Tips for Academic Writing Khaled Hussainey Professor of Accounting & Financial Management University of Portsmouth, UK
Structure of the presentation • Tips before starting the academic writing • The research proposal • Criteria for good research ideas. • Finding a new research idea. • The components of the research papers. • Factors to consider when writing a research paper.
Before you begin writing • Read relevant work • Carefully think about who will read your thesis/paper and modify your writing style accordingly • Follow the prescribed university/journal format • Ensure that each chapter/section includes relevant materials.
Have a general outline. It is rarely efficient to start writing without planning. • Start early, but check data availability and other resources • How many chapters/section? • What is the content of each chapter/section? • Which chapter/section I should write first? • Manage your time - Know your goals [what is expected from you in years 1, 2, 3, …?]. - Prioritise wisely [Important and urgent; Important but not urgent; Urgent but not important; Not urgent and not important; Just say no] - Plan ahead [daily/ weekly/ monthly/….]. - Eliminate distractions - Watch your progress - Take care of yourself
Where to start? • Read - relevant articles from top-ranked journals • Underline - key points and link them with your work. • Organize - key points should be organised in a logical order. • Add - your own comments
Start writing • Be clear - avoid unnecessary detail • Be simple - use direct language, avoiding vague or complicated sentences. Technical terms are used only when they are necessary for accuracy; • Be specific - avoid making assumptions (Everyone knows that ...) and unproven statements (It can never be proved that ...). • Be logically structured - ideas and processes are expressed in a logical order. The text is divided into sections with clear headings; • Be objective - statements and ideas are supported by appropriate evidence that demonstrates how conclusions have been drawn as well as acknowledging the work of others. Don't present unsupported • Be accurate – give clear non-subjective descriptions and definite figures. Avoid vague or ambiguous terms like 'a long period of time', or 'most of the participants'. Avoids vague and ambiguous language such as about, approximately, almost
Start writing • Be direct – don't leave it to your reader to work out what you are saying! Putting the emphasis on a strong verb can help the reader to see the important points: for instance, 'an analysis was performed on the results' is not as direct as 'the results were analysed'. • Be critical – evaluate your own work as well as that of others. Have the confidence to say if something could have been done better if it had been done differently. • Be appropriate – identify the purpose of your communication and the audience you are communicating to. Give them the information they need to understand your work.
What is a Research Proposal • A research proposal is a concise and coherent plan of your proposed research. • It outlines the general area of study within which your research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge, research gaps and any recent debates on the topic. • It outlines the research problem, objectives and questions that you intend to address. • It outlines the methods you intend to use to achieve the research objectives. • Research proposals may vary in length, so it is important to check with the University to which you are applying to check word limits and guidelines. •
Criteria for good research topic • Interest: you should choose a topic that interests and even possibly excites you. It should also be of interest to your supervisor/readers of international journals as well. • The “newness” of the topic may hold you interest longer, however there is some value in repeating previous research • Avoidance of duplication: Has the topic been investigated before within the proposed study area, or in another area with similar conditions? • Relevance (importance): What is the importance of your research? Who cares about your findings? • Access & resources: Can you find enough information on it? (i.e. literature; IT; software; skills; access to people who can answer your research questions (questionnaires; interviews).
Criteria for good research paper/thesis
1. Clearly state aim/term objectives AND expected impact. 2. Explicitly state research motivations 3. Explicitly state potential contributions. 4. Explicitly state hypotheses and/or research question(s). 5. Must flow logically from literature review and major themes of the problem area. 6. Sound research method. 7. Clear writing.
