Glasgow and the Weather

Glasgow and the Weather Taina Lund-Ricard 201670269

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Acknowledgements I would like to express my appreciation to Derek Hill for his valuable and constructive suggestions during the development of this research work. His willingness to give his time so generously has been very much appreciated.

I also wish to thank my parents and friends for their advice and emotional support throughout the duration of this summer.

Word Count for the main body of text: 14 952 Turnitin Score: 7%

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Abstract The essay explores the importance of considering climactic factors in the design of

sectional analysis of six study points.

The essay ends with a list of things to consider

outdoor urban spaces. Although there is plenty of

when transforming the urban realm to ensure the

existing research on tempering climactic conditions

extension of pleasant climactic conditions. All have

in hot and cold urban settings, there is little on

the aim of attracting a wide range of people outside

temperate but rainy places such as Scotland. Much

for longer periods of time. It is hoped this study will

has been written on dealing with the consequences

inform architects, urban designers, members of the

of this weather (such as flooding) but very little on

council and any other profession that impacts the

controlling the experience of elements within an

formation of outdoor urban spaces to simplify the

urban setting.

creation of pleasant places in rainy cities such as

The architectural profession’s approach to interacting with the climate has considerably evolved

Glasgow. This information can be applied to many other cities with similar climactic conditions.

over time. The essay explores the profession’s efforts to fully remove the impact of the weather and then its interest in the sensory benefits and consequences on physical and mental health. There is no universal climactic comfort and a large variety of factors impact well-being. These factors are explored through an analysis of Glasgow’s built environment.

Moving down in scales, from the city to the district to the street, the city’s successes and failures in creating pleasant micro-climactic conditions are analysed. They are reviewed through a wide range of factors, both physical and perceptual. These include a study of the overall urban form, of particularities in district form and use, and a study of pedestrian movement in times of rain and sunshine as well as a

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Contents Abstract................................................................................................................................................................................

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Contents...............................................................................................................................................................................

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Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................................

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1. Architecture and the Weather.............................................................................................

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1.1 Comfort Zone: Architecture As A Controlled State............................................................................................

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1.2 Comfort Zone: Architecture As A Sensory Experience......................................................................................

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2. Glasgow and the Weather.........................................................................................................

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2.1 Glasgow’s Climate.......................................................................................................................................................

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2.2 Evaluating Glasgow’s Comfort Zones.....................................................................................................................

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2.2.1 City...............................................................................................................................................................................

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2.2.2 District........................................................................................................................................................................

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2.2.3 Street...........................................................................................................................................................................

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3. Enjoying the Weather: Extending Comfort Zones................................

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3.1 Glasgow’s Comfort Zones: Evaluated......................................................................................................................

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3.2 Scale of the City...........................................................................................................................................................

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3.3 Scale of the District....................................................................................................................................................

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3.4 Scale of the Street.......................................................................................................................................................

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Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................................................

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Annexe..................................................................................................................................................................................

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Bibliography..........................................................................................................................................................................

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Figure List.............................................................................................................................................................................

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Climate

quantified: the average course or condition of the weather at a place usually over a period of years as exhibited by temperature, wind velocity, and precipitation

Micro-Climate

actual and perceived: local atmospheric zone where the climate differs from the surrounding area

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Introduction Glasgow is Britain’s rainiest city with an average yearly precipitation of 1124 mm and an average of

is overcast, the wind is blowing and the rain falling.

