Hinterland Report by Strelka Institute for Media, Architecture and Design

ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНАЯ ПРОГРАММА 2011/12

STRELKA

EDUCATION PROGRAMME 2011/12

RESEARCH REPORT HINTERLAND

ДИРЕКТОР Рем Колхас ПРЕПОДАВАТЕЛИ Жанна Быстрых, Александр Никулин, Стефан Петерманн СТУДЕНТЫ Елена Архипова, Пенгхан Ву, Тихана Вучич, Густаво Кабаньес, Антон Кальгаев, Мария Косарева, Екатерина Павленко, Виктор Рубен ЭКСПЕРТЫ-КОНСУЛЬТАНТЫ Александр Алексеев, географ; Владимир Бабашкин, историк; Галина Балдина, Семеновcкий информационно-консультационный центр; Ольга Балдина, Семеновcкий информационноконсультационный центр; Леонид Бляхер, антрополог; Вера Болотова, глава муниципальной администрации в деревне Андреевка; Оане Виссер, антрополог; Александр Ворбрук, географ; Джанг Джун, Urban China; Антон Иванов, архитектор; Борис Копылов, художник; Тамара Кузнецова, экономист; Сергей Куликов, историк; Иван Курячий, архитектор; Татьяна Нефедова, географ; Любовь Овчинцева, экономист; Никита Покровский, социолог; Олеся Присяжная, социолог; Борис Преображенский, эколог; Дмитрий Рогозин, социолог; Михаил Рожанский, философ; Мария Савоскул, географ; Ирина Стародубровская, экономист; Юлия Таранова, журналист; Джеймс Уэсткотт, редактор; Марк Хаверманс, IDV Advies, Херард ван Хейст, NL v Geest; Тимур Шабаев, архитектор; Теодор Шанин, социолог; Павел Шугуров, художник; Илья Штейнберг, социолог; Ирина Троцук, социолог; Рената Янбых, экономист

DIRECTOR Rem Koolhaas SUPERVISORS Janna Bystrykh, Alexander Nikulin, Stephan Petermann STUDENTS Elena Arkhipova, Gustavo Caba単ez, Anton Kalgaev, Maria Kosareva, Katia Pavlenko, Victor Ruben, Tihana Vucic, Penghan Wu EXTERNAL EXPERTS Aleksandr Alekseev, geographer; Vladimir Babashkin, historian; Galina Baldina, Semenov RAC; Olga Baldina, Semenov RAC; Vera Bolotova, head of municipal administration, village Andreevka; Leonid Blyakher, anthropologist; Gerard van Geest, NL v Geest; Marc Havermans, IDV Advies; Anton Ivanov, architect; Jiang Jun, Urban China; Inna Kopoteva, geographer; Boris Kopylov, artist; Sergey Kulikov, historian; Ivan Kuryachiy, architect; Tamara Kuznecova, economist Tatyana Nefedova, geographer; Lubov Ovchintseva, economist; Nikita Pokrovsky, sociologist; Olesya Prisyazhnaya, sociologist; Boris Preobrazhenskiy, ecologist; Dmitrij Rogozin, sociologist; Mikhail Rozhanskiy, philosopher; Maria Savoskul, geographer; Timur Shabaev, architect; Teodor Shanin, sociologist; Pavel Shugurov, artist; Ilya Shteinberg, sociologist; Irina Starodubrovskay, economist; Irina Trocuk, sociologist; Oane Visser, anthropologist; Alexander Vorbruk, geographer; Renata Yanbyh, economist; Yulia Taranova, journalist; James Westcott, editor.

ПРОВИНЦИЯ Хотя площадь российской провинции составляет 17 миллионов квадратных километров, 98% всей территории России и 10% суши во всем мире, она по-прежнему остается малоизведанной областью как в российском, так и в мировом сознании. Здесь находятся крупнейшие в мире леса, практически неисчерпаемые залежи природного газа и других полезных ископаемых, и живут 192 народности, которые говорят на более чем 160 языках. Парадокс заключается в том, что эта огромная территория, которая отличается невероятным природным и культурным разнообразием, почти полностью заброшена, и используется крайне ограниченно. Глобальное потепление, рост населения и развитие международной торговли побуждают нас пересмотреть роль российской провинции и оценить ее перспективы как потенциального мирового источника пространственных, экономических и культурных ресурсов. Столетия напряженных усилий по освоению и преобразованию этих пространств, предпринятых различными политическими режимами, включая последнюю советскую попытку культурного и территориального развития — создание моногородов, «фантастические» проекты преобразования природы, насаждение этно-культурных сценариев — демонстрируют сегодня несостоятельность такого масштабного подхода. Нынешнее увеличение площади лесов и численности животных, интенсивность и частота стихийных бедствий, нестабильность сельскохозяйственного производства свидетельствуют о резком изменении отношения России к своим неурбанизированным территориям. Сегодня, когда человек якобы уже покорил природу целиком, Россия является примером обратного. Несмотря на то, что целью советской власти было обретение контроля над природой, сейчас огромные территории возвращаются в то состояние, в котором они были до прихода людей. В то время как подавляющее число стран исповедует — по крайней мере, на словах — политику охраны природы, для России куда более остро стоит вопрос защиты населения. Грядущее изменение климата может затронуть ее больше, чем другие страны, так как оно вызовет колоссальные

HINTERLAND Despite covering 17 million square kilometers, 98 percent of Russia, and 10 percent of the world’s land surface, the Russian hinterland is largely terra incognita in both the Russian and the global consciousness. As well as containing one of the world’s largest forests, the world’s largest reserves of natural gas and a wide variety of other resources, the hinterland is also home to 192 minorities, with over 160 languages. The paradox of the Russian hinterland is that this enormous, diverse and naturally and culturally rich territory is currently either largely abandoned or, at best, exploited in an extremely limited way. Today, the pressures of global warming, world population growth and globalized trade urge us to reconsider the global role of the Russian Hinterland as a potential global reservoir of space and economic and cultural resources. After centuries of laborious efforts by various regimes, the more recent Soviet attempts at cultural and territorial development — mono cities, ‘fantastic’ projects to control the natural environment, and ethnofolklore scripting — are no longer sustainable. The recent increase in forest area and wildlife, the intensity and frequency of natural disasters and the instability of agricultural production suggest that Russia’s relationship with its hinterland is changing dramatically. In the age of the anthropocene, in which man has supposedly subdued nature entirely, Russia is a counterpoint. While the Soviet regime had the ambition of cultivating and controlling nature, vast areas of Russia are now reverting to nature. Where most nations at least profess a policy of protecting nature, for Russia, protection of its population is now more urgent. Russia will be the country most intensely affected by climate change, confronting dramatic changes on five frontiers: melting ice, permafrost thaw, increasing rainfall, droughts and rising sea level. At the same time, climate change will create new opportunities of oil fields and shipping routes in the Nordic seas, a dramatic expansion of arable lands. The question we raise is whether Russia, in its current condition, can respond to the various transformations and opportunities in its hinterland. Politically, the country’s complex legacy of legislation

перемены на пяти фронтах: таяние льдов, таяние вечной мерзлоты, увеличение количества осадков, рост засухи и повышение уровня моря. В то же время изменение климата приведет к возникновению судоходных путей в северных морях и новых возможностей для разработки нефтяных месторождений, а также будет способствовать значительному расширению сельскохозяйственных земель. Может ли Россия в ее нынешнем состоянии ответить на глубинные вызовы и возможности трансформации, которые скрыты в ее обширных пространствах? В этой связи должно быть переосмыслено законодательное наследие страны. Необходимо отказаться от привитого в советское время единообразного подхода, в рамках которого отношения общества с природой и землей всегда рассматривались как часть крупномасштабных проектов. Нужно переосмыслить уже не актуальные административные схемы и пойти навстречу условиям и потребностям, существующим в каждом конкретном регионе. В продолжение прошлогодних тем «Стрелки» — Истончение и Энергия — были изучены изменения, происходящие в регионах России. Стремясь применить систематический подход для анализа и осмысления бесконечных российских просторов, мы использовали точечный метод и рассмотрели более 50 кейсов по всей стране. Наши полевые исследования включали в себя сбор и обработку данных, беседы с экспертами и местными жителями, а также личные наблюдения. На основе этого мы вместе определили перечень актуальных тем и попытались сформулировать их значимость для будущего России. В этом отчете собраны фрагменты из книги, которая является конечным результатом исследования студии «Провинция».

has to be reconsidered. The uniform Soviet-style approach of grand scale cultivation needs to move beyond its outdated administrative boundaries, responding instead to local conditions and needs. In a continuation of Strelka’s Thinning and Energy themes from last year, we went out to explore Russia’s transforming hinterland. In an effort to conquer its enormity in a systematic way, we deployed a point-grid method, examining over 50 cases spread out over the country. The field work combines data analysis, conversations with experts and people in the field, and intuitive observations on the ground. Based on the case studies we collectively defined a number of urgencies and tried to formulate their relevance for the future of Russia. This research report is a snapshot of the final product: the Hinterland compendium.

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Contents FIELDWORK 2 PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS 16 UTOPIA 18 Victor Ruben RISE OF NATURE 28 Maria Kosareva and Tihana Vucic RUSSIAN ARIÈRE-GARDE 48 Anton Kalgaev DEVELOPING HINTERLAND Elena Arkhipova and Katia Pavlenko

BRICX 78 Gustavo Cabañez GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND Penghan Wu

HINTERLAND CASES

Fieldwork Because most of our research is located in ‘terra incognita,’ fieldwork became the backbone of the hinterland project. The first fieldtrip, in the fall term, was to the outskirts of Moscow. In December we went further, to the villages Semenov, Shaldezh and Il’yino-Zaborskoye in the Nizhny Novgorod region; where we met the unique rural developers Olga and Galina Baldin, who lead the Rural Advisory Centre and together with their extended family in a way support and keep together the entire rural community in the Semenov area. In February the team explored the vast territories of Siberia and the Far-East. Apart from team member, Katia, these were unknown lands for the team: with Vladivostok, Khabarovsk and Irkutsk as our base camps, we captured glimpses of the immense diversity of Russia’s countryside. Exposed to the contrast between the optimistic locals of the Uglekamesk House of Culture, the crystalizing beauty of Baikal and the surreal and meditative experience of 56 hours of train, (only then realizing that 1/3 of the country’s length was travelled…) and the darker sides of the Far East: environmental recklessness, illegal workers and the everyday inability to maintain much of its heritage, culture and community sense. As part of the final working session in Rotterdam in May, the team concluded with a short exploration of the Dutch hinterland, visiting the polder landscape, large costal protection infrastructure and two high-tech farmers. From talking to experts, we realised that remoteness is not necessarily a matter of distance from Moscow – parts of Siberia with international products and satellite dishes felt far more familiar than the day-to-day struggles of places closer by like Semenov.

Former sovkhoz Barkhatnoye milk farm Kazanka, Primorskiy Krai

periphery: train Khabarovsk - Irkutsk

“It’s difficult for me to invest in the farm because of the ever-changing policies for subsidies. I never know what next year will bring. That’s why I can’t plan ahead. For now we are OK. The one thing we don’t want anymore is the instability of the nineties. Anything but that.” Ivan Poluektov, owner of Barkhatnoye milk farm, Kazanka, Primorskiy Krai

periphery: Listvyanka

“Siberia makes up three quarters of Russia’s territory, still it complies with the “Western” definition of borders of Europe. On the issue of Siberian separatism: it only really exists in the mind of authorities, which are far away. Here in Siberia the ‘Sibiryak’ identity is only about linking to the territory where you live.” “When Russia Crossing the Baikal lake became an Empire, it had to have colonies both in the east and the west. So Siberia becomes a ‘colony’ of the Russian Empire. But today the position is vice versa. It could be said that Russia is colony of Siberia.” Midnight lecture about Siberia by anthropologist Mikhail Rozhanskiy, lobby of the hotel Intourist near lake Baikal, Siberia

“We are not sure if we are doing the right thing...” Elena Ladeishikova - historian, department of preservation of cultural heritage Irkutsk about the recent reconstruction of “Kwartal 130”. Condemned wooden traditional houses have been replaced with ‘upgraded’ luxurious villas and new commercial program.

Trans-Siberian Express, Khabarovsk to Irkutsk, 56 hours. Villages, trees, more villages, more trees...

“The plywood produced here is of low quality and is primarily used for construction and packaging purposes. Occasionally the quality of the plywood boards produced is higher, but we lack the equipment and the ability to distribute better quality material in this area.” Plywood factory worker in Il’yino-Zaborskoye, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast

Reginoal History Museum: Ilyinskoye

Conflict over urban expansion on the outskirts of Moscow: local inhabitants protest against new property walls blocking them from reaching the river and cutting off connections to nearby villages. Timoshkino, Moscow Region

Project Descriptions UTOPIA – VICTOR RUBEN One of the earliest thoughts on conquering the hinterland in Russian literature occurs in “European Letters” by V.K. Khuhelbekher, in 1820. Khuhelbekher shows Europe in ruins, serving only as an attraction for tourists from a utopian hinterland society. It is reminiscent of Putin’s recent remarks about the EU in which he projects contemporary Europe as a ruin. This project traces more than 15 literary utopias of the hinterland and their relationship with their occasionally realized counterparts. The product of this research is the opening chapter of a (much needed) contemporary utopia of the hinterland. RISE OF NATURE – MARIA KOSAREVA, TIHANA VUCIC While the total forest coverage of Russia has increased through an expansion of its definition as well as through natural growth, the public sector’s capacity to cope with increasing emergencies and the maintenance of forestland has been significantly reduced. Kosareva looks at the intimate connection between Russia’s development and nature: from its wildest dreams to the contemporary situation of degraded infrastructure and loss of economic diversity in which a paradigm shift seems imminent from the protection of nature towards the protection of mankind. Complementary to this research, Vucic looks at both the negative and positive impact that climate change will have in the hinterland: from unpredictable and extreme weather to the methane that will be released as the permafrost melts, but also to opportunities of new oil fields becoming reachable and new shipping routes in Nordic seas, the dramatic expansion of arable land and the use of contaminated areas for the production of biofuels. Considering the Soviet ambition to influence the climate and control nature, is there enough ideological ambition to deal with the imminent changes? RUSSIAN ARRIÈRE-GARDE – ANTON KALGAEV Folk art remains – despite the industrialization of its production and the vagueness of its origins – one of the most original interpretations of culture and one of the most effective tools for the cultural development of the hinterland. As such, folk art relates to contemporary art, which is confronted with similar issues of authenticity and value. This project looks at the possibility of mutual exchange between folk art and contemporary art and looks for ways in which both can learn from each other. 16

DEVELOPING HINTERLAND – ELENA ARKHIPOVA, KATIA PAVLENKO An important observation from our fieldtrips is the simultaneous need for strong leadership in the hinterland and increased integration of local development efforts. This project works in two directions: top-down and bottom-up. Pavlenko explores the top-down efforts, from mundane dictates – like the legal obligations of milk farms to increase production – to regional development on the federal level to policies that favor large industrial complexes over smaller initiatives. Arkipova looks bottom-up, researching local initiatives and NGOs. She addresses the fragmentation of these individual efforts by trying to understand their specfic qualities, improving knowledge-sharing and collaboration. Together they propose a reconsideration of the current uniform approach in favour of the introduction of a new hybrid which puts local needs at the forefront of development. BRICX – GUSTAVO CABAÑEZ Russia’s potential strength seems to be inversely proportionate to its ability to act upon the global stage. Russia has significant renewable energy potential, forest mass, and agricultural land, a highly skilled population, bordering 14 lands and 41 seas, yet it fails to engage most of its neightbors. This project looks at various elements of Russia’s representation in the world, including its participation in BRIC and other international cooperative efforts, assessing how these relationships effect the hinterland. GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND – PENGHAN WU Despite limited official recognition of the increasing foreign influences in the Far East, for many inhabitants, this is now a given. The potential for collaboration seems vast and mutual: an open exchange of economic, cultural and territorial values and content would benefit every country in the region. This theme builds a case for more collaboration and further integration based on differences rather than similarities. As such, cooperation could be a new bridge between the Pacific and other partners like the EU.

INTRODUCTION

Utopia

Map of connections between utopian ideas and development Connections shown on this timeline diagram are mostly implicit. They are based on similarities of the ideas and approaches to development of the hinterland. The fact that some of them are forceful and a number of them serves as evidence that the influence of utopian discourse on the hinterland development exists, and is very strong, but not constant. The Soviet time developments were largely dependent on utopian ideas. Modern-day developments lack influence from modern utopias and leaders of these projects are trying to create utopian models on which they can rely. This proves that the dependency still exists, but that it is not able to sustain itself on the same scale it once did, and that it had to shrink down to the level of local initiatives. Correlation of utopian and social activity reveals a number of tendencies and points of interest which are the core of this project. For example we can see that utopias peak a few years after the peak in the development of a society. And the feeling of upcoming recession gives the most fertile grounds for utopias.

UTOPIA

Connections

5. Peasants as political power 5

Big project: Stolypin reforms (1906-1910) Utopia: “Journey of my Brother Alexii to the Land of Peasant Utopia” A.V. Chayanov (1920)

Stolypin perceived peasants as a political power and his reforms were focused on the creation of wealthy, conservative peasants. The very same peasant who inhabit the world of Chayanov’s utopia, where governance is “power of peasant soviets”.

Stolypin reforms (19061910) “Journey of my brother Alexii to the land of peasant utopia”A.V. Chayanov (1920) connection 5: “peasants as political power”

So the peasants are the main source of political power. The connection here is in the importance of the role of the peasant in society in general. Stolypin was the first to recognize this potential and tried to develop hinterland accordingly. While Chayanov pushed this potential to extreme making the peasantry the most important part of the society. 6. Industry to agriculture Utopias:“In a 1000 years”, V.D. Nikolskii (1923), “Letaushii proletarii”, V.Mayakovskii (1926) “Neznaika in Sun city” N. Nosov (1958) Big project: Mechanization/industrialization of agriculture (1928-...)

Agricultural production used to require a lot of space and manpower. If space is not an issue for some utopian authors, the necessity to hard work always is. In a perfect society one should not have to work, but should have a natural desire to work but no actual need. Mechanization or industrialization of agro-production is a strong idea appearing in all utopias concerned with this topic. “And now, food fabrics had pushed away fields and gardens, where are now continuous fabric of garden-cities.” (Nikolskii, 1923)

“And our travellers saw some kind of strange machine, looking like some kind of mechanical snow cleaning machine, or some kind of tractor... ...But the most surprising was that where was nobody operating this machine.” (Nosov,1958)

These two quotes show two stages of utopian industrialization of agriculture: first is more idealistic (no space for food production, so it has to be not only automated but industrialized as well), the second is more “down-to-earth” approach (agriculture is robotized, so no human effort is required to maintain it). “Neznaika in Sun city” N. Nosov (1958)

Automation of agriculture has another unexpected effect on the image of hinterland, with agriculture as the main purpose; hinterland becomes uninhabited, or at least this is the goal for some utopias. 9. Agriculture controlled from the city

Agroholdings (2000-...) connection 6+9: “industry to agriculture”/ “agriculture controlled from the city”

Utopia: “Neznaika in the Sun city” N. Nosov (1958) Big project: Agroholdings (2000-...)

Agroholdings are companies that unite numerous large-scale agricultural enterprises and are controlled form the centre. They are usually also characterized by high levels of mechanization of agrarian production. In Nosov’s utopia “Neznayka in the Sun City” (1958) agriculture has exactly these same characteristics: largescale, controlled from the city trough means of mechanization and automation.

“On machine like this you can cultivate the earth and at the same time stay in the city. ” (Nosov. 1958)

“We manage to harvest two, tree or even four harvest in one summer.” (Nosov. 1958)

Agroholdings are not perceived as something utopic in modern Russia, but as something purely practical. And this seems reasonable because they take on most of the production of grain and animal products. At the same time they receive the most governmental support, so in the case of agriculture it is clear that Russian government today has a strong vision of perfect agriculture. We cannot be certain if it is actually the best, but we can clearly see the manifestation of old utopian model in the real development of Russian hinterland. 21. Food tradition. Utopia: “Journey to the Sun CIty”, Y. Muhin (2000) Case: LavkaLavka. 2009.

Regional development based on traditional agricultural production, differentiating different parts of Russia and therefore making food from these regions economically attractive to tempted customer, is one of the long-turn goals of the contemporary LavkaLavka project. Almost identical concept of value of the local, and healthy but most importantly traditional food can be found in utopia written by Muhin “Journey to the Sun City”: 12

“People eat locally and seasonally.” ;“On household plots people usually grow their own vegetables in sufficient amount.” (Muhin, 2000)

It is not clear if this utopia had influence the LavkaLavka project, but the fact that this idea manifests so strongly in real life proves that the trend of local, traditional food is very active and relevant today. “Andromeda nebula”, I.A. Efremov (1956)

Space race (1957-1975)

Gas mono city “Nadim” (1972) connection 12: “space hinterland”

12. Space Hinterland Utopia: “Andromeda nebula”, I.A. Efremov (1956) Big project: Space race (1957-1975) Case: Gas mono city “Nadim” (1972)

The idea of space as the infinite hinterland of the earth can be traced in many utopias in the period 1950s - 1980s. But it also appears in the development of real hinterland. For example, mono-city “Nadim” and the small planet “Zirda” in Efremov’s “Andromeda nebula” are very similar in their relationship to nature to that of the Ministry of Geology in 1960s. Mono-city and mono-planet share a very similar place in the utopia and the real hinterland: small, distant, very hard to reach. Where life goes on under extremely harsh conditions, but most importantly they are both used for only one purpose extraction of natural resources.

UTOPIA

LavkaLavka LavkaLavka is a universal farmer cooperative, based in Moscow, which tries to create infrastructure to support small scale agrarian producers. The central aim of the project is to create favouravle conditions for the farmer suitable for his work. LavkaLavka is also a foundation which stimuateds and supports development of farms. Any restaurant or consumer can join the cooperative, consumer members receive lower prices for farmer’s products.

Ideology. LavkaLavka provides distribution and infrastructure support to small-scale farmers. But they do not necessary disregard all big enterprises, but rather search for personalized organisations which produce organic food. Initially this project began with a search for good and healthy food, which was produced locally, but this is no longer the main priority. Boris Akimov, the founder of LavkaLavka claims that, “by reorganizing their budget anyone can buy food from our farmers”, but looking at prices it’s clear that it is not affordable for large parts of the population. The food is not luxurious, but because of the quality and small scale of production prices are high. The second idea that drives this organization is regional development through gastronomic self-identification, which can distinguish regions on the global map. “If everybody grows the same Dutch breed of cucumbers, even if it is perfect, why should I care where it comes form? But if I can get different cucumbers from different regions I can decide according to my gastronomic preferences, or just because I’m bored”, said Akimov. This regional differentiation can improve profitability of products, freshen up the economy and generate gastronomic tourism. LavkaLavka does not accept genetically modified strains of products, since they lack regional and historical identity. Not because for health or safety reasons. Organization. LavkaLavka is based on interaction of seven players: farmers, consumers, stores, supplier of machinery, supplier of feed, fertilizers, logistics and energy, restaurants and funds supporting farmers initiatives. The farmer is the central figure of this cooperative.

Jointly the cooperative can buy animal-feed, fertilizers, machinery etc. on wholesale bases making it cheaper for the producer and for the farmers. Competition. The success of this organization has set a new trend of farmers food in Russia. More and more new LavkaLavka-like businesses appear on the market. A few examples: marble beef from Lipetsk, “Vse Svoe” (All local) on-line shop, “Eda iz derevni” (Food from village), “Okraina” (Hinterland), “Rossiiskii krolik” (Russian rabbit), and many more. All networks offer organic food, which is delivered at your doorstep. But they do not share the LavkaLavka’s ideology, the diversity of farmers and produce, or the success. These examples all have a very rigid farmers network with whom they work, and they do not want to change it in any way.

LavkaLavka children

Portrait of Hinterland City Country Continent

Industry vs. Desert Peasant country Industrial country Garden city Agro town Sustainable Community “Only dull deserts. White during winter and covered with poor grass in short summer months. Wild animals were long extinct and wan had no businesses were.” (Brusov, 1904)

“The whole country is now just one big agricultural settlement divided into squares of communal forests, stripes of cooperative fields and giant climatic parks.” (Chayanov, 1920)

“And now, food factories had pushed away fields and gardens, where are now continuous fabric of garden-cities.” “Need of big centres with high density of population... ...is long gone. Since the time of travel reduced so much that in few minutes you could get tens of kilometres form the centre flow form the centre became something natural... …Green suburban areas become irresistible because of their clean air and vast areas.” (Nikolskii, 1927)

“Commune in Russia is preferably small community living at the same place and therefore having same interests.” (Muhin, 2000)

1835 1904 1920 1923 1927 1958 2000

City vs. Wilderness

Planet

100% RURAL 100% CULTIVATED 100% URBAN 100% CULTIVATED

100% CULTIVATED

Not all Utopias have a place for the hinterland as a subject. Some only mention it briefly, but some focus on the future of hinterland so to see how the portrait of the hinterland changes throughout time it is relevant to understand how it was influenced/influences the development of actual hinterland. The portrait of hinterland changes from being a space for development of a city (Odoevskii, 1835) to hinterland being a lifeless desert (Brusov, 1904) or a land for agriculture and peasants (Chayanov, 1920) to one giant city (Okunev, 1923, Nikolskii, 1927) and back to agricultural land (Nosov, 1958). In Muhin’s utopia (2000) the hinterland is portrayed as a perfect place to live, in a way very close to life in the hinterland is now. The main difference is that small communities and villages from which make up the hinterland govern themselves. This change in portrait of the hinterland reveals the nature of relations between authors and the hinterland: as something that can be changed according to changes in the centre. But also this change shows that modern utopias don’t see the hinterland as a place worth working with. Such lack of directive into the future, imagination, even utopism is evidence of the decline of the role of hinterland on ideological scale in the development of modern Russia. Yet does this makes hinterland utopia irrelevant? Not necessarily. Because this change as seen in the portrait of the hinterland after the fall of Soviet Union can also be explained by the growing influence of Western utopias on the development of Russian hinterland, and we see this influence on a local scale. This doesn’t mean that there is no place for new Russian Hinterland utopia, this means that the need for it is not fulfilled.

Focusing on the utopian image of different topics (hinterland, climate, nature, state, global hinterland, food) as they emerge in literature, these portraits serve the goal to understand how these utopian images change over time. Three examples shown here prove that the utopian impulse decreased after the collapse of the Soviet union in some of them (Hinterland, Global Hinterland), but is still active in others (nature).

