CREATING AN EVIDENCE-BASED STRATEGY FOR A UK COMMUNITY
RESILIENCE FRAMEWORK FOR PROPERTY PROTECTION
CONTRIBUTORS
Victoria Amato
Principal Fire Planner, SWCA Environmental Consultants, US
Montiel Ayala Fire Planner, SWCA Environmental Consultants, US
Megan Dolman
PhD Candidate, Boise State University, US
Fiona Newman Thacker
PhD Candidate, Wageningen University & Research, UK/NL
Andy Elliott
Director, Wildfire Training and Consultancy Ltd., UK
Rob Gazzard
Wildfire Advisor, Forestry Commission, UK
Linda Kettley
Firewise UK, Dorset Council, UK
Michele Steinberg
Wildfire Division Director, National Fire Protection Association, US
James McNeil
Wildfire Lead, National Fire Chiefs Council, UK
Jon Charters
Deputy Wildfire Lead, National Fire Chiefs Council, UK
PURPOSE
With wildfire strategies emerging across the United Kingdom (UK), there is an opportunity to learn key lessons from countries with decades of experience applying wildfire prevention to property and infrastructure at risk from wildfire. This informational paper (paper) highlights the key elements of providing resilience to protect property and infrastructure such as development planning and guidance, building control standards, and codes and community preparedness and resilience information, tailored to the UK context, using England as an example. It draws upon lessons learned from countries like the United States (US), where the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy has proven immensely beneficial. This paper underscores the transformative potential of such frameworks and the ability to apply these as a quick-acting and direct approach to building resilience to wildfire.
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the present policy instruments that could be enhanced to create an integrated framework for wildfire resilience for the nations of the UK. By leveraging the scientific rationale and the demonstrable impact of cohesive strategies in other nations, we aim to provide UK decision makers with the key points to increase resilience.
Through rigorous scientific analysis and evidence-based recommendations, this paper seeks to pave the way for a proactive and coordinated approach to wildfire resilience in the UK, ensuring the protection of communities, ecosystems, and vital infrastructure from the growing threat of wildfires.
INTRODUCTION
This paper is the culmination of more than a year’s worth of meetings and discussions between a group of individuals representing wildfire mitigation and management entities from the UK and US. This group was convened after the 2022 UK Fire Conference in Belfast, which introduced attendees to the value of knowledge sharing between nations and collaboration across boundaries. Recognising the opportunity
to share lessons learned on wildfire mitigation and management, this group met monthly to discuss initiatives for wildfire preparedness, community resilience, risk and hazard assessment, and wildfire management. While these discussions were broad and overarching, this paper focuses specifically on items related to community resilience and property protection.
UK WILDFIRE BACKGROUND
Wildfires occur annually in the UK [1]. Episodic in nature and often small in size [2], peak wildfire years have previously corresponded with drier and warmer years, such as 1995, 2003, 2006, 2010 and 2011, as well as more recent periods between 2018 and 2022.
The UK has two fire seasons:
A MAIN FIRE SEASON IN SPRING AND A SECONDARY SEASON IN MID-LATE SUMMER
[3,4].
Humans are responsible for starting almost all UK wildfires [1].
Higher temperatures and more variable precipitation patterns projected under climate change are expected to increase wildfire risk slightly in spring and significantly in summer [2,3,5].
Increases in dangerous fire weather will likely lengthen UK fire seasons and increase the average number of fire danger days [1,2,5].
Southeast and Central England are projected to experience the most significant increases in fire risk [1,2,5].
Wildfire interacts with other climate change stressors and natural hazards, including heatwaves, droughts, extreme temperatures (hot and cold), and high winds.
These projections emphasise the urgent need for action towards reducing UK wildfire risk, with implications for human health, transport infrastructure, homes, and communities, especially for areas of greatest exposure at the Rural-Urban Interface (RUI).
Wildfire is a devolved matter in the UK. The lead government department for wildfire is the Home Office in England, the Scottish Government in Scotland, the Welsh Assembly Government in Wales, and the Northern Ireland Assembly in Northern Ireland. In England, engagement between the Home Office and other government departments is outlined in the Wildfire Framework for England [6]. Unlike flooding, there is not a single agency for wildfire in England. Flooding is led by the Environment Agency, an executive non-departmental public body, sponsored by the Department of Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs. Currently there is no one entity to provide governance around wildfire risk reduction.
The UK uses forums (Local Resilience Forums in England and Wales), areas (Local Resilience Areas in London) and groups (Strategic Coordination Groups in Scotland and the Northern Ireland Emergency Preparedness Groups) to prepare local resilience within the nations of the UK as defined in the Civil Contingency Act (2004) [7].
CURRENTLY THERE IS NO ONE ENTITY TO PROVIDE GOVERNANCE AROUND WILDFIRE RISK REDUCTION.
ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Regional and National Wildfire Forums
National forums were set up in response to the wildfire events of 2003, 2006, and 2011. The England and Wales Wildfire Forum, the Scottish Wildfire Forum, and the National Fire Chiefs Council (NFCC) Wildfire Group (formerly the Chief Fire Officers Association), help spread good practice through their networks [8]. In collaboration with local fire and rescue services, regional wildfire groups have been formed across the UK, such as the Peak District Fire Operations group and the South Grampians wildfire group [6,8].
NATIONAL FORUMS
THE ENGLAND AND WALES WILDFIRE FORUM (EWWF)
THE SCOTTISH WILDFIRE FORUM
THE CHIEF FIRE OFFICERS ASSOCIATION
Accredited Fire Courses
REGIONAL WILDFIRE GROUPS
PEAK DISTRICT FIRE OPERATIONS
SOUTH GRAMPIANS
In recent years, the UK has seen a significant growth in the number of accredited wildfire courses. In England, the Forestry Commission (with DEFRA funding) has already developed four courses, with more being planned. These courses are aimed at land managers and include a course on Wildfire Management Planning, including defendable space concepts, utilising Wildfire Management Zones (Annex A Figure 1). Scotland has followed suit with its own versions of these courses. Wales has also created accredited wildfire courses, but these are targeted at firefighters and not land managers. The purpose of these wildfire courses is to raise awareness with land management organisations of increasing wildfire activity across the UK and to establish professional standards in wildfire management.
Fire Operations Groups
For rural areas of the UK, several Fire Operation Groups (FOGs) have been established. Comprising multiple agencies, these groups demonstrate collaboration for landscape-scale wildfire risk reduction, with each group guided by different priorities and management objectives.
Case Studies
Peak District FOG
Located in the North, the Peak District FOG was the first FOG in England and was formed in 1996. It is a partnership comprising diverse community partners, including six Fire Services, the National Trust, gamekeepers, water companies, and local landowners.
Operating in upland habitats, this FOG extends over 500km2 of moorlands, encompassing many public rights-of-way and attracting high numbers of visitors annually, which contribute to increasing ignition likelihood [9].
Dorset Heaths Partnership
The Dorset Heaths Partnership exemplifies a FOG operating in the RUI to mitigate wildfire hazards and minimise post-fire effects. It is made up of 10 organisations working together to protect and enhance the Dorset heathlands. The partnership’s aim is to alleviate urban pressures on the Dorset heaths using a combination of wardening, an education program, access management, fire risk assessment, and habitat management. The Dorset Heathlands Planning Framework 2020-2025 Supplementary Planning Document (SPD) was prepared and adopted jointly between Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council, and Dorset Council with advice from Natural England. The Dorset Heaths Partnership has worked to create Public Space Protection Orders (PSPOs) to ban the use of portable BBQs and campfires in public open spaces. Breaking a PSPO is a criminal offence subject to a £100 fixed-penalty notice on the spot.
