exhibit delayed print awareness, and are at a high risk of developing reading difficulties (Chaney, 1994; D’Angiulli, Siegel, & Maggi, 2004; Dubrow & Ipolito, 1994; Juel, Griffith, & Gough, 1986; Korat & Haglili, 2007; Smith & Dixon, 1995; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). Furthermore, studies have indicated that children from socially and economically disadvantaged backgrounds have substantially smaller vocabularies than their more advantaged peers (Walker, Greenwood, Hart, & Carta, 1994), thus compromising the development of comprehension skills and phonological awareness (Walley, Metsala, & Garlock, 2003). In addition, these children are more likely to be slow in the development of oral language skills (Juel

et al., 1986; Lonigan & Whitehurst, 1998), letter knowledge, and phonological processing skills prior to school entry (Bowey, 1994; Lonigan & Whitehurst, 1998; MacLean, Bryant, & Bradley, 1987; Raz & Bryant, 1990). These differences in phonological processing skills relate to later differences in word decoding skills between children from higher and lower SES backgrounds (Raz & Bryant, 1990). Hernstein (as cited in Pado, 1990) noted that parents low in scholastic ability and consequently in educational level tend to create an environment in their homes and neighborhood that produces children who are also low in scholastic ability and academic achievement. Woolfolk (as cited in Pado, 1990) supported this observation and claimed in her study that differences in child-rearing practices among socioeconomic strata spell the difference in children’s academic development. The study showed that middle-class mothers talk more, give more verbal guidance, help their children understand the cause of events, make plans and anticipate problems, and, rather than impose solutions, encourage children to solve problems themselves. Parental education is a key factor affecting children’s academic outcomes (Brown & Iyengar, 2008). Parents who are highly educated may value education more than those who are less educated, thus investing more resources, both financially and psychologically, in their children’s education. Highly educated parents may also be better at arranging the home environment in a way that is conducive to learning. Children of highly educated parents may have better cognitive competence. Recent studies disclosed that these effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on children’s development could be explained through parents’ decisions on how to allocate resources such as money, time, and energy (Foster et al., 2005). Agreeing with this view, Brewer (2004) claimed that more than the lack of resources as a result of poverty, the parents’ employment status affects the literacy experience provided at home. Plowden and Newson (as cited in Pado, 1990), on the other hand, had different findings. Their study showed that working class families are not apathetic towards the education of their children. There was no significant difference noted in the percentages of middle- and working-class parents who helped children 40

this stage. They may, for example, learn the names of the letters of the alphabet and learn to print their names and some letters not in their names. Emergent reading extends to Stage 1 of Chall’s model. This marks the beginning of children’s formal skills training in reading. This stage is characterized by children’s ability to decode formerly arbitrary letter shapes into the sounds that are used in spoken language. During this stage, children begin to associate the shapes of letters with phonemic patterns. Simple graphemes (letters) and combinations of graphemes are associated with sounds that can be joined and blended to decode unfamiliar words. According to Chall, children in Stage 1 typically direct their attention to the medium, rather than to the message.1 As for Ehri’s (1998, 1999, 2002, as cited in Ehri, 2004) stages of reading development, each phase of reading development is characterized by the predominant type of connection that bonds written words to their other identities in memory:

with reading. The difference lay in the quality and quantity of time spent with the child. In an earlier study, Mortimore and Blackstone (1981) presented a similar view. Their parent-respondents admitted having been inhibited by their lack of self-knowledge and insufficient knowledge of what their children were studying and even their unhappy personal experiences in school. Local studies have offered additional perspectives. According to Ocampo (1991), poverty need not be the cause of differences in literacy skills between rich and poor Filipino children. She concluded that while poverty might affect a child’s literacy skill acquisition, this problem could be addressed by giving the child adequate opportunity to be part of a complete literacy experience program. Medrano (1997) also claimed that socioeconomic status is not the primary determinant of a child’s literacy competency. Rather, what matters more is the nature of parental instruction that occurs between the parent and the child. The Emergent Reader Chall’s (1983) model of reading development consists of six stages. The earliest stage is called Stage 0 because it is a learning stage that occurs before children begin their formal training in reading. Stage 0 begins at birth and continues until children reach school age. The foundations for literacy are developed early, since children spend this time gaining insights into the nature of words. During this stage, children are able to distinguish letters from letter approximations and may learn to recognize common road signs and brand-name logos. Children in the prereading stage are constantly exposed to text in print, especially when reading is a priority in their homes. They display their understanding of reading as a concept by engaging in “pretend reading,” in which they may hold the book right side up and trace along the letters with a finger while they recite the remembered details of the story. Chall further explained that this stage is characterized by an increasing control of words (vocabulary). At this point, syntax is apparent. In addition, children acquire some beginning understandings of the sound structures of words. For example, they learn that some words sound the same at the beginning (alliteration) and/or the end (rhyme), that spoken words can be broken into parts, and that the parts can be put together to form whole words. Most children also acquire some knowledge of print at

pre-alphabetic, involving visual and contextual connections, (2) partial alphabetic, involving connections between more salient letters and sounds, (3) full alphabetic, involving complete connections between all the graphemes in spellings and phonemes in pronunciations, and (4) consolidated alphabetic, involving connections formed out of syllabic units. (p. 140) Emergent Reading Skills Within the child, there is a cluster of skills known to be fundamental to literacy development. The related literature mentions four encompassing emergent literacy skills necessary for the development of reading: (1) phonemic awareness, (2) alphabet knowledge, (3) narrative competence; and (4) print awareness.

1 Children continue to learn phonetic patterns well into Stage 2 of Chall’s (1983) model. In this stage, fluency develops from experience that releases beginning readers from the bonds of phonetic decoding. Still, readers in Stage 2 are heavily dependent on the familiar appearance of words for decoding, while meaning is secondary. In Stages 3-5, the purpose of reading is to acquire new information—to comprehend meaning. In these later stages, the focus is on the message, rather than the medium.

1. Phonemic Awareness

and causal role in the typical acquisition of reading (Byrne & Fielding-Bamsley, 1991; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987). Children who are better at detecting and manipulating phonemes are quicker to learn to read. This relation is present even after controlling for variability in reading skill owing to factors such as IQ, receptive vocabulary, memory skills, and social class (Bryant, MacLean, Bradley, & Crossland, 1990; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987; Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1994). In particular, Donald, Invernizzi, Templeton, and Johnston (2003) and Adams, Foorman, Lundberg, and Beeler (1998) explained that children who have developed their phonemic awareness early on have a head start in terms of making sense of how sounds and letters operate in print when they come to school. They stressed that this ability is crucial in using sound-letter knowledge effectively in both reading and writing. Adams et al. (1998) further highlighted that a student’s level of phonemic awareness at the end of kindergarten is one of the strongest predictors of future reading success in Grade One and beyond. This idea is consistent with what Stanovich (1988) and Stanovich and Siegel (1994) found in their studies of disabled and poor readers: that there is a core phonemic deficit in nearly all poor readers, regardless of whether their reading abilities are consistent or inconsistent with their general cognitive abilities. Perhaps even more significant is this conclusion of Adams (1990): that the impact of poor phonemic skills increases exponentially over time, significantly affecting future reading and academic success.