UTOPIA

Portrait of Nature CONTROL

SCIENCE

PROTECT

HARMONY CLOSE TO NATURE MAN OWNS NATURE PRIVATE PLOT NEEDS TO BE PROTECTED

CENTRE

MAN IS A PART OF NATURE IMPORTANCE

GARDEN

LUXURY TASTE ELITE

THEME CONCENTRATED ATOMIZED PARK POWER HYDRO GENETICAL MINIATURE DANGER PLANT ENERGY ENGINEERING WORLD CONQUER ARTIFICIAL SOURCE RELIGION PLANT INTELLIGENT MAN IS A AFTERLIFE STRUGGLE AS GOOD NO HUMAN RECOGNIZE NATURE PART ARTIFICIAL PET CONTROL AS REAL OF NATURE OPPOSITION LIFELESS TAME INSTINCT GENETICAL HOBBY DANGER DESERT VAST LARGE DESIRE ENGINEERING SEPARATED USELESS SCALE INDUSTRIALIZATION MIX FOOD METAL PART OF URBAN SKY IS ENVIRONMENT CHEAP CHEMISTRY DOME NATURE FREE ESSENCE HOSTILE FOOD GARDEN CITY ARTIFICIAL ICE COLD HARSH SEMI-CONDUCTOR INDUSTRY CLOUD ARTIFICIAL TRANSPORTATION FLIGHT SUNS HEATED AMUSEMENTGREEN ROOF TIES CONNECTION WATER GAMES WIRELESS PART OF URBAN ENERGY SOLAR ENVIRONMENT SOURCE POWER

2000

DOG-SIZE HORSES

1835

1923 1927

1904

INSPIRATION

1926

1960

Changing portrait of nature. The essence of the portrait of nature in utopian literature remains constant during the past 170 years.

Nature cannot be separated from hinterland, especially given that 96% of Russia is nature. The portrait of nature in utopias transforms form something completely wild and hostile to something anthropogenic. So to find the storyline of nature to be very active in utopias is not surprising. Yet, if relation to hinterland changes a lot during the history of utopias, the relation to nature develops in a different way. In the selection of utopias up to the XXI century nature is opposed to human kind and needs to be conquered or even destroyed. The portrait of nature even if changing from something hostile and dangerous to something useful, until the end of Soviet Era was constant as something to be modified, conquered, or created from scratch. It seems that only in the “Journey to the Sun City” (Muhin, 2000) nature is formulated to be something valuable in the state it is now and needs to be protected. But this is not entirely true. The nature of this planet is protected because another type of nature appears, namely space with new possibilities for expansion and modification. So unlike the attitude towards the hinterland the attitude to nature is still strong in it’s utopian sense.

Okunev

1823

Chayanov

1920

Okunev

1923

Muhin

2000

RUSSIA < CHINA

RUSSIA = CHINA

GLOBAL HINTERLAND

USSR > WORLD

RUSSIA > CHINA

Portrait of Global Hinterland

Sorokin

2006

Transition of Russia’s position and role on global map from largest power, to a neighbour of a number of growing countries.

“Chinese people, now try our best to mimic foreign habits. Everything is Russian-like: clothes, customs, literature, but one thing we leak – Russian smarts.” (Odoevskii, 1835)

The prerequisite for most utopias is the global scale on which they operate. It is rare that Russia stays in it’s current boundaries. Yet even in utopia Russia usually does not occupy the whole world. It has some neighbouring countries showing the advancement or the degradation of the “Russian” hinterland. In most of the cases it’s China, whose comparable place slowly increase in it’s importance.

“On September 7 three armies of German Vsebuch, escorted by clouds of aeroplanes, invaded Russian Peasant Republic and in one day facing no resistance or any human being for that matter progressed by 50-100 kilometres.

China as a neighbour of the “Russian hemisphere” in utopia first appears in the utopia “4338” by V.F. Odoevskii (1835). China here is seen as a county which has surprisingly fallen behind Russia. But this concept changes drastically in next 150 years. In the “Journey to Sun City” (Muhin, 2000) Russia and China emerge as equals. And in “Day of Oprichnik” (Sorokin, 2006) Russia falls behind China is the same way as China wasn’t able to compete with Russia 150 years earlier.

...meteophors on the border started working on maximum power creating cyclone of small radius and in half and hour half a million armies and tens of thousands of aeroplanes were literally wiped away...”. (Chayanov, 1920) “Streets, squares, streets again – infinite world city... By the 1st quarter of XX century all cities of the world joined into one. Across the oceans by artificial islands continents reached out to each other with their streets.“ (Okunev, 1923)

In the end Russia serves only as an area of transportation from one centre of development to another, and as a reserve of natural resources. So even if physically Russia is separated from the outside world by a huge concrete wall (like in “Day of Oprichnik” 2006), it is actually absolutely open for transportation, and the transit fee is a major source of income for Russia. Absolutely opposite image of the global hinterland is presented in the Chayanov’s utopia (1920). Here Russia seems to be transparent and open, but at the same time completely self sufficient and enclosed. However the most common portrait of Global Hinterland in Utopias is global unity. Planetary unity is the preferred scale. This leads to the appearance of once unified hinterland with no political or physical borders.

UTOPIA

Project Highlights Analysis of utopias provides us with an understanding of the general thinking specific to a particular period. During the Soviet era the universal cornerstone model for social, economic and political structure for almost all utopias was communism. And the existence of marginal utopias opposing the general line, such as “The Rose of the World” (Andreev, 1958), only proves that utopian writers at that time actually believed in ideas of communism. After the Soviet Union fell, this powerful uniting ideology also collapsed, and nothing has replaced it. Contemporary authors enjoy greater freedom, but unlike their predecessors they have to construct the whole model from scratch. This makes the utopian discourse potentially weaker. The evidence of this is seen in the Portraits section of the current research: the way in which Russia is imagined by modern utopists coincides with the real state of things in the country. Modern utopias prove to lack imagination and strong utopian impulse. At the same time, they are more diverse and subjected to the influence of Western ideas. Similar situation occurs with the development of hinterland, especially on a local level. The lack of clear ideological base made it possible for such projects like “LavkaLavka” to appear. It is clearly influenced by western ideology that promotes organic farming, but adopted to the Russian context. Another example of influence is the eco-village “Tiberkul”, whose leader managed to create a unique ideological/ethical base. Both projects are trying to create personal mini-ideologies. These examples show that the need for new utopian impulses is natural and it clearly exists. New developments of hinterland are more successful if they manage to achieve certain level of utopia. For example, “LavkaLavka” has numerous competitors, but none of them are able to match the robust network of customers and farmers. Even if some of the other initiatives would become more successful, “LavkaLavka” will always be responsible for the increased interest to farmers and to the hinterland, for the development of farms and for healthy eating habits. They were the first to promote these ideas on a broad scale. Another interesting aspect is the connections between Soviet utopias and modern development. They show that the influence of utopian models is strong even on a large scale of hinterland development, but has been inherited from the previous era. One of the strongest developments of past 12 years is the development of agroholdings, which almost literally follows the ideas on agriculture as explained in Nosov’s “Neznayka in the Sun City” (1958). These notions included centralization, mechanization, and remote control of agricultural production from the city. The absence of a universal ideological base destroyed the close relationship between utopias and the grand ideas of hinterland development in Russia. It also diminished the opposition to the ideology of the Western world. Modern development is therefor no longer influenced by utopian discourse in the same way as it once was. The influence and connection still exists, as it is difficult to disregard that the ideological component prevails over pragmatic, but this influence today is much broader, because it is globalized, but is implemented more locally.

References

Andreev, D. Rose of the World. Moscow: Moscovskiy Rabochiy, 1991 (written 1958). Bogdanov, A. Red Star. St. Petersburg: Souz Hudognikov Pechati, 1908. Brusov, V. Republic of South Cross. Moscow: Scorpion, 1904. Carol, Leonard. Agrarian Reform in Russia. USA, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Chayanov, A. Journey of my brother Alexii to the Land of Peasant Utopia. Moscow: GOSIZDAT, 1920. Efremov, I. Andromeda Nebula. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia, 1956. Khuhelbekher, V. European letters. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia, 1977 (Written 1820). Mayakovskii, V. Flying Proletarian. Moscow: AVIOHIM, 1926. Muhin, Y. Journey to the Sun City. Duel. Last modified 2000, http://www.duel.ru/200025/?25_4_1 Nosov, N. Neznayka in the Sun City. Moscow: DETGIZ, 1956. Odoevskii, V. 4348. Moscow: GIHL, 1959 (written 1835). Okunev, Y. World to Come. Moscow: Tret’ya Straga, 1923. Nikolskii, V. In a Thousand Years. St. Petersburg, P.P. Soikin, 1927. Platonov, A. Trench. Moscow: SAMIZDAT, 1987 (written 1930). Platonov, A. Chevengur. Moscow: Drugba Narodov, 1987 (Written 1929). Savchenko, V. Fifth Journey of the Gulliver. Kiev: Radyanskii Pismennik, 1979. Sorokin, V. Day of Oprichnik. Moscow: Zaharov, 2006. Strugatskii, A. and Strugatskii, B. Return (Noon XXII century). Moscow: Children’s Literature, 1967 (Written 1959) Svetov, A. Vetochkins Travel to the Future. Moscow: Children’s Literature, 1960. Uzun, Vasilii. Agricultural holdings in Russia: identification, classification, the role and concentration of land. Publisher unkonwn, 2011. Voinovich, V. Moscow 2042. Moscow: Ardis Publishing, 1986. Akimov, Boris. interview by Ruben, Victor, April 26, 2012. Vitkov, Gleb. interview by Ruben, Victor, May 4, 2012.

UTOPIA

Rise of Nature Renaissance of Soviet projects An interesting trend is emerging: a number of Soviet projects are being revived. In the last 3-5 years new attention has been given to the Soviet nature project. Driven by different methods and reasons (dealing with consequences, renovation of infrastructure) the projects have became relevant again. The invasion and transformation of nature, which happened in majority of cases, is a phenomenon which is irreversible, and is becoming an endemic trend for the country. After the era of disasters in the 1980s and stagnation of the 1990s, the consequences of Soviet projects are evident. The different urgencies and models of dealing with the Soviet natural legacy which can be defined as: -- maintenance (means both care and refurbishment and dealing with consequences) -- continuing the construction of unfinished projects -- an unrealized project, to be realized today. Rebuilding Swamps Draining swamp fields was a big project for a long period in the 1920’s, in which turf was used as an energy source. It was active until the 1970s when oil and gas fields were developed in Siberia. The consequences of fast abandonment and lack of ecological foresight became evident in the form of wildfires all across European part of Russia. In July 2011, the document “Restoration of peat bogs in Russia in order to prevent fires and mitigation of climate change” was signed by Dmitry Medvedev and Angela Merkel. Nowadays in order to deal with the consequences of massive nature transformation, Russia requires international cooperation. The process of turning Russia into swamps again may now begin.

Forest Revisited In 2006, the forest belts were taken off the federal budget and became a municipal responsibility. Most of the belts are in poor shape, due to the decline of agriculture and shortages for regional budgets. As a result, many sections of the forest belts in the south are not maintained today. Stopping winds and erosion is becoming more and more urgent, and initiatives to restore the belts are emerging at all levels. From 2010 onwards, conferences and bottom up maintenance projects are becoming active. The Belgorod region has established its own program. Luzhkov’s Dream Former mayor Luzhkov in his 2008 book “Water and World”, proposed the revival of a never realised river reversal project, which is strongly supported by Kazakhstan as a solution to saving Aral Sea but did not find a lot of support. Still, it shows a readiness to return to Soviet ideas, even if they have been discredited by even the Soviet regime. Boguchanskaya case A great example of this trend is the Boguchanskaya hydro electro plant on Angara. This part of the cascade was planned and started in 1970 but then gradually abandoned by the middle of 1990s. But under new political conditions, the construction site was revived in an initiative led by business (oligarchs) with government support in 2007. This positive trend of business participation needs to be enhanced by coherent interaction between different structures (uklads).

Renaissance of Soviet projects scheme. Cathastrophe Project canceletion

Government

Business

Bottom-up

Renaissance of Soviet projects - transformations become irreversible. Soviet natural legacy becomes relevant today.

1940

1930

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020 Dealing with consequenses of turf extraction 20..?

Turf extraction (GOELRO plan) 1930s

Belomorcanal construction 1933

Belomorcanal re-construction 2018

Forest belts maintance (repaire) 2011

Stalin’s nature transformation plan 1948

Hydro Power Plants on Angara 2010

Hydro Power Plants on Angara 1963

River reverse project revival in Luzhkov’s book 2008

River reverse project 1970s

Aral sea disaster 1989

Aral sea revitalisation 2005

Stalin’s plan to transform nature The great project of natural climate transformation by Soviet authorities covered the whole country for 3 years (1949-1953) and was instantly abandoned. Today the project is being revived in different parts of Russia through bottom-up initiatives and federal support. History “We decided to do everything possible to secure the future of the country from drought” - Stalin, 1924 After the 1947 famine that killed about 1 million people, Stalin decided to ‘conquer’ the climate in southern USSR. Stalin’s plan to transform nature in 1948 was developed for this purpose. Transformations covered not only the south but much of the country. The basis of the idea was to conquer nature and to design nature to meet the needs of the country. The basis of this plan was the work of geologist Vasily Dokuchaev. Dokuchaev’s idea was to create a new consciously man-made landscape structure, which would improve the overall fertility of the territory and ensure sustainable agricultural crops. In 1892, Dokuchaev published a book “Our steppe before and now” on this topic.

1. Book published by Dokuchaev “Our steppe before and now”, 1892 // 2. Representation of nature control “Conquer the drought!” 1949

Implementation of the plan took on a truly megalomanic scale: from 1948 to 1953, 2,3 millions ha of forest were planted across the country. This is equal to almost half of the territory of the European Union and 5% of all the Russian forests. The program started to work, and schoolchildren and kolkhozniks participated in the planting. The 15-year plan intended to change the climate on the territory of 120 ha and, as a result, enrich the flora and fauna of the region, increase yields and increase Soviet Union self-sufficiency in grain. According to the official statistics, yields had doubled during the first 3 years of the plan. But following Stalin’s death (April 1953), a resolution was issued to stop all work on forestation.

This project was canceled along with the SalekhardIgarka and the Baikal-Amur railways, the YeniseyKrasnoyarsk tunnel, Main Turkmen Canal and the Volga-Baltic waterway projects. In all cases, the plan turned out to be unprofitable to the state and led to economic collapse. However, the project was not totally abandoned, after forestation ended, the focus of the plan was shifted toward canal construction. Nature The project represents a unique case of conscious human influence on nature on such scale. The totally artificial nature also included the relocation of birds in order to design a whole new ecosystem in the region. The forest belts are a very important agricultural element, planted to protect the fields from the hot winds of the south. Since the project was quickly abandoned, belts were partially cut and partially neglected, which meant loss and unpredictability of agriculture output in the southeastern regions. Ambitions meets reflections ”Forest belts in many areas will change the climate regime ... ” 1949, “Stalin plan of nature transformation”, V. Gnilovsky The forest belts have not changed the climate, at most they affected the ecosystems. “Of course, the climate can’t be changed with forest belts construction. No one believed in it!” 2008, “60th Anniversary of forest belts”, Novaya Gazeta 2012: an example of revival Last fall, local workers from the ‘Horizon’ farm (Mikhailovsky region, Altai kray) began to restore the forest belt, clearing and planting almost two thousand seedlings of larch and pine trees. After this initiative, the team received regional support and a special program “Fertility” was established.

program’s “Fertility”. Other examples of restoration of the forest belts include: Volgograd and Belgorod regions, where local programs to reconstruct the forest belts were established. Or the project “Green Corridors of Future” which was started in the early 2000s (The focus of this last project was primarily to restore forest belts as corridors for animals).

RUB48 million from the federal and RUB10 million from the regional budget were allocated for the implementation of the RISE OF NATURE

Ideology: effects on the ground

1951. Lenin and Stalin designing nature to meet the country’s needs.

The logic of grand projects still aims at controlling the forces of nature. 2011,Vladimir Putin in Tomsk. Source: vesti.ru

“We cannot wait for the mercy of nature, take them is our task!” I. Michurin 1934 ”The development and construction of huge Hydroelectric Pants in Siberia or River diversity projects were forced by the bureaucratic power of institutions created by Stalin. Khrushev was against such projects.” Mikhail Rozhanskiy (Siberian sociologist)

“We can not wait for the mercy of nature, after all we have done.” - popular anecdote of the 1980s

Ideology Finds Ground The Soviet regime was in need of a tool for development of its territory, and took on a pro-active position of nature conquerors. The idea of conquering nature did not originate in Soviet Union, but it found fertile ground during this period: great plans for nature transformation, ambitions aimed at climate change, space exploration, these large scale attempts to control and manage nature took place. 1920-1940: Although the early Soviet “Lenin” policy for nature management and development proposed reasonable use of natural resources, defined by different codes and standards for the treatment of nature. At the same time, the massive establishment started developing natural reserves, which were completely different from their contemporaries in Europe or America. These were used for observation and research activities, but closed to visitors. Nature was kept closed to external influences and used for strictly scientific purposes of research. Big ideas - big projects Nature gained the status of enemy and almost military operations were deployed. Construction of the Belomorcannal in 1933 that stretched 227 miles in less than two years was a quick victory over nature. “Quick victory over the enemy-nature, the perfect friendly pressure of thousands of heterogeneous units of different races is amazing, but even more amazing was the victory over a people themselves” wrote Maxim Gorky in the book “Belomorcannal” in 1934. Nature here was also a tool to transform criminals into regular Soviet Man Following World War II, the country faced drought and famine in 1946-47. The fear of famine was strong enough to start the reformation of nature: soon Stalin’s nature transformation plan started. The scientific basis for plan was the work of Vasily Dokuchaev from 1892. This was the theory of physical change of land while the Soviet regime provided for the ideology of conquest. Soviet authorities were insisting on military symbols: Stalin in uniform on the “battle” plan and promises of triumph to “defeat drought!” The relation to nature was reflected not only in plans to change and adapt it to suit humankind’s needs, but also in the development of conservation. In 1951, Stalin abolished 51 natural reserves, leaving more than 30,000 hectares of land open to man’s influence. Flight into space in 1961 not only expanded the notion of human capabilities, but also the understanding of nature, from 1960 the official definition of nature was expanded with new categories - “air, atmosphere”. In the 1960’s and the following decade, the era of superhuman and the conquest of space continued. It is hard to say whether these projects followed a direct idea of conquest and whether they were unfounded in science. Ideology previously created by the bureaucratic machine continued to move on, even if the idea was not clear or if it was not clear whether the project was needed. But change came quickly: the catastrophe at Chernobyl and the disappearance of the Aral Sea provoked a shift in focus to nature preservation. From 1990 to 2000, 29 nature reserves were established. In the 2000s, ideology seems to be back and emerge in new grand projects. In addition, the abandoned Soviet natural legacy becomes relevant today.

Expanding the definition of nature The way people define “nature” has changed multiple times, reflecting ongoing ideologies and projects involving nature exploration. Officially documented, the rules of engagement have been exponentially expanding the definition of “nature”, subjecting more and more components for human usage. Logically, from a strong human-centric viewpoint, each step of expansion brought more to develop, and at the same time - more to protect. Evolution of definition of “nature” can be described in three stages:

1920s The Beginning of Nature Classification of nature for the first time was introduced in Russia in the 1920s, following the establishment of the Soviet regime. Various codes regulated approaches to land, forests, subsoil, animals, plants, rocks, water. This disintegrated view of nature reflects the lack of a complex approach, but demonstrates the main fields of economic interests and activity of that time.

1960 The Growing Needs “Law on the Nature protection RSFSR“ expands the definition of nature to “natural wealth, both already involved in the economy, and unexploited”. Forest protective belts and “greening of urban areas” were added as a separate part of the forests category. The space race triggered imagination and in 1960 air was added as a component of nature. As if the Soviet regime needed to claim it prior to managing it in the future. These developments can be treated as a reflection of Stalin’s plan of nature transformation and a prerequisite for “anthropogenic natural objects” that would soon emerge.

2002 Contemporary Nature In the current federal law on the environment (2002), nature is defined as a “natural environment”, or a set of components of the environment, natural and anthropogenic natural objects”. It shows the division of cultivated nature, interfered by man, and wild nature. New elements were also added to the term: minerals, surface, ozone layer and even near-Earth space. The definition of nature has thus been radically expanded.

RISE OF NATURE

Inventory of nature

Under the current legal regulation, “Federal law on the Nature protection” (2002), there is a distinct definition of “natural Russia” that is split into two categories. The natural environment, or nature, is called in Russian prirodnaya sreda (priroda). The term is used to describe both natural objects (nature 1), as well as natural anthropogenic objects (nature 2). Calculating nature: Nature 1 Natural objects are flora and fauna, soil, minerals, the surface, water (including groundwater), air and near-Earth space environment. The documented structure of federal lands helps to calculate the amount of “nature” in Russia. The following parts were excluded from the count: settlements (1.1%), industrial zones, special protected zones and facilities (courtesy of the Defence Ministry, 2%). Based on this framework, 95.9% of the country falls into category of “nature”. Amount of urbanised territory versus nature

Calculating nature: Nature 2 (Antropogenic) As for the second part of the definition - natural anthropogenic objects - these are the natural objects modified by the economic or other activities of people. These might be objects created by man for protective or recreational functions. 23% of agricultural land is also a natural antropogenic object, as it was “changed as a consequence of economic activity”. Other examples are canals, reservoirs, forest belts and drained swamps. Thus, the great Soviet ambition to transform nature had its impact on 18.4 mln hectares. This equals the territory of Luxemburg, for example, making up only 1.1% of the total area of Russia.

Amount of anthropogenic nature: agricultural + transformed

4.1% vs. 95.9%

State of nature. According to the current definition and structure of federal territory - 95.9% of land is occupied by nature. The remaining 4.1% is urbanised and industrialised territory. Source: Rosreestr. www.rosreestr.ru

Nature is still a “natural” condition of most of the Russian hinterland - 95.9%

23.5% + 1.1%

23.5% is agricultural lands. Cultivated by man, this is type of nature is defined as being natural-anthropogenic. The second group that is related to natural anthropogenic is nature changed natural landscapes as a result of big Soviet projects for drained swamps (0.3%), forest belts (0.08%), water reservoirs (0.4%), drained area of Aral sea (0.3%), irrigation canals (0.02%) - this area totals18,4 mln ha (1.1% of Russia)

Agricultural lands cover 23.5% of territory. Source: http://www.grafamania.net/ uploads/posts/2009-06/1244568541_1.jpg

1.1% of anthropogenic nature is created and changed during implemeation of the biggest Soviet “natural“ projects. Source: google earth

Management: shrinking inefficiency

Ministry of Natural Resources Ministry of Rural Household Economy Ministry of Natural Household Economy Ministry of Rural Resources

Between Ideology and Practice The management structure might be the strongest reflection of state ideology, position and rhetorics with regards to nature. Different entities exist in order to guide practical activities. Thorough the examination of institutes mandated to manage natural resources, the government line can be examined.

The Russian word ‘economy’ (khozyaistvo) - is translated into English in a number of ways depending on the context. It can mean economy, farm or household. The Russian term thus appears to be more capacious, combining different meanings. Etymologically it derives from the word “khozyain”, or “master”, which adds extra value of care and maintenance to the word.

“Territorial branch” The Soviet Union was based on the “territorial branch” (territorialno-otraslevaya) system of government: every ministry existing on the Soviet Union level was duplicated on republican and regional levels. This system provided both control and flexibility. The modern Russian system has lost the advantages of the “territorial branch” structure as it follows another administrative model: consolidation. 47 ministries of the USSR were transformed into 17 federal ministries of the Russian Federation, each one of them with an extended mandate. Management of nature today is mainly concentrated in two ministries: Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Natural Resources. This is two instead of the six existing in the USSR. Compared to the Soviet system, the new management system has lost flexibility and, partly its authority. This eventually led to disconnection from the realities on the ground. Certain responsibilities, shared by different federal government entities, are addressed less effectively.

Lenin

Stalin

Khruschev

Brezhnev

PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIAT OF FOREST INDUSTRY

Most of the ministries in the Soviet Union operating with control of nature were called ministries of “household”. Although after a series of reforms the term disappeared and was replaced by the resources-focused approach. Today, it is urgent that nature is not defined and treated as a resource, but rather a household. Agriculture, or rural areas, on the contrary should be perceived as an additional resource of public wealth.

Andropov / Chernenko

Yeltsyn

Putin

Medvedev

MINISTRY OF INDUSTRY AND TRADE

MINISTRY OF FOREST INDUSTRY

USSR (1980) MAYOR FOREST SECURITY OF USSR

RSFSR PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIAT OF AGRICULTURE 1917-1946

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY ECONOMY

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE RSFSR (1)

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY ECONOMY

NATIONAL LEVEL

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE RSFSR (2) MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE RSFSR

PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIAT OF GRAIN AND LIVESTOCK FARMS RSFSR

RSFSR MINISTRY OF STATE FARMS GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND MINERAL PROTECTION

COMMITTEE ON RESERVES

GENERAL DEPARTMENT GENERAL DEPARTMENT FOR RESERVES FOR RESERVES ZOO-PARKS

MINISTRY OF GEOLOGY

GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF HUNTING AND NATURE RESERVES

REPUBLIC LEVEL

REGIONAL LEVEL

MINISTRY OF FOREST INDUSTRY

MINISTRY OF FOREST ECONOMY*

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

GENERAL DEPART MENT OF HUNTING AND NATURE RESERVES

MINIST OF GEOLO

MINISTRY OF FOREST INDUSTRY

MINISTRY OF FOREST ECONOMY*

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

GENERAL DEPART MENT OF HUNTING AND NATURE RESERVES

MINIST OF GEOLO

COMMITEE OF FOREST INDUSTRY

COMMITEE OF FOREST ECONOMY*

COMMITEE OF AGRICULTURE

COMMITEE OF HUNTING AND NATURE RESERVES

COMMIT OF GEOLO

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE RF

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

STATE COMMITTEE FOR NATURE PROTECTION

MINISTRY OF MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMY OF THE RSFSR (1) ASSOCIATION OF THE MINISTRIES OF BLANKS, AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Department of Rural Development and Social Policy

(2) GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND FORESTATION BECOMES A PART OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE TO REALISE FOREST BELTS PROJECT.

RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2010)

USSR (1980)

USSR, 1980

RF, 2010

NATIONAL LEVEL

MINISTRY OF FOREST INDUSTRY

MINISTRY OF FOREST ECONOMY*

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

GENERAL DEPART MENT OF HUNTING AND NATURE RESERVES

MINISTRY OF GEOLOGY

MINISTRY OF MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMY

REPUBLIC LEVEL

MINISTRY OF FOREST INDUSTRY

MINISTRY OF FOREST ECONOMY*

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

GENERAL DEPART MENT OF HUNTING AND NATURE RESERVES

MINISTRY OF GEOLOGY

MINISTRY OF MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMY

COMMITEE OF FOREST INDUSTRY

COMMITEE OF FOREST ECONOMY*

COMMITEE OF AGRICULTURE

COMMITEE OF HUNTING AND NATURE RESERVES

COMMITEE OF GEOLOGY

COMMITEE OF MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMY

After the Soviet Union collapsed and a total restructuring of administrative structure, the horizontal structure was replaced by a vertical but more complicated structure. Department The Soviet “territorial-branch“ (khozyaistvenno-otraslevoy) was abandoned. And a of Rural Development and tendency to enlarge institutions emerged, leading to a smaller but over-complicated Social Policy internal structure with weak connections between ministries. Source: http://guides. rusarchives.ru/browse/guidebook.html?bid=202&sid=686568 RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2010)

MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECOLOGY

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Administrative and External Relations

Department of of Forestry

Department of Economics and Analysis

Department of Administration and staff

MINIST OF INDUSTRY TRAD

Department of Hydrometeorology of regulation and environment monitoring

Department of veterinary Medicine Department of State policy and environment and ecological security regulation

Department of Finance and Budget Policy

REGIONAL LEVEL

MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECOLOGY

Department of Geology and Subsoil Use

Department of Melioration

Department of Animal Husbandry and Breeding

Department of Land Policy

Department of Rural Development and Social Policy

Department of Administration

Department of International Cooperation

Department of Finance and Budget Policy

Department of Plant, chemicals and plant protection

Department of water resources management

Department of of regulation of hunting and wildlife

*former min

RISE OF NATURE

Management: Growing forest freedom

The last decade was marked by a radical changes in the system of forestry. This sector was also affected by a countrywide trend to increase the number of responsible organisations and complications in interdepartmental relations. The result was a number of reforms that have left the forest without a single organization responsible for its protection and a dramatic reduction of forest rangers.

Census foresters: 3 years from the number decreased by two thirds”

Changes in the system of forest management. Under the Forest Code (1997 until 2004), almost all forests in Russia were managed centrally through a federal organisation with executive power. The Forest Code was amended at the end of 2004, initiating a process of decentralization of forest management. The authority to manage the forests, which were previously administered by the Ministry of Agriculture (as in Soviet times, at the disposal of state and collective farms), were now given to regional governments. Although the forests were owned at the federal level, maintenance was assigned to the regions without justification. Another step toward decentralisation was taken in 2006 when the forest belts were taken off the list of “forests” and placed on the municipal level list. This change resulted in no one actually caring for these important agricultural elements, and they began to decline due to lack of local budget resources. Following the reform of the forest in 2007 (the New Forest code), financial position of the state forestry authorities worsened, and there was a loss of a significant proportion of skilled workers up to 40-60%. Today the forest is managed by three ministries (Agriculture, Regional Development and Natural Resouces and Ecology).

Source: http://www.greenpeace.org/russia/ru/news/3-7/

Sometimes, published official numbers on the Internet show that the number of forest workers for the duration of the new Forest Code has not changed. An attempt to obtain any information on this subject in the Federal Agency of Forestry was not successful - just turned out that the leadership of Federal Forest Service does not track how many people and where it goes from the forest management “, — Alexey Yaroshenko, head of Greenpeace forest program. (2011)

Forest rangers taken off duty. Official statistics (Rosstat) do not provide clear numbers of employment in forest (care), the data was combined with agricultural workers and hunters, but media reporting shows that there are 40-60% fewer forest rangers. (2010)

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURSES AND ECOLOGY

FEDERAL FORESTRY AGENCY

Department of State policy and environment and ecological security regulation

MINISTRY OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

FOREST Three main ministries taking care of forest today, but no one ministry protects the forest. Growing forest

Comparing forest areas of 1983 and 2004 with official statistics, it appears that despite crisis of 1990s (massive illegal logging due to lack of state control) forest area has increased. Source: Atlas of Russia 1983, Atlas of Russia 2004. 880 ha 860 ha 840 ha 820 ha 800 ha 790 ha 780 ha

2004

770 ha 1984

760 ha 740 ha 720 ha 700 ha 680 ha 660 ha 640 ha 620 ha 600 ha 1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

1983

2004

Rise of nature: wilderness

The expansion of civilization has resulted in human civilizations covering nearly 40% of Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total area. But the population in rural areas is rapidly decreasing. Nearly 20,000 villages have been abandoned, and around 38,000 villages are populated with less than 10 people. Nature takes over the places left by humans, which also results in abandonment and loss of infrastructure as well as loss of cultural, social and economic diversity. Agricultural lands are slowly being overtaken by nature as well: about 77% of the agricultural territory is not cultivated, which means that in 3-4 years time it will become forested. This is also the result of the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agricultural policy that has ceded importance to industries based on extraction of raw materials.

Nature takes over the places left by humans. (Village in the Kirovsk region, Source: www.metallizer. ru/?m=travels&n=10051 )

Amount of unused agricultural land and abandoned settlements, comes back to wilderness

-18%

Abandonment and wilderness results in significant losses of infrastructure that is critical to Russia as a whole. Source: http://railworks2.ru/

Neglect area: 13 000 abandoned villages + 38 000 with population less than 10 people.

3-4 years of abandonment is needed for agricultural land to be covered with the first trees. Source: http://www.vryazan.ru/

Nature vs man. But in fact all inhabited locality is only 4% of the territory and it decreases because of strong migration from rural areas. Left settlements and abandoned agricultural lands (18%) are welcomed by nature. Nature vs man. But in fact all inhabited locality is only 4% of the territory and it decreases because of strong migration from rural areas. Left settlements and abandoned agricultural lands (18%) are welcomed by nature. Source: Rosreestr / Rosstat (census 1989, 2008). Bears 10 times

Increasing of aggressive wilderness Rate of growing wilderness 10 reflects not only an increase in forest but also a strong increase in the numbers of wild animals and mosquitos that threaten the population with disease, attacks, and affect the economy. Source: Rosstat

Squirrel 1,5 times Foxes 1,3 times Wolfves 1,1 times

2000

Current wilderness of Russia, faces lack of attention and maintenance, has a lot of potential to increase especially due to climate change.

2005

2009

2012

Nature is on the rise. After decades of trying to conquer nature, nature now seems to overwhelm, suggesting a reverse paradigm. The population in rural areas is decreasing. These factors leave more room for nature to expand. While the natural environment widens, Russian bureaucracy becomes less and less able to control this process. In the face of global climate change, lack of infrastructure to prevent and regulate natural disasters proves to be urgent. This is a harsh reality of Russian hinterland. RISE OF NATURE

Warming Russia

I believe in one thing only, the power of human will

Stalin

rule of law

1948

a er

m te

ris

Europe has confronted challenges global chara which is dire with change tional clima difﬁculties o models for c

Tear down this wall and save the planet Gorbachov

1950 1956

1991

‘95

Environmental Expert Empact Study Law Transformation of nature

Budkyo makes climatology quantitive science

200

The date Diss Prote Com

World Climate Chang Conference in Mosco Russia ratiﬁes K Climate Change D Warming Russia There is no bigger change of Russia than the one brought by climate change. Russia contains 11.5 % of the world’s total land mass, and country will determine the speed of future climate change globally. There are millions of tons of methane gas, 2 to 3 times stronger than CO2 that is stored in the frozen land, the permafrost layer. The release of this gas in the coming years will significantly influence the acceleration and the process of warming. Along with the coming warming, in Russia’s hinterland one notices that a never-fulfilled fantasy for climate change existed before. This time around, global warming is a welcomed consequence. Which makes Russia the frontline of climate change. But the time to follow through on political promises about warming is running out. 36

People and warming Changes following and induced by global warming vary from losing permafrost in the north to experiencing drought in the south. In total 34 million people will experience the severe consequences of this warming. Change on this scale is unprecedented and it is starting to shows signs of urgency in Russia especially. Past Wishes Russia’s long withstanding relationship with nature is rooted in the existing natural conditions. Uninhabitable areas take up 60% of the country, which is home to 7% of the total population of Russia. The reason for the confrontation with nature emerges primarily due to Russia’s current political and economical strategy which is very focused on natural resources.

wheat

+2 °C business as usual

+0.51 °C

if current policies were obeyed to put climate back to mid 20 century levels

s found itself with fresh - challenges of a acter, the nature of ectly connected es in the internaate and the of seeking new co-operation. Yetslin

An increase of two or three degrees wouldn't be so bad for a northern country like Russia. We could spend less on fur coats, and the grain harvest would go up. Putin

All of us are responsible for the state of things on our planet, as well as for the climate Medvedev

00 ‘03‘04 ‘09

2050

Presidential Decree # 867 ed May 17, 2000 solution of Enviroment ection Agency State mmittee on Ecology

ge ow Kyoto Doctrine

50% of permafrost melts desertiﬁcation of the south

Climate Change Doctrin awaits impelmantation Nature of Error In Soviet times droughts, frozen land and small river flows were seen as “Oшибки природы” (errors of nature) that needed to be fixed. Whether it was 5.7 million hectares of forest in the Russian south or to make the Volga basin 25% bigger, one thing was central, namely change. Disobedience by nature was not to be tolerated. Enemies of the State The Transformation of Nature was proclaimed by Stalin’s regime in 1948 and implemented by a regime which wanted to triumph over nature. The ambition was there and the science was used to support it. The ability of the Soviet regime to adapt through science proved immense. For example, agronomist Trofim Lysenko advocated that the acquired charac-

teristics of plants can be inherited - and that if you grew the plants incrementally further and further North each year, the plants would gradually adapt to the climate to the point where you can grow anything in the Arctic. Ideology-based science pushed the thinking about the environment in strictly physical terms to the extremes. Broken link The connection of science and policy-making is a vital question for climate change today, and Russia is no exception to this. The difference is that science no longer has the direct link to politics it once did and it remains almost unheard. But ideas do exist: Budyko’s geoengineering idea of sulphur injections into the stratosphere to stabilize the climate from the mid-1970s is still being developed and pursued academically. THE WARMING OF RUSSIA

Hinterland in the Making

North Pole Addition

~germany

+5.7 % (98 million ha)

Melting

~sweden

+2.7 % (44 million ha)

Southern Woes

~spain

-3.4 % (58 million ha)

total ~expansion of Russia

+5 % (84 million ha)

The New Hinterland. Estimation of possible changes on Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; territory through the lens of climate change. Expansion to the north, increase of arable land, droughts in the south.

The Scale of Change It is hard to measure the change in the hinterland of Russia caused by warming in such big proportions. The scale of natural disasters and opportunity attain a more realistic dimension when compared to European countries. The productive south of Russia is the size of Spain, while areas that might become arable are the size of Sweden. Russia needs to understand it cannot afford to take no action.

The Prirazlomnoye Rig The assembly of the New Hinterland has begun. With frozen waters melting away in the far north, the government’s interest in oil there becomes ever more real. This case follows the strongest trace of optimism for warming in the north of Russia.

North Pole

Ledovoye (1992) Ludloskoye (1990) Stokmanovskoye (1988) Severo-Kildinskoye (1985) Rusanovskoye (1989) Murmanskoye (1983) Leningradskoye (1990) Pomorskoye (1985) Severo-Gulyaevskoye (1986) Sevemash Shipbuilding Dudinka Prirazlomnoye 2012

ﬁrst ﬂoating nuclear power station

LNG terminal in 2012 Development of Arctic oil fields started with the Prirazlomnoye oil rig. There were several fields discovered in the late 1980s in the Arctic can now finally be exploited. Source: http://en.rian.ru/images/16737/14/167371473.jpg; http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/marine-news/featured/akademik-lomonosov-the-worlds-first-floating-nuclear-plant/

Hinterland’s Priority The first ice-free oil rig Prirazlomnoye has finally become a reality in the beginning of March 2012. The news was flashed to prove Russia’s resilience and to reaffirm the dedication to the state’s main source of income, but this project tells us more. Global warming is being welcomed and actively incorporated in strategies when it comes to resources. The Prirazlomnoye oil rig was developed locally, and is a Russian product that merges military technology and corporate interests, while pragmatically embracing the change ahead. The rig was designed by the Sevemash shipbuilding company which built around 80% of submarines in Soviet times and is based in the White Sea. In the late 1990s when climate change had not yet manifested itself in a convincing way as it has in the past few years, even the boldest thoughts about drilling in the Arctic included one main premise: it could not have happened without foreign technology. Now, the development and building of the Prirazlomnoye oil rig marks a new beginning for Russia’s mono-centric economic development strategy.

Hauling the New Hinterland - From a shipbuilding yard in the White Sea. The Prirazlomnoye rig on the way to the oil field. Source: http:/sdelanounas.ru/images/img/www.sevmash.ru/rus_ images_stories_7372.jpg; (2012)

THE WARMING OF RUSSIA

The State of Permafrost: How to Deal with the Loss of Solid Ground?

Methane gas trapped in a lake in Autumn, Siberia. Waiting for spring to break free. Source: http://thewe.cc/weplanet/news/arctic/permafrost_ melting.htm (2006)

“Methane, greenhouse gas 23 times more powerful than carbon dioxide trapped in a special type of permafrost is bubbling up at a rate five times faster than originally measured” Source: Journal Nature, Sept. 6, 2006 via http://thewe.cc/ weplanet/news/arctic/permafrost_melting.htm

“By 2030, the damage from global warming may become catastrophic. Up to a fourth of the dwellings in the North of the country is at risk of destruction” Russian Deputy Minister for Emergencies Ruslan Tsalikov said in a statement in June 2008

Bringing Down the House Permafrost, the permanently frozen land that covers 60% of Russia, is endangered by global warming. The depth of ice has increased to the north but in the last decades the line of permafrost in the south has moved around 40 to 80 kilometres to the north-east. As a result numerous cities and infrastructure, namely pipelines, have already been damaged and are in need of a strategy to maintain operational conditions. The Speed of Change The softening of solid ground is not the only problem that is emerging with global warming. The release of methane gas with the melting of the ice will not only contribute to accelerating climate change, but will potentially be hazardous, due to the high flammability of the gas. The changing landscape that comes with release of methane is unprecedented: the creation of methane lakes, coastal erosion, ground collapsing... The surface of the earth has never changed so fast, on such a large scale. Satellite images show that the total area of methane lakes expanded by some 12 percent from 1973 to 1998 in Siberia. By 2100, an estimated 300 billion tonnes of carbon from carbon dioxide and methane are expected to be emitted into the atmosphere. Stopping the melting of the permafrost is only possible by stopping the rise of average global temperatures. Adaptability The places of interest in this frozen land are in most cases linked to rich subsoil resources. The key interest and voice is generally formulated by corporations such as Gazprom and other companies of a similar magnitude. “For Russia, the biggest threat as a result of the melting permafrost is to oil and gas infrastructure,” said Vladimir Chuprov, who heads Greenpeace’s energy program in Russia. At this point, corporations are the first to respond to the distress call, while Providenya people wait for action. Mys Schmidta Anadir Komsomolskiy Pevek Beringovskyy Markovo

Murmansk

Tiksi

Naryan Mar

Vorkuta Salekhard

Norilsk

Dudinka Novy Urengoy

Igarka Khanty Mansisk

Korf Ossora Palana Susuman Ust Umchog Palatka Magadan

Omskuchan

Udachny Tura

Vilyusk Mirny

Yakutsk Pokrovsk

Lensk

Barnaul

Burning planes of methane: The speed of warming will be determined by areas of Russia that are not managed. Source: http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/ archives/2012/01/much-adoabout-methane/(2012)

Neryungy Kodinsk Ust Lumsk Tomsk Zeya Amursk Krasnoyarsk Bratsk Severobaikalsk Kemerovo Kansk Svobodnyy Belogorsk Abakan Angarsk Gorno Altaisk Irkutsk

Chita Blagoveshchensk Ulan Ude Borzya Kyakhta

Birobidjan

town on permafrost population 5000 line of permafrost today stabile permafrost melting by 2050 melting by 2025 250

500

1000 km

State of permafrost on “planet Russia”. The fall of cities seems imminent, but no strategy exists. Sources: Anisimov, Oleg and Reneva, Svetlana; Permafrost and Changing Climate, The Russian Perspective, June 2006 ,Ambio Vol. 35, No. 4; http://en.rian.ru/infographics/20120205/171095224. html via http://02varvara.wordpress.com/tag/permafrost/, (2011)

Warming Permafrost The first phase in permafrost change is already noticeable in the countries situated within the Arctic Circle. Energy giants such as Gazprom are addressing the issue of warming by investing in equipment, while the rest of Russia has no strategy and the predominant trend is abandonment.

Countyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest goes down the drain: Pipelines lose foundations. Source: http://assets.knowledge.allianz.com/img/russia_pipeline_ permafrost__1_12416.jpg (2010)

Beginning of Change Greenpeace estimated in 2000 that 15 million tons of crude oil leak out of Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pipeline system every year. It is hard to determine how much more leakage will happen due to the permafrost and how much is occurring to bad maintenance. Looking at the example of oil companies one tendency emerges - their readiness to respond to warming. There are other ideas as well on how to deal with permafrost. The United States is looking into localised freezing of the ground near pipelines, to support the existing foundations. In the near future, plans on how to deal with permafrost are most likely to come from the most invested party, the fossil fuel giants.

Refreezing permafrost. An idea developed for Alaska pipeline shows selective artificial maintenance of permafrost. Source: http:/yellowairplane.com/Global_Warming/4-Trans_Alaska_Oil_Pipeline_Problems.html; (2006)

Permafrost demonstrates power on a building in Vorkuta. Splitting structures in half. Source: http:/permafrost.su/results_R-E_project; (2006)

Cities want permafrost The permafrost is home to about 10 million people, but they currently do not receive the urgency and attention allocated to the pipeline system. According to the climatologist Vladimir Klimenko, 80% of buildings in Vorkuta are in dangeros condition. There are no quick fixes when in comes to stopping the melting of the permafrost. It demands a strategy, investments and readiness to deal with dangers that exist now and those that methane will bring - far more than destruction of oil and gas infrastructure.

Sinking railway on permafrost. Destruction of communication in hinterland. Source: http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/counting-the-cost-of-russias-melting-permafrost/444890.html (2010)

THE WARMING OF RUSSIA

Warming Risks

“North Pole is extension of Russian continental shelf” Geological Society of Russia, 2007

Exposure to Climate Change Russia is first on the list of post-communist countries exposed to climate change on such a scale, but overall is low on the level of adaptability. Potential benefits may exist, but Russia’s vast territory and sluggish governing response make its score on adaptability very low. Russia needs to be persuaded adopt a sense of urgency in addressing climate change, both for its own national territories and beyond.

Index of exposure to climate change 25

Russia

Source of Vulnerability Today in Russia there is an optimism about global warming, but the rest of the world might not share the same positive outlook. From the top ten importers into Russia, four (Japan, Germany, France and China) have advanced domestic strategies for dealing with climate change, while three are lingering in a post-Kyoto lack of definition (Poland, Ukraine and Belarus) and three have no strategies (South Korea, United States and Italy). This diversity makes it urgent for Russia to develop its future potential reducing dependency and thinking ahead.

“Not everybody is ment to walk to the end of the nation”

High Frequenc Research Prog near Nizhny No with Earth’s ion

Movie Krai

“new Arctic military force to defend the country’s interests in the disputed polar region” Wired, 2010

North Pole research in 1937

Increasing the effectiveness of state border defence, particularly in the Arctic zone of Russian Federation. National Defence Strategy 2009

“My mother was a polar bear!” Brown Bear Annual Assmebly, 2020

Russia

cy Active Auroral gram (HAARP) ovgorod: playing nosphere

Index of adaptive capacity to climate change

Russia and Climate Talks When comparing rhetoric between the dialogue in Russia and global climate change discourse one thing becomes apparent. During Soviet times, Russia developed a pragmatic, hands-on approach with geoengineering as a tool to deal with the harsh climate. The option to apply changes was open but it started to disappear as the Soviet Union weakened. Today Russia doesn’t seem to be interested in the same ideas it once was, and has taken on a new role. Contemporary Russia behaves towards the climate similarly to how the Western countries did 40 years ago, in a profit-driven way. Russian authorities accept the benefits and acknowledge some of the dangers, such as extreme weather occurrences. And this warming is, in a way, something they wanted all along. Global Initiatives Dealing with Climate The post-Kyoto period has changed objectives: national approaches to combat climate change started to be more and more varied with strategies varying from reducing CO2 emissions to geoengineering. Russia’s participation in Kyoto seems opportunistic: there is wealth to be gained in the annex of the Kyoto Protocol from emissions surplus in the carbon market. The commitment to tackle climate change is unclear.

Fay M., Block R.I. and Ebinger. 2009 Adapting to climate change ,World Bank

Budyko’s blanket: sulphur injections in the stratosphere Intelligent Venture project 2010

“During next century, climatic changes due to human activity will become not only possible but also inevitable it should be considered that study of the possibilites of climate modiﬁcations is one of the urgent tasks of contemporary science of atmophere” Budyko, 1971 made climatology modern science

THE WARMING OF RUSSIA

Budyko

The Rise of Nature

The rise of nature we witness today is a prelude to the coming years. After trying to transform nature and change it to be better suited for easier use, the open rebellion has started. The side-effects of plans made throughout the 20th century provoked the system which has reacted in a number of disasters. The frequency of these occurrences cause us concern and raise awareness about the delicacy and intertwining of all natural elements. An attempt was made to protect nature, through preservation laws that were defined to secure the wilderness and to prevent further damage. But, the damage, in a way, gave nature the opportunity to gain momentum and grow. Today we observe man’s delusion that it is still nature that should be protected, when it is man who retreats away from the unpredictability and runs to the security of a built environment. Nature is on rise and we need a new set of laws/ principles.

rural population declining

All-Russian Nature Protection Society (ВООП)

RS Pro

First Law about Natural Reserves

man starts protecting nature extreme weather occurences

3 14 600 aws tion es L erva serv s e e r R l P es a 4743 rv r se u e t R Na atural Area of N

1900

1910 ‘16

1920 ‘24

5 4

28 700

1175

1930

forest belts

1940

1950

irrigation

plans to change nature

90 preservation

increase

wilderness increase

ion

lat

u op

450

hazards rise

140

+0.51 Â°C

Wide range of Nature Protection legalislation

temperature rise nature rise

125 000

120 54 mln people 12

SFSR Nature otection 10 80

55 000

Ministrie

s dealin

g with n

ature

36 2

legislation increase bureaucracy decrease rural decrease

5910 2

1960

1970

hydro power plants

protection of nature

1980 â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;82

1990

2000

2012

nature goes wild

abandonment

climate change protection of man

THE WARMING OF RUSSIA

References

Anuchin V.A. Theoretical Problems of Geography. Athens: Ohio State University Press, 1977. Aral Sea Database. Accessed March 2012. www.cawater-info.net/aral/data/index.htm. Asse, E., Kagansky V. “Conversations on the landscape: interview Eugene Asse and Vladimir Kagansky”, Project Russia magazine “Landscape“ 54 (2009) Benajmin, Walter. Moscow Diary. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986. Borodko, A. (chief editor). National Atlas of Russia (digital version). Moscow: “Roskartographiya”, 2006. Dauncey, Guy. The Climate Challenge: 101 Solutions to Global Warming. Gabriola Island, BC : New Society Publishers, 2009. Fay M., Block R.I. and Ebinger. “Adapting to Climate Change,” World Bank Report, 2009, accessed 7 th June 2012, http://www.worldbank.org/eca/climate/ECA_CCA_Full_Report.pdf. Federal Forestry Agency (Rosleskhoz). Accessed May 2012, www.rosleshoz.gov.ru. Federal Law “On Environmental Protection” from 10.01.2002 N 7-FZ. Accessed Feburary 2012, www.consultant.ru/popular/ okrsred/70_1.html#p38 Federal service of State Registration, Cadastre, and Cartography (Rosreesrt). Accessed May 2012, www.rosreestr.ru. Gorky, Maxim, et al. Belomorsko-Baltiysky Cannal named after Stalin: The Story of the construction 1931-1934. USSR, 1934. Lovett, R. “Russia’s Arctic Claim Backed By Rocks, Officials Say,” National Geographic News, September 21st 2007, accessed 6th June 2012, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/09/070921-arctic-russia.html Kleim, Joahim. “Belomorcannal: literature and propaganda in Stalin’s time,” NLO magazine 71 (2005), accessed March 2012. http:// magazines.russ.ru/nlo/2005/71/l14.html. Komarov, Boris. Destruction of nature: Aggravation environmental crisis in the USSR. Second edition. Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1981 Law on Nature Protection of the RSFSR. Consultant Database. Accessed Feburary 2012. http://www.consultant.ru/online/ base/?req=doc;base=ESU;n=8501. Ministry of natural resources and ecology. Accessed May 2012. www.mnr.gov.ru. Monahan M.D & Wiley J.N. Implications of Climate Change on Russia. Hauppauge, N.Y. : Nova Science Publishers, 2011 “On the bottom (Na dne)”, TV documentary, directed by Elizaveta Listova. 2011. Rosarchiv, Federal Archives, Regional Archives. Accessed May 2012. www.guides.rusarchives.ru Rudolph, J. C. “On our Radar: Russia Warns of Climate Change,” The New York Times, August 6th 2010, accessed June 18th 2012, http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/08/06/on-our-radar-russia-warns-of-climate-change/ Rusin N.P. and Flit L.A. Man Versus Climate. Moscow, Peace Publishers. 1962. Specter, M. “The Climate Fixers,” The New Yorker, May 14th 2012, accessed June 18th 2012, http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/05/14/120514fa_fact_specter Tochenov, V. (chief editor). Atlas of USSR. Moscow: GUGK “Kartographiya”, 1983 Weiner, Douglas. A little corner of freedom: Russian Nature Protection from Stalin to Gorbachev. United States of America: Universaty of California Press, 1999 White, Sarah. “Siberian water to flow to the caspian?,” New Scientist 50. May 20th 1971. White, Sarah. “Turning Russia’s rivers round from the north to south,” New Scientist 94. April 8th 1982. “Global environment facility: Aral Sea Basin Program,” World Bank, Environment Department. May 1998, accessed April 2012. wwwwds.worldbank.org. Yaroshenko Aleksey. “Forest reform in Russia: what is happening with the Russian forests and forestry,” Lesnaya gazeta, 2008, accessed May 2012, www.forestforum.ru/info/250408_reform.doc. Special thanks to experts: Isaev, Mikhail (ecologist); Klimenko, Vladimir (climatologist, interview May 10th 2012); Preobrazhensky, Boris (ecologist expert from Vladivostok).