Sign warning of the ban on fires and BBQs. Photo credit: Andy Elliott
Photo credit: Meg Dolman
Firewise UK
Established in 2018, Firewise UK is a partnership between Dorset Heaths Partnership and Dorset and Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service and is one notable success toward UK wildfire risk mitigation. Firewise UK was modelled on the well-established Firewise USA® national communities programme, which actively promotes wildfire mitigation and preparedness actions at the individual and community
level and has been adapted internationally in countries such as Canada, Spain, Italy, Chile, and South Africa. In liaison with the NFCC, Firewise UK works collaboratively with the US National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) to develop informational materials for community engagement and research and seeks to deliver the following aims:
ENCOURAGE
CREATE A NETWORK OF FIREWISE COMMUNITIES THAT CAN SUPPORT EACH OTHER. MAKE HOMES AND COMMUNITIES MORE RESILIENT TO WILDFIRE.
COMMUNITIES TO LEARN MORE ABOUT WILDFIRE AND THEIR ADJACENT LANDSCAPES.
Firewise UK seeks integration into a comprehensive Wildfire Prevention Strategy and greater engagement of local organisations and stakeholders to maximise the dissemination of Firewise UK messaging to households and communities in at-risk areas and contribute to future success of wildfire mitigation in communities. Key stakeholders include:
• Fire and emergency services
• Safe and Well
• Emergency planning departments
• Local Resilience Forums
• Utility companies
• Community leaders – watch, church, school, and community group leaders
• Elected officials – Parish Councils, Town Councils and Councillors
• Business, shop, and commercial property owners
Case Study
Firewise UK In Practice
Following several significant heath fires that threatened homes in Dorset, Firewise UK worked with partners and spoke to residents about Firewise and its benefits. Residents listened and welcomed information on how to reduce the risks to their homes. However, currently there is only one official Firewise community. Firewise UK revisited the outreach approach and adopted a drip-feed approach to local communities, raising the knowledge of wildfire risk reduction practices through simple changes to home landscapes. Working with partners such as Dorset and Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service and attending fire station open days and other community events allowed Firewise UK staff to promote wildfire risk reduction actions through engagement and disseminate relevant resources.
The Local Resilience Forum has recently appointed community resilience liaison officers in some areas. Firewise UK is working closely with the Dorset area officer and will be collaborating on writing a community emergency response plan for an at-risk local community. Firewise UK staff will also be jointly attending community events to promote the importance of becoming wildfire aware and participating as Firewise communities.
In conclusion, it is important to continually monitor delivery and make adjustments to achieve objectives if the outcomes are not being met. A national Firewise approach would be a positive move to support the dissemination of community wildfire risk reduction messages and to reach diverse communities to educate
all and allow them to understand the risks from wildfire and empower individuals and communities to reduce their risk. Consideration should also be given by government to the provision of resources to allow recovery for communities affected by wildfires.
Fire Defendable Space, Canford Heath fire, Dorset 23 April 2022. Photo credit: Andy Elliott.
Firewise community in Dorset carrying out fuels mitigation work.
Photo credit: Linda Kettley
Firewise community in Dorset convened for fire mitigation work.
Photo credit: Linda Kettley
Volunteers carrying out fuel mitigation work in Dorset. Photo credit: Linda Kettley
Case Study
UK Public Interest
UK public interest around wildfires has increased in recent years, with several key publications exploring present and future risk of wildfires in the UK [1, 3, 4, 10]. The extreme wildfire events of July 2022 led to 14 major incident declarations and Operation Willow Beck being declared within fire control rooms as call volume increased by 500% [999 calls] up from a daily average in England of just over 2,000 to almost 13,500 on 19 July. This sparked a huge amount of media interest and put
wildfires firmly on the public agenda. Historically over half of all wildfires in England have occurred in built-up areas [1, 11], demonstrating that the RUI is an area with heightened threat to human health and infrastructure loss. Properties that suffered extensive damage during the 2022 fire season highlighted this growing risk of the RUI in England, stimulating comparisons with other countries such as the US and Australia, who have been developing solutions for their own fire-prone interfaces.
UK PLANNING AND POLICY INSTRUMENTS: ENGLAND, A CASE STUDY
Planning in England is governed by an overall planning system, which oversees the development of all land and buildings. This section gives an overview of current planning policies in England, and the status of wildfire within them.
National Planning Policy Framework
In England, the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) provides high-level policies on new housing and other development. Wildfire is not specifically defined as a hazard in the current NPPF revised in 2023; however, it can be implied under climate change (Policies 8, 11, 20, 102, 136, 158, 159, and 167) and natural hazards (Policies 101 and 189) [12]. Definitions of the policies most relevant to wildfire are provided in Annex A. Importantly, NPPF stipulates that Local Planning Authorities should prepare development design guides or codes consistent with the principles outlined in the National Design Code and National Model Design Code and reflect local character and design preferences [13].
Local Planning Authorities
Plans at the local level within England are prepared by a Local Planning Authority, which may be a local government body, such as a council or national park authority. Informed by the NPPF and planning practice guidance, local plans must be plan-led, address housing needs and other economic, social, and environmental priorities, and provide a framework for future development of an area [12]. Projects building single or multiple properties (including Major Developments) must first secure planning permission and then undergo Development Management and Building Control to ensure that building work complies with minimum health and safety standards and that development is structurally safe, accessible, and sustainable. Currently there are no specific references to wildfire in the documents guiding local plan development and building regulations, including the NPPF and planning practice guidance materials.
Supplementary Planning Documents
SPDs come from the NPPF and the Habitats Regulations. Under the SPD the Local Planning Authorities collect developer contributions from development within 5kms of heathland sites. These contributions are used to fund heathland mitigation in the form of Strategic Access Management and Monitoring (SAMM) and Heathland Infrastructure Projects (HIPs), which include development of Suitable Alternative Natural Greenspaces (SANGs) [14].
Design Guidance and Codes
Local plans in England are informed by National Design Guidance and Codes [15].
Approved Document B (Fire Safety)
Approved Document B is designed to provide practical guidance on building situations within England, particularly regarding structural fire safety. The document ensures the buildings adhere to the Building Regulations (2010, Building Act 1984) and that the buildings are designed with health and safety in mind [16].
Within Approved Document B, Volume 1 focuses on dwellings and Volume 2 on buildings other than dwellings. The volumes focus on the design, layout, construction, and materials to be used in property development where relevant to development control and cover the following requirements: means of warning and escape, internal fire spread (linings and structure), external fire spread, access, facilities for the fire service as well as Sections 6(3), 7(2) and 38 related to the Fire and Rescue Services Act (2004) and Building Regulations (2010). Additionally, the document links to relevant British Standards, importantly for this work is BS7974 –Fire Safety Engineering.
In terms of wildfire resilience, the external fire spread and facilities for the fire service are the most pertinent codes. External fire spread is defined as either resisting fire spread over external walls (i.e., not providing a medium for fire spread) and/or resisting spread from one building to another [16].
WILDFIRE KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER
Knowledge transfers within the wildfire community are ongoing. An array of conferences and institutional arrangements within academic environments, alongside formal and informal exchanges, exist to share best practices as well as new research findings.
UK Conferences
The UK has a biennial UK Wildfire Conference, which has been ongoing since 2007. This conference is hosted at a variety of locations around the UK and incorporates all stakeholders with an interest in wildfire. It encourages speakers and delegates from around the globe.
Research at Academic Institutions
Numerous institutions are working on community wildfire resilience and property protection in the UK. Those highlighted here represent just a selection, and this is not an exhaustive list.