The term “phonological awareness” has typically been used to refer to the ability to detect and manipulate the sound segments of spoken words. Other terms such as “phonologic awareness,” “phonemic awareness,” and “phoneme awareness” have long been used interchangeably (Ball, 1993). However, in recent years, questions have been raised about the proper use of terminology. As a result, the International Reading Association (IRA) issued a position statement in 1998 defining phonological awareness as a set of skills distinct from phonemic awareness skills. According to the IRA (1998), phonological awareness refers to the ability to manipulate units of speech larger than the individual phoneme, such as words, syllables, onsets (all consonants prior to the vowel in a word or syllable), and rhymes (the vowel and remaining consonants in a word or syllable). Phonemic awareness, in contrast, refers to the ability to discriminate and manipulate individual speech sounds—phonemes. More specifically, the IRA stated that phonemic awareness refers to an understanding of phonemes, the smallest units of sounds that make up the speech stream, and that research has shown that phonemic awareness is the best predictor in the reading acquisition process. Adams (1990) has also ascertained that phonemic awareness provide readers with the sounds that letters represent and help them notice, think about, and work with sounds in spoken language. Unless this happens, the ability to attach corresponding letters to individual sounds cannot be developed and reading achievement is thus unattainable. Adams further claimed that phonemes with letters help children read words, while learning to segment sounds with letters helps them spell words. Using different methods on a variety of populations, several researchers have found out that phonemic awareness plays a critical

2. Alphabet Knowledge Reading is a process of translating visual codes into meaningful language. In the earliest stages, reading in an alphabetic system involves decoding letters into corresponding sounds and linking those 42

sounds to single words (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). Johnston (2004) described alphabet knowledge as naming the letters of the alphabet and recognizing the letter symbols in print. Alphabet knowledge, specifically letter naming, has historically been among the reading readiness skills used for the prediction of reading achievement (Snow et al., 1998). A preschooler’s journey towards mastering the letters of the alphabet begins when the child understands that letters are different from other shapes and pictures and that letters have unique names (Strickland & Schickedanz, 2004). Duke (2010) pointed out that alphabet knowledge involves understanding the names of the letters of the alphabet. However, he also acknowledged that this understanding is much more than simply being able to recite the alphabet or sing the alphabet song.

between pictures and print on a page, as pointed out by Clay [1979]) and the functions of print (e.g., telling a story or giving directions, as noted by Purcell-Gates [1996] and Purcell-Gates & Dahl [1991]) also appears to aid in the process of learning to read. Some emergent literacy advocates have also suggested that children’s facility with environmental print (e.g., recognizing product names from signs and logos) reflects their early print awareness by demonstrating the ability to derive the meaning of text within context (Goodman, 1986). As noted by Snow, Barnes, Chandler, Hemphill, and Goodman (1991), preschool children in the prereading stage are able to “read” logos. For example, a child can look at the logo on a familiar package and know what it is. In fact, Pullen and Justice (2003) pointed out that reading environmental print helps children begin to understand the concept that written words are comprised of individual letters that correspond to speech sounds. This awareness is critical to later understanding of the alphabetic principle. According to Clay (1993), exposing children to books and other print media helps them learn basic aspects of print such as directionality and the concept of words.

3. Narrative Competence This skill encompasses a range of possible situations: whether the child’s narrative forms a unified story or whether it consists primarily of labeling and commenting on the pictures on individual pages. If a story is formed, then the second criterion, language, is applied: whether the language used in the child’s narrative is more oral-like or written-like in style. Written-like language is language that sounds like reading in terms of intonation, vocabulary, and syntax. Finally, if the language is written-like, then the third criterion is applied: whether the child is attending to pictures or print (Sulzby, 1985).

Reading Development and Parent Involvement Parents, as children’s first teachers, play a crucial role in building their children’s emergent literacy knowledge and skills. In that regard, an extensive body of research has documented the importance of a wide range of family and environmental factors in providing the context for children’s early literacy learning prior to and upon entering formal schooling. In her classic study of 200 early readers, Durkin (1966) identified common characteristics of these children’s literacy development. The study involved parent interviews and standardized tests and followed children through sixth grade. The children continued to perform above average in reading throughout their school years and showed three overall characteristics in common: 1. In the early stages of their literary

4. Print Awareness One crucial component of literacy is awareness of the conventions of print. Understanding the conventions of print (e.g., the left-to-right and top-to-bottom orientation of print or the difference 43

development, they explored through drawing and writing. 2. They asked their parents several questions relating to sound-symbol relationships and spelling. 3. Their families responded to their questions about reading and writing and assisted them in these tasks. Morrow and Rand (1991) found that the literacy environment greatly influences children’s literacy and that the parents’ behavior was a critical factor in providing and modeling behaviors related to literacy. In their study of second to eighth graders, Snow et al. (1991) looked at variables that could predict student outcomes and identified three that showed a correlation with vocabulary and word recognition: maternal education, educational outcomes, and the literacy environment at home. Teale and Sulzby (1989) and more recently Duncan et al. (2007) examined this correlation further and found that language environments supportive of emergent literacy include children being read to, seeing others reading, having easy access to materials, and being encouraged to ask questions during reading and writing experiences. In relation to home parenting practices, the related literature points to several home- and parent-related characteristics and experiences that are associated with positive reading outcomes. These include, among other things, the following: (1) parental presence, (2) parental involvement in children’s schooling, (3) leisure and entertainment, (4) cultural visits and activities, (5) availability of educational and study resources, and (6) discipline. 1. Parental presence This refers to the time spent by parents with their children in general, whether it involves conversation and interaction, verbal communication, or their mere physical presence at home (modeling). Research has shown that children who become early readers and who have a natural interest in books come from homes in which parents, siblings, and other individuals have read to them regularly and are readers themselves (Cullinan, 1989; Strickland & Morrow, 1989). 44

