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Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology ISSN: 2277-6184(online), ISSN: 2321-6514(print)

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Dr. Shankargouda Patil

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Prof. Subash Chandra Mishra

Prof. Sundara Ramaprabhu

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Editorial Board

Amritanshu Shukla

Dr. Ketan Pravinchandra Detroja

Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology Raebareli, Ratapur Chowk Raebareli, U.P. India.

Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Yeddumailaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Lin Shao

Nikolai Chechenin

Dept of Nuclear Engineering Texas A&M University, United States.

Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics of Moscow State University, Russian Federation, Russia.

Dr. Howard Lewis Hall University of Tennessee, United States.

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It is my privilege to present the print version of the [Volume 6 Issue 3] of our Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology, 2016. The intension of JoNET is to create an atmosphere that stimulates vision, research and growth in the area of Nuclear Engineering. Timely publication, honest communication, comprehensive editing and trust with authors and readers have been the hallmark of our journals. STM Journals provide a platform for scholarly research articles to be published in journals of international standards. STM journals strive to publish quality paper in record time, making it a leader in service and business offerings. The aim and scope of STM Journals is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high level learning, teaching and research in all the Scientific, Technical and Medical domains. Finally, I express my sincere gratitude to our Editorial/ Reviewer board, Authors and publication team for their continued support and invaluable contributions and suggestions in the form of authoring writeups/reviewing and providing constructive comments for the advancement of the journals. With regards to their due continuous support and co-operation, we have been able to publish quality Research/Reviews findings for our customers base. I hope you will enjoy reading this issue and we welcome your feedback on any aspect of the Journal.

Dr. Archana Mehrotra Managing Director STM Journals

Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology

Contents

1. Nuclear Track Studies in India: A Historical Review Hardev Singh Virk

2. Aesthetic Values of the Surface-Driven Capillary Flow in SU-8 based Glass Microfluidic Devices Subhadeep Mukhopadhyay

3. Economic Viability of Solar Energy Systems in the Indian Context Farhat Mehmood, Ali Anas, Kamil Akhtar Iraqi, Faiz Ahmad, M.M. Siddiqui

4. Challenges and Opportunities in Non-conventional Energy Resources Ekta Maurya

5. Nuclear Medicine and Applications of Radioisotopes Brijesh Singh

Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology ISSN: 2277-6184(online), ISSN: 2321-6514(print) Volume 6, Issue 3 www.stmjournals.com

Nuclear Track Studies in India: A Historical Review Hardev Singh Virk SGGS World University, Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab, India

Abstract Nuclear Tracks originate from the spontaneous fission of Uranium in minerals and can be revealed by etching with suitable chemical reagents as tracks. The applications of Nuclear Tracks were developed by R.L. Fleischer, P.B. Price and R.M. Walker in USA in various fields, viz., Geology, Biology, Archaeology, Nuclear Physics, Reactor Physics, Earthquake Studies and Space Physics. A historical review of Nuclear Track Studies in India is presented in this paper along with contributions made by the author's group. Nuclear track shapes recorded in our laboratory are illustrated by microphotographs in different matrices. This technique became popular in developing countries as it involved minimal investments with maximum output of research publications in diverse fields. Keywords: Nuclear tracks, historical development, nuclear track society, trackologist, fission track dating, ion track filters

INTRODUCTION Let us have a peep into the history of nuclear tracks in solids and pay a tribute to our heroes both living and dead. The trio of Fleischer, Price and Walker of USA deserve a Nobel Prize for promoting one of the simplest experimental techniques with potential applications in almost all disciplines of science and technology. The maxim of ‘Simple is Beautiful’ is fully justified by this technique. It proved to be a boon for scientists of third world countries who cannot afford expensive equipment and elaborate infrastructure to start some kind of research activity. Let me quote some ground rules for achieving success in research enunciated by Professor R.M. Walker, one of the pioneers of nuclear track studies in meteorites, at the symposium on the history of meteorites held at Kyoto, Japan in 1992: 1. One must be lucky. 2. A little bit of ignorance and a lot of naiveté can be very useful. 3. It is often better to do an experiment than to discuss why the experiment is not worth doing. 4. Where possible, quantitative estimates of probable results should be made. However, this rule should not interfere with rule 3