Institutions About
WildFire Lab
Leverhulme Centre for Wildfires, Environment and Society
PyroLife
Centre for Wildfire Research (CWR)
Edinburgh Fire Research Centre
Knowledge for Wildfire Project (KfWf)
Designed specifically for testing fuel flammability, the University of Exeter’s wildFire Lab works on predicting wildfire behaviour in UK ecosystems, including moorlands and heathlands. The wildFire Lab are also working in collaboration with the University of Manchester, University of Birmingham, Swansea University, University of Portsmouth, the London School of Economics and Political Science and Forest Research on a Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)-funded project on developing a UK Fire Danger Rating System.
Created in 2019, the Leverhulme Centre has been conducting interdisciplinary and collaborative wildfire research globally, and exemplifies a partnership between Imperial College London, King’s College London, the University of Reading, and Royal Holloway University of London.
A PhD development program under Wageningen University in Netherlands since 2019, PyroLife is an international innovative training network (ITN) centered on wildfire-focused research projects in Europe and across the globe. PyroLife supports 15 early-stage researchers in Europe and involves numerous UK institutions. Two PhD students were based at UK universities, and several more completed secondments with UK-based project partners (e.g., Forestry Commission, University of Birmingham). Research topics at PyroLife include, but are not limited to, increasing wildfire resilience of buildings, community wildfire risk reduction, and wildfire communication across several continents.
Swansea University’s CWR focuses on wildfire research in the UK and globally, and is involved in numerous international projects, such as FirEUrisk, which aims to improve wildfire risk management in Europe.
The University of Edinburgh’s Fire Research Centre explores processes of fire combustion to infrastructure and engineering fire safety.
Hosted by the Geography School of Environment, Education and Development at the University of Manchester, KfWf focused on improving management of UK wildfire through knowledge exchange. This project finished in early 2017 and resulted in numerous published peer-reviewed research articles on UK wildfire risk.
Case Study
International Skills Exchanges
Numerous opportunities exist for the UK and US to exchange knowledge and skills. For example, the UK based Hampshire and Isle of Wight Fire and Rescue Service holds an annual exchange programme with the Sisters Fire Department in Oregon. The UK firefighters learn about wildfire operations in Oregon, while their US counterparts come to the UK to learn other skills such as home fire safety and compartmental firefighting and the use of breathing apparatus. UK fire practitioners and academics are also active participants and contributors at other global wildfire conferences, including the International Wildland Fire Conference, the International Fire Behaviour and Fuels Conference, and the Annual National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy Workshop.
The Prescribed Fire Training Exchange (TREX) has been running exchanges since 2008. It is currently hosted by Fire Networks and provides prescribed fire training opportunities for a wide range of practitioners. Predominantly based in the US, TREX is offered in both English and Spanish. TREX has spread across many continents and now provides training opportunities in Canada, Spain, Portugal, and South Africa. A further evolution was the creation of Women-in-Fire TREX (WTREX) in 2016. WTREX focuses on women and other underrepresented fire practitioners who may experience feelings of isolation in a male-dominated field and are often subject to discrimination and harassment.
The United States Fire Administration and FEMA have facilitated a meeting platform for federal and non-profit subject matter experts to share information relevant to wildfire planning, preparedness mitigation and response efforts in the US with NFCC partners as well as have the opportunity themselves to learn from UK partners about UK best practices and research developments. This forum has enabled individuals from all countries to grow in their knowledge and capabilities to help their respective communities achieve wildfire resilience.
There are also many informal opportunities for wildfire exchanges. Many fire and rescue services and other agencies in fire-prone landscapes welcome exchange opportunities. This may be as simple as a wildfire practitioner or academic participating in a ride-along with a fire crew, officer, or manager. This provides handson experience of wildfires in different landscapes. Care must be taken to ensure that appropriate health and wellbeing practices are put in place, but it is often worth the effort.
Photo credit: Andy Elliott
INTERNATIONAL BEST PRACTICE
The following section provides example practices (primarily from North America) that could be employed in the pursuit of UK wildfire resilience. As wildfire risk rises in the UK due to climate change, the UK government has an opportunity to springboard action by scaling and adapting successful wildfire mitigation practices and policies, already tried and tested in other nations.
Global Strategy
Compiled as part of the 8th International Wildland Fire Conference in Porto, 2023, the Landscape Fire Governance Framework (LFGF) provides a set of global guiding principles for adjusting strategies, policies, and landscape fire management. The framework calls for a fire risk assessment that integrates stakeholder engagement in decision making. To bridge gaps, overarching governance bodies are recommended for providing cross-agency and crosssectoral dialogue.
The LFGF seeks to enhance risk governance and coordination, while respecting national and local contexts. The LFGF aims to reduce significant losses from wildfires by increasing expertise and knowledge within existing landscape fire policies and management.
The framework strategies encompass unified and integral planning, aiming to reframe, ensure, and strengthen socio-ecological resilience to landscape fires. This involves addressing cohesive and coordinated cross-sectoral approaches in risk governance and ownership.
The framework promotes stakeholder dialogue, socio-economic innovation in rural landscapes, nature-based solutions, and strengthening local action to create resilient landscapes. Additionally, the framework emphasises international cooperation to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of landscape fire management within different spatial contexts.
The framework recommends the development of policies and governance structures that leverage existing knowledge of integrated fire management. It suggests the establishment of appropriate legal provisions, financial mechanisms, and support programs, alongside the creation of institutional structures and engagement of civil society. These recommendations collectively contribute to a comprehensive approach to landscape fire management.
Pau Costa Foundation
United States
Pau Costa Foundation (PCF) is a global non-profit organisation focused on wildfire management and prevention from the perspective of fire ecology.
Founded in 2011, PCF works to initiate interactions between diverse members of the wildfire community, from researchers and private companies to the emergency services and public administration. PCF carries out activities in three main areas: knowledge and applied science; training and operations; and resilient landscapes and societies, including education.
FIREPRIME
PCF is currently involved in the FIREPRIME project, an initiative concentrating on increasing wildland-urban interface (WUI) resilience through establishing an EUwide program. This program primarily focuses on civil protection and aims to develop a toolkit of resources including a smartphone app, guidelines, checklists, and educational materials to increase resilience to wildfires in households, communities, and infrastructure.
FIREPRIME utilises three regions of Europe (Spain, Austria, and Sweden) with disparate fire regimes, ecosystems, and population types to test these tools. Collaboration with local stakeholders and WUI communities, alongside inclusivity, responsiveness, and sensitivity to diversity, will be at the core of the development and implementation of these tools.
The US has led many developments in wildfire risk reduction and property protection. While the US fire environment differs significantly from that of the UK, the concepts, policies, and initiative successfully applied in the US could be readily scaled and adapted to meet the UK’s needs. Examples of these US successes are highlighted here in no particular order.
ON FIRE: The Report of the Wildland
Fire
Mitigation and Management Commission
The Wildland Fire Mitigation and Management Commission, established under President Biden’s Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, released a pivotal report on September 27, 2023 [26]. Marking a milestone in the ongoing efforts to address the escalating wildfire crisis in the US, the report represents one of the most comprehensive examinations of the wildfire system to date. Although the report focuses on US specific challenges, it provides recommendations aimed at structure risk reduction and proactive community planning that could be transferable to any wildfire-prone community. Such recommendations include:
• Financial incentives for risk reduction: Encourage critical risk reduction measures for private properties most at risk through tax credits for structural improvements.
• Subsidies for mitigation costs: Offset mitigation costs for economically disadvantaged residents through grants and cost-share opportunities for underserved, low-income, or otherwise disadvantaged households located in highhazard wildfire areas. This includes covering costs for critical mitigation measures and structure improvements, such as retrofits and new builds.