Anbar (1986) found that children whose parents had spent a good deal of time helping their children learn letters through books and games and encouraging them to read environmental print (on walks, in store, in magazines, etc.), as well as to write, were better at reading. Children learn by example. Teale (1986) presented empirical data indicating that children who are read to regularly by parents, siblings, and other individuals at home who are habitual readers themselves become early readers and show natural interest in books. In their study, Snow et al. (1991) drew these conclusions: (a) that the ability to tell stories and describe related stories correlated with participating in conversations at home during meal times; (b) opportunities to discuss events at home produce the types of talk needed for reading and writing at higher levels; (c) engaging children in a variety of topics of conversation helps them learn different forms of language and expands their vocabulary; and (d) parents’ use of alternate forms of words for definitions in bookreading sessions with two-year-olds predicts the children’s formal definitions one year later. Pelletier, Hipfner-Boucher, and Doyle (2010) found another important aspect of face-to-face conversation with children that has been correlated with later reading success and that they labeled “decontextualized language.” This refers to the discussion of a subject that is not in the here and now, such as a previous experience about which the listener (in this case, the child) shares little or no knowledge with the speaker. Pelletier et al., as well as Snow et al. (1991), further noted that children who are involved in conversations wherein they must think about how to ask or answer questions so as to fully express themselves or understand the subject of discussion develop the necessary skills needed to make sense of print. Other authors have expressed similar views. Morrow (2005) advised parents to answer their children’s questions about

books and prints, offer information, and praise their children for their enthusiasm and participation so they would be encouraged to read further. According to Medrano (1997), parents who do not merely read but talk and discuss the story, respond appropriately to children’s inquiries, and explain the meaning of new words and expressions they have just encountered contribute positively to literacy development in children. Antiporda (2004) showed that parent participation in early childhood care and education has a positive holistic effect on a child. By merely responding directly or indirectly to their children’s talk and inquiries, parents already help the literacy development of their children in the confines of their homes.

also pointed out that the parents have the thinking and attitude that literacy is the school’s responsibility. Yasay (1991) and Estacio (2006) reported similar results. According to Yasay, parents who show concern for their children’s physical, intellectual, and socioeconomic development are motivated to see their children reach their potential in acquiring and learning skills needed for schooling. Furthermore, mothers are willing to participate in programs that could benefit their children when given the chance. Estacio found that even though parents of disadvantaged families have other concerns (making a living, making ends meet, etc.), they are still willing and are, in fact, handson with respect to their children’s education. Yasay noted, however, that parents also have doubts and apprehensions due to lack of information about teaching early reading to young children. Dela Cruz (1979) likewise concluded that the involvement of parents in the educational process to augment and extend school activities at home is a key factor in the successful preschooling of children.

2. Parental involvement in children’s schooling This involvement may be seen in home activities related to direct instruction, including teaching the child about reading and writing, helping out in homework, and reading to and with the child. Cullinan (1989) cited the benefits that children gain through shared book reading: their language development is enriched; their early experiences of listening to storied contribute to their later educational achievement; and they build their storehouse of language from their communicative experience and develop their concept of stories from stories they hear. Baker and Scher (2002) noted that children from homes where parents are consistently hands-on with their children’s education achieve more academically. Moreover, children whose parents habitually read to them end up with generally higher motivation as readers and better literacy. A study of Arriero (2006) indicated that most Filipino parents agree that their home contributes to the development of their children and that they are generally aware that they are the ones preparing their children for school. However, Arriero

3. Leisure and entertainment This refers to all activities in-between “formal” studies at home, including video gaming, surfing the Internet, and playing outdoor games that can indirectly contribute to the reading skills of children. Children nowadays are considered “digital natives” as they are born and raised in a world where different forms of media— television, computers, iPads, iPhones, the Internet, etc.– have become staples of daily life. Lee-Chua, Sison-Dionisio, Fernandez, and Alignay (2013) claimed that a moderate amount of television and computer use is beneficial in developing reading skills. However, while they conceded that certain competencies (e.g., problem solving) could be developed through the use of these media and other gadgets, they stressed that the 45

4. Cultural visits and activities

content of programs, above all else, matters. Specifically, exposing children to programs that aim to promote literacy positively correlates with specific literacy skills development. Aside from regarding social media as a major distraction of the youth nowadays, teachers complain about faulty syntax and poor spelling on the part of students. LeeChua et al. (2013) pointed out that “in the Ateneo de Manila University, remedial classes in in English and Filipino (and also in Math) have steadily increased through the years, with no signs of slowing down” (p. 256). According to them, no rigorous studies have been done to show that syntax problems are due to the widespread use of the abbreviated forms of texting language in social media. But if students who are old enough are dealing with such problems because of the kind of language to which they are regularly exposed, what more the little ones who are just starting on their literacy acquisition? The impact of this phenomenon goes beyond just the cognitive; there are also physical repercussions, including the ability to read. Johnson (2007) observed that the ability to search out, scan, focus, and identify whatever enters the visual field is impaired by prolonged watching of TV (or doing computer activities). The weakening of this ability would compromise reading because the ability involves the same visual skills that have to be developed for effective reading. Since the risks of using digital media seemingly outweigh the benefits for young people, Bennett-Armistead (2015) proposed going back to basics and letting children actually play. Burner (1996) also emphasized the importance of play. According to both authors, play has been consistently recognized as offering children opportunities to try out new ways of combining thought and language. Through play, children are given the freedom to explore new ideas and use language to represent these thoughts.

This home parenting practice refers to time spent in museums, public libraries, and other places outside the home where reading skills may be honed and fostered. Children who have gone on trips, walked in parks, and gone to zoos and museums will have more background knowledge relevant to school reading than children who have not had these experiences. Griswold (as cited in Pado, 1990) showed that achievement scores among Grade 4 pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds who go on family outings like picnics and visits to museums and libraries were significantly higher than the scores of those who did not. However, it is not just the actual experience that matters; parental presence and how parents process and discuss the experience with their children influence the kind and extent of knowledge the children will gain from the experience. Talking about the relevant experiences is what really extends the child’s stock of concepts and vocabulary. 5. Availability of education and study resources This refers to the ease of access and use of study resources such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, magazines, storybooks, and other materials that are age-appropriate. Pe Benito (1994) summarized the importance of educational materials in the environment in providing for the basic needs of children, especially materials that open up opportunities for exploration and learning. A literacy-rich environment, which includes people, can greatly aid the development of children’s grasp of various learning structures. Morrow (1989) pointed out that children who enter school already reading usually have supportive parents and an environment rich with materials that promote literacy. Thus, it is good practice, 46

c. Authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive. They “monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct” and “are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive.” They prefer disciplinary methods that are “supportive, rather than punitive.” They also “want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative” (Darling, 1999, p. 62). d. Uninvolved parents are low in both responsiveness and demandingness. In extreme cases, this parenting style might encompass both rejecting-neglecting and neglectful parents, although most parents of this type fall within the normal range. With respect to positive outcomes, one of the most intensively examined topic in the related literature is the relationship between parenting style and academic success. Several studies (e.g., Hickman, Bartholomae, & McKenry, 2000; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994) have found that the authoritative parenting style is associated with higher academic achievement. Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, and Darling (1992) claimed that authoritative parenting, which is characterized by high acceptance, supervision, and granting of psychological autonomy to children, leads to better school performance and stronger school engagement. Nonetheless, they pointed out that this positive impact of authoritative parenting is mediated by parental involvement in school. In other words, parental involvement is much more likely to promote school success when it occurs in an authoritative home environment. Considering all the influences that shape a child’s development, the involvement of parents in their children’s effort to acquire literacy is crucial because it is a more powerful force than other family background variables, such as social class, family size, and level of parental education (Gest, Freeman, Domitrovish, & Welsh, 2004).