Comfort zones are defined as an area where

170 rainy days in the year. Although Glasgow’s rain

the weather is pleasant and requires not change.

levels have slowly decreased since 1914, the city

In a city where the weather is often unpleasant,

remains prone to regular rain, low levels of sunshine

what can be done to extend outdoor comfort

and strong winds. Climactic conditions tend to

zones throughout the year? Winter cities across

vary tremendously in a matter of hours and are a

the world are starting to produce design guides

prominent characteristic of the city.

to temper climactic conditions and attract people

The UK Met Office produced this year a report

outside. Their conditions are specific with below

indicating an increased risk of unprecedented winter

freezing temperatures and extended snow seasons.

downpours in the UK such as those that caused

Cities like Glasgow that are temperate with low

extensive flooding in 2014 (Thompson et al., 2017).

levels of sunshine and high levels of rainfall spread

Events such as these have lead to reactive measures

over the entire year should also produce design

being taken across the country. Much has been

guides specific to their own climactic conditions to

written on tackling the effects of flooding, however

ensure that future development helps shape a more

reflection on the less dramatic effects of poor

attractive outdoor environment for all.

weather remain minimal and preventive measures

This essay will start by exploring the evolving

aiming to enhance year long access to the outdoor

and sometimes contradicting design attitudes of

in the cities like Glasgow is needed.

architects to climactic conditions. Architecture is

In fact, a certain apathy towards climactic

often defined through its protection or opposition

conditions is often present in Glasgow with

to the weather. As the precise control of thermal

residents preferring to remain inside in fear of

conditions became possible, the concept of comfort

unexpected weather change. On rare sunny days

zones and universally shared human physiological

however, they flock outside, taking over every bit of

characteristics developed. With it came aspirations

available green space to catch some sun rays (Fig. 1).

of neutral environments removed of the effects of

The mental and physical health benefits of spending

the natural world. This anaesthetisation of the man-

time outdoors are plentiful, this even when the day

made environment creates a sensory deprivation

Fig.1 Kelvingrove Park filled with people enjoying the sunshine: sun bathing, playing games, drinking and barbecuing, during weather conditions not typical of Glasgow

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detrimental to human well being.

The paper will argue for architecture as a

simple applicable design lessons. The paper will end with a list of things to consider when transforming

sensory experience. Climate is a key component of

the urban realm to ensure the extension of pleasant

the natural world and its sensory richness should

conditions to a wider range of users in the city.

dialogue with the built environment. It is through variation that we experience the world. Physiology is only one component of our wellbeing in a space and is affected by age and health among other factors.

The ambiance of a place shaped by the activities it contains, its form and materiality as well as each user’s own cultural experience and psychological state all have a tremendous impact on the extension of comfort zones.

After understanding the complexity of well-being in an outdoor environment, we will move on to understand Glasgow’s own climactic conditions (see e.g., Fig2) and the impact of its built environment on experienced micro-climates. This will first be done through an overview of the city’s average monthly temperatures, rainfall, wind and sunshine.

Then, through a focused study of one of its longest streets, Glasgow’s comfort zones will be evaluated. This will be done going down in scales, starting at the City scale, then the district scale and finally the street scale. Each step will be analysing how the changing urban landscape influences perceived micro-climactic conditions to extract

Fig.2 Crowded bus stop with Glasgow residents huddling to be out of the rain.

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Architecture and the Weather

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Comfort Zone: Architecture As A Controlled State The animal world shows incredibly diverse

needed directly around bodies. We constantly cater

ways of regulating body temperatures and finding

to this micro-climate through the clothes we choose

protection from the elements. No animal however

to wear and the settings we chose to stay in (Fig.3).

has proven as inventive as the Human race in

Wherever we are and often without realising, we

developing a wealth of ways to control their

make decisions based on this need. We choose a

environment. Spread across every climate on this

shaded spot or a sunny bench, look for a breeze or

earth, we have found different ways to shelter

hide from one.

ourselves and create micro-climatic conditions we can thrive in.

The climate of places tends to be described as a certain condition uniformly distributed over

Although the climates change, the range of

a large area (Fig.4). This is due partly to the fact

micro-climates needed does not. Indeed, “our

that weather data is collected where undisturbed

physiology only functions well in a relatively small

conditions prevail but also because that data is

range of temperature and wind circumstances”

spread over large scale maps depicting equal mean

(Breuer, 2016). A comfortable micro-climate is

temperatures in a few smooth lines. At ground level

Fig.3 “Our skin is the most immediate means of protecting our body against wind and climactic conditions” (Krautheim, 2014). To keep ourselves in an enjoyable micro-climactic state we change clothing, use portable equipments and build shelters.