above. 5. Be acutely aware of the miserable fact that you tend to see only what you are looking for. 6. Choose your co-workers wisely.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT During fifties of the last century, nuclear tracks were discovered by Young in 1958 [1] and later confirmed by Silk and Barnes in 1959 [2] in mica using electron microscope. This neglected paper of Young in ‘Nature’ fortunately caught the sight of Price and Walker during sixties and a new era of nuclear track applications was opened up by the famous ‘trio’ working in General Electric Company (GEC), Schenectady (USA), after joining of Fleischer. The first application was fission track dating of rocks using chemical etching technique to make latent fossil fission tracks visible under an optical microscope [3–5]. This was a great breakthrough in the history of nuclear tracks in solids [6]. It was almost a romantic experience for most of us to see myriad geometrical shapes of tracks appear from crystal planes of dielectric materials. I was fortunate enough to develop and visualize cosmic ray tracks [7] in an olivine crystal from a meteorite recovered by Professor D. Lal and his associates at Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad .

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Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology ISSN: 2277-6184(online), ISSN: 2321-6514(print) Volume 6, Issue 3 www.stmjournals.com

Aesthetic Values of the Surface-Driven Capillary Flow in SU-8 based Glass Microfluidic Devices Subhadeep Mukhopadhyay* Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India), Yupia, District-Papum Pare, Arunachal Pradesh, India Abstract In this research paper, author has fabricated total 422 individual SU-8 based glass microfluidic devices by the maskless lithography, clamping, and diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating using his own hands-on completely. Also, total 422 individual Audio-VideoInterleave-Files as ‘FileName.avi’ related to these microfluidic devices have been recorded and analysed by the author completely. The influence of effective viscosity on the surfacedriven capillary flow of aqueous microparticle suspensions has been experimentally investigated. Also, the effects of surface wettability, channel aspect ratio and centrifugal force on the surface-driven capillary flow of aqueous microparticle suspensions have been experimentally investigated. The aesthetic values of the surface-driven capillary flow in SU-8 based glass microfluidic devices have been pictorially expressed in this research paper by the suitable representative images captured using different optical instruments. According to the designs of the microchannels of this research paper, only streamline motion of working liquids in the surface-driven capillary flow is expected without any considerable turbulence by the principles of fluid mechanics. The experimental investigations of this research paper are a novel approach in the royal-world of science-and-technology. In future, the principles of microfluidics may be useful in the nuclear power plants having nuclear reactors based on the applications of nuclear science and nuclear engineering. Keywords: SU-8, Aesthetic value, Capillary flow, Suspension, Channel aspect ratio, Wettability, Microchannel bend

INTRODUCTION In the recent past, the integration between nanotechnology and microfluidics has been successfully demonstrated by Mukhopadhyay et al. [1–12]. In the microfluidic devices, nano-technological aspects have been governed by nano-scale coating of diamondlike carbon or nano-scale surface topography [4, 12]. These nano-scale surface modifications have been proved to be useful to vary the surface-driven capillary flow in the microfluidic devices [4]. Presently, microfluidic networks are the essential components of the bioengineering applications [13–21]. Many microfluidic flow characteristics have been successfully investigated in the microfluidic lab-on-a-chip systems [13–21]. Many fabrication techniques are used by different research-groups to fabricate microfluidic devices [13–21]. Mukhopadhyay et al. have successfully presented many experimental-data on microfluidics with sufficient aesthetic values in few earlier publications [1–12, 21].

In this research paper, total 422 individual SU8 based glass microfluidic devices have been fabricated in the leakage-free conditions. By testing these devices, the influence of effective viscosity on the surface-driven capillary flow of aqueous microparticle suspensions has been studied. Also, the effects of channel aspect ratio, surface wettability and centrifugal force on the surface-driven capillary flow of aqueous microparticle suspensions have been individually studied in these microfluidic devices. The purpose of this research paper is to express the aesthetic value of surface-driven capillary flow in the SU-8 based glass microfluidic devices.