• Support for low-capacity communities: Expand and fund technical assistance programs and develop resources for communities at
greatest risk and with limited capacity to improve wildfire resilience.
• Support for building code adoption and enforcement: Increase financial support and technical resources to jurisdictions to hire staff and enhance capacity to adopt, enforce, and maintain science-based building codes or standards that govern construction, design, and site development in all wildfire-prone regions.
• Support for non-governmental partners: Provide funding to enhance local community capacity in accessing, implementing, and coordinating risk reduction strategies. This includes support for non-governmental organisations, universities, institutions, and other public and private organisations working at the local level.
National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy
A strategic framework developed to address US wildfire issues, the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy was established to improve the nation’s ability to prepare for, respond to, and recover from wildland fires while enhancing the safety of firefighters and communities. Moreover, the Cohesive Strategy encourages collaboration among federal, state, tribal, and local governments, non-governmental organisations, and the private sector, to address the complex challenges of wildfire management. It promotes a holistic and integrated approach to wildfire management that considers ecological, social, and economic factors. Mandated by the Federal Land Assistance, Management, and Enhancement Act of 2009 (FLAME Act), and under the direction of the Western Fire Leadership Council (WFLC), the Cohesive Strategy (with addendum in May 2023) focuses on three main goals:
1. Resilient landscapes: Landscapes, regardless of jurisdictional boundaries, are resilient to fire, insect, disease, invasive species, and climate change disturbances, in accordance with management objectives [17].
2. Fire-adapted communities: Human populations and infrastructure are as prepared as possible to receive, respond to, and recover from wildland fire (that impacts communities) [17].
3. Safe and effective, risk-based wildfire response: All jurisdictions, responding in all land types, participate in making and implementing safe, effective and efficient risk-based wildfire management decisions [17].
Firewise USA
The Firewise USA recognition program relies on research-backed recommendations to prepare homes to withstand embers and prevent flames or surface fires from igniting structures and their surroundings within the home ignition zone (HIZ), which extends 100 feet (30 meters) from the home. As the HIZ often extends onto neighbouring properties, it is crucial for neighbours to collaborate in reducing their shared wildfire risk, acknowledging that wildfire threats are not confined to individual properties.
Administered through the NFPA, Firewise USA operates through a network of partnerships, primarily at the state and local levels. Each state typically designates a state liaison, often an employee of the agency hosting the official state forester, to steer the implementation of Firewise USA within the state. This individual plays a pivotal role in setting the program’s direction, reviewing and approving site applications, and managing annual renewal applications.
Communities apply for recognition from NFPA by meeting the following criteria:
• Organise a board or committee of residents and experts and identify a resident leader.
• Collaborate with local wildfire experts to complete a community wildfire risk assessment and use the
findings to create a three-year action plan.
• Complete educational and risk reduction activities annually, based on the action plan.
• Document the above actions, including hours and funding expended, in an initial application to NFPA.
• To remain in good standing in following years, communities must document their annual activities through a renewal application, and must update their action plan every three years, and their risk assessment every five years.
Fire Safe Councils
Fire Safe Councils (FSCs) are community-driven organisations dedicated to wildfire prevention, preparedness, and mitigation [18]. Emerging as a successful model for empowering communities to enhance wildfire resilience, FSCs have gained recognition for their proactive approach to safeguarding lives, properties, and the environment. FSCs serve as a bridge between government agencies, local residents, businesses, and other stakeholders. While these councils may adapt to local conditions, they share a common purpose and set of activities aimed at reducing the risk of wildfires, and are guided by key objectives:
• Education and awareness: Conduct educational programs and outreach to raise awareness about wildfire risks and safety measures within local communities.
• Mitigation planning: Collaboration with local authorities to develop comprehensive wildfire mitigation plans that include strategies for reducing fuel loads, creating defendable spaces, and improving infrastructure.
• Coordination: Facilitate coordination and collaboration among various entities involved in wildfire management, including fire departments, emergency services, and local governments.
• Community engagement: Encourage residents to take an active role in wildfire preparedness and response, fostering a sense of shared responsibility.
Community Wildfire Protection Plans
Community wildfire protection plans (CWPPs) are collaborative, community-driven frameworks for wildfire risk mitigation, developed at the municipal or county level [20,21]. Hundreds of CWPPs have been created to enhance community and firefighter safety and reduce wildfire damage to homes, infrastructure, and natural resources. CWPPs offer a comprehensive approach, engaging communities in identifying and prioritising wildfire risks. Entities have considerable flexibility to develop plans that are tailored to their individual needs, resulting in a wide range of scope, scale, and goals for CWPPs across the country. They also promote coordinated planning and mitigation efforts, and in many cases, are considered a prerequisite for grant access to state and federal resources.
CWPPs were initiated by the federal government through statutory authority of the Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003 (federal legislation). The Act directed federal land management agencies to address hazardous fuels on public lands, and to prioritise work near high-risk residential communities. While federal agencies have no real authority to compel municipal government to act, recent specific funding tied to the development of a CWPP has reinvigorated these planning documents as an effective mechanism to enhance coordination between local, state, and federal government agencies. The Community Wildfire Defense Grant Program, initiated by the US Forest Service in 2023, now provides a specific funding source for local governments to develop CWPPs and funds priority mitigation projects that have been identified in a CWPP.
Despite their benefits in enhancing local preparedness and resilience, CWPPs require commitment, resources, and ongoing community engagement for successful development and implementation.
Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) and Building Codes
A WUI code is specifically designed to mitigate the risks from wildfire to life and property in areas where properties interface or intermix with wildlands, grasslands, or rural open spaces with vegetation. The standards within a WUI code will vary according to the scope that a community is willing to adopt and enforce. Typically, however, a WUI code includes the following topics:
• Structure density and location: number of structures allowed in areas at risk from wildfire, plus setbacks (distance between structures and distance between other features such as slopes).
• Building materials and construction: roof assembly and covering, eaves, vents, gutters, exterior walls, windows, non-combustible building materials, and non-combustible surface.
• Vegetation management: tree thinning, spacing, limbing, and trimming; removal of any vegetation growing under tree canopies (typically referred to as ladder fuels), surface vegetation removal, and brush clearance; vegetation conversion, fuel modifications, and landscaping.
• Emergency vehicle access: driveways, turnarounds, emergency access roads, marking of roads, and property address markers.
• Water supply: approved water sources and adequate water supply.
• Fire protection: automatic sprinkler system, spark arresters, and propane tank.
Examples of model codes for protection of property from wildfire include NFPA 1140, 2022 edition; Chapter 17 of NFPA 1, 2024 edition; NIST’s Hazard Mitigation Methodology and the International Wildland-Urban Interface Code, 2021 edition.
Canada
Canada has been developing strategies to respond to the challenge of wildland fire throughout the past decades, such as the Canadian Wildland Fire Strategy, launched in 2005. Canada has developed its own Forest Fire Danger Rating System [22], alongside community preparedness initiatives, all of which offer insight into actions that may increase resilience to wildfire events. As with the US, there are numerous differences between Canada and the UK; however, parallels can be drawn and lessons learned from Canada’s advances in this area.
Canadian Wildland Fire Strategy
The Canadian Wildfire Strategy is a comprehensive framework developed by the Government of Canada to address the challenges and issues associated with wildfires in the country [23]. It is designed to guide the management and response to wildfires, focusing on prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts. The strategy aims to improve wildfire management practices and protect the wellbeing of Canadians and their communities in the face of growing wildfire threats.
Key components of the Canadian Wildfire Strategy include:
• Prevention: Emphasising the importance of wildfire prevention through measures such as creating defendable spaces, conducting controlled burns, and implementing regulations in wildfire-prone areas.