as Strickland and Morrow (1989) noted, to have abundant materials for both reading and writing that are accessible at home and that children and parents can use frequently. According to Scher (1999), the availability of educational materials encourages children to read and write by virtue of the rich literacy that surrounds them. Scher further claimed that for a young child to be academically successful, he must begin to gain literacy skills during the very early years. One way to achieve this is for the child to be immersed in an environment with a wide array of materials available at his disposal. 6. Discipline This refers to the positive or negative reinforcement used by parents to encourage the child to read and/or follow study period schedules. Parenting is a way of disciplining. It is a complex activity that includes many specific behaviors that work individually and together to influence child outcomes. Most descriptions of the relationship between parent disciplining and child outcomes rely on Baumrind’s typology of parenting styles. Baumrind (as cited in Darling, 1999) described the basic parenting styles as follows: a. Indulgent parents (also referred to as permissive or nondirective) are more responsive than they are demanding. “They are non-traditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation.” b. Authoritarian parents, meanwhile, are highly demanding and directive, but not responsive. They “ … are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation.” These parents provide well-ordered and structured environments with clearly stated rules. 47

parenting questionnaire, which sought to explore and describe existing home parenting practices of parent of economically disadvantaged families, particularly the six aspects listed in research question no. 2. Both instruments were written and administered in the vernacular. I constructed the emergent reading assessment tool, drawing ideas from various sources: standardized tests (the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing-2 or CTOPP-2, Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills or DIBELS, Diagnostic Assessment of Reading or DAR, Iowa Test of Basic Skills or ITBS, ad Early Reading Diagnostic Assessment or ERDA) and the checklist for print awareness in Pado’s (1990) self-made instrument. The items in my self-made tool were similar to but not identical with those in the standardized tests and were divided into four parts: phonemic awareness, alphabet knowledge, narrative competence, and print awareness. The instrument was validated for content and form by an assessment specialist and by a reading specialist. Then I pilot-tested the instrument among a group of children with characteristics very similar to those of my target children-participants. The parenting questionnaire was an adapted version of an instrument developed and used by Catherine Bautista, a graduate of UA&P’s School of Education and Human Development, in connection with her master’s thesis (Bautista, 2010). I secured the author’s permission to use her questionnaire, including a written consent to some revisions that I made in order to suit the instrument to my target parentrespondents. The questionnaire was divided into six parts, corresponding to the six specific home parenting practices enumerated in research question no. 2. A statistician checked the consistency and face validity of the adapted version of the questionnaire. Then I pilottested the instrument among parents of a barangay day care center similar to my target parent-respondents. I administered the emergent reading assessment tool in four barangay day care centers in Taytay, Rizal and obtained 61 valid questionnaires. Thirty-three respondents (54%) were four years old and 28 (46%) were five years old. Thirty-four (56%) were girls and 27 (44%) were boys. Then I asked the parents of the 61 children to

HIGHLIGHTS OF MY STUDY Research Problem and Questions Parents are considered the first and primary educators of their children. As the related literature suggests, parenting and consequent parenting practices are key factors that affect a child’s school performance. In my study, I looked into the parent literacy involvement and other home activities in general and the development of emergent reading in children of economically disadvantaged families. I posed and answered three research questions in my study: 1. What are the emergent reading skill levels of the four- to five-year-old children of economically disadvantaged families in terms of a. phonemic awareness; b. alphabet knowledge; c. narrative competence; and d. print awareness? 2. What are the home parenting practices of the parents of these children in relation to a. parental presence; b. parental involvement in the children’s schooling; c. leisure and entertainment; d. cultural visits and activities; e. availability of educational and study resources; and f. discipline? 3. What effect do these parenting practices have on the children’s emergent reading skill level? Methodology and Data Collection I did a largely quantitative analytic study with some qualitative aspects, especially in the analysis. My research focused on identifying and accounting for possible relationship(s) between two variables: (1) the emergent reading skill levels of children of economically disadvantaged families and (2) the home parenting practices of these children’s parents. Accordingly, I used two research instruments in the study: (1) an emergent reading assessment tool, which sought to measure the children-respondents’ emergent reading skill levels in relation to the four areas enumerated in research question no. 1 and (2) a

Emergent Reading Skill Levels As a group, the children-respondents scored highest in narrative competence and lowest in phonemic awareness. Here are the relative rankings (in percentage of the highest possible score) of the four emergent reading skill areas that were tested:

answer the parenting questionnaire.2 Around 84% of the fathers and 43% of the mothers were employed in various occupations. Of the 51 employed fathers, five (10%) were drivers; of the 26 employed mothers, 12 (44%) were sewers (Taytay is known as the garments capital of the Philippines). Data Analysis I used linear regression analysis to determine the influence of home parenting practices on the emergent reading skill levels of the children who took part in my research. A qualified statistician helped me do the regression.3 This was the regression model we drew up for the study:

Narrative competence Print awareness Alphabet knowledge Phonemic awareness

100 80 65 50

The mean score of the 61 children is 35, which is equivalent to 70%. This rating might give the impression that the children do not perform well in reading. However, if the frequency of scores is considered, 60% of the children got a rating of at least 75% (scores of 37 and up); in fact, 47% even got 80% and above (scores of 40 and up). In other words, the majority of the children who took part in my study did fairly well. In fact, a significant proportion of them— almost half—did very well. These findings do not coincide with what the literature says about the reading skills level and development of economically disadvantaged children. Many studies (e.g., Askov, 2004; Bowey, 1994; Juel, 2006; Juel et al., 1986; Lonigan & Whitehurst, 1998; MacLean, Bryant, & Bradley, 1987; Raz & Bryant, 1990; Walker, Greenwood, Hart, & Carta, 1994; Walley, Metsala, & Garlock, 2003) claim that children from low-SES families fare poorly in school-based reading and writing and in intellectual achievement in general. As indicated by the assessment scores, the 61 daycare children generally performed well, especially in narrative competence, which encompasses vocabulary and oral language. They captured the visuals completely with their choice of words and were able to identify and articulate naglalaba, nagsasampay, umiiyak, nagwawalis, etc. Furthermore, they not only named the objects in the pictures but also were able to make stories out of the visuals. It should be noted, though, that the assessment was done in the children’s mother tongue (Tagalog). The children obtained a general rating of 80 percent in print awareness. In this particular skill area, most of them were able to demonstrate understanding of the conventions of print (e.g., left-to-right and top-tobottom orientation of print, front and back of book, the