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Fig.4 Graphic interpretation of a weather map showing uniform rain conditions over large areas.

Map based on legitimate map of Scotland’s rainfall averages found on page 45.

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however, “multifold minute climates exist side by

From the moment a structure is built, the

side, varying sharply with the elevation of a few feet

surrounding micro-climate is transformed. Naturally

and within a distance of a mile� (Olgyay, 1969. p44).

the inside is sheltered from rain, wind and sun but at

This is clearly visible on a warm winter’s day when

least five other micro-climates are also created. The

south facing slopes see their snow melt away at a

north side might be shaded and cooler, the south

considerably faster rate than north facing slopes

side warmed by a sunny wall, the east might receive

(Fig.5). Often, the plant species that grow on either

the morning sun and be protected from the wind

side will vary considerably from one another. Every

and the west warmed in the afternoon but be swept

variation in landscape leads to a variation in in

by the dominant wind (Heschong, 2002). Humans

the local climate. These deviations have played an

usually react to these changes and tailor their

important role in architectural land utilisation and

behaviors to these new conditions (Fig.6).

organisation.

Fig.5 South facing hills have entirely different micro-climates from north facing hills.

The sunshine, temperature, ground, flora and fauna will all vary considerably.

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Fig.6 Relaxing in a hammock on a warm summer afternoon gently swaying in the breeze.

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Architecture versus Nature Banister Fletcher, an English architect and

Removing the Environmental Load Heatstroke and the freezing point are usually

architectural historian, wrote in the 20th Century

considered as the upper and lower temperature

that “Architecture must have had a simple origin

limits for man’s existence. As Man’s body

in the primitive efforts of mankind to provide

temperature averages 37°C, it is easy to assume that

protection against inclement weather, wild beasts

“seeking a comfortable temperature condition, [he]

and human enemies” and indeed architecture’s

picks by intuition an area where the temperature is

supposed opposition to weather, the ever

about halfway between what he can tolerate in cold

physiological and psychological threat of our every

without being grossly uncomfortable, and the point

day lives has often been used to define it (Hill,

which would require real effort on the part of his

2013).

circulatory and sweat secretion system in order to

The Olgyay brothers, architects and pioneers in bioclimatism went further and said that not only

permit him to adapt to heat” (Olgyay, 1969).

To remove the environmental load from the

should architecture protect from the weather but

shoulders of Man means both to control thermal

it should also “interpose itself between man and

conditions and to remove the physical effects of

his natural surroundings in order to remove the

the weather (the heating from the sun, wetness

environmental load from his shoulders” (Olgyay,

from the rain and movement from the wind) (Fig.7).

1969).

“There is an underlying assumption that the best

In Georg Simmel’s 1911 essay ‘The Ruin’,

thermal environments never need to be noticed

architecture is described as “the struggle between

and that once an objectively ‘comfortable’ thermal

man and nature” with a completed building as

environment has been provided, all of our thermal

“a temporary triumph of man over nature”

needs will have been met” (Heschong, 2002.

(Dillon, 2006). The true nature of a ruin is nature

p16).

having conquered back what is fundamentally her

Although Humans have always proven ingenious

own. Following this direction of thought, natural

in their control of thermal conditions, it wasn’t until

conditions are a burden to man and must be

the mass production of the Franklin stove invented

removed to make way for man-made neutrality.

in 1741 and then the invention of air conditioning by

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Fig.7 Architecture as a hermetic interior, protector from the stresses of the natural world.

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William Harris in 1902, that the idea of the perfect temperature really came under study.

Working with heating and ventilation engineers and physicians, le Corbusier expressed his ultimate attempt to set apart architecture from its natural environment through the idea of a “Mur neutralisant” (neutralising wall) and “Respiration exacte” (correct breathing) which he developed between 1926 and 1933 with for aim thermal consistency and control of indoor conditions. “This proposal sought to establish a new architecture detached from outdoor climate, one which standardized indoor climates” (Requena-Ruiz, 2017).