THE WARMING OF RUSSIA

Russian arrière-garde Looking at a sealed package with a portrait of the moustachioed milkman, or genuine babushka, we agree to think that the low-fat, probiotic yogurt inside really was made in the village. Hardly anyone will be disappointed or surprised that the milk for the yogurt was milked not by lively milkmaids but by sullen milking machine operators. The bundle of agricultural products and the image of the province are very conventional. Folk art has a wonderful quality – it translates the image of the province in all of these things which are made for us in the hinterland, even if they were actually made in the nearby industrial area. In this sense, the hinterland is a place where “folk art” is made. Perhaps there is the same situation with “contemporary art” - it marks the centre. Although the suggested opposition of contemporary art and folk art is not as obvious as it may seem. Of course this equalisation of the contemporary art and folk is possible only through simplification of both. However, contemporary art and folk art (as art not as a pattern or a motif) are equally marginal in their relation to the overall pop culture, and in this sense they are strategic allies. Contemporary art has something to learn from folk and there is something which folk art can borrow from the practice of contemporary art. If contemporary art is the vanguard, folk art is the rearguard of contemporary culture.

Fig. 1. Members of the feminist “Pussy Riot“ group stressed that their radical performances are allowed, not only in terms of secular morality, but also because the image of folk culture, as described by the Russian semiotician Mikhail Bakhtin, focuses on the grotesque and the carnivalesque aspects of “folkness”.

Fig. 2. The Russian pavilion at Expo-2010. The “Buyan-Grad” project (the mythical city from Russian legend).

“Narod’s” Folk art in Russian sounds like “narodnoe iskusstvo” (“narod’s art”). What is “folk art”? The fact is that the word “narod’s” in Russian can have a variety of meanings, which do not exclude one another: - “Ethnic”: which belongs to any particular nation or ethnic group. - “Popular”: which has obvious value for a large number of people. The Stalinist tradition of giving the title of “People’s Artist” to popular performing artists (“narod’s artist”) still exists in Russia today. - “National”: a word which combines the nation as a political and a cultural entity. Vladimir Putin’s “All-Russian people’s front” (“narod’s front”), is an example of this. - “People’s”: which refers to Soviet times. For instance the “people’s commissars” (“narod’s commissars”). So many “folk“ So if we agree that with the word “narod’s” we mean “folk”, we still cannot avoid controversy, since in itself the image of folk is not definite. One might say that “folk culture” is kokoshniki, chastushki and dance squatting, while another person will stress the grotesque and the carnivalesque aspects, and a third will point that real “folk” are the righteous and the Orthodox. Conceptual confusion is not only a consequence of the objective characteristics of the Russian language, but also the result of the theoretical debate about the “folkness” (narodnost’, nationality etc.), which transfers to legal and common language. “Folk” and “contemporary” There is an abyss between “contemporary art” and “contemporary folk art”, which calls into question the very possibility of the existence of the second one. The fact is that the concept of “contemporariness” as well as “folkness” is not neutral, but implies that the figure of contemporary culture shares a number of ideological positions. The very existence of contemporary art in Russia is often considered a sign of modernization of Russian society and its “European” character. Paradoxically, it is often the examples of folk art that are used to represent Russian culture abroad.

Folk art as it is

Discourse diversity The phenomenon which we call “folk art” can be described using three terms: folk art (for evaluation of the outstanding examples of art), folk artistic trades (as a formal term for industry of art production) and people’s creativity (for amateur art). Although a consumer does not care about these issues, these word games often have a significant impact on the fate of trade, enterprises and even the appearance of products. Generally this is an example of how art-history studies can become the basis for a legislative system.

Fig. 3. Palekh icon “Transfiguration”, the middle of the 18th century. Palekh icons were made according to the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal icon painting school with a lot of small images.

“Brand” There are numerous folk art “brands” which are the results of a unique combination of several principal positions: material, technique, location, motif and producer. Changing each of these parameters can call into question the traditional character of folk art, its authenticity, but paradoxically these changes also allow us to develop art and its traditions. Material Material is the basis for folk art. Craft and trade emergence in a certain area is primarily a consequence of the fact that there is something of what to do such things. There are nine basic materials: wood, bone, horn, stone, metal, ceramics, glass, leather, and textiles. Technique The material dictates what artistic treatment is possible. Improvement in technology in a certain area conflicts with the ideology of preservation of traditional crafts. Each craft has its inner “restrictions” on improvement, and this is its principal distinguishing features.

Fig. 4. The Court of the pioneers of Baba Yaga, 1920s In 1922 the iconographer Ivan Golikov saw in the Kustar museum in Moscow, lacquer boxes of Fedoskino (Moscow oblast). He decided that the Palekh artists could also create miniatures on products made from papier-mâché and so the icon painting technique of egg tempera has been saved. This is a unique example. In 1923 upon the initiative of the art historian A.V. Bakushinskii attempts were made to paint based on the themes of the Russian folk tales. Besides fairy stories Palekh masters began to refer to everyday life. Later Palekh lacquer miniatures became a powerful tool of Soviet propaganda.

Location There is currently a concept of “a place where a trade traditionally exists,” which is governed by two laws: “On the folk artistic trades” and “On the protection of cultural heritage”. This means that traditional “folk art” was invented in a specific place (which is specially preserved, legally not factually) and is performed there. Experts note that if a master changes his residence, especially to move from the countryside to the city, it affects not only the authenticity, but also the quality of the art. Motif The motif, characteristic for a certain “brand” of folk art, is a major source of recognition. It seems that the motif should be kept in the most zealous manner. Surprisingly, almost all best-known folk art “brands” through their history had several stylistic phases. The change of style is always paradoxical. Even the “return” to the already forgotten, and the more traditional and seemingly more “authentic” style is perceived as an innovation in relation to the familiar, but from a historical point of view is a “non-authentic” style. Variability and the ability to change is the existential condition of folk art. However, there is no folk art in general, and there is no universal principle possible in relation to its changeability. RUSSIAN ARRIÈRE-GARDE

1 - Lomonosov porcelain

2 - Kargopol painting

3 - Velikii Ustyug patterns

4 - Krestets stitch

5 - Torzhok golden 6 - Rostov embroidery enamel

7 - Zhostovo painting

8 - Nothern niello

9 - PavlovoPosad kerchief

10 - Gzhel porcelain

11 - Dyatkovo cut glass

12 - Bogorod wood carving

Murmansk

13 - Fedoskino lacquer miniature

14 - Mstera lacquer miniature

15 - Shakhunia weawing

16 - Palekh lacquer miniature

1St. Petersburg

Pskov

17 - Skopin ceramics

Arkhangel’sk

Novgorod

Naryan-Mar

Smolensk

Tver Vologda 5 8 12 3 6Yaroslayl 9 MOSCOW Kostroma 7 1314Ivanovo 16 10 Tula Vladimir Orël 19 Ryazan 20 15 Kursk Kirov 17 22 23Nizhniy 21Novgorod 29 25 26 24 Yoshkar-Ola Belgorod Lipetsk28 27 18 Tambov Cheboksary

Bryansk

Kaluga

Saransk

Voronezh

18 - Elets lace

19 - Gus’ Khrustalny cut glass

20 - Khokhloma painting

21 - Semenov matreshka

22 - Mikhailov lace

Saratov

Rostov Krasnodar Maykop Stavropol

Penza

Perm 30

Samara Ufa

31 Orenburg

Elista

Cherkessk

Salekhard

Izhevsk

Kazan

Ul’yanovsk

Volgograd

Syktyvkar

Khanty-Mansiysk

Yekaterinburg

38 Tyumen 32Chelyabisnk 39 34 33 Kurgan

Astrakhan

Omsk

Nalchik

Grozny Vladikavkaz

36 Makhachkala 37

23 - Gorodets 24 - Kazakovo golden embroidery filigree

25 - Dymkovo toys

26 - Vyatka straw

28 - Kadom veniz

30 - Ural stone carving

31 - Agidel

29 - Gorodets painting

34 - Ural bronze

35 - Orenburg kerchief

37 - Dagestan carpets

38 - Nizhny Tagil trays

36 - Kubachi silver

27 - Vyatka burl

32 - Zlatoust steel engraving

33 - Kaslin casts

Historically, the production of decorative and applied art evolved in those regions of Russia where agricultural production was low and could not survive. The most famous folk artistic trades are situated in the non-black soil areas of European Russia. Therefore, support for crafts in these areas at all times was a way to generate rural employment. Some workshops, which are now referred to as folk artistic crafts, emerged as side-production of large industrial enterprises. These include a number of crafts of the Southern Urals (Zlatoust steel engraving (32), Kaslin casts (33), Ural bronze (34), Nizhny Tagil tray painting (38)). However, there are examples where the formation of a particular trade is not due to “natural” reasons.

Novos

39 - Siberian carpets

40 - Tomsk birch bark

42 - Magadan bone carving

43 - Uelen bone carving

Paradoxes of state support The enterprise of folk artistic trades “Turina Gora” (41, Barnaul) may be considered an exception. Artistic production was founded here only in 1988 on the basis of a brick factory. “At the core of our products is not the tradition preserved and transmitted from generation to generation, but the creative originality of the artistic vision and thinking of every master,” according to the official website. This does not prevent “Turina Gora” from receiving subsidies from the federal budget along with other far more historically authentic enterprises.

41 - Turina Gora ceramics

Murmansk

Petersburg

Arkhangel’sk

rod

Naryan-Mar

Vologda

8 3 6Yaroslayl Kostroma 16 14Ivanovo

Norislk Syktyvkar

Salekhard

Magadan

Vladimir

20 15 Kirov 3Nizhniy 21Novgorod 29 25 26 24 Yoshkar-Ola heboksary 27

nsk

Perm 30

Samara Ufa

31 Orenburg

Yakutsk

Izhevsk

Kazan

Ul’yanovsk

Khanty-Mansiysk

Yekaterinburg

38 Tyumen 32Chelyabisnk 39 34 33 Kurgan Omsk

Tomsk

40 Novosibirsk

Kemerovo

41 Barnaul Gorno-Altaysk

Krasnoyarsk Abakan

Blagoveshchensk

Kyzyl

Irkutsk

Ulan-Ude

Khabarosvsk

Chita

Vladivostok

In the Kursk khokhloma there are more pictures of berries, lush flowers, some wild flowers and poppies. There is an abundance of greenery. It is substantially brighter than the original khokhloma and has something in common with the colour of the South Russian folk costumes, and Kursk carpets.

The popularity of Bashkir khokhloma is largely explained by the successful solution of the art problem to build a harmonious national ornament, using the technique of khokhloma painting.

In addition to four dogmatic colours (red, black, yellow and green) Lipetsk masters use murals, emerald green, purple, and azure. Experts note that the style has features of eclecticism and imitation of enamels, as well as the features of pseudo-Russian style of the late 19th century.

Spoon of the “Kuzovatovo khokhloma” which was presented to my parents for their wedding in 1978.

Khokhloma propagation The most remarkable example of the “migration” of trades is the “reproduction” of “golden khokhloma” (20) in the 1970s. After some government initiatives to support the folk artistic trades in the 1960s, numerous workshops began to appear, with shops and entire plants virtually created from scratch. The official birthplace of khokhloma is Nizhny Nogorod oblast, in the Semenov region. Masters from Semenov moved to other regions and organized there training and production of khokhloma products. However, there were also occasions when production was organized without direct continuity.

MOSCOW

Semenov Kursk Lipetsk

Nizhniy Novgorod

Kuzovatovo Ufa

Local artists imitated khokhloma without any direct continuity. This “khokhloma” appears closer to the Lipetsk example.

RUSSIAN ARRIÈRE-GARDE

Arts and crafts

The position of the artist Despite the suggested opposition between contemporary and folk (traditional) culture - artists (masters) are in very similar situations. An artist does not seem quite belong to himself; his identity is mediated by the opinion of the expert and professional community. It is they who determine the eligibility for inclusion of the author to the appropriate art. In both cases the expression of the artist’s individuality is limited by the value criteria.

“To enter the world of contemporary art, he (the artist) must swear allegiance to the internal fire of destruction that burns in the “Black Square“ of Malevich. If he (or she) cannot do it, nothing will happen, and I do not mean a great career - he just won’t be recognized as our own. In fact, whether a person accepts Malevich or not is impossible to imitate. It is very evident, irrespective of field and form the person may work in, and it is this that separates our world from foreigners.”

“The artist - in himself and, even more in the students - must educate the knowledge of qualities of artistic language, the qualities of the art school traditions, which have a value aim and an ideal. To achieve this, it is important to perceive the Words of folk art - not from the scholasticism of academic coaching, not from the scholasticist presentation of himself as an artist, inventing something new, but from the tradition of the folk understanding of the world, from the essence of folk art that requires not only knowledge of the subtleties of techniques but of faith, prayer, dialogue with God, and dialogue with tradition”.

Ekaterina Degot, the influential art historian, curator and critic, an expert on the art of the 20th and 21st centuries, corresponding member of Russian Academy of Arts.

Maria Nekrasova, the influential art historian, an expert and popularizer of folk art, and full member of the Russian Academy of Arts

Fig. 5. “The high school of folk art (institute)” in St. Petersburg was founded in 1911 under the patronage of Empress Aleksandra Fedorovna. In the Soviet era it was moved to Moscow, where the school developed into a strong educational institution. On the initiative of Ludmila Putina the school was reestablished in St. Petersburg in 2003. Many of the teachers were specially moved from Moscow to St Petersburg. 15 crafts are being taught here by teachers - masters from the relevant places or graduates. The students are mainly from the regions. A small number of graduates returned to work in the regions. There are 2 official branches, and 6 branches which are unofficial.

Contemporary art expert opinion is converted into critical reviews, the invitation to participate in exhibitions, awards, grants, and, eventually, into symbolic and literal capitalization. Expert opinion of folk art is even more crucial. According to the law, products of folk art whose artistic merit is recognized by official expert councils in the regions and the Ministry of Economical development and Trade, are exempt from VAT, and the enterprise or workshop that produce these items, is able to participate in state assistance programs. The education issue Of course, expert opinion is not exhaustive, as the end consumer is not an expert but a person. However, it is the expert community that determines the educational policy, which has a determining character. The ideal in both arts is not only and not primarily the transfer of the craft skills but the raising of a special kind of thinking. Contemporary art can come close to this ideal, while there are several schools of this new type. Folk art, despite all the talk, generally today is taught using outdated Soviet methods. If previously the greater part of this folk art education was situated in the places of the existence of the trade allowing the artists to “absorb” the “genius loci”, now the balance has shifted in the direction of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Furthermore the image of “folk” remains uncertain, and the image proposed by theorists is too fundamentalist in nature. Now the trend is that the time given to the study of “folk culture” (on behalf of which the master has to speak) is reduced in the educational programs. It seems that folk art can learn from the flexibility of contemporary art and its problematic nature of education. Especially because the avant-garde postulate of German artist Joseph Beuys “Everyone is an artist” - formulated in the 1970s, is a truism for folk art.

Exchange

Professional art (actual in specific periods), and folk art (in the broadest sense) have never been in isolation from each other, and have always been part of the same cultural process. The history of mutual influence - both direct and indirect is rich and varied.

“In this extraordinary hut I first encountered the miracle that became subsequently one of the elements of my work. It was here that I learnt not to look at the picture from the side, but to revolve in the picture myself, to live in it. I can remember vividly stopping on the threshold of this amazing spectacle. The table, the benches, the stove so imperious and so huge, the closets, the sideboards - everything had been painted with multicoloured and bold ornaments” Wassily Kandinsky, 1918. The artist writes about his expedition to Vologda gubernia in 1889, when he was a law student.

Fig. 6. Permogorskaya painting. Fragment of painting on burak, the middle of the XIX century.

Fig. 7. Wassily Kandinsky Improvisation, 1917-1918

“The simple, unsophisticated beauty of the lubok, the severity of the primitive, the mechanical precision of construction, the nobility of style, and good colour brought together by the creative ... our password and our slogan” Alexander Shevchenko, 1913. The artist explains the influence of folk “lubok” art on the neo-primitivism movement.

Fig. 8. Lubok. Baba Yaga is going to fight with the crocodile, XVIII century.

Fig. 9. Natalia Goncharova Automobile, 1913-1914.

Fig. 10. Alexei Tsvetkov Born house of matryoshka, 2009 The image of the “folk toy” matryoshka doll is contrasted with Barbie which Tsvetkov put in a coffin.

Fig. 13. Alexei BelyaevGuintovt We will take everything back, 2008 The artist uses Pavlovo-Posad shawl as a symbol of his traditionalist position.

Fig. 11. Andrey Lyublinsky Matreshkas “Pussy Riot“ 2012 The artist uses a matryoshka (the image of a Russian woman) to support the feminist group “Pussy Riot”, which is facing criminal prosecution.

Artists use folk art images and motifs with a variety of purposes. They can refer to “the spirit” of folk art, and can reflect on the social symbolism, playing with various aspects of the “folkness”. In this sense folk art is understood as part of popular culture, which is a common source of inspiration for contemporary art. There is an opportunity to enrich art with a deeper problematization of the folk art issues.

Fig. 12. Valery Korchagin U-2, Go to grandfather, Hot trunk, 2003 The tray was made as part of the project “Everyday Camouflage - Tagil tray”, the curators - Yevgeny Umansky, Oleg Blyablyas, Julia Gnirenko. According to sketches of contemporary artists the trays were made in the traditional Nizhny Tagil technique of hand wrist painting. The project reflects on the origins of Nizhny Tagil tray, which appeared as a side trade for workers of the weapons factory in the early 18th century. At the end of the project there was a charity auction held in Moscow, and the collected money went to support the Nizhny Tagil trade. RUSSIAN ARRIÈRE-GARDE

Support / impact The influence of professional art in folk art is for the most part within the state and private support programs. In addition to the declarative statements about the need to learn from folk art, often the pathos of a professional artist aims at education, enrichment and improvement of techniques, motifs and forms of folk art. There are two opposing positions on this matter, which were fully articulated at the beginning of the 20th century. One allows and encourages this influence often to “increase consumer quality” of products. The other insists that this barbaric approach, which leads to a loss of identity, but allow professional pursuit for “revival, preservation and development of traditions”. One might say that in practice the scientific sub-basis of folk artists is proof of compliance with tradition, but this raises questions about the internal authenticity of the arts.

Fig. 14. Interior of a peasant hut, photo probably taken by Elena Polenova, 1880.

Fig. 15. Bedside table with rosette motifs, designed by Elena Polenova, the late 1880.

In the early 1880s, the wife of the industrialist S. Mamontov organized a turning and wood carving workshop, in the Moscow region estate of Abramtsevo to prevent the extinction of rural culture. From 1885 to 1892 a workshop was led by the artist E. Polenova, who designed a lot of furniture pieces according to motifs from nearby peasants’ houses.

Fig. 16. Doll of Furukuma which was probably the prototype of the first matreshka.

Fig. 17. Copy of the first matreshka (18991900), probably painted according to Sergey Malyutin’s sketches.

Who does not know that before the zemstvo’s promotion of kustars, their products were crude, tasteless, ugly, wrong, and fragile. On the other hand everyone now, perhaps cultural Muscovites, knows that in the Leontievsky Lane in Moscow is located zemstvo’s “Kustar Museum”, as it contains the most varied collection of highly original and very elegant handicrafts. Noviy Kolos, newspaper. Moscow, 1914 In 1885 on the initiative of the Moscow provincial zemstvo (municipal government) to support kustar (small-scale, cottage) industry, a Commercial and industrial museum of kustar ‘products was opened. The museum had three departments: marketing (research and support), art and methodological (Museum of models for kustar production), a bureau for support of handicraft industry. Leading artists collaborated with the museum. By 1917, 13 more such museums were opened in other cities. In 1941, the leading experts on folk art on the basis of the Kustar museum formed the Research Institute of Art Industry. The Institute functioned within the structure of Ministry of local Industry (1934-1957), which was engaged in the development of folk artistic trades, as well as other types of facilities in remote and rural areas. By 1998, when the Institute was closed, the staff (art historians, artists, engineers) would have worked with all the trades. The Modern image of most “brands” of folk art is the achievement of the Institute. The impact of this work is not always estimated positively, but it is undeniable that the ethnographic expedition conducted by the Institute, allowed them to collect a lot of data about folk art. The work which was carried out by the Institute, was not only focused on the “improvement” of crafts, but also to revive the already completely forgotten folk arts.

The first matryoshka was made in the workshop of merchant A. Mamontov. The considered official author is the turner, V.P. Zvezdochkin, who invented the form. There is a legend that the author of the painting is a famous artist S. Malyutin, but Zvezdochkin did not mention Malyutin’s participation in his memoirs. Fig. 18. Gzhel. Kvasnik, XVIII century.

Fig. 19. N. Bessarabova. Pitcher, 1950s.

Fig. 20. T.S. Dunashova. Sugar Bowl, 1972

Current look of Gzhel ceramics (cobalt painting, shadow swab) invented in 1950s by the professional artist Natalia Bessarabova and art historian A.B. Saltykov, who worked in Research institute of art industry. They based their ideas of scientific and even archeological data, but the motif invented is new.

After 1991 there were a series of bankruptcies of large Soviet folk artistic trade enterprises (there is only 1/3 left). It is believed that this was also linked with the emergence of many manufacturers whose products competed with the “traditional industries”. However, bankruptcy continues 20 years later, suggesting that there are more substantial reasons for this. Large enterprises - the heirs of the Soviet giants are often unable to maintain the infrastructure created in the 1970s. It is excessive for today’s production volumes, but the government continues to support these enterprises. At the same time, according to some reports, the number of folk artistic trades enterprises has increased in recent years, probably this is a reference to the smaller enterprises.

Fig. 21. Nikolai Polisskiy Perm Gate, 2011 A project for the development of contemporary culture (art, music, theatre) as a resource for creating more comfortable living conditions and keeping people from moving to another regions was created in the Perm krai.

Fig. 22. The popularity of Palekh art has virtually no effect on the Palekh settlement itself. Palekh is still a village. Although the population has doubled, almost every resident is in some way associated with artistic production. The embroidery factory, flax mill, milk farm, brick factory, vegetable drying plant have all ceased to exist. The public baths was also closed, but there are four museums and two hotels.

Issue of support Since 1992 there has been a federal organisation called the “National Center for Contemporary Art” with several branches in some regions. However, for a long time contemporary art developed through the support of foreign foundations. In the 1990-2000s period commercial galleries were the basis of the institutionalization of contemporary art. Now the development of art has moved from galleries to private nonprofit foundations. Former galleries were reformatted into this framework. Now the question of the possible support from the state arose, and this issue has also become a topic of debates. Private institutions are not opposed to government support, if there is no censorship. Enterprises of folk artistic trades (both large and small) are now in private hands, and the supporting efforts of the state are aimed towards them. This practice is based on the equalization of folk art and the folk artistic crafts industry. Owners of enterprises are not very interested in scientific research and other nonprofit activities. In addition, owners of the enterprises often do not have enough resources. Large companies with state participation provide sponsorship of fairs and festivals, but there are no private foundations for the support of artists. Industry of art Since the 2000s there has been a focus on the relationship between contemporary art and the so-called “creative industries” (design, consulting, fashion, PR, event management, etc.). This comparison is not quite obvious, but contemporary art is now often perceived as a subspecies of the creative industries, or as a resource for their development. Folk art is historically closely connected with the industry of folk artistic trades. It has a complex and diverse character, from industrial enterprise to small workshops. It is generally accepted that the master of folk art in isolation from the industry loses his connection with the alleged tradition, and the industry, lacking prominent artists, fall into replication. Often this intimacy leads to the fact that folk art is reduced to a folk artistic trades industry. The business becomes the protagonist, and not the artist. Tool for regional development Today, regional authorities have begun to realize the potential for regional development that lies in contemporary art. It is more about leisure and the ability to push the viewer to non-trivial creative solutions and ideas. These attempts became a new issue for contemporary art in Russia, and were not always positively received by the artists and the professional community. Folk art from the late 19th century is constantly in a situation where it is used for regional development. All these practices were accompanied by theoretical discussions, which tried to find the optimal combination between the intensive support of art from the state, involving more people in the occupation of folk art, and its inevitable transformation into a decorative art, souvenir and amateurishness. Nikola-Lenivets case The dying village of Nikola-Lenivets (in the Kaluga oblast) became known all over the world thanks to installations and land-art objects of the artist Nikolay Polissky, which were made in conjunction with local residents. Before getting into Nikola-Lenivets, Polissky never made installations, and the local people, who now feel like artists, have never been before involved in art. Now art is a kind of a local trade. Since 2006, the festival “Arch-Stoyanie” has taken place in Nikola-Lenivets. It actively involves Russian private and international and regional funding. This is an example of regional development, based on nontrivial cooperation between contemporary art and “folk” spirit.

Fig. 23. Nikolay Polissky Border of The Empire, 2007

RUSSIAN ARRIÈRE-GARDE

Trade and trade

The state supports either folk artistic trades or “people’s amateurishness”. The state tends to be interested either in leisure activities and alternative employment for rural areas (and therefore pushing the art into accessible for people’s amateurishness) or in reducing costs (and therefore pushing art onto the market). Fig. 24. Press Conference on termination of galleries’ commercial activity Moscow, 2012 Three key contemporary art galleries closed in Moscow. Because on the one hand it became harder to generate income (as in the 1990s), but it is also no longer necessary to pretend that they are engaged in commercial activity. The development of art moved from galleries to private nonprofit foundations. The former galleries have been reformatted into this new framework.

Fig. 25. Exhibition-fair of folk artistic trades of Russia “Ladia - 2011. Winter fairy tale”. Not only traditional trades but also lot of amateur art.

Fig. 26. Art flea market St. Petersburg, 2009. A flea market is a way of organizing the exhibition space and the shape of the interaction between artist and viewer. Artists present their work for public display, for selling and exchange. The purpose of a one-day fair is to get away from the established framework of representation of contemporary art, and was done together with well-known contemporary artists and amateurs.