ERSL = β0 + β1PPresence + β2PInv + β3Leisure + β4Visit + β5Resources + β6Discipline where ERSL = Emergent Reading Skills Level score of the child β = Constant PPresence = Parental Presence score PInv = Parent Involvement score Leisure = Leisure and Entertainment score Visit = Cultural Visits and Activities score Resources = Availability of Educational and Study Resources score Discipline = Discipline score Findings of the Study I will now present a brief summary of my research findings. 2 I made sure that the score sheets of the 61 children were correctly paired with the parenting questionnaires of their respective parents. I drew up a master list of the names of the children (with matching control code numbers for the score sheets and the parenting questionnaires). 3 Regression is a multivariate correlational statistical treatment. Unlike correlation where only the strength of the relationship between variables is tested, regression is about “specifying the underlying relationship that summarizes a set of paired data” (Graham, 2006, p. 44)—i.e., a single dependent (criterion) variable and several independent (predictor) variables (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2009). The objective of regression analysis is to use the predictor variables whose values are known to predict the criterion value selected by the researcher. In my study, the weights of the predictor variables denote their relative contribution to the overall prediction.

difference between pictures and print on a page). Print awareness also entails facility with environmental print—e.g., recognizing product names from signs and logos (Goodman, 1986). In their assessment, the children performed well in identifying logos (those suggested by the experts whom I consulted). Again, these findings differ from what the related literature suggests: that children from economically disadvantaged homes tend to perform less well on measures of print knowledge, exhibit delayed print awareness, and are at a high risk of developing reading difficulties (Chaney, 1994; D’Angiulli, Siegel, & Maggi, 2004; Dubrow & Ipolito, 1994; Juel, Griffith, & Gough, 1986; Korat & Haglili, 2007; Smith & Dixon, 1995; Snow, Burn, & Griffin, 1998; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). In relation to the stages of reading development theory, Chall (1983) mentioned that emergent reading spans from Stage 0 to 1, while Ehri (2004) said that it comprises the pre-alphabetic and partial alphabetic stages. In describing emergent reading, Chall explained that this stage (Stages 0-1) is characterized by an increasing control of words (vocabulary). Most children also acquire some knowledge of print at this stage. They already may be able to names the letters of the alphabet and learn to print their names and some letters not in their names. Chall added that this stage is characterized by children’s ability to decode formerly arbitrary letter shapes into the sounds that are used in spoken language. During this stage, children begin to associate the shapes of letters with phonemic patterns. Saying almost the same thing, Ehri pointed out that the pre-alphabetic stage involves visual and contextual connections while the partial alphabetic involves connections between more salient letters and sounds. The results of my assessment indicated that the 61 day-care children were generally on a par with Chall’s Stages 0-1 of reading development and Ehri’s prealphabetic and partial alphabetic stages. In other words, these children, on the whole, were not delayed in their development.

Parental presence 80 Discipline 77 Involvement in schooling 66 Cultural visits and activities 49 Leisure and entertainment 44 Availability of educational and study resources 30 With respect to each of these six practices, here are my findings and observations: 1. Parental presence My data from the parenting questionnaire suggest that, in general, parental presence is not a problem for the 61 families. This is evident in the highest mean score given to parental presence relative to the five other home parenting practices. Of the behaviors listed under parental presence, the top three that the parents reported they often practice are (1) talking to their children about schoolwork, (2) bringing their children out for one-on-one bonding, and (3) seeing to it that they answer their children’s questions to their satisfaction. In fact, more than 50 percent of the parents claimed that they “always” do the practices that convey parental presence (except for the children seeing them—the parents or other adults in the household—read). Scoring high in these activities is crucial because, as the related literature suggests, the related parental behaviors are predictive of a child’s reading performance (Antiporda, 2004; Morrow, 2005; Pelletier et al., 2010; Snow et al., 1991). The least frequently done practice, according to the parents, is the child seeing either the parents or other adults in the household read. This situation may be due to the absence of parents and other adults in the household for work-related reasons or because stay-at-home mothers tend to the other children while at the same time attending to all the household chores, as some authors (Ermisch & Francesconi, 2001; Hassan, 2009) have pointed out.

Home Parenting Practices These were the relative rankings of the six home parenting practices in terms of the parents’ mean scores:

The top three most frequent topics of conversation between the parents and the children are gawain sa paaralan (school events) (82%), araw sa paaralan (school day) (61%), and mga kaibigan (friends) (59%). Perhaps, these topics rank the highest since they are most relevant to the daily experiences and immediate environment of the children. On the other hand, two of the topics least talked about are directly related to reading: the things the child reads and the characters that figure in what the child reads. Mortimore and Blackstone (1981) have offered a possible explanation: parents of economically disadvantaged families can be inhibited by their lack of self-knowledge or by insufficient knowledge of what their children are reading or studying in general.

about what the child reads. The data also show that despite the lack of book experiences when they were young, the parents were generally optimistic about their children’s reading development. They expressed the hope that through their encouragement, their children would become avid readers in the future. Most parent-respondents also reported a favorable attitude towards reading. When asked about their love for reading, 69% said that they do love reading and that they themselves are avid readers. The same percentage replied that they try to read at least one book during summer. Around twothirds claimed that they spend their leisure time reading. When asked about the materials that they read, 36% admitted that they only read magazines and newspapers; the others claimed they do not limit themselves to these two types of reading. This generally positive view towards reading is most helpful because parents’ behavior and affinity with reading are a critical factor in providing and modeling behaviors that can foster reading development (Morrow & Rand, 1991). At the same time, the results seem to be inconsistent with Brown and Iyengar’s (2008) observation that negative experiences when young result in negative interest and tendencies. In the case of the 61 parents, the lack of book experiences in their early years has not kept them from being enthusiastic about helping their children learn to read. In any case, I suppose that parents nowadays, regardless of their SES, are realizing the importance of reading and early reading development in children.

2. Involvement in children’s schooling Over 90% of the parent-respondents claimed that they help their children with reading at least once every two weeks. Around 40% said that do so as often as three to four times a week, while only eight percent admitted that they do not read with their children at all. These figures are not bad at all, but the parents’ seeming inability to read to their children daily may be accounted for, again, by the fact that in low-SED households, both parents usually work so as to be able to provide for the needs of their families, thus making it difficult for them to help their children with daily reading. This situation is consistent with the findings of Ermisch and Francesconi (2001). However, more crucial than the frequency of spending time with a child while reading is the question of how parents actually use that time. In that regard, 54% of the parents claimed that they would read with their children; 48% reported that they would just be present beside the child; and 44% said that they would ask questions

3. Leisure and entertainment According to the responses of the parents, these are top five activities that their children engage in for leisure and entertainment: 51

Watching cartoons Playing with toys Accompanying parents Reading Paggala (leisure walks)

100% 98% 92% 70% 66%

The relatively high percentages of answers indicate that the 61 children and their families have a great deal of leisure and entertainment experiences. This situation perhaps explains why the children scored high in the emergent reading assessment on logo identification.

resources are provided in the homes of these families still depend on the parents’ decisions on how to allocate the funds available to them (Foster et al., 2005). Economically disadvantaged families hardly have any books or printed materials in their homes and their children’s literacy development may not be their top priority. In a study of urban homes in the Philippines, the materials found were mostly household items and a few plastic toys that do not provide much intellectual stimulation or challenge for exploration (Dela Cruz, 1979).