Where Can I find a new idea? • Read 1. Recent published research papers in top ranked journals 2. Review articles 3. Recent working papers (SSRN). 4. Recent conference papers (top quality conference, AAA, BAFA, EAA…). 5. Publication by professional bodies (e.g. ACCA) 5. Special issues (Current and forthcoming) 6. Recent PhD thesis • Find out limitations and suggestions for future research. • Write down your ideas and discuss them with your supervisor/co-authors • Check data availability and other requirements for the
The components of a research paper/thesis • Title • Abstract • Introduction [overview; research objectives; research questions; research motivations; research importance; potential contributions; key findings; the structure of the thesis]. • Literature review [critically survey prior studies; identify gaps; explain how your thesis fills at least 2/3 gaps]. • Theoretical framework [which theory and why?] & Conceptual Framework [discuss the main concepts/themes of the paper]
The components of a research paper/thesis • Research method [context; sample selection criteria; sample period selection; research hypotheses; the justification of the research method; data collection; variables definitions and measurement; source of data…etc.]. • Empirical analysis [descriptive analysis; research findings; accepting/rejecting hypotheses; answering research questions]. • Discussion [the link between the findings and both theory and literature] • Conclusion [summary of the key findings; implications; research limitation and suggestions for future research]. • References • Appendices
1. The title of the research proposal
• The title is very important as it is usually read first.
• The title should capture the reader’s attention to the research problem being investigated and the main ideas of your proposal. So, once you complete writing your proposal, think about the best title that fits well your contributions. • A good research title should contain the fewest possible words needed to adequately describe the scope and the contributions of the study (e.g. 8-15 words).
The title of the research proposal
• Avoid using abbreviations. • Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest. • Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis. • Does not include unnecessary words like “a study of," “an analysis of“. • Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can also be in the form of a question. • Use correct grammar and capitalization (i.e. the first letter of the first word in the title should be capitalized). * Source: http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=801403
Examples • (NOT) good titles: • Tone Management (AR, 2014). • Corporate Ownership Around the World (JF, 1999) • Islamic Banking (Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 1988)
Examples • Good titles: • Capital structure around the world: The roles of firm- and country-specific determinants. (JBF, 2008) • Aggregated, voluntary and mandatory risk disclosure incentives: Evidence from UK FTSE all share companies (IRFA, 2013). • What drives mandatory and voluntary risk disclosure variations across German, UK and US? (BAR, 2014).
Abstract Abstract should be written briefly and clearly. It mainly covers the following points: Purpose: What are the aim/objectives of writing the thesis? Design/methodology/approach: How are the objectives achieved? Include the main method(s) used for the research. What is the approach to the topic and what is the theoretical or subject scope of the thesis? Findings: What was found in the course of the work? This will refer to analysis, discussion, or results. What is the original contribution of the thesis What is new in the thesis? State the value of the thesis and to whom.
1. Research Background 2. Research Problems 3. Aim and Objectives 4. Research Motivations 5. Research Importance 6. Research Contributions 7. Summary of the key findings 8. The structure of the paper/thesis
2. Introduction • What is the nature of the problem? (Research background) • Why is it problematic? (Research problem) • What is its significance? (Research importance) • To whom is it significant, and why? (Research relevance? potential implications) • Why is it appropriate to study this topic at this time? (Research motivation) • Why is it of interests to examine this issue in this specific context? What is the uniqueness of your context? (Research motivation) • What are your contributions?
Research Background Background information identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-defined research problem with reference to the existing literature. The background information should indicate the root of the problem being studied, its scope, and the extent to which previous studies have successfully investigated the problem, noting, in particular, where gaps exist that your thesis attempts to address. Introductory background information differs from a literature review in that it places the research problem in proper context rather than provide a thorough examining related literature.
Example Article title The board’s role in risk disclosure: An exploratory study of Italian listed state-owned enterprises (SOEs)* Background - What is the definition of risk disclosure? - Why firms should disclose risk? - What are risk disclosure regulations? - What is the role of SOEs? What are the characteristics of SOEs corporate governance system?
* Allini et al., 2015
Research aim/objectives • What are the general aim and specific objectives of the intended research? • An Aim is a goal that the project is trying to achieve. An Objective is a practical step to achieve the project aim. The aim is the 'what.......'. The objective is the 'how...‘ • Research objectives refer to the goals or steps that you will take to achieve your aims. • The aim of the thesis is …….. To achieve this aim, The thesis has three objectives ….