• Preparedness: Enhancing preparedness at the federal, provincial, and territorial levels, including coordination, resource sharing, and training for wildfire response teams.
• Response: Developing strategies and resources for responding to wildfires, including firefighting efforts, evacuation procedures, and public communication during wildfire incidents.
• Recovery: A focus on recovery efforts to help communities and individuals affected by wildfires rebuild and return to normalcy.
• Research and innovation: Promoting research and the development of innovative technologies and practices to improve wildfire management.
The National Guide for Wildland-Urban Interface Fires
While Canada does not have an established WUI code, the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) in collaboration with a technical committee composed of national and international experts, recently produced the National Guide for WildlandUrban Interface Fires [24]. 1
The guide includes the following key recommendations:
• Hazard and exposure assessment: Conduct a thorough hazard and exposure assessment to identify and understand the specific risks and vulnerabilities of buildings and infrastructure in WUI areas. This critical step helps tailor mitigation efforts to the unique characteristics of each community.
• Vegetation management and construction measures: Implement proactive vegetation management and construction measures to reduce the risk of ignition from embers, radiant heat, and flame contact. This includes creating defendable space around buildings, utilising fire-resistant building materials, and maintaining properties to minimise the risk of ignition.
• Community planning and resources: Develop community planning and allocate resources to enhance the overall resilience of communities to wildfire. This involves the development of emergency response plans, the provision of public education and outreach, and improvements in access to essential resources, such as water supply and fire protection.
• Emergency planning and outreach: Enhance emergency planning and outreach efforts to bolster the effectiveness of community response to wildfire incidents. This encompasses the
development of evacuation plans, the establishment of early warning systems, and improved communication between emergency responders and the public.
1. National guide for wildland-urban-interface fires: guidance on hazard and exposure assessment, property protection, community resilience and emergency planning to minimize the impact of wildland-urban interface fires (canada.ca)
Case Study
FireSmart – An Example from British Columbia
The FireSmart program in Canada, including its application in British Columbia, originated in the early 2000s as a response to the mounting wildfire risks facing Canadian communities. This initiative was the product of collaboration among various stakeholders. The primary impetus for launching FireSmart was the escalating wildfire threats, often exacerbated by climate change, necessitating proactive measures to protect homes and communities. FireSmart’s intent was to reduce the risk of wildfires impacting homes and communities through a multifaceted approach, which includes creating defendable space, utilising fire-resistant building materials, integrating wildfire mitigation strategies into community planning, and raising public awareness. By doing so, FireSmart aimed to bolster community resilience, safeguard lives and property, and diminish the economic and environmental consequences of wildfires. The program strongly encouraged collaboration among government agencies, local fire departments, and residents to effectively implement these wildfire mitigation measures.
WILDFIRE RESILIENCE BEST PRACTICE TARGETS
The preceding sections have outlined the benefits of a wildfire property protection and resilience framework in the UK and provides examples of programs and initiatives that have been applied in North America to bolster wildfire resilience there. The following section summarizes best practices for wildfire management undertaken globally, with a focus on North America, that could be applied in the UK as measures to enhance adaptation to the changing wildfire environment the country now faces.
Governance BEST PRACTICE TARGETS
Effective wildfire management requires increased cooperation and coordination across agencies, integrating governance of wildfire and domestic coordination.
• Increased cooperation and coordination across agencies, integrating governance of wildfire and domestic coordination. This has bolstered a unified approach in policy making that seeks broad solutions and shared responsibilities and budgets.
• Sustainable structures have been secured, empowering intermediate bodies for shared risk management where there is collaboration between fire and rescue service jurisdictions, land managers, political representatives, government agencies, forest authorities, civil protection authorities, security and law enforcement entities, the scientific community, Local Resilience Forums, local community groups, and non-governmental organisations.
• Science-informed and evidence-based fire mitigation principles have been collaboratively created, to which all stakeholders can subscribe and be accountable for, creating trust and moving change forward.
• Research institutions have been invested in, aiming to provide sufficient data, information, and sound science to support planning decisions. These include wildfire inventories and databases, fire behaviour prediction and modelling tools, demographic information, fire science and ignitions, ecological response to fire, and climate scenarios for future wildfire risk and adaptation. This has emphasised knowledge sharing amongst institutions, nationally and globally.
• Collaborative development of a national science-based wildfire risk and hazard assessment to support decision making, policy, and implementation strategies is a
priority. These tools assist in prioritising actions at the national and local government level, including codes and ordinances, policy decisions, land use decisions, hazard identification, public health, climate forecasting and allocation of resources.
• An approach for the creation of planning documents has been agreed upon. These address wildfire risk and hazard assessment and creation of mitigation actions at a community or county scale, for example, CWPPs from the US.
• The presence of a national repository/information hub disseminates information and provides unified messaging for wildfire risk reduction.
• Region-specific databases for wildfire information, research, and policy have been developed and are currently maintained.
• Incentives are present to encourage local and national government departments to improve land use planning to reduce the risk of wildfire to homes and other community development.
• Planning tools (i.e., master plans and zoning) are used to limit the exposure of structures to wildfire and ensure adequate evacuation routes. Land use planning considers potential climate change and future exposure to structures and infrastructure.
Community and Property Protection Measures BEST PRACTICE TARGETS
To enhance wildfire resilience and preparedness, a comprehensive approach is undertaken through the development of policies, prevention and mitigation programs, and much more.
• Policies are developed that build from existing proven frameworks from other natural hazards (i.e., flood policy), creating greater resilience in the face of climate change and focusing on ways to mitigate natural hazard related damages and recovery costs.
• Prevention and mitigation capabilities are enhanced by committing to programs and initiatives that support establishing resilient and fire-adapted communities as well as engineering and land use planning (e.g., Firewise, FireSmart).
• Building codes, regulations, and enforcement practices are present for new and existing residential structures in the RUI, utilising existing model codes (e.g., International WUI Code, NFPA 1140) as appropriate.
• Collaborations take place with insurance companies and housing authorities on code application and enforcement and ensure educational resources are secured for outreach to homeowners.
• Standardized defendable space practices for communities in high-risk areas have been developed, along with regulatory measures to enforce actions.
• Local governments are empowered with resources to enable effective audit, enforcement, and compliance powers with regard to local developments and assets in RUI areas.
• Broad community engagement actions and marketing campaigns are fostered to promote wildfire resilience and preparedness actions in the RUI. Existing programs (e.g., Firewise UK) are leveraged to disseminate messaging to high-risk areas.
• Emphasis is placed on the role that homeowners need to play in improving the resilience of their own homes and properties. Education and outreach are provided by local, state, and federal governments to equip homeowners to take action.
The Evolution of Wildfire Resilience Principles
Wildfire mitigation and resilience principles have been widely adopted in fire-prone territories such as the US and Canada, as these countries continue to face increasing and widespread wildfire hazard and risk. Recent megafires that have resulted in thousands of structures being lost, highlight the need for even greater adoption of mitigation programs and engagement by stakeholders across all lands. Research within the US from the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety is contributing to the evolution of current initiatives, to better prepare for changing fire regimes. Such evolutions include the concept of ‘moving beyond the parcel’. This initiative recognises that structures in suburbs should not be examined as isolated structures or parcels (including the relationship between outbuildings), but rather as multiple properties and structures as part of communities [25]. Other initiatives focus on house hardening, evacuation, and the concept of temporary fire refuge areas (see Annex D). While housing stock differs between the US and UK, these principles should also be considered when preparing UK communities for increasing wildfire risk.