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Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology ISSN: 2277-6184(online), ISSN: 2321-6514(print) Volume 6, Issue 3 www.stmjournals.com

Economic Viability of Solar Energy Systems in the Indian Context Farhat Mehmood, Ali Anas, Kamil Akhtar Iraqi, Faiz Ahmad, M.M. Siddiqui* Department of Electronics and Communication, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Abstract In this paper, the current energy resources are discussed, for example: thermal energy, nuclear energy, tidal energy, hydroelectric energy etc. The paper is about the energy resources which are currently used and why are they used, is there is any other energy resource which can be more reliable then these energy resources. Alternative energy resources have been compared with the currently active energy resources, that is, a comparison of coal energy and nuclear energy to the solar energy, tidal energy and wind energy has been made. The cost of per unit electricity produced by solar energy is estimated and the economic viability of solar energy is pondered upon. Keywords: Energy, resources, nuclear, coal, renewable, electricity, wind energy

INTRODUCTION Coal Energy Coal is known as a fossil fuel and is used to produce around 40% of the world's electricity. It’s a flammable black rock, and is high in organic carbon and hydrocarbons. Coal is considered a non-renewable source of energy as it takes a very long time to form coal [1]. However, there are actually two main types of coal: ‘thermal’ coal, which is mostly used for power generation, and ‘metallurgical’ coal, which is mostly used for steel production. Thermal coal is more abundant, has lower carbon content and is higher in moisture than metallurgical coal. As well as in generating power; coal is also commonly used in cement manufacturing and as a component of thousands of other products [2].

Nuclear Energy Nuclear technology utilizes fissile materials to generate heat and electricity. The byproducts of this process are the radioactive materials. The byproducts generated are beneficial in various areas like cancer therapy, radioactive assay, biochemical assays etc. but are very harmful to health. Today, only eight countries are known to have a nuclear weapons capability. By contrast, 56 countries operate about 240 civil research reactors, over one third of these in developing countries. Now 31 countries host

some 440 commercial nuclear power reactors with a total installed capacity of over 380,000 Mwe. In the 1940s and during the Second World War to 1945, research initially focused on producing bombs by splitting the atoms of particular isotopes of either uranium or plutonium [3].

VARIOUS OTHER ALTERNATIVES TO CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES Wind Energy Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind turbines convert kinetic energy to mechanical energy. Further the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy with the help of generators. Wind is caused by uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun due to the earth’s rotation. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This wind flow, or motion energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to generate electricity [4]. How Wind Power is Generated The terms "wind energy" or "wind power" describes the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines use wind to produce electricity. Modern wind turbines are of two basic types, horizontal axis variety and vertical axis design.

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Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology ISSN: 2277-6184(online), ISSN: 2321-6514(print) Volume 6, Issue 3 www.stmjournals.com

Challenges and Opportunities in Non-conventional Energy Resources Ekta Maurya* Department of Renewable Energy Technology, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Abstract To meet the future energy demands and to give quality and pollution free supply to the growing and today’s environment conscious population, the present world attention is to go in for natural, clean and renewable energy resources. These renewable or non-conventional energy resources are: solar energy, wind energy, water energy, geothermal energy, biogas energy, nuclear energy, etc. These energy resources have many developments. Keywords: Fourth generation solar cell (4G solar cell), levelized costs of energy (LCOE), photovoltaic (PV) cell, ocean renewable power company (ORPC), department of energy’s office of nuclear energy (DOE-NE)

INTRODUCTION Natural resources are things which are available from nature naturally. They occur naturally within the environment that exists relatively undisturbed by humanity, in a natural form. A natural resource is often estimated by the amount of biodiversity and geodiversity existing in various ecosystems [1]. Renewable Resources or Non-Conventional Energy Resources [2] The renewable resources like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not reduced by human consumption. Renewable resources can be replenished naturally [3, 4]. Non-Renewable Resources or Conventional Energy Resources Minerals are included in this category of nonrenewable resources. Of these, the metallic minerals can be recycled and reused but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled [5, 6].