The problem of the influence of the market, which is widely discussed today within the Russian contemporary art scene, has recently become topical. Questions such as “a piece of art as commodity”, “the artist as entrepreneur” and others acquired a particular importance after the collapse of the Soviet Union. In Soviet conditions the ideological and formal loyalty of the artist was successfully exchanged for state guarantees, and nonconformity came on demand from the professional community. New circumstances have led artists to seek their own unique combination of popularity (the clarity and proximity to a potential customer, in this case), format (formal characteristics of “contemporary art” and its ideological component) and authenticity (correspondence with author’s unique language). At the same time, the market for contemporary art in Russia is still undeveloped. Perhaps the reason for this is not that people are not willing to spend money, but because they do not see art as something that can be bought. People have got used to perceive contemporary art at exhibitions only. All these issues are addressed towards folk art in almost the same way. But the most obvious difference is that the objects of folk art were operating under market conditions throughout their history. Moreover, “folk artistic trades” historically and by definition, were aimed at the production of goods. The folk artist is also finds himself within the collision described, but he cannot hope to receive aid from non-profit foundations because of their absence. Even the late soviet era maintained such a kind of system. From the beginning of the 1990s, much has been said that handicrafts cannot withstand the pressure of Chinese fakes. But how does a consumer receive “real” folk art? It is difficult to imagine a folk art exhibition which does not look like a fair. One could argue that it is a traditional form for the exhibition of folk art. But this is not the case; the fair has never been stifling bazaars and folk art is never divorced from the wider cultural context. This phenomenon is very recent. The problem of competition with Chinese goods with motifs of folk art, or poorquality samples of Russian crafts, is not in high production cost of folk art products. The consumer perceives the folk art exclusively as a commodity, and the deciding factor for him is the price. The consumer looks at the product without history, without values, without context. In this sense, for a consumer there is no difference between an original and a fake, he always sees something that reminds him of something else. In this sense, he always sees a fake. The value side of folk art to the customer turns out to be insignificant, he can not opt for the best. The solution to this problem lies not in boring education or state protectionism. Changes of patterns, shapes, types of products will hardly help - it’s not the problem. The question is how to add the status of art to folk art. This is quite a non-trivial task, and may be formulated by contemporary art. The development of the tradition goes through its problematization, and that is the hallmark of contemporary art, which is often forgotten by arts’ developers.

References

Special thanks to: Maria Nekrasova, Gennady Drozhzhin, Georgiy Nikich, Alevtina Golubeva, Yulia Lapina, Oleg Blyablyas. Picture credits

Fig. 1. - www.artchronika.ru Fig. 2. - http://arch--space.ru Fig. 3 - http://www.museum.ru Fig. 4 - http://ic.pics.livejournal.com/pa_lozhkin Fig. 5 - own photo Fig. 6 - http://www.design-formula.ru Fig. 7 - http://www.ruspaintart.com Fig. 8 - http://s40.radikal.ru Fig. 9 - http://www.openspace.ru Fig. 10 - http://img.lenta.ru Fig. 11 - www.facebook.com Fig. 12 - Oleg Blyabyas’ photo Fig. 13 - http://evrazia.org Fig. 14, Fig. 15 - From the article Salmond, Wendy. “A Matter of Give and Take: Peasant Crafts and Their Revival in Late Imperial Russia,” Design Issues, Vol. 13, No. 1, Designing the Modern Experience, 1885-1945 (Spring, 1997): 5-14. Fig. 16 - http://4.bp.blogspot.com Fig. 17 - http://folktoys.net.ru Fig. 18, Fig. 19, Fig. 20 - http://artyx.ru Fig. 21 - http://art16.ru Fig. 22 - http://www.feltur.ru Fig. 23 - http://www.polissky.ru Fig. 24 - http://artchronika.ru Fig. 25 - own photo Fig. 26 - http://pics.livejournal.com/vtorchermet

Endnotes

1. Kandinsky, Wassily. Stupeni. Tekst khudozhnika. Moscow: IZO Narkomprosa, 1918: 10. 2. Shevchenko, Alexander. “Neoprimitivism: Its Theory, Its Potentials, Its Achievements”. Russian Art of the Avant-Garde: Theory and Criticism 1902-1934 (Documents of Twentieth Century), edited by Bowlt, John E. Viking Press, 1976: 45. 3. Degot, Yekaterina. “Chto takoe iskusstvo... (likbez).” Openspace.ru. Accessed June 18, 2012. http://www.openspace.ru/art/events/ details/36927/. 4. Nekrasova, Maria. “Narodnoe iskusstvo v Rossii: put’ spaseniya naiden”. Russkaya linia. Accessed June 18, 2012. http://rusk.ru/ st.php?idar=113445.

Main sources

Bakushinsky, Anatoliy. Russkie khudozhestvennye laki. Moscow. 1933. Bardina, Renata. . Izdeliya narodnykh khudozhestvennykh promyslov i suveniry. Moscow: Vyshaya shkola, 1990. Boguslavskaya, Irina. Problemy tradizii v iskusstve sovremennyh narodnykh promyslov. Leningrad, 1981. Fitzpatrick, Sheila. Stalin’s peasants. New-York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Gershkovich, Evgenia. Lacquer Propaganda. Moscow: Iskusstvo - XXI vek, 2011. Hilton, Alison. “The Peasant House and Its Furnishings: Decorative Principles in Russian Folk Art,” The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts. Vol. 11, Russian/Soviet Theme Issue 2 (Winter, 1989): 10-29. Hilton, Alison. Russian folk art. Indiana University Press, 1995. Kaufman, Adam. Small-Scale Industry in the Soviet Union. NBER, 1962. Luzhkov, Yuri, and Linovich, Sergey. Iskusstvo, kotoroe nelʹzya poteryatʹ! Narodnye khudozhestvennye promysly v Rossii: rastsvet, upadok, perspektivy vozrozhdeniya. Moscow: Moskovskie uchebniki i Kartolitografiya, 2009. Narodnoe iskusstvo Rossii, edited by Nekrasova Maria. Vologda: Vologoskaya oblastnaya kartinnaya galereya, 2008. “Nauchniy doklad “Narodnye hudozhestvennye promysly Rossii”. Finansovy universitet pri pravitelstve Rossiyskoy Ferderazii. Accessed June 18, 2012. http://www.fa.ru/dep/prik/news/Documents/Научный%20доклад%20Народные%20художественные%20 промыслы%20России.pdf. Nekrasova, Maria. Narodnoe iskusstvo Rossii. Moscow: Sovetskaya Rossiya, 1983. Salmond, Wendy. “A Matter of Give and Take: Peasant Crafts and Their Revival in Late Imperial Russia,” Design Issues, Vol. 13, No. 1, Designing the Modern Experience, 1885-1945 (Spring, 1997): 5-14. Salmond, Wendy. “The Solomenko Embroidery Workshops,” The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts. Vol. 5, Russian/Soviet Theme Issue (Summer, 1987): 126-143.

RUSSIAN ARRIÈRE-GARDE

Developing Hinterland Rural developers The word developer is widely used in Russia nowadays. The Cambridge dictionary (2011) defines developer, as a builder, a person or company that makes money from buying land, building new houses, shops or offices, or by changing existing buildings to sell or rent. This project extends the notion of developer to the countryside. The paper will focus on the organizations and people developing the Russian province in the broader sense of the word. Who are the rural developers? What is their function? What exactly are they doing for the development of the province? What defines them as civil society activists? The main goal of the project is to identify effective models of rural development and to understand the scale they operate on, their characteristics that are specific to a certain region and the possibility to implement certain models across Russia. Six rural developers typologies were identified and selected for this project: - Cooperatives - Rural Consultancy Centres - Community foundations - Religious community - Social organizations - Federal level associations

SPHERES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

RURAL DEVELOPERS Father Grigoriy, head of Kolkhoz, Yaroslavl region

ideology

sociocultural sphere

I SC

Gleb Turin, “New Pikalevo” project, Leningrad region Community Foundation “Partner Council”, Nizhniy Novgorod Supply & sale co-operative “Olonets”, Karelia

economy

technology and agriculture

T A

NKO “Zeleny Dom”, Khabarovsk Nikita Pokrovskiy “Ugorskiy project”, Kostroma region AKKOR, Moscow Semenov Rural Advisory Centre, Nizhniy Novgorod

Spheres of rural developers’ work. This diagram illustrates the spheres in which rural developers operate. On the right-side of the image are included the rural developers whose work has been analysed here. In most cases it is a combination of various roles and spheres. Common drivers are economy, technology and agriculture.

Changes in the past 20 years in Russia Due to economic reforms of 1992 (particularly, the Presidential Decree “On measures of price liberalization”), infrastructure and social amenities are no longer administrated and financed on the federal level, but on the level of local municipalities. This has led to a halt to federal funding for the “Revival of Russian Village” program and abolition of the governmental Commission for the development of villages. It was then in 1992, when social infrastructure, completely deprived of support from the state and from impoverished agricultural enterprises, started to disintegrate. As for the local authorities, they also lacked - and still lack - funds to maintain an adequate level of schools, hospitals, roads and shops.

Belyaevka, Ohanski district, Perm region, foto by A. Nikulin, 2008

Factors for rural growth Despite the overall population decrease in Russia, and especially in rural areas, there are some exceptions: regions where both the economy and population continue to grow. Several Central, West and South regions showed the highest economical growth (in 2006). Murmansk

Leningrad region +0,7% Pskov

large cities

St. Petersburg

Arkhangel’sk

Smolensk

Bryansk

Tver

MOSCOW

Kaluga

Tula

Vologda Norislk

Yaroslayl Kostroma Ivanovo Vladimir

Syktyvkar

Orël Ryazan Moscow Kursk+1,5% Nizhniy Novgorod Kirov Belgorod Lipetsk Cheboksary Yoshkar-Ola Tambov region Izhevsk Saransk Voronezh

Stavropol

Penza

Saratov

Rostov Krasnodar Maykop

Cherkessk

Naryan-Mar

Novgorod

Kazan

Ul’yanovsk Samara Ufa

Volgograd

Nalchik Grozny +1,8% Vladikavkaz

Khanty-Mansiysk

Yekaterinburg

Kurgan

Chechnenskaya Republic

Tumen region +0,7% Omsk

Astrakhan

Makhachkala

Magadan

Yakutsk Perm

Chelyabisnk Tyumen Orenburg

Elista

Salekhard

climate and rich soil

natural resources Tomsk

Novosibirsk

Kemerovo

Barnaul

Gorno-Altaysk

Yuzhno-Sakhalisnk

Krasnoyarsk Abakan

Kyzyl

Blagoveshchensk Irkutsk

Ulan-Ude

Khabarosvsk

Chita

y Vladivostok

Influence of various factors on economical growth and growth of rural population in Russia (2006). Principal “engines” of growth in the Central and the North-Western regions are large urban centres, which once again proves the role of agglomeration in the development of the country. Rich natural resources, in particular oil and gas, is the second factor that stimulates growth. And favourable climate and rich soil is the third factor. www.socpol.ru, 2011

Dinamics of economical grouth* more than 200 175-200 150-175 125-150 less than 125

*GDP index of regions 1998-2006, % to 1998 year Regions with growth of population,

+0,7% 2010 to 2002 census, www.socpol.ru HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

Cooperation A cooperative is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise. The cooperative as an economic tool Cooperatives are enterprises that, based on their format and ideology, place people at the centre of their business and not the capital. Cooperatives are business enterprises and thus can be defined in terms of three basic interests: ownership, control, and beneficiary. This is why in the cooperative model all three interests are vested directly in the hands of the members.

Benefits In general, it is very difficult for a small-scale farm or enterprise to compete with large companies for a number of reasons: cost of materials, limited market access and complicated governmental relations. If, however, small-scale farms are united in co-operatives, in fact they become large-scale organizations with all its benefits, while still remaining separate entities. In this way, they get better procurement contracts with government and private vendors, collective rights are better secured than individual and members of co-operatives can attend conferences and learn from international experience. But the most important thing is that all the profit is either distributed among the community members or spent on communal goods.

History of cooperation movement in Russia Russian Empire - growth of the cooperative movement

USSR - cooperation is under State control

By 1917, the number of cooperatives of all types approached 50,000 and Russia ranked first worldwide in terms of the number of cooperatives. Chayanov A.V. (1888-1937) Russian economist, ideologist of cooperation

The success of the cooperation movement during this period was based on a number of key principles: voluntary participation, self-activity, the financial interest of all participants and democratic self-governance in the beginning of XX century over 100 cooperativenewspapers and magazines are produced

1900

During the time of collectivization, agricultural cooperatives were turned into large socialist farms: kolkhozes and sovkhozes. They were artificially spread across the country and positioned as the highest achievement of the USSR.

1917

cooperative movement is starting to gain popularity

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Cooperation, under our conditions, very often entirely coincides with socialismâ&#x20AC;?. Vladimir Lenin (Complete works, 5 edition, t. 45, pg. 375).

1940

Revolution Collectivisation

Main principles of Soviet kolkhoz (as the new form of cooperative): - planned production and predefined prices - obligatory participation - Head of Kolkhoz was appointed by the Communist party

1960

Decreasing diversity of cooperatives note: all diagrams made are based on expertsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; opinion (Russian University of cooperation - statistics on cooperation have not been collected since 1917 Revolution)

production

craft

building

butter-maiking

building agricultural

credit

consumer

kolkhozes consumer

kolkhozes

consumer

Role of cooperation. Cooperation is an extremely effective tool of selforganization of farmers. It was originally promoted by Russian intellectuals in 1861, following the abolition of serfdom. The aim was to help peasants adopt their households and operations to liberal condition. Cooperation was developing successfully in Russia in the beginning of XX century, however, the movement lost its freedom under Soviet state control. The situation during the 1990s, after the Soviet Union collapsed, resembles 1861 with the only difference being that during the Russian Empire there was a landlord making decisions for peasants, and in the Soviet time it was the kolkhoz.

When communism and the planned economy fell in 1991, rural establishments lost clarity on how to approach new production. The result is that in today’s Russia there are many agricultural holdings with an established market monopoly, so the small-scale farmers have little possibility to find their market niche. Cooperation has a new opportunity to create a space for small-business producers next to overwhelming corporations, giving farmers the benefits of a large-scale business without denying the independence of small-scale farms.

Russian Empire Post-Soviet Russia - principles of cooperation are not very well known

Cooperatives become de-facto a legalized form of business in the USSR

Cooperatives have inherited not only Soviet-era principles, but also the infrastructure. The model of the cooperative is . perceived as part of the Soviet past.

Law on “Cooperation in the USSR”, turned cooperation into a “multibranch system, organically connected with the State economy...” (1988) The concept of cooperation is discredited ever further during the 1990s, as many cooperatives lose money through speculation schemes.

Perestroika

1991

2000

Collapse of the USSR

Law on “Credit cooperation” is signed by V. Putin (2009)

The law “On Credit Cooperatives” is listed in the governmental anti-crisis action plan

2012 Economic crisis

production production building

kolkhozes

consumer

By 1917 Russia was the global leader in the number of cooperatives. Cooperation was supported by the state in all spheres: cultural, educational and economical. Intelligentsia also played important role in popularity of cooperatives by using propaganda among peasants to educate them. Joint effort of intelligentsia and government cooperatives were widely supported by peasant families and became massive scale phenomena in Russian Empire.

USSR

Following the Revolution of 1917, the Russian cooperative movement was distorted. The old type of cooperation was eliminated, they lost their independence, freedom and democratic principles, and was transformed into top-down model.

Russian Federation

After the 1990s, the cooperative became a bureaucratic form of ownership. Today the government does not consider the cooperation as an independent economic power capable of providing any significant influence on the course of economic transformation. There is also lack of education and informational support for the cooperation movement. State law ignores the diversity of the cooperative movement and generally still limits the number of cooperatives. (Legislative laws recognized only 3 types: production, credit and consumer cooperatives).

credit

HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

Family network Family network and solidarity are especially important in rural Russia. It is a feasible base for the every-day development of the hinterland. The Baldin family network The core members of the Baldin family are five siblings living in between three different locations in Nizhniy Novgorod region, Nizhniy Novgorod, Semenov and in village Shaldezh. This family network combines both rural and urban professional connections, which help to sustain an optimal exchange of resources. They support each other when it comes to loans, construction of their houses and raising children. The important thing is that the tradition continues among the younger generations. However the influence of the Baldin network also extends to the community. Bright example of such influence are Olga and Galina who work in the Semenov Advisory centre, which is led by Galina Baldina. Nizhniy Novgorod

Vladimir

1 000 000 people

Semenov 24 000 people

Tatiana Anatoliy Michael and Galina Yuriy and Olga

Shaldezh 1 000 people

Tatiyana, head of small-scale enterprise (Semenov)

Galina Baldina, Head of Semenov Advisory Centre

Extending the network The rural advisory center was created in 1998 to provide assistance for agricultural development and for improvement of social and economic living conditions in rural areas. The team of the centre includes a number of various specialists: zootechnicians, agronomist, accountants, economists and lawyers. They advise on educational, scientific and technical questions. The centre has a key role in the development of this rural territory, and serves a social, technical as well as economic role. The centre is fairly successful and it is very popular among local residents, but this entire organization functions solely as a result of the efforts of local leader Galina Baldina.Despite being a real success, the centre is not sustainable yet, because it depends on the quality of the individual. Leaders are very important for Russian hinterland but not everything should depend on it. The advisory centre in Semenov has only limited communication with representatives of similar advisory centres and it doesn’t connect with other types of organizations at all.

Galina, Head of RAC, zootechnic (Shaldezh) Michial, Head of credit co-operative (Shaldezh)

“All together!“ Baldin family, photo by Nikulin A. 2008.

Yuriy, school teacher (Shaldezh)

Olga, deputi of head of RAC, agronomist (Shaldezh)

Vladimir, worker (Nizhniy Novgorod)

Role of religion Representatives of religious confessions are active participants in the development of the countryside. Father Grigory head of a milk-producing kolkhoz “Kolos“ , Yaroslavl region. In 2004, in the village Gorinskoe in the Danilov district of the Yaroslavl region, Father Grigory was elected head of kolkhoz “Kolos”. On the day when a meeting of shareholders chose Father Grigory to head the accounting division, the budget was so empty that they couldn’t even find 500 Rubles to pay for milk-processing. The Father had to contribute his own money. Over the course of the summer and autumn, Father Grigory managed to repay urgent debt (including salaries and payments to the pension fund), and postponed the long-standing ones. An economist Maxim Janov, a graduate of the Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics, moved to Gorinskoe to help the Father, after they met through another Orthodox leader, Andrei Kuraev. Together they developed a short-term program of economic development for the kolkhoz “Kolos”. As a result of the measures, milk yield tripled. In addition, Father Grigory decided to lease a cooler and special filters to improve the quality of the milk. Thanks to this equipment, the kolkhoz was able to increase the price of its milk by 30%. In this way, the debt was reduced from RUB 2 million to RUB 1.5 million.

Another example of selfless labor of Ortodox leader is an example of Father Sergiy in Arkhangelsk region. Community of parish and he restore the old crumbling Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin, on the photo Father Sergiy with his family, photo by Nikulin A. 2010.

The new law “On financial recovery of agricultural producers” came out right on time, and allowed the debt to be restructured with a 5-year-delay. Father Grigory also managed to take part in the national developmental project and thus build a modern automated livestock complex. The kolkhoz is now selling high quality milk - a product of quality that meets Father Grigory is the head of standards of the leading the kolkhoz “Kolos” in the village European manufacturers. Gorinskoe in the Yaroslavl Farther Grigory fights region, 2006, www.izvestia.ru alcohol abuse: employees are not allowed to be intoxicated at work. He sometimes milks the cows, repairs tractors and handles the kolkhoz equipment himself. Father Grigory simply explains his consent to become head of the kolkhoz. Nowadays there are many villages where kolkhozes went bankrupt and were liquidated. The fate of these communities is inevitable: people are gradually leaving them and moving to places where they can find a job. And after the village. “And then, when the kolkhoz is out of the crisis, I will resign and only serve God,” said Father Grigory.

Orthodox community restores the old crumbling Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin on the island Pogost which was built in 1822, 2008, rusbereza.ru

HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

Social organizations International funds and agencies in Russia After the collapse of the Soviet Union, international foundations and development agencies started to actively work in Russia. The first one was USAID, which was established in Russia in 1992 and operated across the country. Gradually organizations and national institutes of civil society also started to appear. In the late 2000s some international agencies stopped their activities, either believing that Russia had enough strength to become a donor (for example, the British DFID stopped its operations in 2007), or due to the financial crisis of 2008. But some organizations, such as USAID still continue to actively work today.

Different kinds of social organizations are involved in the development of the hinterland: non-profit organizations, non-governmental organizations, foundations, governmental agencies, trade unions, various associations, socio-cultural movements, etc. Social organizations’ main spheres of interest are generally: health care, civil society, rule of law, local governance, conflict mitigation. A number of such organizations are examined in this research. The criterion for the selection of organizations was their involvement in development of the hinterland.

International funds and agencies in Russia (2011) represents coverage of 3 international agencies in Russia

Anadyr Murmansk

Kalinigrad

Pskov

St. Petersburg Petrozavodsk

Arkhangel’sk

Naryan-Mar

Novgorod

USAID

Dudinka Smolensk

Tver

Palana

Vologda

Yaroslayl MOSCOW Kostroma Syktyvkar Kaluga Bryansk Ivanovo Tula Vladimir Orël Ryazan Kursk Nizhniy Novgorod Kirov Kudimkar Belgorod Lipetsk Cheboksary Yoshkar-Ola Tambov Izhevsk Saransk Kazan Voronezh Perm Penza Ul’yanovsk Saratov

Rostov Krasnodar Maykop Stavropol

Samara Ufa

Volgograd

Cherkessk Magas Grozny Vladikavkaz

Astrakhan

Magadan

Petropavlovsk-kKamchatskiy

Yakutsk

Tura

WorldBank

Khanty-Mansiysk

Yekaterinburg Chelyabisnk

Orenburg

Elista

Salekhard

Tyumen

Kurgan Omsk

Tomsk

Nalchik

Novosibirsk

Makhachkala

Kemerovo

Barnaul

Krasnoyarsk Ust’-Ordynskyi

Abakan

Gorno-Altaysk

Kyzyl

Irkutsk

Ulan-Ude

Blagoveshchensk Chita

Khabarosvsk

Yuzhno-Sakhalisnk

Birobidzan

Aginskoe

Vladivostok

81 Declin e

Carnegie endowment for international peace

Ford Foundation

Orange revolution in Ukraine which was claimed to be organized by means of foregn organizations

2004 64

2005

DFID

800.000 Organizations

British Council KEC

Rockefeller Brothers Fund

Ford Foundation USAID

of fore

UN KEC 220.000

ign sup port to

British Council 50

Organizations

Policy reform by V.Putin

Rockefeller Brothers Fund

against social organizatons financed by foregn funds, introduced by V.Putin

USAID

Institute of civil society problems

16 “We are against overseas funding for the political activities [of social organizations] in Russia. I categorically object” V.Putin (2005)

2006

State club “Soprotivlenie”

6 main

Institute of social developm

Grant recievers

State charity fund

Association of National health

2007

2008

Social organizations in rural areas The number of social organizations in rural areas is quite small in Russia: only 5% of the total amount of social organizations. These organizations are engaged in the development of local self-government, work with young people and the elderly, raising the local activism of the population, helping small businesses and cooperatives. These organizations appeared in the 1990s and were initially funded by various foreign funds. With time, some of these organizations manage to enlist the support of local authorities and receive funding from regional budgets. Yet a lot of them are still receiving money from abroad.

Denis Volkov, “Perspectives of civil society in Russia“, Analitical center Levada Centre, 2011.

Ugorskiy project by Nikita Pokrovsky

Investments of USAID are twice as large as Russian presidential grants. 72

ian so

cia l organizations due to financial crisis and ela r

tievly stab

le econom

ic situaton

The Ugorskiy Project is an initiative of Nikita Pokrovsky, a professor at the National Research Institute - Higher School of Economics. It is an example of scientific research influencing countryside development. The project aims to create a new, reverse, model of migration: from cities to ecologically clean areas of the Near North (Thinning north). It is called “downshifting” among representatives of the emerging, urban middle class working in a remote-access mode.

66 in Russi USAID

support in Russia, mln. USD

700.000 Organizations

which gave some relief to foregn social organizations in Russia

Liberalization by D.Medvedev

009

A bright example of a non-profit organization that has successfully implemented a new model of rural development, “Zeleniy Dom” says that its slogan is “Not for people, but together with the people”. The program encourages most the active citizens (they make up to 15% of the total population) to set up and participate in self-government institutions. Fifteen out of a total of 19 projects are now working.

“The outlook for civil society in Russia depends on the activities of its population: strive to unite, to defend their rights and to cooperate in this with non-profit organizations, etc. It also depends on how wide and well-organized the interaction between non-profits and the government is”.

o Russ

ment

NKO “Zeleniy dom” Khabarovsk

33 Russian President’s grants, mln. USD

6 main

Grant recievers

2010

The country has “an amorphous non-profit sector”. The gornment sees social organizations as potential rivals, expelling them from the political arena. Nevertheless, the nonprofit sector has outgrown the boundaries the authorities had put them in.

Gleb Turin’s New Pikalevo project “The new Pikalevo” is a project that brings together people who are aware of the fact that citizens can work together to create a new future for their city, bringing new opportunities and using their resources in a new way. The leader of the project is Gleb Turin. He is often called the “hinterland rescuer”. Previously, Gleb worked for the Institute of Social and Humanitarian Initiatives, which was developing self-organization in villages in the Arkhangelsk region.

2011

HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

Personal access: utilities and infrastructure

“6 trln rubles is required to repair basic assets across Russia”, Medvedev speech, 2010

Some problems can be solved locally, but for that the local community needs leaders and institutional support of development organizations.

“What is advocated today? Who should decide for a man? People now quote our president or prime minister saying that the mayor should sustain personal yards, keep order in entrances. And people come to me with such claims all the time. And people are sure now, that everything should be done for them, not by them.” Shkarban, S. Kologriv Mayor. (Kologriv, 2010. HSE Summer sociological practice).

From 1995 to 2010 the length of water pipes in need of repair in rural area increased from 37,5 to 82,1 thousand kilometers. And as of 2010, only 32% of rural settlements have water supply systems. (Kologriv, 2010. Higher School of Economics Summer sociological practice).