4. Cultural visits and activities

6. Discipline

Less than half (44%) of the parents reported that their families go on outings once a week. A little more than half (54%) admitted that their families go on trips much less often—either twice or once a month or just when they are free. Only one family reported that it does not go out together at all. With regard to the destination of family outings, malls were cited as the venue most frequently visited. Other answers given include simbahan (church) and in-laws’ and other relatives’ houses. The latter two destinations reflect the strong family ties that distinguish Filipino culture.

The mean scores indicate that the parentrespondents lean towards the authoritative parenting style. This preference bodes well for the children because the authoritative parenting style is associated with higher academic achievement (Hickman et al., 2000; Steinberg et al., 1994).

5. Availability of educational and study resources The responses of the parents indicated the top three most available educational and study resources in their homes are storybooks (74%), study table (43%), and quiet study area (39%). Among the resources on the checklist presented to the parent-respondents in the questionnaire, the least available reported is the thesaurus (3%). Other items not on the list but mentioned by the parents as hardly available included nursery rhymes or alphabet (3%), the Internet (2%), and books assigned by the teacher (2%). The data clearly reflect the economic constraints that low-SES families face. Nonetheless, whatever educational and study 52

Results of Regression Analysis Here are the highlights of the outcomes of my regression analysis, which sought to determine the effect of each of the home parenting practices on the children’s emergent reading skill level (ERSL): 1. Involvement in children’s schooling and ERSL The regression results showed that for every one-point increase in the parents’ score for their involvement in their child’s schooling, the child’s score improves by 0.7006 point (the other variables being held constant). The positive relationship is consistent with the findings of various studies (e.g., Anbar, 1986; Duncan et al., 2007; Teale & Sulzby, 1989) indicating that the more supportive the people in a child’s environment are of emergent reading, the better a child reads. On the basis of the regression results for this specific home parenting practice, it can be said that the parents in my research sites are involved in the schooling of their

children. This finding differs from the claim of Dela Cruz (1979) that in economically disadvantaged families, the focus of adult activities in relation to children is on the provision of basic care. The data I gathered showed that even in low-SES families, parents spend time with their children not just to attend to their physical needs but also to nurture and educate them. Contrary to Dela Cruz’s observation that adults in poor urban households lack intellectual stimuli, the parents who took part in my study read, asks questions, and discuss experiences with their children. 2. Discipline and ERSL For every point increase in the parents’ score for discipline, their child’s score goes up by 0.6753 (holding other variables constant). As is the case with parental presence, the correlation of discipline with the emergent reading skill level of the children is positive and significant. I pointed out earlier that the data on parent-respondents indicated that these parents tend to be authoritative in their parenting style. In that regard, the results of the correlation between discipline and ESRL match what the related literature suggests: that the authoritative parenting style is associated with higher academic achievement (Hickman et al., 2000; Steinberg et al., 1994). In that regard, this study showed that the parents, even in the disadvantaged settings, tend to be authoritative. In that sense, discipline’s correlation with emergent reading skills level of children matches what the literature suggest that the authoritative parenting style—characterized by high acceptance, supervision, and granting of psychological autonomy—is associated with higher academic achievement and stronger school engagement (Hickman et al., 2000; Steinberg et al., 1994; Steinberg et al., 1992). In fact, the positive effect of parental involvement is reinforced in an authoritative home environment. 53

3. Parental presence and ERSL For every point increase in the parents’ score for parental presence, the child’s reading score also increases by 0.4058 points. This result concurs with what other studies (e.g., Morrow, 2005; Pelletier et al., 2010; Snow et al., 1991) have reported: that parental presence is predictive of a child’s reading performance. It also confirms the observation of Teale (1986) that the mere presence in the household of adults who are habitual readers themselves helps children become early readers and show natural interest in books. Furthermore, the positive correlation between parental presence and ERSL supports the widely held view that parent participation in early childhood care and education has a positive holistic effect on children. Even by merely responding directly or indirectly to their children’s talk and inquiries, parents may already help the literacy development of their offspring in the confines of their homes (Antiporda, 2004). 4. Leisure and entertainment and cultural visits and activities and ERSL The regression results for both leisure and entertainment and cultural visits and activities show a positive effect on the emergent reading skills of the children. However, the correlation is not significant in the presence of the other variables. Nonetheless, it is still worth noting that, in accordance with what the international literature indicates, leisure and entertainment and cultural visits and activities have a positive impact on children’s literacy development in general and reading development in particular (BennettArmistead, 2015; Burner, 1996). 5. Availability of educational and study resources and ERSL The regression results for this home parenting practice indicate an indirect effect

on the emergent reading skills level of the children. Moreover, the correlation is insignificant. In any case, it may be relevant to point out that, according to the related literature, children who enter school already reading usually have supportive parents and an environment rich with literacy-promoting materials. These homes have abundant accessible materials for both reading and writing that children and parents use frequently (Morrow, 1989; Strickland & Morrow, 1989). The families who took part in my study clearly do not enjoy such a favorable condition. Yet, even in this situation, the parents seem to be doing a fairly good job of helping their children develop their reading skills. At the same time, the observation of Cheng et al. (2012)—that an abundance of resources may serve as a distraction to the education of children—is worth noting. In other words, what matters is not the relative abundance or lack of educational and other resources, but how families make use of the resources available at home for the development of the children, especially their reading skills.