Already in 1923, le Corbusier’s manifesto “Vers une architecture” called for “a house that is this human limit, surrounding us, separating us from the natural antagonist phenomenon, giving us our human milieu, to us human beings” (Le Corbusier, 2014). This new aspiration for architecture rapidly circulated across Europe and North America. From then on, the ever developing and highly sophisticated environmental control systems have all shared the same aim: to produce standard comfort zone conditions.

The Comfort Zone To consider the full removal of the physical effects of weather is to consider architecture as a hermetic interior. However, a building’s exterior arguably impacts considerably more people than its interior and as such it is simplistic to limit a reflection on thermal control to its inside. A building’s exterior form can temper or emphasise the physical effects of weather but it cannot remove them entirely. At best it can offer a range of enjoyable micro-climates.

Tahbaz defines three thermal zones in outdoor spaces. First is the comfort zone where the weather is pleasant and requires not change. Second is the tolerable zone where “the weather is not pleasant but physiologically it is tolerable by [the] human body” (Tahbaz, 2010). Finally, the dangerous zone is reached when the body would go through heat or cold stress.

The comfort zone can be extended into the tolerable zone with changes in the micro-climate through means such as but not limited to providing shadow or shelter, introducing green surfaces or water (Fig. 8). Adaptations in the physiological condition can also extend the comfort zone with changes in “clothing, metabolic rate, drinking cold or

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Fig.8 Schematic bioclimactic index as a function of temperature in Celsius (vertical axis) and humidity levels (horizontal), based on the one in Olgyay’s book: Design with climate, a bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism.

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warm drinks, limiting the outdoor time exposure”

engineered solutions tend to be less resilient

(Tahbaz, 2010). This can be as simple as offering

than engaging with and learning from the natural

blankets to spread over users’s legs in a cafe’s

environment.

outdoor space.

Sensory Neutrality In an effort to create a single consistent

Diversity in our built environment has proven to be crucial for its resilience and for the wellbeing of its inhabitants. Jane Jacobs stated that “The more successfully a city mingles everyday

comfort zone, the 1960s and 70s brought numerous

diversity of uses and users in its everyday streets,

proposals for giant geodesic domes placed over

the more successfully, casually (and economically)

cities. These would reduce air pollution and regulate

its people (...) give back grace and delight to their

the weather, removing its physical effects (Fig. 9).

neighborhoods instead of vacuity” (Jacobs, 2016). If

Engineer Fuller’s 1960 proposal of a two mile

diversity is so crucial, one must wonder why such

dome that would span over Midtown Manhattan is

systematic effort has been put forward to remove

perhaps the most notable. Buildings would no longer

climactic diversity in our built environment.

need to be heated or cooled as the entire micro-

Architecture should not be considered only as

climate would become uniformly controlled by the

a shell protecting an interior but embrace its dual

dome.

role as shaper of both indoor and outdoor comfort

These large scale domes however have never truly come intro fruition. Existing geodesic structures are either a building themselves or overlay a single or gathering of buildings. They have been difficult to control and created unexpected micro-climactic conditions.

The idea of a whole neighbourhood or city under a hermetic dome continues to resonate through pop culture but is no longer considered a viable option. And neither should it be. Overly

zones. This role becomes even more crucial in cities with inclement weather such as Glasgow.

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Fig.9 A geodesic dome across the Glasgow sky controlling and monitoring the weather to create a continuous and unchanging comfort zone as might have happened if the technological utopias of the 1960-70s had been a success.

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Comfort Zone: Architecture As A Sensory Experience Hill argues against the definition of architecture as a fundamental protector from the elements.

According to him, it is “an experience as well as an object or space” (Hill, 2013). He goes on to say that the fundamental issue with Le Corbusier’s neutralising wall is the presumption that Architecture could be isolated from the immersive and complex phenomenon that we call “nature”.