“The purpose of this paper is to review the recent UK contribution to the field of financial accounting research, set against the backdrop of the global (mainly US) research effort”. (Beattie, 2005). “The primary aim of the present study is to contribute to improving measurement of financial reporting quality”. (van Beest et al, 2012). “In this paper, we aim to answer the important questions of whether corporate governance affects firms’ decisions to voluntarily disclose forward-looking statements in the narratives of their annual reports and, if so, whether the forward-looking statements that are driven by governance contain value-relevant information
Research problem
“Despite an extensive prior literature, there is little research on how risk levels influence firms in providing risk disclosures in corporate annual reports” (Elshandidy et al, 2013). “In an early survey of the literature, Jones and Shoemaker (1994) find mixed empirical evidence on whether certain sections of the 10-K differ in terms of readability”. (Loughran and McDonald, 2014). During the last decade, the determinants of risk reporting practices have attracted major interests in accounting and finance literature
Research problem “Considerable attention
has been given to examining the association between corporate disclosure and share price anticipation of earnings (e.g. Schleicher and Walker, 1999; Lundholm and Myers, 2002; Gelb and Zarowin, 2002; Hussainey et al., 2003 and Schleicher et al., 2007). These papers find that the stock market’s ability to anticipate future earnings changes is significantly improved when firms voluntarily provide higher levels of disclosure. However, these studies do not take into account the possibility that dividend policy may provide an alternative device for conveying value-relevant information to the stock market that might act as a
Research importance
• “Investigating the economic consequences of increased voluntary disclosure has become an established part of mainstream accounting research over the last 10 years. The reason behind the increased attention is that this research has potential policy implications. It helps to inform regulators (and managers) about the benefits of increased disclosure to investors and the disclosing firm. In this way it provides part of the information that is needed for a more informed cost-benefit
Research motivations • Why it is interest to look at the relationship between ‘x’ and ‘y’? • Why is it of interest look at this research topic ‘again’? Does it potentially tell us something different from what we learnt before? • What are the uniqueness of your context?
• Article title
Research motivations
The board’s role in risk disclosure: An exploratory study of Italian listed state-owned enterprises (SOEs)* Motivations • Why is it of interest to look at an Italian context? Does it potentially tell us something different from other contexts? • Why is it of interest to focus on state-owned enterprises (SOEs) ? Why risk disclosures in particular are more important in this setting? • Do the incentives of managers and shareholders of Italian governmentowned firms differ from other firms? • How these differences could lead to different results with regard to risk disclosure? * Allini et al, 2015
Research motivations • “The UK provides a unique country context in which to analyze the linkage between the voluntary disclosure of forward-looking statements and corporate governance. The UK and the United States (US) share a similarity in diverse corporate ownership structures and generally high quality corporate governance. Forward-looking statements in the UK, however, are very different in nature from corporate voluntary disclosures in the US as they are not immediately verifiable or auditable. Furthermore, forwardlooking statements in the UK allow for a fuller and more powerful approach to analysis because of their unique nature of these statements. The statements are qualitative in nature and usually dominated by good news (Athanasakou and Hussainey, 2012)â€?. (Wang and Hussainey, 2013)
Research motivations “Each of these countries exhibits a distinctive approach to risk reporting. The first approach (Germany's) is underpinned by a significant emphasis on MRR. The second (the UK's) emphasises voluntary rather than mandatory risk reporting. The third approach (that of the US) represents a compromise between the UK and German approaches”. (Elshandidy et al, 2015). “The paper considers factors influencing one type of disclosure practice (oil and gas reserves) within a single industrial context (the oil and gas sector). By focusing on only one sector, this study avoids the danger of generalisation inherent in cross-sectoral studies. The oil and gas sector is worthy of investigation as it is a distinctive industry with the future success of companies dependent upon a steady stream of new mineral discoveries with corporate reserve quantum a key indicator of future potential. The sector is also unique being characterised by complex contractual arrangements, a dependency upon specialist geological advice and a need for specific and unique accounting standards for the sector” (McChlery and Hussainey, 2015)
Potential contributions • A thesis should provide at least one of the following incremental contributions: - To knowledge: This could be the first thesis to examine …….. - To theory: The thesis introduces a new theory to the field or it tests if ….. theory is applicable to …………context. - To methodology: The thesis aims to introduce a new measure for …. • To Practice: The thesis aims to introduce a practical solution to problem in practice.