In terms of their home parenting practices, my parent-respondents scored well in parental presence, discipline, and involvement in their children’s education. These practices have significantly contributed to the development of the emergent reading skills of the children and seemed to have at least partly compensated for whatever the children may have lacked in leisure and entertainment, cultural visits and activities, and educational and study resources at home. I have found it most encouraging and edifying that even in economically disadvantaged families, the parents can effectively function and fulfill their role as the first and primary educators of their children. In their presence and level of involvement in their children’s schooling and in their parenting style, the parents who took part in my study showed their love and support for their offspring and their commitment to the children’s education and development, despite (or perhaps precisely because of) their lack of economic resources. Seeing this reality up close made my study truly worth undertaking. References Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, Inc. Adams, M. J., Foorman, B. R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). Phonemic awareness in young children: A classroom curriculum. London: Paul Brookes Publishing Co. Anbar, A. (1986). Reading acquisition of preschool children without systematic instruction, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 1, 69-83. Antiporda, R. (2004). Mediating role of parental participation in the care and development program in relation to child development. (Unpublished undergraduate thesis). University of the Philippines. Arriero, L. (2006). Beginning learning in the home and school readiness. (Unpublished dissertation). University of the Philippines. Askov, E. (2004). Workforce literacy and technology in family literacy programs. In B. Wasik (Ed.), Handbook of family literacy (pp. 271-286). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Baker, L., & Scher, D. (2002). Beginning readers’ motivation for reading in relation to parental beliefs

Conclusions The results of my study show interesting contrasts and similarities with what can be gleaned from the related literature. On one hand, many authors claim that in economically disadvantaged families, there is low parental involvement in the education of the children and the latter are usually delayed in their reading development. The evidence I gathered about the families who took part in my study showed a different situation: the parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling is fairly high and the children are on a par with Chall’s (1983) Stages 0 to 1 of reading development. On the other hand, the results of my regression analysis are consistent with what the related literature says regarding the positive effect of high parent involvement and wholesome parent practices on the emergent reading skills of children. 54

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Content of Effective Parent Education Programs: A Review of Recent Empirical Literature Emerson O. Fababaer Executive Head Studentdesk Integrated Montessori School Graduate Student Master of Arts in Education (Major in Child Development and Education) Program School of Education and Human Development University of Asia and the Pacific

INTRODUCTION

HIGHLIGHTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

It is said that parents are the first and primary educators of their children. While parents understand the value of their role as their children’s first teachers, many of them seem to be clueless as to how they can effectively play this particular role—hence, the growing popularity of different parent education programs. The concept of parent education is not new anymore as its roots go back to the 19th century (Berger, 2000). Over the years, many experts in the private and government sectors have proposed definitions of what parent education is. Carter (1996) defined parent education as “programs, support services, and resources offered to parents and caregivers that are designed to support them or increase their capacity and confidence in raising healthy children” (p. 6). It also has been defined as an intervention aimed at helping improve parent-child relationship, leading to positive developmental outcomes among children (Cowan, Powell, & Cowan, 1998; Smith, Perou, & Lesesne, 2002). Parent education may also refer to the building up of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that parents need in addressing the developmental needs of their children (Mahoney, Kaiser, & Girolametto, 1999; Winton, Sloop, & Rodriguez, 1999).

Despite the continuing development and implementation of parent education programs around the world, little is known about their effectiveness. The primary focus of this review is to gather and synthesize existing literature on parent education programs to help answer this main research question: What should an effective parent education program cover? In order to understand the contexts in which the effectiveness of parent education programs can be viewed, I broke down the main research question into three subquestions: 1. What is understood to be an effective parent education program? 2. What are the main goals of effective parent education programs? 3. Given these goals, what should a parent education program cover to ensure its effectiveness? This review aims to provide insights on the development and possible future directions of effective parent education programs. It is not an exhaustive review of all existing parent education programs but only a focused review of selected programs designed for parents with young children. I divided the review 59

into three sections. The first part is a discussion of what is understood to be an effective parent education program. The second part is a presentation of the main goals of different parent education programs. The last part examines the content that should be covered to ensure program effectiveness.

specialists of program content and processes (Ozretich, 2000). On the whole, while there is no convincing evidence yet on the effectiveness of parent education programs, it is safe to conclude that “it is too soon to draw clear conclusions concerning the efficacy of such programs” (Cookston, Braver, Sandler, & Genalo, 2002, p. 190). These findings can potentially channel the future directions of better parent education programs. I believe that a parent education program can be considered effective when it is able to meet the intended goals of the program and has positive impact on the lives of the participants.

Understanding Effective Parent Education Programs Before I present the main goals and content of effective parent education programs, I will first discuss what is understood to be an effective parent education program. What are the guidelines being observed in determining program effectiveness? Are there solid evidences supporting claims that parent education programs have a positive effect on the parentparticipants or on their children? As in any other programs, the challenge for various parent education programs is measuring their effectiveness. Given the multifaceted nature of existing parent education programs and the uniqueness of each parent’s needs, creating a standard or universal evaluation tool to measure program effectiveness remains a challenge for researchers (Manalo & Meezan, 2000). However, in this era of evidence-based practices, it is imperative to demonstrate the effectiveness of certain programs based upon several criteria. These criteria may include “quality of the educator, the educational materials, the setting in which it is provided, and the timing and flexibility to meet the parent’s needs” (Eaton, 2009, p. 118). Another way to determine the effectiveness of a parent education program is by examining (a) the effects of parenting styles on child outcomes (Pettit, Laird, Dodge, Bates, & Criss, 2001); (b) the parental affective and behavioral characteristics associated with positive parenting (Gardner, Ward, Burton, & Wilson, 2003); and (c) the contextual factors and parenting strategies associated with family resilience (Armstrong, Birnie-Lefcovitch, & Ungar, 2005). According to Harris, Ivey, and Bean (2013), for a parent education program to be effective, it has to “offer services that are beneficial to frustrated and discouraged parents” (p. 193). It has to address the needs of the parents. That is why parent education program providers should work hand in hand with parents in designing their curriculum. An effective parent education program regards parents as co-owners and

Main Goals of Parent Education The second question addressed by this review is: What are the main goals of effective parent education programs? The goals of parent education programs vary widely. These goals are largely affected by the profile of the target participants and the behaviors to be modified or strengthened (Matthews & Hudson, 2001). Stating the program goals clearly is crucial in making sure that the program content and teaching strategies are aligned with the intended outcomes. Some goals focus on imparting knowledge, while others focus on affecting parents’ feelings or attitudes. Some goals are short-term while others are long-term. In general, the main goal of parent education programs is to improve parents’ knowledge about parenting-related concerns and/or to strengthen their ability to manage specific challenges they encounter. Specifically, the goals of effective parent education programs can be categorized into: (a) helping parents respond to challenging behaviors on the part of children (Sanders, Turner, & Markie-Dadds, 2002); (b) helping parents in building warm and caring environments for their children (Bavolek, 2007); (c) equipping parents in the areas of school readiness and literacy development of their children (Parents as Teachers, 2015); and (d) helping parents manage anxiety and stress by maintaining work-life balance (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2006). Most programs have multiple and overlapping goals. There are goals that are parent-focused, child-focused, and parent-childfocused. Regardless of their classification, these goals must be explicitly stated as measurable outcomes that can be used as basis for structuring program content (Brown, 2001). 60

The variety of these goals parallels the diversity of the related content and activities covered by various parent education programs. This wide range of program goals suggests that professionals from multiple disciplines should be involved in the development of parent education programs. It also implies that different contents and modes of delivery are necessary to achieve them. This leads us to the next research question: Given the goals discussed above, what should a parent education program cover to ensure its effectiveness?