Effective wildfire resilience across fire prone regions will depend upon development of compelling communications that rally actions from all stakeholders and residents. Fortunately, science and technology is evolving to provide analytical tools and data driven processes to guide implementation, and communication platforms that amplify messaging from fire practitioners and policy makers to promote and support fire adaptation across communities.
Conclusion
This paper has introduced a range of ongoing programmes and initiatives from across North America and other regions that could be adapted and employed by UK partners to help UK communities adapt to the growing threat of wildfire. While there are obvious differences in managing wildfire threat globally, there are also many commonalities in approach and delivery of successful wildfire mitigation practices that through knowledge transfer can be used to enhance wildfire adaptation and structure protection. By leveraging existing best practices, this paper aims to provide UK decision makers with key points to increase resilience.
VIEW THE STORY MAP FOR THE CITY OF CORONA CWPP
Annex A – Wildfire-relevant Policies in the Present National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF)
Climate Change:
• Policy 8 – To achieve sustainable development meeting an environmental objective to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
• Policy 11 – Presumption in favour of sustainable development including mitigating climate change.
• Policy 20 – Strategic policies should set out an overall strategy for the patten, scale and design quality of places including planning measures to address climate change mitigation and adaptation.
• Policy 102 – Access to open spaces that support efforts to address climate change.
• Policy 136 – Planning policies and decisions should incorporate trees in new streets and elsewhere in development to help mitigate and adapt to climate change (i.e., fire belts).
• Policy 158 – Plans should take a proactive approach to mitigating and adapting to climate change. Policies should support appropriate measures to ensure future resilience of communities and infrastructure to climate change impacts, including possible relocation of vulnerable development and infrastructure.
• Policy 159 – New development should be planned to avoid increased vulnerability to the range of impacts arising from climate change. When new development is brought forward in areas which are vulnerable, care should be taken to ensure that risks can be managed through suitable adaptation measures, including through the planning of green infrastructure.
Policy 167 – All plans should apply a sequential, risk-based approach to the location of development, taking into account the current and future impacts of climate change.
Policy 101 – Planning policies and decisions should promote public safety and anticipating and addressing possible malicious threats and natural hazards, especially in locations where large number of people are expected to congregate.
Policy 189 – Planning policies and decisions should take into account ground conditions and land instability arising from
Annex B – US Fire Programs and Policy
Firewise USA
The Firewise USA recognition program is a voluntary initiative designed to equip communities with the knowledge and tools needed to enhance the resilience of their homes and neighbourhoods in the face of wildfire threats. Launched in 2002 through a collaborative effort involving the NFPA, the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service, and the National Association of State Foresters, this program has grown significantly since its inception. As of the summer of 2023, over 2,300 sites across the US have committed to proactively reduce the risks associated with living in wildfire-prone areas.
The Recognition Process
Achieving recognition through the Firewise USA program involves a series of steps that communities must undertake:
1. Organise: Communities are required to establish a board or committee of volunteers, representing residents and partners like local forestry agencies or fire departments. A resident leader is designated as the point of contact. Communities must also define their boundaries, with each site accommodating a minimum of eight homes and no more than 2,500.
2. Plan: The board or committee takes the essential step of outlining site boundaries and obtaining a community wildfire risk assessment. From this assessment, a multi-year action plan is developed, identifying and prioritising actions to reduce ignition risk for homes.
3. Do: Each year, community members undertake educational and risk reduction actions identified in the plan.
4. Tell: Once the stipulated criteria are met, the resident leader applies for recognition through the Firewise Portal (portal. firewise.org), describing the educational and mitigation work carried out within the site. Recognition is subject to annual renewal, which involves reporting the site’s activities.
Community Size and Participation
A notable criterion for participation is that a site must comprise a minimum of eight homes but no more than 2,500. Experience has shown that larger communities tend to have lower participation rates. The heart of this program lies in neighbours working together, emphasising the importance of face-to-face connections and conversations in facilitating meaningful risk reduction actions.
Fire Safe Councils
The activities of FSCs encompass a wide range of initiatives, including but not limited to:
1. Fuel Reduction Programs: FSCs organise and execute projects aimed at reducing combustible vegetation in WUI areas.
2. Community Workshops: FSCs host workshops, seminars, and training sessions to educate residents on fire-safe landscaping, home hardening, and evacuation planning.
3. Grant Funding: FSCs often secure grants and financial resources to support wildfire prevention efforts in their communities.
4. Collaboration with Authorities: FSCs work closely with local and state government agencies to align their efforts with broader wildfire management strategies.
5. Public Awareness Campaigns: FSCs run public awareness campaigns, distributing literature and organising events to inform the community about wildfire risks and safety.
The effectiveness of FSCs is evident through a series of notable successes in regions, states, and countries where they have been implemented. These successes include:
1. Reduction in Property Loss: FSCs have played a crucial role in reducing property loss during wildfires by promoting home hardening and creating defendable spaces around houses.
2. Enhanced Community Resilience: Communities with active FSCs have shown increased preparedness and resilience when faced with wildfire threats, resulting in safer evacuation processes and reduced casualties.
3. Stakeholder Engagement: FSCs have successfully engaged a diverse set of stakeholders, from local residents to government agencies, fostering collaborative efforts in wildfire management.
4. Replication in Other Regions: The FSC model has been adopted in various communities, regions, political environments, and landscapes showcasing its adaptability and success as an adaptable and flexible wildfire mitigation strategy.
WUI Codes
Implementation
A WUI code often works in conjunction with other codes, such as the jurisdiction’s fire code and building code. References to these other codes should be included in the WUI code. The local authority responsible for a WUI code is typically the local fire district/department, land use department, or building department. To be successful, the adopting jurisdiction should ensure there is enough internal capacity to enforce the code.
Model WUI codes can be useful in providing jurisdictions with examples of language for required mitigation and guidance. It is rare that jurisdictions adopt model WUI codes in full; rather, they adopt them in part and/or with local amendments. WUI codes also work best in concert with other voluntary and outreach programs that encourage resident awareness and education.
Advantages
Implementing a WUI code promotes safer development by ensuring that life and property are uniformly protected from wildfire risk. In addition, WUI codes:
• Provide a robust, comprehensive, and consolidated set of regulations for developers, contractors, and residents.
• Complement existing building and fire codes to ensure that additional standards are met.
• Are based on scientific findings on the effectiveness of ignition loss reduction.
• Reduce long-term spending on suppression and rebuilding because features are built to a higher standard and increase a structure’s survivability. Some WUI code requirements may require more upfront financial investment through the building and construction process.
• Promote safer development that protects life and property.
Obstacles
WUI codes can bring a number of challenges, although many of these can be overcome if the community is committed to the process:
• WUI codes may increase construction costs, although this varies by jurisdiction.
• Typically, WUI codes apply only to new development and improvements or repairs, leaving existing development still at risk.
• Adoption can be controversial; successful WUI code adoptions engage a number of stakeholders and the public long before the adoption process begins.
• Enforcement can be challenging and requires adequate internal staff capacity to effectively implement.