Role The countryside in Russia’s periphery is still either poorly equipped with infrastructure and utilities, or it is in very bad shape; this is infrastructure that should provide basic living facilities and connection to other settlements. Due to a lack of reliable statistics, it’s hard to estimate the actual number of deprived citizens. Traces Much of urban and rural infrastructure was constructed during Soviet times with the aim of supporting industrial growth and big projects, such as GOELRO, BAM. Many facilities were built with the help of Kolkhozes and labor-prison colonies. In Soviet times, prison labour camps were a significant resource for industrialization. Prisoners were widely used in construction projects of different scale, from the Belomorcanal to local residential housing. For that reason, some distant settlements grew dependent on inmate labor. Main Challenges Today municipalities do not have the means to maintain all the worn-out infrastructure, and many basic facilities are worn out. The level of exploitation reaches 70-80% in some areas while the official average number is 60%. Budget resources required for the repairs exceeds any local municipal budget many times over. In fact, it makes more than half of federal budget for 2012 (which is 9,5 trln rubles). There are no estimations of the consequences in the event that communal services begin to fail. In 2010, President Medvedev proclaimed that large-scale cooperation with business would be required to renovate the facilities. Poor infrastructure has a negative effect on businesses, raising the cost of production. For agricultural businesses, the expenses for infrastructure are high mostly because of the distance between energy, water, road networks and the production site. Infrastructure costs increase the price of the end-product. As a legacy of Soviet maintenance policy, which was widely supported by local enterprises, current communal maintenance also heavily relies on agreements with businesses, usually big companies, such as ALROSA in Yakutia, and occasionally medium scale enterprises such as in Il’yno-Zaborskoe. Small enterprises almost never participate (for they don’t have the spare resources). Relationships between the local administration and business are a matter of negotiations, and participants experience a lack of effective regulations.

Starting a new life for the village Andreevka village, Okhansky rayon, Perm Krai. Rural settlement includes Andreevka (population 801), Gurevlyane (90), Churan (54) and Surovtsy (1 person) villages, total population 946.

Taking chances Until the middle of the 2000s, Andreevka was a typical depressed village. Vera Bolotova became the head of the village in 1995. But only after the reform of the municipal self-governance, which took effect in 2005, the Andreevka Rural Settlement was formed and Vera was elected as its head. The new law made it possible to make local decisions regarding infrastructure and community life. With a constellation of a few factors and good leader skills, Vera managed to set the village on a path of development. 1. In 2005, a National project for the Support of Agriculture was established and Andreevka with local former Kolkhoz received some financial support. 2. In 2007, a local oligarch set up an agroholding in neighboring Belyaevka and constructed gas pipelines that went through Andreevka, making heating cheaper (replacing firewood). 3. Vera Bolotova managed to receive a few grants on behalf of the village that were used, for example, to learn from the experience of the Netherlands in municipal government. 0

250

500

1000 km

Vera Bolotova, head of the Andreevka Village during Hinterland Introduction week, “What I can’t stand is when Andreevka inhabitants are humiliated through bureaucracy” (October 2011).

Andreevka is still highly dependent on often informal support from the former Kolkhoz and the local oligarkhoz in village Belyaevka nearby: - maintenance of water pipes; - provision with cleaning equipment; - community events.

“Q: Could you now transfer the water pipes to the village administration? A: They don’t want to take them. They are old and we understand that we would be left without water supply if they take them into their responsibility. I would appreciate to abandon them, it’s a headache... I could ask them [the village administration] - take them, it is part of your responsibility. But we are living together here, so is it necessary for the community” Lindler, P., Moser, E. 2009. p 10.

Andreevka shares these problems with many Russian villages. To the extent of their dependency upon big enterprises nearby and government financial support, they don’t have potential for development. Vera Bolotova used the grants in combination with the new rights of municipalities to turn Andreevka into a village where people want to spend their lives.

Vera Bolotova tries to get people to actively participate in the Andreevka settlement’s development. Now there are some positive trends. Through this presentation (Hinterland Introductory week 2011) people showed their desire to live and work in Andreevka.

The case of Andreevka prominently shows two key issues. 1. Significant improvement of infrastructure and local business support could help municipal government. 2. Russian Hinterland needs leaders and welleducated municipal professionals. Under current conditions it can almost survive only through the commitment of people with exceptional enthusiasm and leader skills. There are 20,729 rural and urban settlements in Russia (2010 Census). HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

Access to goods and services Small scale rural enterprises can play a crucial role in rural development, supporting local budgets and infrastructure, but they face a set of obstacles.

Potential for rural development High demand for affordable food in distant areas today can not be met by nationwide or even regional retailers. One key area with development potential is the establishment of effective local production and distribution in rural areas. This would boost the agricultural potential of the Russian hinterland. However, there are structural market obstacles which need to be overcome. Serving community development The “Il’yno-Zaborskoe” company (Semenov Rayon, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast) is basically taking care of the village of 1600 ppl. It supports the village infrastructure and social facilities. The charisma and leadership skills of the director surpass those of the municipal administration. But this is also the fragility of this model, all development is based on the effort and commitment of Alexey Vladimirovish Stepanov, who has the ability to relocate entire families from other regions to Il’yno-Zaborskoe. This is a strong example of effective initiative in the Hinterland.

1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

Purchasing power calculated for milk based on average regional income. In the Far East milk is least accessible. (2010, RosStat).

Big Scale +economy of scale -easier to cooperate with same scale -foreign dominance -easier to control by the state -harder to manage -pay taxes regionally Foreign Processors -high final price Processing costs

Distributors

Increased efficiency of market mechanisms is urgently needed Local markets play an important two-sided role in Russian hinterland. They provide access to affordable common goods, but they also serve as centres of public and community life where people gather to discuss the latest news. Traders who sell on such markets are rarely local. In general, they are a more or less a fixed set of traders operating in a few settlements and towns, moving each day from location to location. For example, in Gorokhovets one can meet a trader from Dzerzhinsk. Moscow is an ultimate distribution centre for clothes and common goods for most parts of Russia. Goods are taken from here to regional centres and deeper into the country. But since recent fights with large markets in Moscow (the Cherkisovsky market which closed in 2008), goods are becoming more and more expensive and unaffordable for local residents. Local markets are commonly a place for people to sell food produced on small, private plots. But today this sector of the market is shrinking too, with price increases needed in order for the market to operate officially. Informal trade is cheap but uncertified.

Singular shops

Producers

Small Scale +local production +lower costs due to shorter chain -easier to cooperate with same scale -harder to control +easier to manage +pay taxes locally

distribution production zone

branch office and site in one town

Retail Chain Stores Domestic Processors Market places

Production costs

branch office production site

Distributors

Producer & Processor

Production & Processing costs

Retail spots

Weekend Fairs

Local authorities

Supervision services

RosSelkhozNadzor, RosPotrebNadzor, Tax, Fire, Sanitary authorities

Infrastructure & construction

Regulation costs

Scheme of Milk Production Chain between producers, consumers and the regulations in between. The length of the chain increases the price and barriers for businesses. (2000s)

Wimm-Bill-Dann production locations: along the lines of most developed areas (2008, Wimm-Bill-Dann [http://company.wbd.ru/ about/geography/])

In 1990 in Vladivostok a regular market opened which quickly became famous and highly popular. Filled with Chinese traders, it offered common consumer goods: clothes, furniture, dishes, lamps, vhs, audio tapes; and also food - Chinese cuisine included. (2012, Hinterland group field trip).

Largest milk producers in Russia (%)

5,4

3,4

Others “Danone-Unimilk”

20,5

49,1

PepsiCo & Wimm-Bill-Dann Private Labels

21,6

“Molvest”

10,6 mlns tons of milk was produced in Russia in 2011 in total.

Largest juice producers in Russia (%) PepsiCo

4,8

4,0

Coca-Cola Others

6,7 13,4

45,4

“Sady Pridonya” “Sunfruit-Trade”

25,7

“Interagrosystems”

3,011 mrld litres of juice was produced in Russia in 2011 in total.

Foreign companies dominate in Russian milk and beverage markets (2010, RIANovosti, Nielsen, Soyuzmoloko, Russian Juice Producers Council.)

High initial costs The start-up cost of a commercial farm is high. There are two main expenses: infrastructure (which is high because infrastructure is generally in poor condition) together with construction costs (which depends on the contractor) and supervision costs (including all kinds of requirements - sanitary, construction, fire safety, production certification, some of which are duplicated by different agencies, making the process costly also in terms of time and effort). Taking into account the fact that the government is often unable to develop or maintain the local infrastructure and utilities network, only big enterprises can generally develop and maintain the necessary infrastructure, the medium farm in Il’yno-Zaborskoe is one of exceptions. It is important to develop small and large businesses jointly. Reaching the consumer It is much harder for small or a medium-size producers to enter the retail market, which is strongly dominated by big producers and processing corporations. There are generally foreign and large retail-chains, offering low prices with which only other large companies can compete. Low prices for raw-milk can undermine opportunities for business in this sphere. May 2012 The Union of Milk Producers in the Kurgan Oblast asked DanoneUnimilk not to reduce raw-milk prices for spring-summer 2012 as was planned. The market mechanism favours big enterprises rather than small: they are more powerful in defining prices and market policies. According to the PriceWaterhouseCoopers report on Russia for 2004-05, Russian companies were leaders in several segments of the food industry: WimmBill-Dann in dairy products; APK Cherkizovsky in meat products; Krasny Oktyabr and Sladko are both strong players in the confectionary sector, although Mars and Nestle are leading the market. The sectors where international companies dominate are the brewing (Baltic Beverages Holding (Baltika), SUN Interbrew, Efes Beverages Group) and the tobacco sector (Philip Morris, Japan Tobacco International and British American Tobacco). Since Wimm-Bill-Dann was bought by PepsiCo (2011), and Unimilk merged with Danone (2010), the dairy market is predominantly in the hands of foreign companies. Also, in the milk market foreign companies occupy a significant share of production, in terms of market space. Although they went from 44,7% to 42,1%, giving a tiny bit more space to regional and local producers. Most of the milk market is now foreign-owned, but production is domestic. Usually food processing corporations establish their own farms or cooperate with big agricultural enterprises. It’s more difficult for them to cooperate with local small- and mid-size farmers: they all offer different prices, while it is less costly to deal with a supplier whose price is uniform. domestic XL

foreign

18,5 14,6

4,4 2008

Moscow

Primorie

4,9 2009

Ratio of average income to price of minimum food basket. Average Moscovite income covers 18,5 minimum food baskets, while in Primorie only 4,5. (2009, RosStat.)

local

The average Moscow supermarket dairy shelf: about a third of the products are produced by foreign companies, one third by leading Russian corporations (which are generally owned by foreign companies) and less than a third by local producers (2012) HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

Administrative Context 6 mln rub/year = municipal budget of a 4000 ppl town

Inter-land

City + villages

Town+ villages

Centre village + villages

Rural settlement

+/-

Urban settlement

Urban District

Municipal rayon

The effective and positive role of the local government or administration is key for successful local development. Today many municipalities and settlements struggle with the new budget and responsibility regulations that were introduced in 2003. The only way to overcome this situation is often to informally interact with big businesses nearby.

There are 23,907 municipal units in Russia (RosStat. 2010.)

6 mln rubl/year = budget of a rural school for 40 students

Interview with Kologriv Mayor (Kologriv, 2010. Higher School of Economics Summer Sociological Practice.)

The administrative system should facilitate effective decision making and decision implementation. Municipal administration today is responsible for the infrastructure that both people and businesses use, and it is also responsible for local social and civic activities, as well as ecological projects. Overall, too much in terms of the finances/responsibilities ratio. The federal government regulates the distribution of finances across regions, municipalities and settlements. The regional government controls only 20% of its total income, the rest goes to the federal budget. The settlement mainly receives taxes from property and land, which is usually cheap in the periphery, while from personal income taxes 70% goes to regional budget, 20% to municipal, and only 10% - to the settlementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. Budgets are allocated regularly at the federal level, and the formulas by which they are counted are not clear. Often it is not so much about official regulation, as it is about lobbying and negotiations. An example of the uneven distribution of finances is the Surgut rayon, which gives two times more taxes than its neighbor, but receives two times smaller municipal budgets. Local budgets are hardly enough to sustain what municipalities have in their responsibilities, and they have no space for development strategies. Development as an activity to apply human and financial power, is not even included in the official regulations. Only the regional level has the potential to implement development projects. Community and NGO activity become crucial in such situations.

In general, most of the municipal budget of Andreevka is spent on maintenance. All budget items are strictly fixed and thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s no finance allocated for territorial development.

Andreevka Municipal Budget in 2007 (RUB per capita)

general public services including expenditures for the executive body

252

housing and utilities social policy

(2008 Centre for Fiscal Policy)

1005

765

sports culture, mass media support, youth policy intergovernmental transfers

241

Lindler, P., Moser, E. 2009.

national security, law and order

Andreevka municipality with its head, Vera Bolotova (2008)

The only land connection between the regional center - Kologriv - and surrounding villages is a bridge screaming for repair. Town and regional administrations are still arguing who should pay for the work. (Kologriv, 2010. Higher School of Economics Summer sociological practice).

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Self-ungovernanceâ&#x20AC;? The law on Municipal Self-governance, which was implemented in 2003, has since had more than 100 follow up corrections. Reform had to be finished by 2009, but was not. The main issue was lack of resources to implement it fully. Before the reform, two main issues of administrative system in Russia were duplication and controversies in regulations. The self-governance law introduced more authority on the local level, but at the same time centralized budget allocation. So the law in fact centralized the budget system at the same time aiming to diversify responsibilities to lower levels of governance. Incompetent bureaucracy does not help 25% of municipal administrators do not have higher education, and only 20% are younger than 30 years old, according to the Minister for Regional Development. As for the management staff, Yuri Plusnin who covered more than 100 municipalities in his research, defines four types of municipal managers present in Russia today. More skilled: -- Former high-level, Soviet-system employee, former heads of executive committees -- Former heads of Sovkhoz, workers, who occupied management positions Less skilled: -- Administrators who got their positions in the 1990s but sought the position only because of the status. -- Social sphere employees who are respected by the community (doctors, teachers). They usually lack required education and managerial skills. In general, before the 2003 reform, human resources of the local administration were scarce. The administration lacked education, skills and knowledge. Inefficiency could cause budget losses of up to 30%. The biggest deficit in rural areas is skilled managers and people who can provide the population with relevant information on the management of finances, audit, credit and other specific knowledge areas. Often they lack basic economic and administrative knowledge, but especially they lack managerial knowledge and skills that are needed to organize and motivate people.

Local Self-Governance: Provision of Goods and Services highlighted are the most difficult to fulfil

Rural settlements are now responsible for the development and maintenance of all utilities and infrastructure, and cultural facilities in the settlement. Maintaining and developing all settlement infrastructure and utilities is not realistic on the existing municipal budget. For example, the yearly budget of Andreevka is aprox. 1,400,000 RUB ($44,000) in 2011. (2008: centre for fiscal policy)

Main responsibilities of municipal areas: - provision of preschool, primary and secondary education - provision of health care in hospitals, maternity care, and ambulance services; - municipal police - protection of the environment; - waste management: - maintenance of rayon libraries - organization of recreational, cultural and sport events; - provision of electricity and gas; - construction and maintenance of roads between settlement areas; - provision of public transportation between settlements

Main responsibilities of rural settlements: - delivery of housing including electricity, heating, water, gas, street lights and waste collection; - construction and maintenance of lowincome housing for low-income households; - provision of basic fire protection; - maintenance of cemeteries; - maintenance of parks and gardens; - maintenance of settlement libraries; - organization of recreational, cultural and sport events and activities for teenagers - construction and maintenance of settlement roads; -provision of public transportation within the settlement areas.

Lindler, P., Moser, E. 2009. HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

Emergence of space in Russia “The development of Russian space both in Tsarist and Soviet times was distinctive in making the development of heavy industry a central factor of territorial development. Development of facilitating industries and services was dragging far behind.” Kuznetsova T. 2010

Soviet legacy The Soviet approach to spatial development was a mixture of two key factors. The first is that development in a country where the entire system (party, administration, industry) is so unified that the understanding of different spaces (social, political, economical, cultural) having its own internal logic and foundation for development did not exist. The second is that in the USSR, the vast empty territories were sporadically industrialized through large-scale projects such as Belomorkanal or BAM. Infrastructure was developed only as a side-effect of these projects. Today we can see that these aspects of the Soviet approach remain prominent in the decision and policy making process of the current government. Russian state capitalism Vladimir Putin claims that Russia’s governmental system is unstable and vulnerable, and that is the reason he wants to build strong and stable structure that could survive without manual control. The country is still recovering from the collapse of the USSR, catching up with its image as the global leader. Large investments are required to stimulate economic growth and they are gained mainly through resource export. There’s no secret that this policy made the country’s economy resource-based and liable to unstable world resource market. To overcome this, such reforms as the 131 law of Municipal self-governance were introduced, aiming to reduce the federal government’s load. But those reforms are unable to overcome the structural dependency that grew out of all the previous policies. Uniform approach The main national weapon of development, namely large scale resource-based projects, disregard the specificity of local development potential almost entirely.

“It is one of the paradoxes of our Constitution: all subjects are equal, but some of those equal are parts of other equally equal”.

Further centralization can lead to very unwelcome consequences: a) autocracy as a side effect of attempts to govern such a huge country centrally b) huge administrative failure because of lack of governance resources.

Petrov, N. 2004

-2

11:00

Confusion of time with the neighbouring countries due to different time zones is an obstacle for international collaboration. Moderating these differences could positively affect the growth of the Russian Hinterland that is close to border.

20:00

-1 -2 -2

+11

12:00 14:00

-1 -0,5

16:00

18:00

15:00

0 -1

17:00

-1 0 -1

19:00

-2

-3 -2

Difference in time along the border with neighboring countries (2012)

-2 -3

The federal territorial development policy prioritizes resource industry and foreign policy. Today federal policy looks east. The newly established Ministry of the Far East Development will aim to make Russian Far East into a development centre equal to Asia (China, India) through the development of the energy market. The government mobilizes eastern oil and gas resource centres, such as Yakutia. Oil resources in Yakutia were estimated in 2001 to be 120 mln tons. First steps to develop them were made in 2008. Development of oil and gas was given to “Rosneft”, “Transneft” and “Gasprom”. Yakutia will be a part of the East-Siberia Pacific Ocean oil pipe line, that will create new resource market opportunities. To support the development of Far East, the APEC summit was brought to Vladivostok, and such institutions as the Ministry of Far East development were established. The government proclaims that such large projects as the APEC summit will bring good infrastructure and investments to the areas involved. But campus on the Russky Island doesn’t have enough residential facilities and those that it has, are far more expensive than those existing in the city. So the solution to move to the APEC campus somehow does not inspire Far East Federal University students. The transport problem, which will inevitably arise (a new bridge is unlikely to cope with daily transportation of roughly 40,000 people to and from the island), has also not addressed.

Vladivostok and the new bridge, view from the ferry to Island Russki. (2012 Hinterland group field trip).

Farmers are dependent on unstable subsidy policies Large- and middle-sized farms are highly dependent on federal and regional subsidy policies. Small enterprises are almost impossible to start and maintain. For example, Alexey Stepanov’s business in Il’yno-Zaborskoe, Semenov rayon, Nizhny Novgorod oblast consists not only of a milk farm and flax fields. He expanded and diversified it to increase business stability: started up charcoal and plywood production. This businesses is lucrative, and its generated profits create a foundation for development, but two problems occur. 1. It is highly dependant on it’s leader – A.Stepanov. 2. It depends on federal and regional agribusiness support policy. Without milk subsidies, with the current level of expenses and involvement in local community life, the farm wouldn’t survive. But it is not clear whether subsidies will continue to be provided, or will be cancelled, for any new ministry appointment could change it all. In the end, businesses are unable to steadily grow even when there is some short-term potential. Federal and regional governmental support for agriculture (especially in the form of subsidies) is unpredictable, which makes it difficult to set any long-term plans.

erm

g Ekaterinbur Chelyabinsk

Tumen

Territory which is least populated is used as a huge resource deposit. Rural areas have almost no opportunities Omsk for intrinsic development, because their dependence on Novosibirsk large enterprises is structurally embedded in the current administrative and market regulations. (2012, Big cities and density of rural population in Russia) Tomsk

St. Petersburg

Moscow Yaroslavl

Tula

Ryazan Lipetsk

Voronezh

Nizhny Novgorod

Penza Ulyanovsk

Khabarovsk

Kazan

Izhevsk

Rostov

Krasnoyarsk

Perm

Nab. Chelny

Tol’yatti Saratov

Volgograd

Ufa

Samara

g Ekaterinbur Chelyabinsk

Krasnodar

Kemerovo

Barnaul

Novokuznetsk

RURAL POPULATION, persons per sq. k 0

Tumen

Orenburg

Astrakhan

Khabarovsk Omsk Tomsk

Novosibirsk Krasnoyarsk

Mahachkala Kemerovo

Irkutsk

Khabarovsk Barnaul

Novokuznetsk

Vladivostok

Irkutsk

SETTLEMENTS WITH POPULATION MORE THAN 500.000

Vladivostok

more than 10.000.000 5.000.000-10.000.000 1.000.000-5.000.000

RURAL POPULATION, persons per sq. k

700.000-1.000.000

5.000.000-10.000.000 1.000.000-5.000.000

more than 10.000.000 0

250

500

1000 km

250

500

1000 km

700.000-1.000.000 500.000-700.000 250.000-100.000 100.000-250.000

5.000.000-10.000.000

500.000-700.000

SETTLEMENTS WITH POPULATION MORE THAN 500.000

RURAL POPULATION, SETTLEMENTS WITH POPULATION persons per sq. k more than 10.000.000 MORE0 THAN 1 10 25 500.000 50

250.000-100.000

HINTERLAND 1.000.000-5.000.000 DEVELOPERS

100.000-250.000

700.000-1.000.000

500.000-700.000

250

500

1000 km

250.000-100.000 100.000-250.000

Need to reconnect National spatial development policy: currently resource-export based economy

Many of the issues the Russian hinterland faces stem from ineffective governmental structures and regulations. These structures and regulations in turn have origins in the priorities of federal development policies, which do not focus on using local development potential to the fullest, but make small-scale enterprises and municipalities dependent on one source of power (and money), which is federal. This dependency causes disintegration on the local levels, and people leave the countryside in general and move closer to regional and country centres. What the Russian hinterland needs is an opportunity to reconnect different scales of administration and business in a way that would enact intrinsic local as well as overall country development.

Regional sustainable develoment potential: agribusiness, light industry, infrastructure

Priority in current policy Number of people affected

Need to share The patchwork of rural development

Rural developers between community and Government

GOVERNMENT Murmansk

Ruralia institute Finland

Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine

Pskov

St. Petersburg urg

Supply-sell S co co-operative “Olonets” Arkhangel’sk

President’s grants

Naryan-Mar

Novgorod

NKS APK: rural Father Grigoriy head consultincy of kolkhoz “Kolos” centers

USAID DFID(UK)

Smolensk

KnowHow fund(UK) Ford foundation(USA)

Tver

Community Yaroslayl MOSCOW Kostroma foundation Syktyvkar Ivanovo Partner’s council Tula Nizhniy Novgorod Ryazan Kirov Lipetsk Cheboksary Yoshkar-Ola Tambov Izhevsk Saransk Kazan Voronezh Perm Penza Ul’yanovsk

Bryansk

AKKOR

Vologda

Norislk

Kaluga

Salekhard

Magadan

Orël

Kursk

Belgorod

Saratov

Rostov Krasnodar Maykop Stavropol

Samara Ufa

Volgograd

Astrakhan

Khanty-Mansiysk

Religious organizations

Yekaterinburg Chelyabisnk Tyumen

Orenburg

Elista

Cherkessk

Makhachkala

Social organizations

Kurgan Omsk

Tomsk

Nalchik

Grozny Vladikavkaz

PetropavlovskKamchatskiy

Yakutsk

Novosibirsk

Kemerovo

Barnaul

Gorno-Altaysk

Krasnoyarsk Abakan

Kyzyl

Blagoveshchensk oveshchensk shch Irkutsk

Ulan-Ude

Chita

Yuzhno-Sakhalisnk Yuz

Khabarosvsk svs

Russian

Social o organization or “Zeleniy dom” NKO “Ze N

International

Vladivostok

Community foundation “Partner Council” and NKO “Zeleniy dom“ are rare examples of social organizations with broad networks at the country level as well as at the level of international organizations. In most cases, rural developers are much less interconnected.

Federal-level social organizations, such as AKKOR (Association of Farmers and Agricultural Co-operatives of Russia), are very formal. They have some political influence, but they lack connection with local level and do not participate in the community life. Other rural developers, such as co-operatives and rural advisory centers, are more problem-oriented although the entities are disconnected and rely on their individual leaders.

Community foundations

Rural consultincy

Co-operatives centers

COMMUNITIES

None of these models of rural developers are really sustainable. They either have political influence and no attachment to local communities (AKKOR), or they are involved in community life with no power. Thus, none of the above-mentioned types of developers combines the two crucial components of civil society: local expertise and political connection.

Integrating Russian Hinterland

The current investigation suggest that there are 5 types of hinterland in Russia.

ve cti

rde

centres thin

nin

active south

orth

natural mineral resource extortion and wilderness

active border zone

Small enterprises such as Il’yno-Zaborskoe need resources to establish processing facilities, which would widen retail opportunities. Complex measures of administrative adjustment could partially relieve the enterprise of the burden of infrastructure, releasing resources for other important community projects and lessening business’ dependency on subsidies.

Stepanov Alexey, Director of “Il’yno-Zaborskoe” company

Galina Baldina, Head of Semenov Advisory Centre

Effective communication between different kinds of rural developers could increase the efficiency of their work dramatically. Information support plays a very important role in matters of increasing the self-government and self-activity of the population. Here a gap is visible. The Semenov advisory centre could inspire and help many other settlements all over Russia if their experience would be properly multiplied, and they could learn from other models of development in return. There is a need for an effective translation of these models, and an information campaign about the development of self-government across Russia. The campaign could include documentary films about successful organizations, short clips with explanation of work’ principals of organizations, s special site where people could find information first hand: where people can share their experience and where they could meet like-minded persons.