Contributions - Examples “Our paper provides three contributions to the literature in terms of the determinants and the value relevance of forward-looking statements”. (Wang and Hussainey, 2013). “This paper makes a major contribution to the literature on risk disclosure”. (Elshandidy et al, 2013). “Our paper makes several contributions”. (Loughran and McDonald, 2014). “This paper makes several contributions to research on risk reporting. We contribute to disclosure studies by not only presenting an overview discussion on the determinants of risk disclosure, but also by using a meta-analysis of the reported findings on these determinants. Our paper is the first study that …..” (Khlif and Hussainey, forthcoming)
Contributions - Examples • “Thus the paper makes an important and novel contribution to the literature on corporate financial communication. So far as we are aware, it is the only paper to examine the joint role of narrative disclosure and dividend propensity on prices leading earnings. Moreover, it is the first paper to show that the predictive value of dividend propensity and narrative disclosure is sensitive to the growth characteristics of the firmâ€?. (Hussainey and Walker, 2009)
Summary of the Key Findings
Our results show .............. Our analysis shows that …… We provide evidence that ….. We find ……. THIS SECTION CAN BE MERGED WITH THE CONTRIBITONS. We offer a number of contributions. We provide the first empirical evidence that …..
35
The structure of the thesis (or the paper)
Chapter/section 2 discusses …………….Chapter/section 3 reviews the academic literature concerning …….Chapter/section 4 describes the methodology that is adopted in the present study …………………..Chapter/section 5 extends the work of Chapter 4 by using the disclosure topics ………………………Chapter/section 6 uses the crosssectional regression analysis to examine ……………………..Chapter/section 7 examines the association between ……………………Chapter/section 8 summarises the main findings, the implication of the results, the limitations of the study and the suggestions for future research. 36
Literature Review
You should demonstrate that you are aware of existing debates and issues raised in relevant bodies of literature. References to key articles and texts should be made to show that you appreciate their relevance to your research area.
Literature review An academic literature review is defined as ”The selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfil certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in relation to the research being proposed” (Hart, 2001, p. 13).
Hart, C. (2001). Doing a literature search. London: Sage.
Its purpose is to demonstrate that: [1] the researcher has critically surveyed relevant literature on his/her topic to convince an intended reader that the topic is worth addressing. [2] the researcher has understood the key issues around his/her topic. [3] the researcher identified gaps in prior research [4] the researcher aims to fill at least 2-3 of these gaps.
What is a critical review? Good critical literature reviews tell a story and help to advance our understanding of what is already know (JESSON and LACEY, 2006). A critical review of a journal article evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of an article's ideas and content. It provides critical analysis and interpretation that allow readers to assess the thesis's value. It is NOT to provide a summary of everything written on a research topic.
Saunders et al. (2012)
Saunders et al. (2012)
What is a research gap?
• A research gap is defined as a topic or area for which missing or insufficient information limits the ability to reach a conclusion for a question. • Types of Research Gaps*: • Evidence Gap: if research findings contradict. • Knowledge Gap: There are two settings where a knowledge gap might occur. - First, knowledge may not exist in the actual field. - Second, it might be the case that results of a study differs from what was expected. * Miles, D. (2017), A Taxonomy of Research Gaps: Identifying and Defining the Seven Research Gaps
• Practical-Knowledge Gap: A practical–knowledge (actionknowledge) conflict arises when the actual behaviour in practice is different from the expected behaviour. In this case, research could seek to determine the scope of the conflict and to uncover the reasons for its existence. • Methodological Gap: This gap addresses the conflicts with the research methods in the prior studies and offers a new line of research that is different from those research methods. • Empirical Gap: It often addresses conflicts that no study to date has directly attempted to evaluate a subject or topic from an empirical approach. • Theoretical Gap: Gaps in theory with the prior research or theoretical conflict. • Population Gap: This relates to the population that is not adequately represented or under-researched in the evidence base or prior research.
Key Research Questions Research hypotheses • You need to show a clear link between the research questions and/or the research hypotheses and the stated research aim/objectives. • In Qualitative Research, research questions should be shaped by the gaps identified in extant literature. • In Quantitative Research, the hypotheses should base on relevant theories (sometimes base on relevant empirical results of previous studies or rather reliable arguments).