Examples
International WUI Code
The International WUI Code (IWUIC) is a model code used by many jurisdictions in the US, as it is intended to be adopted and modified to fit the needs of a jurisdiction. Oftentimes, the jurisdiction’s WUI code is more stringent than the IWUIC. The IWUIC provides minimum standards and regulations for the safeguarding of life and property from the intrusion of fire from wildland/rural/grassland exposures and fire exposures from adjacent structures and to prevent structure fires from spreading to wildland/grassland/rural fuels, even in the absence of fire department intervention. An overview of the IWUIC’s chapters and appendices can be accessed here: https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IWUIC2018/effective-use-of-the-internationalwildland-urban-interface-code
California
California Fire Code Chapter 49 and California Building Code Chapter 7A
Chapter 49 of the California Fire Code and the California Building Code, within its WUI chapter, share a common goal of enhancing wildfire resilience. While they frame their regulations differently, their purposes align. Chapter 49 in the California Fire Code is designed to minimise ember intrusion, reduce conflagration losses, and establish minimum standards for building construction to lower structural ignitability. It also addresses defendable space and vegetation management. Similarly, the California Building Code’s WUI chapter sets forth regulations for structures within the WUI, encompassing measures such as vegetation management, defendable space guidelines, the use of ignition-resistant construction materials, fire-resistant exterior windows, and attic vent coverings. Both codes work in concert to strengthen wildfire mitigation efforts.
California Building Code Chapter 7A: https://up.codes/viewer/ alifornia/ca-building-code-2016/chapter/7A/sfm-materialsand-construction-methods-for-exterior-wildfire-exposure#7A
California Fire Code Chapter 49: https://up.codes/viewer/california/ca-fire-code-2022/chapter/49/requirements-for-wildlandurban-interface-fire-areas#49
Insurance Impacts
Insurers and underwriters are playing an increasingly important role in wildfire mitigation practices in WUI areas. As the risk of wildfires continues to grow, insurers and underwriters are becoming more selective about the properties they insure and the premiums they charge. This has led to a greater focus on wildfire mitigation practices in WUI areas, as homeowners seek to reduce their risk of property damage and insurers seek to reduce their exposure to losses.
One way that insurers and underwriters are impacting growth and wildfire mitigation practices in WUI areas is by requiring homeowners to take steps to reduce their risk of property damage from wildfires. This can include creating defendable space around their homes, using fire-resistant building materials, and maintaining their properties to reduce the risk of ignition from embers. Insurers and underwriters may also require homeowners to install fire suppression systems or take other measures to protect their homes from wildfires.
Another way that insurers and underwriters are impacting growth and wildfire mitigation practices in WUI areas is by
increasing premiums for properties located in high-risk areas. This can make it more difficult for homeowners to obtain insurance coverage or afford the premiums for their existing coverage. As a result, homeowners may be more motivated to take steps to reduce their risk of property damage from wildfires.
In recent years, the impact of insurers and underwriters on wildfire mitigation practices in WUI areas has become evident in California. Due to the high number of homes located in high-risk fire areas, some insurers made the decision to withdraw from the state, leaving homeowners in these areas facing difficulties in obtaining coverage. However, the California Insurance Commissioner took proactive steps to address this challenge. Negotiating with insurers, they brokered a deal that encouraged these companies to return to the state while allowing them to charge higher premiums for properties located in high-risk areas. In tandem with these efforts, the California Department of Insurance introduced the Safer from Wildfires program. This initiative incentivizes homeowners to implement mitigation actions aimed at reducing wildfire risks. By taking these measures, homeowners may become eligible for insurance discounts or enhanced coverage, thereby fostering a safer and more resilient community in the face of escalating wildfire threats.
Overall, insurers and underwriters are playing an important role in promoting wildfire mitigation practices in WUI areas. By requiring homeowners to take steps to reduce their risk of property damage from wildfires and increasing premiums for highrisk properties, insurers and underwriters are helping to create a safer and more resilient community.
Annex C – Canadian Fire Programs and Policy
Canadian Wildfire Strategy (CWFS)
Background
The inception of the Canadian Wildland Fire Strategy (CWFS) in 2005, with a notable 10-year review in 2016, was a response to the persistent challenges Canada faced. These challenges included extreme fire behaviour, amplified wildfire impacts, the growing influence of climate change, and a diminishing capacity to respond effectively, as recognised by the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (CCFM). The CWFS was guided by the Wildland Fire Management Working Group (WFMWG) established under the CCFM, initiating the development of crucial wildfire reporting and information systems. These systems not only provided up-to-date information on fire threats but also introduced the Fire Monitoring, Accounting, and Reporting System (FireMARS) for emissions, submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Together, these measures formed the foundation for more precise safety protocols, including advanced wildland fire forecasting systems.
However, slow progress in implementing the 2005 strategy prompted a renewed call to action, emphasising the need for a recommitment from all levels of government and a rejuvenated commitment to accelerate all necessary actions. This recommitment, coupled with the 10-year review, identified five critical actions: enhanced horizontal collaboration and integration, increased investment in innovation, strengthened prevention and mitigation capabilities, renewed a commitment to FireSmart, and bolstered preparedness capacity. This concerted approach aimed to address the ongoing wildfire challenges and improve the nation’s capacity to manage these threats effectively.
The National Guide for Wildland-Urban Interface Fires
Background
The guide is a comprehensive resource intended for various stakeholders working to reduce the impact of WUI fires on buildings, infrastructure, and communities and enhance their resilience. This includes local governments, authorities, planners, emergency managers, developers, insurers, and property owners. The guide is designed to mitigate the increasing risk of damage and loss from WUI fires by bolstering the resilience of buildings, infrastructure, and communities against wildfires. Drawing on recent wildfire research, existing codes, standards, guidelines, and insights from international experts, the guide
offers support for reducing the risk in Canada’s WUI areas.
The guide provides valuable information on hazard and exposure assessment, vegetation management, construction measures, community planning, resources, and emergency planning and outreach. This guidance is instrumental in minimising the impact of WUI fires by decreasing their likelihood and severity, impeding their spread, and enhancing community response effectiveness.
Annex D – The Evolution of Firewise
House Hardening and Beyond the Parcel
Published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the US, a Technical Note was released in 2022 outlining strategies to move beyond the individual parcel strategy, which is the current primary strategy of Firewise. This technical note also includes house hardening pathways within various WUI types, addressing vulnerabilities in areas such as the roof and gutters of homes.
Shelter in Place and Evacuation
The NIST also produced a Technical Note in 2023, proposing a methodology for use within WUI communities, considering the spatial and temporal components of fire spread, and the resulting impacts to evacuation decision making and planning. This methodology guided the development of an evacuation triangle for use by emergency managers, for decisions surrounding notifications and evacuation, alongside the use of community shelters. The report defines a path for emergency managers and communities for assessing, organising, and implementing a notification/evacuation plan, utilising information surrounding pre-fire conditions, as well as local knowledge and response information. This pathway is designed to heighten the life safety of civilians and first responders.
Annex E – Acknowledgements
This work is partially funded by SWCA Environmental Consultants. Fiona Newman-Thacker’s PhD work is funded by PyroLife MSCA under grant agreement no. 860787. Megan Dolman’s PhD work is funded by the National Science Foundation Idaho EPSCoR Program under award number OIA-1757324 and the Joint Fire Science Program’s Graduate Research Innovation (GRIN) award 22-1-01-06, under the award number L23AC00047.
We extend the deepest appreciation to the members of the working group for their invaluable contributions throughout this collaboration. Our collective efforts and synergistic teamwork have significantly enhanced the quality and depth of this informational paper. Each member’s unique expertise and perspectives have brought forth diverse insights, resulting in a more comprehensive and well-rounded analysis of wildfire mitigation practices and international knowledge transfer.
1. Tasker, S., and J. Wentworth. 2024. Wildfire risks to UK landscapes. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. 15 April 2024. Available at: https:// researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/POSTPN-0717/POST-PN-0717.pdf .
2. Perry, M.C., E. Vanvyve, R.A. Betts, and E.J. Palin. 2022. Past and future trends in fire weather for the UK. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 22(2):59–575. doi: 10.5194/nhess-22-559-2022.