Conclusion The Semenov rayon is located on the border of Thinning and Resource zones, which both face a growing wilderness and a decrease in population. However, the Semenov rayon is developing due to strong leadership from the Rural Advisory Centre and farms, such as Il’yno-Zaborskoe. The Rural Advisory Centre helps the local community to build solidarity and solve socially significant problems. It also supports businesses’ development with judicial and economic recommendations and advice concerning agricultural technologies that help to improve productivity. The Il’yno-Zaborskoe company is diversified and growing, and to keep valuable workers on the site, it supports the entire settlement with social infrastructure and utilities. In this intertwined way, the joint efforts of small business overcome structural obstacles set by the current federal development paradigm. HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

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Online Resources Federal State Statistics Service of Russian Federation (FSSS) . www.gks.ru. AKKOR (Association of Farmers and agricultural Co-operatives of Russia) http://www.akkor.ru/, April, 2012. DFID Department For International Development UK, http://www.dfid.gov.uk/, May, 2012. Federal State Statistics Service, http://www.gks.ru/, May, 2012. Independent Institute for Social Policy http://www.socpol.ru/, May, 2012. Foreign Assistance Dashboard, http://foreignassistance.gov/DataView.aspx, April, 2012. NKO “Zeleniy dom”, http://www.зелдом.рф/, June, 2012. Page of Novoe Pikalevo project in VKontakte, http://vk.com/novoe_pikalevo, May, 2012. Ugorskiy project www.ugory.ru, May, 2012. UN United Nations in the Russian Federation Russia http://www.unrussia.ru/, April, 2012. USAID United States Agency for International Development Russia http://russia.usaid.gov/ru/, May, 2012. World Bank http://web.worldbank.org/, May, 2012. Authors would like to express their gratitude to experts who supported the research: Kopoteva Inna, University of Helsinki - Ruralia Institute; Nefedova Tatiana, Russian geographer; Pleshakov Sergei, head of NKO “Zeleniy dom“; Baldina Galina, head of Semenov Advisory centre; Sobolev Alexander, theorist of cooperation; Sidnev Andrey, Deputy of Chairman of the Expert Council under the laws of the credit cooperatives of the Committee on Financial Markets of the State Duma; Shugurov Pavel, head of design department at Vladivostok city adminitration; Bolotova Vera, head of Andreevka Rurual Settlement; Stepanov Alexey, director of “Il’yno-Zaborskoe” farm.

HINTERLAND DEVELOPERS

Russia and the Global Hinterland Russia in the Epicenter of the Global Hinterland The development of global hinterland is often associated with various interaction problems of developed and developing countries. According to the renowned sociologist Teodor Shanin, at the turn of the 20th century Russia was the first country of the so-called Third World – the world of developing countries (Shanin, 1977). From this historical point of view, the Soviet experiment was a dramatic attempt by a huge developing country, Russia, to overcome its backwardness, proving with its own example the possibility of alternative development for the developed and the developing states. For the years ahead, the crash of the Soviet system predestined Russia’s pessimistic uncertainty of its strength and paths of development in the world of the developed and the developing countries. This chapter explores the paradox that Russia is in a much more powerful position than it takes on today – with its renewable energy potential, forest mass and agricultural land reserve, highly skilled population, 14 land borders, 41 sea borders and a continuing focus on subsoil resources. In recent years, Russia has resumed its attempts to intensify the search for the independent development and wider participation in various alliances, both with developed and developing countries.

From the Soviet era to today, Russia’s potential. Left: Soviet poster: “Fight for the maximum use of all reserves of collective production for a good harvest!” Right: Agriculture in the city of Lipetsk, Russia. Source: ITARTASS, 2012

Transformation of the Russian Hinterland

From a global, regional or local perspective it is positive to look â&#x20AC;&#x153;outside the boxâ&#x20AC;?, just as Prof. Meadows advised in his lecture â&#x20AC;&#x153;New Horizons for Business in the Limited World. The next 50 yearsâ&#x20AC;? at Skolkovo. In this approach to a global vision of the Russian hinterland, every case is related to the immediate area that it affected in a positive or negative way.

Global affects Local The cases included below provide an illustration of how global events influence and transform the Russian hinterlands on a local scale, and in everyday life.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;To provide context and scale for these problems, Blacksmith Institute and Green Cross Switzerland have updated their work in this new report - â&#x20AC;&#x153;Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Worst Pollution Problems.â&#x20AC;? Rather than focusing on just a few locations, this report gives an overview of the range of pollution threats humans face throughout the world... PROBLEMS ARE MORE THAN JUST A FEW SITES.â&#x20AC;?

illustrated below together is $23 billion, which on average is $3 billion per project or event.

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was an open window of Russia to Europe under the gaze of welcome Peter The Great back in 1700, who not only Very create a city from his mind but also move the capital there. This of is Russia the better way to say â&#x20AC;&#x153;thank youâ&#x20AC;? to a city and return a little bit back to a student city. Kazan, Soa we have(by thepeople) secondold capital of Russia, young city (more than also one called the north leadingwill in atake G8 place meeting in thousand sincecapital, was founded) to the front of the Baltic region. looksUniversiade that is all about eyes of the world withIt the 2013, location. Olimpcs summer Sports12 . Benefits There are 44 institutes of higher education in Kazan, including 19 branches of universities from other cities. Moreused than 140,000 are 8 in The total budget goes to students $397,000,000 educated the city. Kazanbudget Federalwith University which 90% infrom Federal a financial (founded 1804)companies is third oldest in The support by in private foruniversity $5.9 million. Russia for afterthe Saint Petersburg State University benefits place were for Konstantinovsky (1724)new and Moscow State2.2 University (1755). Palace, helicopters, million usd andIn New 2009 KFU got Federal status as main university of

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in 1996. APEC summit will be gather at the new Far WHC Eastern Russia occupies the second place holding 40 UNESCO Chairs but Irkutsk Chair is the only one ofFederal University. water resources, Lake Baykal is the reason.

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The center at the middle As the G6 is not a geographical located group theItâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s all about Life 31500 km2 (bigger than Belgium). "Just as the G-8 IV International Summit: Economic cooperation of Niquel BRIC had a similar condition. The pathinisthe notworld, in the after the acquisition of 90% of a Darkness countries concentrate a major portion of the world's Russia and OIC countries So it is not a bad idea to meet, and then is not map. Is the similar situations the ones who appearLake canadian company LionOre Mining Baykal as aInternational, part of Russia â&#x20AC;&#x153;the mostâ&#x20AC;? economic wealth, the 17 Megadiversity Countries A soviet capital Justification Benefits for Inscription and Extension UNESCO May 17-18, 2012, Kazan, Russia to order the new understanding of with globalization. Aadjective Ltd. the biggest foreign is trade the history of times when you surprising that this important meeting take place in have within their borders more than two thirds of alsoin present many One of the worse cities to live in due to the pollution Organisation of Islamic Cooperation OICof Europe with Asia, the border after all is Russia new approach to the worldRussia. highlighting their read about it. The oldest, deepest, clearest, biggest our planet's biological wealth, its biodiversity" of the Eastern Federal ÂĽ Construction which is consider to be differences. the 1 percent global http://kazansummit.ru/eng/ inviting Brazil to look at the east. The A. Committee inscribed theFar Volcanoes of Vladivostok got 6,000,000,000 USD. Dr. Russell lake of the world and the largest reservoir of the Conservation International. President University, in particular its natural sciences and producer of sulfur dioxide emisios. At that point The Jim Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Neill from Goldman Sachs, based in London, Kamchatka asfinancial one of the most outstanding Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s drinking water. Cleanest is also a Mittermeier. economic buildings, hotels with 5,500 Institute has included this city as one of A call from Russia House wrote a paper at the end Blacksmith of 2001 claiming that, Two bridges have been built to connect to the

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Russia’s Potential Role A Multipolar World The G8 (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States) is a group of countries with developed economies which represent more than 50% of Global GDP.

“1. We stress the central role played by the G20 Summits in dealing with the financial crisis.” “12. We underline our support for a more democratic and just multi-polar world order based on the rule of international law, equality, mutual respect, cooperation, coordinated action and collective decisionmaking of all states. We reiterate our support for political and diplomatic efforts to peacefully resolve disputes in international relations.” First Joint Statement of the BRIC Countries’ Leaders

It is important to note that Brazil, India and China are not part of this forum, but these three countries together represent more than 15.4% of global GDP, and the projections are that they will outgrow the G8. In terms of area the G8 represent 26% of world’s land total (14.59% without Russia) but in terms of population this is only 12.7%. Brazil, Russia, India and China together represent more than 40% of the world’s population (41.74%), 3.2 times more than G8. “It is time for the world to build better global economic BRICs”* is the conclusion of research, which was presented in November 2001 by Jim O’Neill, of Goldman Sachs Research, with a question that highlighted: ”What have the G7 done?”. At this moment the concept BRIC was created. BRIC is indeed a concept. Following the first BRIC summit in summer 2009, during which the first joint statement was formulated, it is clear that BRIC supports the G20 and a multipolar world. Russia has a central position, and provides a connection between power and growth.

* “Building Better Global Economic BRICs”, Goldman Sachs Economic Research Group, Paper No: 66, 30th November 2001

DevelopedÊCountries

The new balance of global relations with emerging economies. Russia’s preference appears to be for BRIC, as shown by the amount of investment in 2009 in the first BRIC summit, which was 10 times more than the investment in the G8 Summit of 2006.

GrowthÊMarketsÊÊ(DevelopingÊCountries)

G20 Australia

Argentina SaudiÊArabia SouthÊAfrica

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France Italy Germany

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G8 400,000,000

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Brazil India China

Mexico Indonesia SouthÊKorea Turkey

Bangladesh EgyptÊ Iran Nigeria Pakistan Philippines Vietnam

BRICX – Big Rural Industrial Complex

“The snow lay deep and when silence suddenly fell, one could almost have believe oneself in a village in midwinter, deep in the hinterlands of Russia.”

BRICX is an approach which has been defined to conceptualise and research the global hinterland in which we find ourselves. Russia is the largest hinterland, engaging through different forums, unions and cooperation with countries of different types.

Walter Benjamin, “Moscow Diary”, 1926.

BRIC is a concept that can be defined as a theoretical union without any kind of specific economic or political agenda, but with a rural and Industrial perspective that is not simple at all. BRICX is therefore not an economic concept, but a way to understand the economic, natural, geographical diversity of the world. X has been added to represent a 10-year period. A time that will allow us to understand our recent past and to see our close future, 2001-2011-2021. X as a variable can be changed, such as BRIC’K’ with South Korea, or BRIC’M’ with Mexico. The constant of such an acronym is multiple, mixed and plural. X as the cross, and an effort to put Russia on the global hinterland map, which despite its scale and potential it is often missing from the global consciousness. 1991

USSR

2011

2001

Russia

BRIC

2021

2050

From USSR to BRIC. Timeline based on a decade since the end of the USSR.

“Growth in expenditure continued to be led by emerging markets in 2010 – major growth rates came from China (+25%), the Russian Federation (+27%) or Brazil (+51%). The multi-speed nature of tourism recovery widely reflected the broader economic situation and the dynamism of emerging economies.” International tourism in 2010, Final Report 2010 World Tourism Organization Lonely Planet Covers: “Russia” 5th Edition and “Moscow” 4th Edition, 2011.

BRICX

Lessons between BRICs

It was the Soviet Union which first faced the problem of lack of development. Echoes of famous Soviet development projects can be found in today’s ambitious rural and industrial projects in Brazil, China and India. Although today it seems that Russia still has to learn a lot from its former ‘pupils’, especially the ability to rapidly convert its rural-industrial potential into start-ups of successful innovative development in modern branches of the economy, which also help to transform the problems of traditional hinterland: infrastructure, education and industry, for example:

Virgin lands campaign

USSR, 1950

Hydroelectric stations

USSR , 1930

C Brazil, 2000

China, 2000

Literacy

USSR , 1930

India , 2011

Brazil , 2012 82

India, 2000 Russia can now take advantage of the new BRIC group in terms of infrastructure as for example China’s transport system, Education and Technology of India and Industry and aircrafts factories in Brazil.

China, 2010

Albania Argentina Armenia Australia Austria

Advice for Growth

Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Bolivia Brazil

Institutions and Openness In the updated assessment and strategic formulation of the concept BRIC* (Goldman Sachs, 2003) a number of new concepts appear: institutions (boosting connectivity) and openness (helping relations). BRIC countries have an increasingly important role, due to their growing participation in the global/international context.

Brunei Bulgaria Cambodia Canada Chile China Colombia Congo CostaÊRica

The other two concepts which emerge are Macro Stability and Education, where Education is particularly urgent in a world that is shifting in terms of technology and sustainable development.

Cyprus CzechÊRepublic Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia EU Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Honduras HongÊKong Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Ireland Italy Japan

G20

Kazakhstan Kenya Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia

G20

Lithuania Luxembourg Madagascar Malaysia Malta Mexico Moldova Myanmar Netherlands NewÊZealand Nigeria Norway

BRIC

Pakistan PapuaÊNewÊGuinea Peru Philippines Poland

G20

Portugal Romania Russia SaudiÊArabia Serbia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia SouthÊAfrica SouthÊKorea Spain Sweden Taiwan Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan Venezuela Vietnam

BRICS BASIC IBSA

BRIC

Maps of G20 and the BRIC countries. CBSS BSEC

APEC ArcticÊCouncil SCO AseanÊplusÊ3 CIS LMMC

Charts: International organizations and number of countries that belong to them. BRICS is a small group that includes South Africa in official terms, but also BRIC countries are highly connected for various purposes, 2011. * “Dreaming With BRICs: The Path to 2050”, Goldman Sachs Economic Research Group, Paper No: 99, 1st October 2003 BRICX

Neighbours

To fully understand the potential of Russian hinterland it is important to place it in the context of the DNA of neighboring countries and their hinterlands. This analysis approaches the contrasts of different kind of aspects, from area and population to labor force by occupation. The Russian hinterland has two kind of neighbors: Countries that were part of the USSR and have become neighbors; and a second CISÊÊ layer including China, India, Pakistan, Turkey and so on.

DNA -- Russia has the biggest land area in the world but makes little contribution to agricultural production (like India). -- Agriculture as a percentage of GDP by sector is similar in all countries, only Russia’s production is significantly lower. -- The arable land of India and permanent crop lands of Turkey are significant and should be considered within the context of the other countries. -- China, India and also Brazil have large, young populations and subsequently large labour forces. -- A high percentage of rural populations can be found in India and Pakistan. -- Pakistan faces a problems in employment. But its problems are different from those in Iran and India (countries with high technological productivity), which are struggling with high level of illiteracy. -- The negative number is the population decrease in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, with an average of 0.5% per year. -- Telephones, cell phones and the Internet (in %): Korea GDP is a third of China’s GDP but access to cell phones per capita is almost 3 times higher. -- The annual federal budget of China with more than $1 trillion and GDP (with purchasing power parity) of $10 trillion is a measure of success, but it is also possible to look at South Korea and Mexico, with annual budgets almost as big as Russia.

Russia

Belarus

UkraineĂ&#x160;

Kazakhastan

Mongolia

Turkey

Iran

Pakistan

SouthĂ&#x160;Korea

Brazil

India

China

Area Square Kilometers

17,075,200

207,600

139.39

9.58

603,550

2,717,300

1,564,116

780,580

1,649,000

803,940

98,480

8,511,965

3,287,590

9,596,960

77.80

67.04

177.28

48.64

203.43

1,173.11

1,336.72

63.00

18.10

13.50

69.90

55.10

Population millions 45.42

15.46

3.18

Rural population % of total population 27.20

25.70

31.90

41.50

38.00

30.40

30.50

Labor Force millions 75.55

5.00

22.06

8.72

1.15

24.73

25.70

55.77

24.62

103.60

478.30

780.00

7.60

1.00

8.40

5.50

9.90

12.40

14.60

15.00

3.30

7.00

10.80

4.30

99.40

99.60

99.40

99.50

97.80

87.40

77.00

49.90

97.90

88.60

61.00

92.20

-0.47

-0.36

-0.62

0.40

0.01

1.24

1.25

1.57

0.23

1.13

1.34

0.49

42.14

4.14

12.94

4.01

0.19

16.20

28.54

6.78

19.89

42.14

35.09

294.38

Unemployment Percent

Population Below Poverty Line Percent

Literacy Total Percent

Population Growth Growth Percent

Telephones millions

Telephones Percent

30.23

43.22

28.49

25.94

6.08

20.82

42.58

3.83

40.90

20.72

2.99

22.02

202.94

10.33

53.93

19.77

2.51

61.77

50.77

79.90

91.36

202.94

752.00

859.00

145.59

107.89

118.75

127.86

78.93

79.39

75.73

45.07

187.85

99.76

64.10

64.26

75.98

2.64

7.77

5.30

0.33

27.23

39.40

8.28

31.02

75.98

61.34

389.00

27.60

17.11

34.27

10.38

63.78

37.35

5.23

29.10

Cellphones millions

Cellphones Percent

Internet Users millions

Internet Users Percent 54.51

35.00

58.77

4.67

Forest area % of land area 49.40

42.55

16.75

1.23

7.01

14.73

6.80

2.19

64.08

61.41

23.02

22.18

13.2

44.0

71.2

77.2

74.5

50.6

29.8

34.1

19.1

31.3

60.5

56.2

7.43

27.33

56.06

8.67

0.76

27.74

10.56

26.50

16.43

7.23

53.12

11.79

0.11

0.60

1.50

0.05

3.82

1.10

2.07

0.86

3.94

1.54

262.00

23.27

23.59

27.50

2.26

159.40

105.70

25.33

248.30

464.40

170.70

1,149.00

2,223.00

131.20

305.20

196.40

11.02

960.50

818.70

464.90

1,459.00

2,172.00

4,060.00

10,090.00

15,948.04

13,698.70

6,720.16

12,703.35

3,465.41

12,345.10

12,212.56

2,622.46

29,998.31

10,676.90

3,460.89

7,548.34

376.70

24.49

49.71

59.23

4.78

117.40

78.69

20.29

466.30

199.70

201.00

1,506.00

237.30

29.79

53.54

30.11

6.53

166.30

58.97

32.71

417.90

187.70

327.00

1,307.00

9,150.00

36.00

85.66

1,300.00

252.00

491.70

Agricultural land % of land area

Arable land % of land area

Permanent cropland % of land area

Budget Annual ( billion USD)

GDP Annual (billion USD)

GDP per Capita USD

Exports Annual (billion USD)

Imports Annual (billion USD)

Oil Production thousands Barrels Per Day 50.00

3,979.00

63.00

2,301.00

954.00

4,073.00

Oil Consumption thousands Barrels Per Day

2,147,483.65

221.00

17.00

715.10

1,425.00

365.00

2,061.00

2,029.00

3,182.00

9,400.00

Natural Gas Production billion Cubic Meters 587.00

0.25

20.30

18.50

0.56

79.00

23.80

402.10

20.50

75.80

18.20

22.60

79.00

23.80

24.07

52.80

102.50

24.09

25.13

64.95

129.00

Natural Gas Consumption billion Cubic Meters

Electricity Production billion KWH

509.20

32.95

172.90

86.20

4.31

185.20

459.50

59.19

239.10

509.20

835.30

4,604.00

455.70

31.07

134.60

88.11

3.38

161.00

455.10

54.40

181.50

455.70

600.60

4,693.00

58.00 32.00 10.00

44.70 45.90 9.40

65.70 18.50 15.80

62.20 11.90 25.90

55.00 11.50 33.50

45.80 24.70 29.50

45.00 31.00 25.00

36.60 20.30 43.00

68.40 24.30 7.30

66.00 14.00 20.00

34.00 14.00 52.00

Electricity Consumption billions KWH

Labor Force By Occupation Services Industry Agriculture

Percent

34.00 28.00 38.00

Russia by sea

Bordering countries 14 by Land

The total number of countries bordering with Russia is 14 by land, and 41 by sea. By land Russia borders with 14 countries. Exploring the sea connection reveals that the number of (potential) links dramatically expands through the Black Sea with 11 countries, Baltic 10 and Pacific 20. This is not a geographical sum, but an approach to redefine and expand existing unions where Russia could develop and take on a more active role.

41 by Sea (APEC, CBSS, BSEC, AC) LandÊBorders

The list of organizations that Russia is a part of includes the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation and the Arctic Council. These are efforts to have good relations in socioeconomics and politics with their neighbors.

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i Ta

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N e w G u i n e a Pe r u Ph

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Th n wa

Jap

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N o r t h Ko re

Canad ia

l ay s

es S

Denmark E

Australia Brunei Canada Chile China Hong Kong Indonesia Japan South Korea Mexico Malaysia New Zealand Papua New Guinea Peru Philippines Singapore Taiwan Thailand United States Vietnam

sia

Pacific APEC

a H

nei Canada Chile C hin

pua

Bru

ldov a R omania

Ch i na Mong

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Albania A rme n

By land: Azerbaijan Belarus China Estonia Finland Georgia Kazakhstan North Korea Latvia Lithuania Mongolia Norway Poland Ukraine

ia ral

Sw e

Canada Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden United States

n Co mm is s i o n

us K az akh

RUSSIA

Uk raine

Albania Armenia Azerbaijan Bulgaria BlackÊSea Georgia BSEC Greece Moldova Romania Serbia Turkey Ukraine

ArcticÊSea ArcticÊCouncil

pea lar

I ce land N or w

s ton ia

y r ke

land

in kF

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Denmark Estonia Finland Germany Iceland BalticÊSea Latvia Lithuania CBSS Norway Poland Sweden European Commission

Russia’s strategic location understanding sea connections

ay Po l a n d

Nor w

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SeaÊBorders APECÊ+ÊCBSSÊ+ÊBSECÊ+ÊArcticÊCouncil

References Statements Joint Statement of the BRIC Countries’ Leaders, Yekaterinburg, June 16, 2009, http://archive.kremlin.ru/eng/text/ docs/2009/06/217963.shtml visited February 2012.

Books O’Neill, Jim. The Growth Map: Economic Opportunity in the BRICs and Beyond. New York: Portfolio-Penguin, 2011. Kindle edition, accessed February 7th, 2012. Benjamin, Walter. Moscow Diary. Edited by Gary Smith, Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1986. Burdett, Ricky and Deyan Sudjic. Living in the Endless City. London School of Economics and Political Science. Phaidon, 2011. Goldman Sachs Research Papers O’Neill, Jim. Building Better Global Economic BRICs, Goldman Sachs Economic Research Group. Paper No: 66, 30th November 2001. http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/topics/brics/brics-reports-pdfs/build-better-brics.pdf visited February 2012. Wilson, Dominic and Roopa Purushothaman. Dreaming With BRICs: The Path to 2050, Goldman Sachs Economic Research Group. Paper No: 99, 1st October 2003. http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/topics/brics/brics-reports-pdfs/brics-dream.pdf visited February 2012. O’Neill, Jim, Dominic Wilson, Roopa Purushothaman and Anna Stupnytska. How Solid are the BRICs? Goldman Sachs Economic Research Group, Paper No: 134, 1st December 2005. http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/topics/brics/brics-reports-pdfs/ how-solid.pdf visited April 2012.

Online Resources The World Factbook 2009. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/index.html visited March 2012. The World Bank Institute, 2012. http://data.worldbank.org visited April 2012. CountryReports: CountryReports, 2012. http://www.countryreports.org visited January 2012. Barrientos, Miguel and Claudia Soria, Indexmundi, 2012. http://www.indexmundi.com visited March 2012.

Articles ... “The trillion-dollar club.” The Economist, 2010.

http://www.economist.com/node/15912964 visited March 2012.

Neyaskin, Georgy and Margarita Aranovskaya, “What developed economies can learn from the BRIC.” Russia Beyond The Headlines: 2012 http://rbth.ru/articles/2012/03/28/what_developed_economies_can_learn_from_the_bric_15195.html visited March 2012 Yekaterinburg gears up for SCO, BRIC summits, Xinhuanet, 2009. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/14/content_11540845. htm visited May 2012. Media Lanata, Jorge, “BRIC, El Nuevo Mundo,” Infinito, 2010. http://www.la.infinito.com/videos/bric-episodio1 visited January 2012.

Web sites BRICS, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, 2012. http://www.bricsindia.in visited May 2012. Official Website of the G8, Presidency of the Russian Federation, 2006. http://en.g8russia.ru visited February 2012 WorstPolluted.org : Reports, Blacksmith Institute, 2012. http://www.worstpolluted.org visited April 2012. Arctic Council, 2012. http://www.arctic-council.org visited May 2012. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, 2012. http://www.apec2012.ru visited February 2012. Black Sea Economic Cooperation, 2012. http://www.bsec-organization.org visited March 2012. Council of the Baltic Sea States, 2012. http://www.cbss.org visited January 2012. BRICS, Russia Beyond The Headlines, 2012. http://rbth.ru/bric visited April 2012. World Heritage Fund, UNESCO World Heritage Centre - World Heritage Fund, 2012. http://whc.unesco.org/en/world-heritage-fund visited February 2012. Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics, International Olympic Committee, 2012. http://www.olympic.org/sochi-2014-winter-olympics visited January 2012. Universiade 2013 in Kazan, Government of the Republic of Tatarstan, 2008. http://kazan2013.net/index.php?id=questionnaire visited May 2012.

BRICX

Grand Border(less) Hinterland After a train journey of nearly 6,000 miles from Moscow, the Russian Pacific port of Vladivostok can feel like a different country. The culture and the language are predominantly still Russian, but the strong Asian influence is undeniable. Many local Russian residents also say that the bond to the rest of Russia has been growing weaker, while the ties to Asia have only become stronger since the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991.

growing power China, and new economies South Korea and Mongolia, Russia has an opportunity for cooperation not only within the Asia-Pacific region, but also within the Northeast Asia region. The rise and fall of the Russian Far East is related to its openness and connection to its neighbours, as the history tells us. As the Russian Far East is facing decline, and as the importance and potential of the Asia-Pacific region emerges, Russian Far East has the potential to develop by taking on a more active role in the Asia-Pacific Network.

Russia became a member of APEC in 1998 after the set-up of transit and natural resource trading with Asia. In the following decade, Russia did not pay much attention to the Asia-Pacific region until 2006, until after the US placed the Asia-Pacific at the top of its foreign policy.

A series of case studies are used here to explore in detail the different aspect and dimension of relations between the Russian Hinterland and Asia-Pacific countries (including the economy, agriculture, energy and so on). The aim is to develop a proposal for cooperation to integrate the Russian Hinterland into a global context.

The Asia-Pacific region is home to 40% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population, produces 57% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GDP, and has huge diversity of land, natural resource, culture, and so on. With huge potential from the Northeast Asia, which has the old economic power Japan, the

1890 Disconnecting

1898

1949

1978

1989

1998

2012

1850

1904

1938

1958

1969

1975

2012

CONNECTING

1897 Chinese Eastern Railway 1890 TransSiberian Railway After finished in 1902, The Chinese The construction lasted from 1890 to 1916. A lot of Chinese and Korean participated in it.