MATERIALS AND METHOD Non-conventional energy resources are following types with some developments in it: Solar Energy Solar energy is the most abundantly available source of energy. The light and heat from the sun is used to meet our electricity demand

using solar photovoltaic cells, solar electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis [3, 4]. Earth's atmosphere absorbs solar energy via oceans and land masses, which is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year [7]. The technical potential available from biomass is from 100–300 EJ/year [8]. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined [9]. Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator [8, 10]. Solar Energy Development Spin Cell V3Solar has claimed to create a new solar device that will not only compete with big energy, but the cost of energy (LCOE) will be less than the price of retail electricity and cheaper than current solar technology. In fact, one photovoltaic (PV) cell can handle a concentration of energy equal to 30 suns, improving the efficiency of the PV by 20% over most standard panels. The spin cell is not a flat panel. Another huge factor in the spin cell’s favor is that the sun can ‘hit’ part of the solar cone practically anytime it shines. Its three-dimensional design eliminates idle time

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Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology ISSN: 2277-6184(online), ISSN: 2321-6514(print) Volume 6, Issue 3 www.stmjournals.com

Nuclear Medicine and Applications of Radioisotopes Brijesh Singh* Department of Surgery, NIMS Medical College, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India Abstract Radioactivity is the release of energy that results from changes in the nucleus of an atom. Elements with atomic number more than 83, are radioisotopes. The field of nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the functioning of cells/tissues information on how to treat them. 10% of medical procedures use radiation to treat a variety of diseases, including many types of cancers, heart diseases, gastrointestinal, endocrine, neurological disorders and other abnormalities within the body. Undoubtedly, medical research will find ways to use radiation and isotopes in improving our lives. Keywords: Radioisotopes, nucleus, atom, neutrons, nuclear medicine, radiodiagnosis

INTRODUCTION The word nuclear relates to the nucleus of an atom. Atoms are constituents of almost everything around us. Nuclear science is very crucial in understanding how atoms interact and how they can be best combined for more efficient drugs and materials. Isotopes are different forms of an atom of same chemical composition. They have similar chemical properties but different relative atomic mass. The number of protons is the same; the number of neutrons in the nucleus varies. Some isotopes are stable while some are unstable as they emit charged particles/waves making the isotopes radioactive. The radioactive element of these isotopes gives the term, radioisotopes to such unstable atoms. Radioisotopes are very useful and find many applications in the modern science and technology [1]. Till now there are 200 radioisotopes used and are mostly artificially produced. Naturally occurring radioisotopes include carbon14 (measure age of wood), chlorine36 (measure age of water), lead210 (to date layers of sand and soil) and tritium H-3 (measure young ground water). Artificially produced radioisotopes include chromium51 (tracer in study of blood), cobalt60 (industrial radiography), caesium137 (identification of sources of soil erosion and deposition) and zinc65 [2].

Nuclear medicine uses radioisotopes for diagnostic and therapeutic purpose. Nuclear medicine involves the use of radioactivity to diagnose, treat, and prevent a disease. These procedures are safe and effective. Nuclear medicine and radiology both use radiation to diagnose any medical condition, the difference being in nuclear medicine, radioisotopes are introduced into the body whereas in radiology X-rays penetrate from outside the body [3]. Out of the 30 million people who are treated each year in the United States, 1/3rd of them are treated with nuclear medicine. There are around 100 radioisotopes whose beta and gamma radiations are used in diagnosis, therapy and investigation in nuclear medicine [4]. Glenn Seaborg and his coworkers discovered several radioisotopes such as 131I (discovered in 1930), 60Co (discovered in 1937), 99mTc (discovered in 1938), and 137Cs (discovered in 1941). Nowadays 99mTc with a half-life of 6 h is widely used in nuclear medicine. 131I, has a half-life of 8 days; it is used to diagnose and treat thyroid disorders. Former president George Bush and first lady Barbara Bush are some famous people who were successfully treated with 131I for Graves' disease (A fatal thyroid disorder). Radioactive iodine treatment has replaced the procedure of thyroid surgery [5].

NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND RADIO DIAGNOSIS

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