3. Belcher, C.M., I. Brown, G.D. Clay, S.H. Doerr, A. Elliott, R. Gazzard, N. Kettridge, J. Morrison, M. Perry, C. Santin, T.E.L. Smith. 2021. UK Wildfires and their Climate Challenges. Available at: https://www.ukclimaterisk. org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/UK-Wildfires-andtheir-Climate-Challenges.pdf.
4. McMorrow, J. 2011. Wildfire in the United Kingdom: status and key issues. In Proceedings of the Second Conference on the Human Dimensions of Wildland Fire, April 27¬–29, 2010, San Antonio, Texas, pp 44¬–55. Available at: https://research.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/38516
5. Arnell, N.W., A. Freeman, and R. Gazzard. 2021. The effect of climate change on indicators of fire danger in the UK. Environmental Research Letters 16(4). doi: 10.1088/17489326/abd9f2.
6. Home Office. 2021. Wildfire Framework for England. Available at: https://fireengland.uk/sites/default/ files/2021-12/211220 Wildfire Framework for England.pdf
7. Cabinet Office. 2006. Emergency preparedness: Guidance on part 1 of the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, its associated regulations and non-statutory arrangements. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/ government/publications/emergency-preparedness.
8. Gazzard, R., J. McMorrow, and J. Aylen. 2016. Wildfire policy and management in England: an evolving response from Fire and Rescue Services, forestry and cross-sector groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 371(1696). doi: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0341 .
9. Albertson, K., J. Aylen, G. Cavan, and J. McMorrow. 2010. Climate change and the future occurrence of moorland wildfires in the Peak District of the UK. Climate Research 45(1):105–118. doi: 10.3354/cr00926.
10. Forestry Commission. 2014. Building wildfire resilience into forest management planning. 2014. Available at: https://cdn.forestresearch.gov.uk/2014/03/fcpg022.pdf.
11. Forestry Commission. 2023. Wildfire statistics for England: Report to 2020-21. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ media/63ecff77d3bf7f62edc835a1/FC-Wildfirestatistics-for-England-Report-to-2020-21-.pdf.
12. Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government. 2023. National Planning Policy Framework. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ national-planning-policy-framework--2.
13. Local Government Association. 2023. Design Codes, Planning Advisory Series. Available at: https://www. local.gov.uk/pas/topics/design-codes.
14. Dorset Council. 2024. Dorset Heathlands Planning Framework. Available at: https://www.dorsetcouncil. gov.uk/w/dorset-heathlands-planning-framework. Accessed 02 July 2024.
15. Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government. 2021. National Design Guide. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/ government/publications/national-design-guide.
16. HM Government. 2010. The Building Regulations 2010 Approved Document B: Fire Safety. Available at: https:// assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/1124733/Approved_Document_B__fire_ safety__volume_1_-_Dwellings__2019_edition_ incorporating_2020_and_2022_amendments.pdf.
17. U.S. Fire Administration. 2024. What is the Cohesive Strategy and why was it created? Available at: https:// www.usfa.fema.gov/wui/cohesive-strategy/. Accessed 02 July 2024.
18. California Fire Safe Council. 2024. Fire Safe Councils. Available at: https://cafiresafecouncil.org/resources/ fire-safe-councils/. Accessed 03 July 2024.
19. Fire Adapted Communities. 2024. Wildfire Adaptation Resource Hub. Available at: https://fireadapted.org/. Accessed 03 July 2024.
20. Joint Fire Science Program n.d. The Community Wildfire Protection Planning Process: A Quick-Guide Series on Collaboration. Available at: https://s42264.pcdn.co/ wp-content/uploads/2011/07/CWPP-Quick-Guide.pdf
21. Communities Committee, National Association of Counties, National Association of State Foresters, Society of American Foresters, Western Governors’ Association. 2004. Preparing a Community Wildfire Protection Plan: A Handbook for Wildland-Urban Interface Communities. Available at: https://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/documents/ resources/communities/cwpphandbook.pdf.
22. Stocks, B.J., B.D. Lawson, M.E. Alexander, C.E. Van Wagner, R.S. McAlpine, T.J. Lynham, and D.E. Dube. 1989. Canadian forest fire danger rating system: an overview. The Forestry Chronicle 65(4):258–265. doi: 10.5558/ tfc65258-4.
23. Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (CCFM). 2016. Canadian Wildland Fire Strategy: A 10-year review and
Renewed Call to Action. Available at: https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/37108.pdf.
24. National Research Council Canada (NRCC). National Guide for Wildland-Urban Interface Fires. Available at: https://nrcpublications.canada.ca/eng/view/ft/?id=3a0b337f-f980-418f-8ad8-6045d1abc3b3.
25. Maranghides A, Link E, Mell W, Hawks S, Wilson M, Brewer W, Brown C, Vihnaneck B, Walton WD (2021) A Case Study of the Camp Fire – Fire Progression Timeline. NIST Technical Note 2135. (National Institute of Standards and Technology: Gaithersburg, MD)
26. Wildland Fire Mitigation and Management Commission. 2023. ON FIRE: The Report of the Wildland Fire Mitigation and Management Commission. Available at: https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/wfmmc-finalreport-09-2023.pdf.
Other Resources and Guidance
GOV.UK. 2023. Building regulations approval. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/building-regulations-approval/how-to-apply.
GOV.UK. 2023. Local Plans: the examination process. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/local-plans.
International Wildland Fire Conference. 2023. Landscape Fire Governance Framework 2023. Available at: https://assets. website-files.com/625eec974c68b24b4ed75bb5/64df3d8c07e6565f7631b8c9_Framework%20AGIF%20-%20ENG%20V2.pdf. Accessed 21 August 2023.
Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB). 2021. Australian Fire Engineering Guidelines. Available at: https://ncc.abcb.gov.au/ sites/default/files/resources/2021/Handbook-Australian-Fire-Engineering-Guideline_0.pdf.
Boverket, Karlskrona, Sweden. (2013). The Swedish National Board of Housing, Building and Planning’s general recommendations on the analytical design of a building’s fire protection, BBRAD. https://www.boverket.se/globalassets/ publikationer/dokument/2013/bbrad-bfs-2011-27-tom-2013-12-english.pdf
CSIRO. 2021. Preparing Australia for future extreme bushfire events. Available at: https://www.csiro.au/-/media/ Environment/Preparing-Australia-for-extreme-bushfire.pdf.
European Commission. 2022. Overview of the Wildfire Prevention Action Plan. Available at: https://civil-protectionknowledge-network.europa.eu/system/files/2022-12/Wildfire%20Prevention%20Action%20Plan.pdf.
Lefebvre, N. 2023. Augusta Margaret River joins Disaster Ready Program. Available at: https://www.margaretrivermail.com. au/story/8250526/augusta-margaret-river-joins-disaster-ready-program/.
Pooley, K., S. Nunez, and M. Whybro. 2021. Evidence-based practices of effective fire safety education programming for children. Australian Journal of Emergency Management April 2021 edition. Available at: https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/ resources/ajem-april-2021-evidence-based-practices-of-effective-fire-safety-education-programming-for-children/.
Definitions
Climate change adaptation: Adjustments made to natural or human systems in response to the actual or anticipated impacts of climate change, to mitigate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities [10]
Climate change mitigation: Action to reduce the impact of human activity on the climate system, primarily through reducing greenhouse gas emissions [10]
Rural-urban interface (RUI): The landscape interface or ecotone between town and countryside- commonly used in the UK.
Wildland-urban interface (WUI): The zone of transition between unoccupied land and human development- commonly used in the USA and Canada.
Wildfire: Any uncontrolled vegetation fire which requires a decision, or action, regarding suppression, as defined by the Forestry Commission and Scottish Fire and Rescue Service