That is not to say that Modernism as a whole has been guided by the rejection of the natural environment. Nikolaus Pevsner, a scholar in Architectural History opposed the idea of an international style, mechanical and inert and promoted a situated, emotive and reactive architecture (Hill, 2013).

There are many examples of architects rejecting the hermetically sealed unit for an experiential dialogue with natural forces. Alison and Peter Smithton’s wrote that “A building today is interesting only if it is more than itself: if it changes the space around it with connective possibilities” (Smithson, 2005). Their Upper Lawn Pavillion (1959-62) tested the idea that “some loss in environmental comfort is amply compensated by, and even necessary to, a more complete experience of nature” (Hill, 2013).

Architecture can enrich our perception of the outdoor world through its sensory emphasis.

Climate Through Senses We experience the world through our senses.

There are generally five accepted senses: taste, sight, smell, hearing and touch. The key climactic elements (sun, wind and rain) are experienced through every one of our senses.

A hot summer day is not just the sun warming our brow, it is the brightness of reflections, the sounds of chirping birds, the occasional wave of acrid smells, the taste of ice-cream.

Wind is feeling a breeze in our hair, seeing the flicker of a flag, hearing the rustling of leaves, smelling freshly baked bread from down the street, tasting the salty air along the beach.

Rain is a single drop landed on a cheek, the changing circular patterns observed in a puddle, the musical hammering against a tin roof, the smell of damp earth and its acidic after-taste.

This multi-sensory quality is what makes outdoor experience so valuable (Fig. 10).

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Fig.10 Basking in the warmth of the evening sun.

Enjoying time the winter cool in an outdoor cafe with a blanket spread over one’s legs.

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A Sixth Sense Our sense of warmth and coolness is usually included as an aspect of our sense of touch, perhaps because they are both located in our skin or because we notice the thermal quality of an object more accurately when we touch it. The thermal

conscience through their symbolism, sensuality and cultural roles. This richness should not be lost in favour of a thermally neutral world.

Survival To Societal A simple comparison can be made between our

sense however “is definitely a separate sense, for we

nutritional needs and our thermal needs. They are

have specialised nerve endings whose only function

both essential to our survival and both have been

is to tell us if some part of our body is getting

studied at length.You could hypothetically feed on

cooler or warmer� (Heschong, 2002) (Fig. 11).

pills and injections and sustain yourself. Or more

As with all our senses, there is something life

explicitly, you could feed on astronaut slop, vegetable

affirming about noticing variations. This cup of tea

soup from a tube or freeze dried then re-moistened

is warm, it is warming my hands and my mouth.

peas, and receive the appropriate nutritional

This bench is cool, it must not have been in the sun

elements to remain healthy and well fed.

for very long. There is simple pleasure in using our

However, aside from fulfilling our physiological

senses to receive little bits of information about

needs, food also plays a profound role in our cultural

our surroundings and using our thermal sense is no

life. A whole range of experiences are removed,

different. It is an integral cog in our experience of

ranging from the sensuality of taste, aroma, texture,

the world in all its layers.

temperature, colour to the specific customs

We flock to places offering thermal contrast and

associated with a dish. Whether they are every day

cultures across the globe have developed codified

customs like eating cereal out of your favourite

experiences of great significance around these

bowl or significant events such as sharing a birthday

contrasts: steam rooms, hot springs, a jump in the

cake, they find meaning beyond simple nutrition

frozen lake after the heat of the sauna. We also take

(Heschong, 2002. p17). The cultural role taken on

great joy in simple pleasures such as the warming

by the climate is both essential to the identity of a

of a bed or a cool drink on a hot summer’s day.

place and in shaping the identity of its users.

Thermal environments still resonate in our shared

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Fig.11 Touch, smell, taste, sight, hearing and thermal feeling: Humans experience the world through their senses.