Eastern Railway took an important role to support the Far East in Russia-Japan War.

POLICY

MILATARY

INFRASTRUCTURE

Connecting

POLICY MILATARY

1950 Korea War

After the war, Russian occupied the north Manchuria, which cooperated with the Far East and form an economic belt for the international trade of soy beans.

USSR provided China with weapons

1860 Beijing Treaty

1953 Chinese 1st Five-year Plan

Russia Empire occuoied Far East, and keep it open to attract Asian for its development of Far East.

1953-1957. USSR helped China for its 1st Five-years plan with 156 important projects

1850

INFRASTRUCTURE

1904 Russia-Japan War

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

The Far East is one part of Chinese Empire, as the original place of the King, it was only open to Machu.

1940

1950

1937 Forced Migration

1850s The Original Place of Dragon

Due to the Manchukuo, USSR forced Korean to west Asian and Chinese back to China.

The Far East was occupied by Russia Empire

DISCONNECTING

1960

The relations last till present

1970

1960 Termination of Contract USSR distoryed contract with China.

the

1978 Chinese Opening Up

1989 Gorbachev visited China

Chinese government opened the country for economic development.

The normalization of Soviet-China relations started with the border opened 30 years later.

1980

became member APEC

one of The Land Code allow foreigners to lease land for maxuim 49 years.

2000

2012 APEC Summit Asia Pacific countries get involved in the preparation.

2010

1994 Visa-free cancled

2009 Cherkizovsky Market

The visit started the exchange between US and China, making USSR worried a lot.

The visa-free policy for Chinese businessmen and tourist group cancled.

The government closed the Cherkizovsky Market so that a lot of Chinese migrants went back to China.,

1932 Manchukuo 1938 Confliction on the Border

1969 Russia-China Confliction

Soviet Union won the battle

Japan found the Manchukuo

Russia and China have a confliction on the border result in the border got closed.

The lack of grocerries and foods

1975 Baikal Amur Mainline

2009 Bolshoi Ussuriysky Island

USSR begun the construction of BAM and 7 TPKs with $14 billion due to the relations with China.

The Russian bridge to the island got delayed, but Chinese bridge will be finished on time.

Partly result in the collapse of USSR

Timeline of openness of the Russian Far East related to the Asia-Pacific Zone on aspects of policy, military and infrastructure

1998 APEC 2001 Foreigner R u s s i a Lease Land

1972 Nixon visited China

1920 Civil War

From 1938 to 1945, a series of confliction took place on the border

1990

Shared with Asia Pacific countries.

Mr. Liu (36) A Chinese farmer, living with his wife Masha (21) in Russian Far East, produce vegetables for the citizens of Far East. Source: englishrussia.com

Asia-Pacific Region 01.Vladivostok International Airport

01.Vladivostok Airport

02.Casino

03.Opera House Bridge

03.Opera House

05.Automobile Plant Seaport 04.Bridge over the Zolotoy Rog Bay

06.Bridge over the Eastern Bosphorus Strait

05.Soller Automobile Plant

07.Shipyard

08.Far East Federal University

10.Wind Power Station

07.Bridge 09.Aquarium

help from foreign countries on funds, technology, workforce attract the foreign countries

APEC 2012 Vladivostok: New ties between the Asia-Pacific countries through key projects of the APEC Summit 2012. Source: ERINA

The US launched the deployment of around 2,500 marines in northern Australia to extend its military cooperation in Asia-Pacific, 2012: With China’s growing influence in the Asia-Pacific and globally, the gravity of the US’s foreign policy shifted towards on the Asia-Pacific region. Source: BBC 2012

South Korea

base: 12 personnel:29,000

Afghanistan

base: 11 personnel:100,000

Philippines

base: not available personnel:182

Tailand

base: not available personnel:162

09.Aquarium

other projects

Japan

base: 17 personnel:40,178

Guam

base: 2 personnel:5,000

Singapore

base: 1 personnel:157

Australia

base: not available personnel:2,500

60% of US Warships in Asia Pacific

Importance of APEC Russia became a member of APEC in 1998, three years after its application. However, the cooperation between Russia and APEC members worked very slowly in the first decade. Russia preferred to adopt a wait-and-see policy, due to a stagnant economy in the Russian Far East, hampered by Moscow’s efforts to launch effective and goal-oriented cooperation with APEC members and a lack of a goal-oriented strategy towards APEC. In September 2012, Vladivostok will host the APEC summit. According to Russian authorities, they hold high expectations for this event with the aim to promote the domestic economy integration into the system of economic ties in the Asia-Pacific Zone. And 90

they regard this as an important driver to accelerate the modernization and innovation-driven economic development, primarily in Siberia and the Far East. At APEC 2012, there will be a new strategy to strengthen ties with the Asia-Pacific region through key projects, including the conference center on Russky Island, new bridges, modernisation of the airport, new shipyards and an auto-mobile plant. All these projects are to be completed as part of the preparation for the event. On one hand, Asian countries provide Russia with their funds, technology and workforce; while on the other hand, some projects are aimed to attract foreigners to the region. Chinese, Japanese and Korean tourists are considered the main target-group for the gambling zone in Vladivostok, for example.

SCO:Vehic

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its to three make brief vis dimir Putin will foreign tour to discuss President Vla two-day his luding the ing inc , dur ues countries tional iss s and interna presidential Afghanistan, bilateral relation ria, Iran and Sy in ns . situatio ursday ov said on Th aide Yury Ushak

08.FEFU

Recent newspaper illustrate that Russia is shifting and growing toward Asia. This is not only to try to strengthen the ties with China on both economy and military, but also to try and deal with the international issues related to Iran and Afghanistan. Source: mailonline, the New York Times, CNN, RiaNovosti, CBCnews, Globalresearch

10. Wind Power Station

20.00% Japan

South Korea

10.00%Japan 20.00% 0.00% 10.00%

-10.00% 0.00% 61

China

South Korea

Mongolia

China

Mongolia

01 11rate GDP 06 gowth

-20.00% -10.00%

Russia China Japan South Korea Mongolia Russia China Japan Korea which oneSouth country Mongolia

-30.00% -20.00% -30.00% Northeast, 100%

the most dynamic area, has more than experiences a high-speed GDP growth. Source: google publicdata 90%

Rest of the World

100% 80% Mongolia’s

Foreign Trade Turnover (Percentage Japan 90% share of total, 1990-2009) Rest ofSouth the World 70% Korea 80% 60%

Japan South Korea

70% 50%

China

60% 40% 50% 30%

China

40% 20% 30% 10% 20% 0% 10% 1990 0% 1990

Russia start of high growth 1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006 Russia 2008

start of high growth 1992

g closer

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

Challenges to the Far East The Asian-Pacific region is getting more and more attention because it is home to 40% of the world’s population, 54% of the world’s GDP, and 44% of world trade, which is higher than any other geographical area in the world. And many of the main players in the global economy as well as important emerging powers such as China, South Korea, India and Indonesia are located here. In the last 60 years, Northeast Asia has always been an engine of high-speed economic growth, from Japan to South Korea to China. Mongolia, a landlocked country, is currently growing faster than any other country. It started to trade its rich resources with more countries in 2000, and now is attracting more foreign investments for its development. Russia is the fifth country in this region, and has the opportunity to be the next one to experience high-speed growth. Within Northeast Asia, the land and natural resources of Russia, the workforce, capital and agriculture investment from China, the technology and funds of Japan and South Korea can create a diverse cooperation platform. In which every country can benefit from the diversity.

2008

Mongolia started its growth when the foreign trade became diverse in 2000. Source;ERINA

With the advantages and potentials of this cooperation, the Russian Hinterland will have a new challenge. GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND

rice economic crops rice economic crops

used:3,200 ha

USED:3,200ha

used:3,200 ha

8% Agriculture in the Far East USED:3,200ha

bean

Labour

Future for Agriculture in Russian Far East bean Labour Seeds Today there are more opportunities for the transforma3,200ha Seeds Tractor tion of the agricultural situation in the Far East, after corn 3,200ha Tractor wheat the successful case of leasing land for agricultural Fertilize corn wheat Fertiliz farming by Chinese and Korean and other international examples in the region. Both the Russian governDONGNIN ment and APEC countries are showing some interest DONGN in cooperation on leasing arable land for the developfruit vegetable ment of Russian agriculture. Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s minister for fruit others vegetable From 2001 onwards, the Land Code of the Russia Economic Development is proposing a plan of land of others net income: 100 million RUB/year (2010) Federation permits foreigners to lease land in Russia up to 200,000 hectares with the aim to developing the neta conincome:agriculture 100 million RUB/year for a maximum period of 49 years. Based on of the Far East (2010) with the help of investors versation with an export. In general companies tend from East Asia to discuss in the APEC summit. APEC to lease land for only 5-10 years due to the unstable members include Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand and investment climate. Japan. Russia also hopes that Malaysia, South Korea, and North Korea would be interested in investing in Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Far East agriculture. The arable land and production of the agricultural products in Russian Far East are declining faster ha other areas in Rusthan ever and fasterall:40,000 thanALL:40,000ha in any all:40,000 ha sia. The production of wheat has decreased by 76% ALL:40,000ha in the region, compared to the average decrease of 38% across Russia. Right now, Russia strongly depends on import from across the world; about 85% of wheat and 64% of vegetables today are imported.

Production in East the Far East import production in Far production in Far East import wheat wheat vegetable vegetable meat meat milk

milk

0 20

2040 40 60 60 80 80 100% 100% The share of production in the Far East: the region strongly depends on import , especially potatoes and vegetables. Source: euroasia.cass.cn

decreasing of agriculture in Russia & Far East decreasing agriculture of agriculture in Russia & Far East Declining Russia Far East Russia

Far East

farm area farm area wheat production wheat production milk production milk production production meat meat production egg production egg production

61% 61% 58% 58%

40 40

6060

76% 76% 75% 75%

67% 67% 80 80

Declining agriculture in the Far East and Russia (1990-2003): From 1990 to 2003, the arable land and production of the agricultural products declined faster than other areas because of agriculture reform, decreasnig subsides and depopulation. Source: euroasia.cass.cn

An abandoned collective farm in the Far East: After the collapse of the Soviet Union, many collective farms were abandoned. Khabarovsk Krai and Primorsky Krai receive around 1% to 2% in foreign investment and are therefore regions with the highest investments in the Russian Far East

100% 100%

Huaxin Farm in Mikhaylovka Facing the lack of the available arable lands in China, Chinese companies are heading to Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Far East to lease lands for agriculture (managed by Chinese farmers, using Chinese seeds and tractors).

rice economic crops

used:3,200 ha

USED:3,200ha

bean 3,200ha

all:40,000 ha ALL:40,000ha

Labour Seeds Tractor Fertilizer

Agricultural Products

DONGNING

FAR EAST

corn wheat

fruit vegetable others net income: 100 million RUB/year (2010)

rice rice omic crops crops

The Chinese company rented 40,000 hectares of land in Mikhaylovka, but only used 8% of the land. The existing land is not good for agriculture, and needs time to be redeveloped for agricultural purposes. Furthermore, the number of migrants coming in is limited by the migration policy, which resulted in a lack of farmers to work the land. Source: Huaxin Group production in Far East import MIKHAYLOVKA MIKHAYLOVKA wheat

Russia

1.2 1.2 0.840.84

6% 76%

1.2 The operating cycle

0.84

Far East

61% Risks 76% 0.092competition At the moment there is a growing 58% between companies from Japan, South Korea and 75% CHINA RUSSIA FAR EAST 67% Malaysia. The unstable policy onLand migration increases Arable (ha) per Capita in 2010 100% 40 60 80 the risk of more Chinese farmers working in the area without proper permits.

The still unstable political environment and high levels of corruptionand inadequate law enforcement increase the risk associated with investing in the Far East. Contracts with a local government or farm can be cancelled anytime, and so the rights of a company are generally not protected well. As Russia will join in WTO soon, the investment climate might become better for more foreign investment in agriculture.

0.092 0.092

5% 75% 80

Capital Income

decreasing of agriculture in Russia & Far East

farm area The Operating Cycle wheat production vegetable The company hires Chinese farmers and buys the milk production beanbean Labour Labour meat Agricultural Agricultural seeds, tractors and fertilizers in Dongning, 90 meatkiloproduction Seeds Seeds milk egg production Products Productswhich is then metres away from Mikhavlovka, trans0 20 40 60 80 100% 0 20 Tractor corncorn Tractor ported to the farm. The agricultural products are sold wheat wheat Fertilizer Fertilizer in the Far East. The Dongning government helps the company to employ local DONGNING DONGNING FARfarmers. FAR EAST EASTThis cycle creates a win-win for both Russia and the Chinese Hinterfruit fruit Capital Capital egetable vegetable land, by linking the arable land in Russia to the town others others Income Income in China.

MIKHAYLOVKA

CHINA RUSSIAN FAR EAST CHINA CHINA RUSSIA RUSSIA FARFAR EAST EAST

100% 100%

Arable Land (ha) in2010 2010 Arable Arable Land Land (ha) (ha) perper Capita perCapita Capita in 2010 in

The arable land per capita in Russia, Russian Far East and China 2010: Far East has much more arable land than China per capita. Source: euroasia.cass.cn

The Land Code of the Russia Federation (2001) permits foreigners to lease Russian land for maximum period of 49 years. Durign the last ten years, Korean and Chinese companies have leased land in Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s border areas for vegetables and other agricultural production.

GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND

In addition to agriculture, others aspects also strongly link Russian hinterland to the hinterland in the Asia-Pacific region, such as economy, energy and environment. With the aim to develop a proposal for cooperation to integrate Russian hinterland into a global context, a series of case studies are used here to examine the potential in detail.

A Grand Hinterland

Tourism Zone Clean Energy Zone Agriculture Zone

Amur River Basin Interstate Energy Grid

0hr with Japan & Korea Economic Belt 0hr with China & Mongolia

Russia shares a land border with China and North Korea, and a sea border with Japan and South Korea, but the distance between them is increased by the difference of infrastructure, policy of migration and distribution of time zone. The potential of the Far East as an Eurasia Land Bridge has not yet been developed. Russian Far East has a huge potential in clean energy, especially hydro-and creates about 68% of the total production in Russia. The energy potential of the Far East, the capital and technological advancement of China and Japan could effectively link to form a broader Northeast Asia energy network. The shared Amur River basin, between Russia, China and Mongolia, calls for international cooperation on the environment following the economic cooperation due to the growing pollution in the region.

The proposal to integrate the Russian Hinterland into Northeast Asia: Different zones have different potential in agriculture, energy and economy, free movement of people. This works as a key to formulate a network between the Russian Far East hinterland and the hinterland of the Northeast Asia for a more effective cooperation.

The potential richness of the Russian Hinterland including agriculture, transit, economic cooperation, energy, tourism will function as a hub in Northeast Asian, bringing a new future to Russia,and especially to the Russian Far East.

Following the opening of the Chinese border in 1988, China has created a series of special economic zones along the Russian-Chinese border: A principle that should be further expanded and would strengthen the region.

Murmansk

Kaliningrad

UTC+3 St. Petersburg

Pskov

1200

Arkhangel’sk

Novgorod

Naryan-Mar

UTC+9

Smolensk

UTC+4

Bryansk

Kaluga Orël

Tver

MOSCOW Tula

WIND

Vologda Norislk

Yaroslayl Kostroma Ivanovo Vladimir

Syktyvkar

Salekhard Magadan

Ryazan Nizhniy Novgorod Kirov Belgorod Lipetsk Cheboksary Yoshkar-Ola Tambov Izhevsk Saransk Kazan Voronezh Perm Penza Ul’yanovsk Kursk

1800

UTC+6

2000

UTC+8 UTC+7

Saratov

Rostov Krasnodar Maykop Stavropol

Ufa

Astrakhan

HYDRO

Tyumen

Kurgan Omsk

Tomsk

NalchikGrozny

Vladikavkaz

Novosibirsk

Kemerovo

SOLAR

Krasnoyarsk

Makhachkala

220

2400

Barnaul

Gorno-Altaysk

12 9

PetropavlovskKamchatskiy

Yakutsk Khanty-Mansiysk

Yekaterinburg Chelyabisnk

Orenburg

Elista

Cherkessk

Samara

Volgograd

Abakan

Kyzyl

Blagoveshchensk Irkutsk

Ulan-Ude

Khabarosvsk

Yuzhno-Sakhalisnk

Chita

2600

ULAANBAATAR

Vladivostok

interstate power grids

12 9

2000

2200

250

500

WIND SPEED

1000 km BEIJING

PYONGYANG

TOKYO

SEOUL

fastest

time zone and physical borders: In order to “thin” the border, it is necessary to reorganised the time zone difference in the region and reduce the time gap with Moscow.

slowest

energy cooperation: With the huge clean energy potential in the Far East include hydro, wind and solar energy, a proposal is made for an interstate power grid, which integrated the energy network in Northeast Asia.

CANADA

Tou

rism

Rou

UNITED STATES

Amur River Basin The area with the largest potential of different recreation

CHINA Russky Island

cycling recreation

JAPAN

mountain recreation ski recreation water recreation

SOUTH KOREA

cooperation in ecology, environment and tourism: the Far East and Siberia both have huge natural resources with great potential for the development of tourist industry. With the special recreation-economic zone on Russkiy Island, a tourism network is defined to attract more tourists from the Northeast Asia, and even US and Canada.

special economic hinterland zone: this is an extension to the Special Economic Zones along the border to allow for more effective exchange of goods, services, resources and the development of a good trans-border cooperation within the region.

GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND

Network of Difference

|E N H IS GL

on r

East Asian Russia

East Asian

Siberia Russian Far East

Northeast Asia Far East Siberia Russian Mongolia

China

South Korea

Northeast Asia Mongolia

Japan South Korea

China

Vietnam

Hong Kong

Thailand Vietnam

U MOSCOW

Northeast Asia ASEAN+3

EU27

Customs Union of Belarus, ASEAN Kazakhstan &Russia

US Mexico

NAFTA

Thailand Singapore

|J A

INESE | KORE | CH AN

SPAN ISH

N IA ES

INESE | KORE | CH AN

global warming will bring to Russian Far East: around 6 million ha by 21 around 5 million ha by 20

|E N

$ U

N IA ES

40% of World Population with 12 languages

& Education Circle

MOSCOW

Agriculture Sphere European Union (EU)

Northeast AsiaNorth American Free Trade NAFTA ASEAN+3 Agreement (NAFTA)

Customs US Union of East AsiaAgriculture Line Belarus, ASEAN Asia-Pacific Kazakhstan Mexico Asia Sphere (Infrastructure, &Russia Southeast Northeast Culture Asia Energy, Environment, Tourism) Network South Culture & EducationAmerica Circle

Agriculture Australia Sphere

EU27

East Asia

Southeast Asia

Asia-Pacific Culture Network

Mexico

Association of Southeast World(ASEAN) Asian Nations Economy European Union (EU) Link North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Northeast Asia Customs ASEAN+3 Union of Belarus, ASEAN Kazakhstan &Russia

South America

Australia

EU27

Germany

Australia

Agriculture Sphere

Northeast Asia Sphere (Infrastructure, MOSCOW Energy, Environment, Tourism) Russia Culture

World Education Center

Russia

Germany

World Education Center

IAN | FRE RUSS NC H

$ U

global warming will bring to Russian Far East: around 6 million ha by 2100 around 5 million ha by 2050

H IS GL

40% of World Population with 12 languages

| SE NE PA

SPAN ISH

The Northeast Asian- Grand Hinterland has a strategic location in the world economic free trade zones, with the EU on the west, ASEAN+3 to the south, NAFTA to the east. The potential of the Grand Hinterland will become a link among each FTZ, and will stimulate the economy of the world.

World Education Center

Malaysia

APEC

SSIAN | FREN | RU CH SE |E NE N PA

Philippines

H IS GL

TPP

World Economy Link

Malaysia

Indonesia |J A

South America

Singapore

World Economy Link

Japan

Hong Kong Philippines

$ Indonesia

LISH | MALAY | IN ENG DO N

ific e rk

Sphere

SPAN ISH

rld th 12 s

LISH | MALAY | IN ENG DO N

REN CH

Russia

The Grand Hinterland and the integration of Northeast Asia, has a lot of potential for further development and growth on a broader Asia-Pacific scale. To establish a world economy link (based on a diverse exchange - technology, education, agricultural and culture and so on), establishing a strategic location in the world economic free trade zones. Developing a world education centre, linking 40% of the world population and 12 main languages Denmark in the Finland Asia-Pacific, building agricultural and technological Moscow cooperation, and an Asia-Pacific Cultural Network. Belarus UK Poland Denmark Finland Netherlands Moscow France Austria Germany Belarus UKto RussianPoland Kazakhstan global warming will bring Far East: Spain around 6 million ha by 2100 Italy5 million ha by 2050 Netherlands around France Austria Germany Germany Kazakhstan US Spain Agriculture Italy

World Economy Link

TPP APEC

Asia-Pacific Culture Network ASEAN +3 Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (TPP) Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia ASEAN +3 Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (TPP)

Potential Connection Country with More than One Network Potential Connection Country with More than

Beyond the Similarities In addition to cooperation, cultural diversity, languages, population, the size of the country, and quality of education facilities and capital in the Asia-Pacific region creates an expanded potentials for the cooperation. The Russian Hinterland is never isolated. It is a shared hinterland in the global context, with global potential. Special thanks to Michael Schindhelm, Irina Trocuk and Jiang Jun.

r East

Alaska

Canada

USA

Japan

Mexico Hawaii Mexico Hawaii

Peru

stralia

Chile

Chile New Zealand

References Author Unknown, “Agricultural production status of the Russian Far East.” IRECASS. December 12, 2008, Accessed June 18, 2012. http://goo.gl/qtWkU.

New Zealand

Author Unknown, “Feasibility Study Report of Huaxin Farm.” Huaxin Group. March 10, 2010, Accessed June 18, 2012. http://goo.gl/QULZ6 Author Unknown, “Russia offers to lease land in the Far East to APEC countries.” Russia & India Report. January 30, 2012, Accessed Jun. 18, 2012. http://goo.gl/rH7NZ Borodko, A. (chief editor). National Atlas of Russia (digital version). Moscow: “Roskartographiya”, 2006. Saito, Daisuke, “The Preparations for APEC and the Situation for the Participation of Foreign Capital.” ERINA Report 104 (2012). 27-38. http://goo.gl/rDfQV.

Land

Connection

ith More than ork

Population

Funds

Land Population

Natural Resource University Technology

Natural Resource

University

GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND

Hinterland Cases

G8 summit St.Petersburg

Higher School of Folk Crafts

Sale-supply cooperative

Kolkhoz Gorinskoe

Palekh miniature

Consultancy center

Khohloma

Arakcheev’s military settlement

Novoe Pikalevo

Belomorkanal

Ugorsky project

Prirazlomnoye oil field

Milk farm

Kamouflazh Byta

Andreevka

Outgoing Contamination

BRIC summit

Peat extraction

LavkaLavka

St.Petersburg

Derevenskaya Gornitsa Belgorod Region - House of culture

Kolkhoz Frunze Belgorod Region - Continuous success during and after Soviet regime

Olonets, Karelia - Farmer cooperation

Leningrad Region

Novoselitsy, Novgorod Region - Utopian community

Yaroslavl Region - Priest as a head of kolhoz

- Proposal to reconstruct the canal

Palekh, Ivanovo Oblast

Kostroma Region

Pechora Sea - Battle for Arctic - Oil development

Kaluga Region - Art as a development tool

Transformation of Nature

Science town

steppe and forest regions of Russia - Stalin’s Nature transformation plan

Nizjni Tagil, Sverdlovsk region

Kolkhoz “Shukty”

Aral Sea

- Environmental disaster

Dagestan - Successful kolkhoz

Pushchino, Moscow Region

Ilino-Zaborskoe, N.Novgorod Region - Profitable animal breeding

N.Novgorod - Founder of school for young farmers

Sochi

Kolkhoz Verblud

Semenov, Nizhny Novgorod Region

Partner’s counsil foundation

Nikola-Lenivets

2014 Winter Olympics

Rostov Region - One of the first kolkhozes, introduction of mechanization in cooperation with the US

Semenov - Agricultural development

AKKOR

Moscow - Social organization working on the Federal level

Gzhel porcelan Gzhel, Moscow Region

Yury Luzhkov’s project Moscow - Governmental support of folk arts

Okhansky area, Perm region - Regeneration of the village

Ekaterinburg

Chelyabinsk

Shatura, Moscow Region

Moscow - Farmers cooperative

UTOPIA RISE OF NATURE WARMING RUSSIA RUSSIAN ARRIÈRE-GARDE

Survival of the fittest

RURAL DEVELOPERS

Yamal-Nenets AO - Conflicts within ethnic-economical system and impact of global warming

Nadym

Yamal region - Gas mono-city

ALROSA

Sakha (Yakutia) - Diamond powered economy

DEPENDENCIES BRICX GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND

Permafrost melting

Yakutsk - Advantages and threats of melting permafrost

Growing Unpredictabilities: The Rise of Nature

Amur River Basin

- River shared by China and Russia

Lena River

Hydro power plants

Culture activities

Angara - New plant construction

Khavarovsk Krai - International cultural exchage

NKO “Zeleniy dom” Khabarovsk - Self-governing institutions, financed by U.S. sources

Heihe

Krasnoyarsk Krai - Religious community

APEC Summit Vladivostok

Huazin farm

Mikhailovka, Primorsky Krai - Chinese agricultural enterprise in Russia

Village Nagornoe, Primorsky Krai - Self-governing programs

“Green Corner”

border with Blagoveshensk - Russians living in China

Ecovillage “Tiberkul”

NKO “Pervotsvet”

Vladivostok - Second hand car market

Hunchun Border crossing Primorsky Krai - Strategic international project

Far Eastern Federal University Russky Island, Vladivostok

Far East Wind Power Plant Russky Island, Vladivostok

“Sportivnaya” Vladivostok - Chinese market

INTRODUCTION

Институт медиa, aрхитектуры и дизaйнa «Стрелкa» Берсеневскaя нaб., 14, стр. 5А Москвa, 119072, Россия www.strelka.com

Strelka Institute for Media, Architecture and Design 14, bldg. 5A, Bersenevskaya Emb. Moscow, 119072, Russia www.strelka.com