Increasing positive parent-child interactions has been found beneficial not only in preventing challenging behaviors of children but also in enhancing parenting behaviors (Kaminski, Valle, Filene, & Boyle, 2008) and strengthening marriages (Brown, 2005). Besser, Falk, Arias, and Hammond (2009) suggested that parent education programs should “include increasing positive parent-child interactions and emotional communication; teaching time out and the importance of parenting consistency; and requiring parents to practice new skills with their children during training” (p. 8). In addition, Corso (2007) stated that

Program Content to Ensure Effectiveness An effective parent education program consists of different learning strands directed towards creating positive impact among families. The program content includes the relevance of the program to various audiences as well as the elements of the program that are connected to specific outcomes. Using the goals stated earlier, the content of parent education programs under each goal can be examined.

1. Responding to challenging behaviors Many challenging behaviors on the part of children can be prevented by designing a program that promotes children’s socialemotional development. These challenging behaviors may include aggression, selfinjury, destruction, and other difficult behaviors that can put the safety of the child or others at risk. Dealing with these kinds of behaviors can be an emotional experience for most parents. That is why learning how to properly handle children’s challenging behaviors is of great importance to parents. Doing so requires a comprehensive approach that includes creating a social context, teaching social skills, and facilitating children’s emotional development. An effective parent education program acknowledges the fact that “young children experience their world as an environment of relationships, and these relationships affect virtually all aspects of their development— intellectual, social, emotional, physical, behavioral, and moral” (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004, p. 1).

important goals related to children’s social-emotional development include initiating and maintaining relationships with others, resolving conflicts, making friends, and communicating feelings, emotions, and needs in appropriate and effective ways. Specifically, skills that should be taught can be grouped into three categories: (a) friendship skills; (b) emotional regulation and empathy (e.g., recognizing, responding to, and expressing emotions, self-regulation); and (c) problem solving. (p. 52)

Consequently, intensive individualized interventions are used when a child continues to exhibit challenging behaviors amidst all the efforts mentioned above (Fox, Dunlap, Hemmeter, Joseph, & Strain, 2003). This is where building nurturing environments comes in. 2. Building warm and caring environments for children With all the challenges to and pressures on the institution of marriage and their effect on the structure of families, ensuring a safe, dependable, and nurturing environment for children has become a major challenge among parents nowadays. Helping parents 61

create supportive environment for their children is an important goal of an effective parent education program. According to Corso (2007), “the term creating supportive environments is used to refer to practices that promote children’s engagement and help children understand expectations and routines. When environments are fun and engaging, children are less likely to engage in problem behavior” (p. 56, italics in the original). Consequently, in the guidelines presented by UNICEF (2007), three key elements were identified as indicators of a supportive environment: “(a) a wide range of appropriate activities and programs; (b) a physical environment to facilitate the activities and programs; and (c) encouraging, supportive and sensitive family support” (p.10). In doing so, however, one must understand that building a warm and caring environment for children does not happen in an instant. It comes down to consistency and structure.

writing (Williams, Clemens, Oleinikova, & Tarvin, 2003) and are more likely to have children with lower cognitive and language development levels (De Coulon, Meschi, & Vignoles, 2008). In order to address these concerns, the program should cover

(a) parents’ knowledge of their child’s current and emerging language, intellectual, social-emotional, and motor development; (b) parents’ ability to recognize their child’s developmental strengths and possible delays; and (c) parents’ familiarity with key messages about healthy births, attachment, discipline, health, nutrition, safety, sleep, and transitions/routines. (Parents as Teachers, 2015, p. 2)

4. Maintaining work-life balance Most parents, especially those with full-time jobs, are struggling to achieve a balanced lifestyle. Juggling different responsibilities at work and at home usually leads to unnecessary anxiety and stress. Stress is one of the most common problems of parents and if not managed properly, it can affect their children negatively. Hence, it is critical for parent education programs to teach parents the importance of managing stress by maintaining work-life balance. The first step in teaching parents how to handle stress is by helping them identify the sources of their stress. The program may cover “(a) participating in relaxing activities; (b) seeking out social support; (c) getting enough exercise and rest; and (d) working to change one’s attitude toward stress producing situations” (Shannon, 2003, p. 3). In practice, maintaining work-life balance involves “adjusting work patterns so that everyone, regardless of age, race or gender, can find a rhythm that enables them more easily to combine work and their other responsibilities and aspirations” (Pillinger, 2001, p. 1). On the same note, Drew, Humphreys and Murphy (2003) emphasized “that

3. School readiness and literacy development of children Another aspect of an effective parent education program is having a goal targeted at increasing parents’ knowledge of their child’s emerging development. Children’s first encounter of language and literacy happens at home. It is during this stage that parents should provide their children with experiences to help develop their children’s ability to read and write, as well as talk and listen (Weigel, Martin, & Bennett, 2005). Hence, supporting and educating parents on these matters is a logical strategy. Equipping parents in these areas is of great value since there is a link between parents’ and children’s literacy levels. Otherwise, the likelihood of children to succeed in later schooling would be at risk. Several recent studies have found that parents with low literacy levels are less likely to help their children with reading and 62

personal fulfillment is important inside work and that satisfaction outside work may enhance employees’ contribution to work” (p. 13). In other words, work and family roles can benefit one another if properly managed. This particular construct is defined as “the extent to which experiences in one role improve the quality of life in the other roles” (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006, p. 73). When parents are confident about how they manage their responsibilities at work, they become confident as well in raising their families and vice-versa.

important in order to maintain the public’s trust and support. Other critical aspects that should also be taken into consideration are the setting of priorities and ensuring program cohesiveness. This point is of particular relevance to parents with multiple issues or concerns. If a parent has five issues, for instance, can one program address all his or her concerns? If he or she has to take multiple programs, which one should he or she take first? Given this dilemma, the next step is the provision of more effective assistance to potential users in identifying which program would be a good fit for them.

Concluding Remarks This literature review provides a critical evaluation of the recent published research on effective parent education programs. In particular, I reviewed studies addressing the main goals and content coverage of effective parent education programs. In summary, parent education programs come in various formats designed for different purposes and cover a wide array of topics related to specific family concerns. Whether the goals are explicit or implicit, an effective parent education program should provide parents with a level of support that enables them to cope with various issues affecting their own personal development and that of their children. It should give parents different parenting strategies and allow them to decide which one to apply in their respective families. Effective parent education programs are built on a strong parent education component, which develops confidence among parents in their capacity to provide stimulating activities for the development of their own children. It offers parents opportunities to develop a community of support among themselves through their shared experiences. It empowers them to decide what should be included in the program andhow it should be delivered. It also recognizes that personal growth and behavioral changes among parents and their children take time to develop. Hence, the program should be a continuous process rather than a one-time event. As parent education programs continue to thrive in the future, efforts toward better understanding of what is effective must be exerted as well. This way, evidencebased priorities and practice guidelines for parent education programs can be developed. Establishing the effectiveness of parent education programs is also

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