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The Joy Of Variation Like many of our sense, it is variation that we notice. When I walk into a room, I will notice a temperature change. If the temperature difference isn’t dramatic, my body will adapt to the new conditions and the thermal stimulus will no longer be noticed. Our nervous system is built to notice change above steady states. Over time, our receptors get saturated. This explains why pinching one’s arm might momentarily relieve the pain in one’s foot, or how one must keep sniffing a flower to smell its scent.

This sixth sense is unique however in that “thermal information is never neutral; it always reflects what is directly happening to the body”.

When we notice something is cold, that something is already making us colder. This is not the case with other senses, “a red object […] won’t make me grow redder, nor will touching a bumpy object make me bumpy” (Heschong, 2002. p19).

This direct relationship between the climate and the body has a range of mental health benefits.

Gehl highlights that users lose out when the urban realm is developed as a one-sided protection from unpleasant climactic conditions. “It is fine to be protected from the worst climactic effects, but it is

also desirable to have the opportunity to experience good and bad weather, seasonal changes, and so forth, particularly when it is possible for a person to decide from himself when he wishes to do so” (Gehl, 2011).

Mindfulness is the state of regaining calm by remaining in the present. It is a “…mental state achieved by focusing one’s awareness on the present moment, while calmly acknowledging and accepting feelings, thoughts, and bodily sensations” (Oxford Dictionaries | English, 2017). This has a range of consequences, both for mental and physical well being. Being aware of changing seasons or of the changing hour of day help us remain grounded in the present moment (Fig. 12). Creating outdoor spaces that enhance pleasant climactic conditions and offer daily, monthly and yearly variations must become a priority.

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Fig.12 The changing hour of day and the changing seasons are two of the evolutionary cycles we navigate.

Staying aware of the changing position of the sun and seasonal variations help us stay grounded in the moment.

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Cold and Warmth Sensitivity Our skin contains a multitude of cold and warm sensitive nerve endings. They do not sense temperature but rather temperature change. They monitor how quickly our body’s temperature changes to adapt to thermal differences. A piece of wood and a piece of metal, both at room temperature, will not feel the same temperature. The metal absorbs the heat from our hand more quickly and will feel colder (Fig. 13).

These thermoreceptors are spread over “four discrete types of sensory organs - cold, warmth, and cold and hot pain receptors” (Arens, Zhang, 2006).

There are ten times more cold sensors than warm ones and these receptors are closer to the surface of the skin. “The preponderance of cold spots over warm spots, and the shallower depth of cold spots relative to the skin surface, suggest that humans are more sensitive to danger from cold than from heat” (Arens, Zhang, 2006).

This heightened sensitivity to cold is well illustrated by the differences in year long usage of similar urban squares located in hot countries and cold countries. In cities like Glasgow it is crucial to look for solutions that might extend comfort zones and welcome residents and visitors outdoors for

longer period of times.

Experiments that have tested the sensitivity of individuals to still-air temperature changes have found that although Humans are remarkably consistent, they all function following their own scale (Giovani, 1969. p50). Sensitivity to change is surprisingly subtle. Using a scale of 0 to 9, a person can consistently distinguish “not only between such levels as warm versus slightly warm but even such small differences as 4.2 (not entirely comfortable, but definitely not slightly warm) or 4.7 (less than slightly warm, but definitely not comfortable)” (Heschong, 2002. p16).

Although a shared sensitivity to thermal change is clear, the range of temperatures in which people maintain comfort or thermal neutrality for lightly clothed, sedentary individuals varies significantly with each regional overall climactic conditions. “According to one report, the British comfort zone lies between 58 and 70 degrees F, the comfort zone in the United States lies between 69 and 80; and in the tropics it is between 74 and 85” (Heschong, 2002. p16). If comfort levels are so variable, our built environment should cater to this diversity instead of focusing on a single standard.

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Fig.13 Thermal conductivity differences between materials lead to some feeling inherently warmer than others even when they are both at room temperature.

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Cold Lands and Warm Lands

and outdoor spaces are taking on an increased importance.