Research methodology This is the most important section of a research proposal. It provides evidence on your ability to achieve your research aim/objectives. You need to discuss: - Your method (e.g. qualitative or quantitative). - Sample selection criteria. - The period of the analysis. - The model (if any). - Variables definitions and measurement - Data collection. - Source of data
Quantitative research – – »
Discuss your data: sample selection; variables; source of data Discuss your measures: how developed (existing or new instruments) pilot study » validity & reliability tests - Report and discuss modeling techniques used and assumptions (OLS, FE, RM). - Discuss the expected association between the dependent and independent variables. - Descriptive analysis for the sample - Correlation, VIF…check for multicolliearity - Regression analysis - Robustness analysis
Qualitative research – Single or multiple case study (why the case is relevant to the study) – How long have you been researching in the case organization – How many people contacted, how long, and who are they (their characteristics) – Response rate – Validity and reliability tests
Findings - Quantitate research - Link the findings with the research hypotheses (accept or reject) - Evidence from the tables provided - Qualitative research - Identify the main themes - Link findings with respondent’s own demographic characteristics, so that any emergent patterns might be further explored - Link findings with research questions - Evidence from quotations from collected data (e.g. interview) to support your argument
Discussion • Summarise the key findings • Focus on the novel findings and insights vis-à-vis the existing literature and theories. You need to properly discuss your findings rather than descripting them. You need to tell a story to the reader of your paper. • Discuss both significant and insignificant results • Discuss the implications of the findings
Conclusion • The conclusion is not a summary. This is the place to share with readers the conclusions you have reached because of your research. • The Purpose of a Conclusion • 1. tie together, integrate and synthesize the various issues raised in the discussion sections, whilst reflecting the introductory thesis statement (s) or objectives • 2. provide answers to the thesis research question (s) • 3. identify the theoretical and policy implications of the study with respect to the overall study area • 4. highlights the study limitations • 5. provide directions and areas for future research Dr. Joseph Assan (Liverpool University) Writing the Conclusion Chapter: the Good, the Bad and the Missing
Good versus bad conclusion • GOOD 1. be a logical ending synthesizing what has been previously discussed and never contain any new information or material 2. It must pull together all of the parts of your argument and refer the reader back to the focus you have outlined in your introduction and to the central topic and thereby create a sense of unity. 3. be very systematic, brief and never contain any new information. * Dr. Joseph Assan (Liverpool University) Writing the Conclusion Chapter: the Good, the Bad and the Missing
• Bad
• just ‘sum up’ • end with a long quotation • focus merely on a minor point in your argument • introduce new material
References • The references is put into alphabetical order according to the surnames of the authors you are citing • Cite articles published in top ranked journals. • Be consistent in writing references: Example: • Ibrahim, A. and Hussainey, K. (2019). Developing the narrative risk disclosure measurement. International Review of Financial Analysis, 64: 126-144. • Cite only relevant articles • Verify articles are cited in your paper correctly
Poor English Language • Academic writing course • Academic Phrasebank book • Editing service • Proofreading services
Academic Phrasebank • “The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It aims to provide you with examples of some of the phraseological ‘nuts and bolts’ of writing organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation (see the top menu ). Other phrases are listed under the more general communicative functions of academic writing (see the menu on the left). The resource should be particularly useful for writers who need to report their research work. The phrases, and the headings under which they are listed, can be used simply to assist you in thinking about the content and organisation of your own writing, or the phrases can be incorporated into your writing where this is appropriate. In most cases, a certain amount of creativity and adaptation will be necessary when a phrase is used. The items in the Academic Phrasebank are mostly content neutral and generic in nature; in using them, therefore, you are not stealing other people’s ideas and this does not constitute plagiarism. For some of the entries, specific content words have been included for illustrative purposes, and these should be substituted when the phrases are used. The resource was designed primarily for academic and scientific writers who are non-native speakers of English. However, native speaker writers may still find much of the material helpful. In fact, recent data suggest that the majority of users are native speakers of English. More about Academic Phrasebank. • This site was created by John Morley.” • http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/
Learn English with Emma • https:// www.youtube.com/user/EnglishTeacherEmma/videos
Plagiarism • Plagiarism “is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition“. • Plagiarism Detection Program (i.e. Turnitin).
• Source: https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plag iarism?wssl=1
Khaled Hussainey Professor of Accounting and Financial Management Portsmouth Business School Portsmouth University Email: khaled.hussainey@port.ac.uk