“There is now overwhelming evidence that people enjoy environmental stimulation and a static environment becomes intolerable” (Nikolopoulou,

The Role of Ambiance Geographical location is not the only factor

2011). McIntyre showed in the 1980s that in search

shaping outdoor comfort however, individual

for neutral temperatures, people in warm climates

response will vary tremendously depending on age,

preferred to be cool and people in cold climates

sex, health, acclimatisation among others. “Without

preferred to be warm (Nikolopoulou, 2011).

standardised light clothing and low activity levels,

In hot countries, between the AC cooled interior

one can assume that the range of thermal conditions

and the hottest spot in the sun, there tends to be

within a person can be comfortable is far greater”

a wide range of open air but shadowed spaces and

(Heschong, 2002. p16). Not only is the idea of

vegetation or water features used to either cool the

a shared perfect temperature erroneous but it

air or at least trick the mind. Chosen materials are

removes a great deal of sensory opportunities.

often enameled tiles, marble or white render in an

Besides the reaction of our physical senses,

effort to absorb as little heat as possible and offer

humans are also influenced by the ‘ambiance’ of a

the illusion of greater coolness (Fig. 14).

place. The lighting, materials, colours and openness of

In temperate or cold cities however, great effort

a place all play an important role in our experience

has been taken to create cosy interiors filled with

of said place. Some might have physical effects on the

carpets, rugs, covers, pillows, drapes almost always

micro-climate but most have none whatsoever.

facing a chimney, the hearth and symbolic heart of

This experiential change is highly influenced

the home. Even in our extremely controlled indoor

by cultural backgrounds. A controlled micro-

heating systems, we mirror the ancestral habits of

climate is insufficient, for true well-being we

past lives articulated around fire places.

must also consider the perceived micro-climate.

With the acceleration of globalisation and mixing

Indeed, Humans “seek out places beneficial to our

of populations as well as the increased branding

physiological and psychological well-being” (Breuer,

efforts of cities, focus is shifting and intermediate

2016. p42).

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Fig.14 In Malaysia, white tiles are readily used for the perceived cooling they create. In Scotland, that same cooling effect is detrimental. In fact, “materials with a smooth surface such as enamel or tiles, are usually considered cold [‌], particularly in countries with a temperate or cool climateâ€? (Breuer, 2016. p51). In reality, although the tiles have an impact on the perceived microclimate, their actual impact on the quantifiable microclimate is negligible.

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Hope For Glasgow If Man’s comfort is influenced by so many personal and cultural factors, outside of the physical thermal realities of a place, the idea of a shared and universally perfect temperature or micro-climate is clearly naive.

To appreciate the importance of environmental stimulation we only need to look at some of the activities humans consciously seek. Turkish baths and Saunas push the physiology of the human body to its limit, proving fatal if the duration to such exposure is prolonged, and yet humans return to them again and again.

“Positive environmental stimulation, whether it is through exposure to the sunshine, breeze or fresh air, is an important parameter for thermal comfort.

Thermal satisfaction may only be achieved through sensation and not thermal neutrality” (Nikolopoulou, 2011).

This extended understanding of the comfort zone is good news for cities like Glasgow that have their fair share of people blaming the weather on the lack of year long vitality in outdoor urban spaces (Fig. 39). And yet, Copenhagen has seen a radical transformation of its outdoor culture with behaviour un-thought of twenty years ago.

Glasgow natives have already been physiologically and psychologically trained to deal with rain and clouds and to celebrate in the presence of sunshine. It is not unrealistic to assume that with greater care taken in the shaping of outdoor urban places, Glasgow residents could also undergo a similar transformation in attitude than those in Copenhangen.

Reflecting on the micro-climactic environments shaped by a neighbourhood, streets and buildings should be an integral part of design in every city. This reflection must happen both in the physical shaping of micro-climactic conditions and the perceptual extension of comfort zones.

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Fig.15 1950s Glasgow on a dreich day.

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Glasgow and the Weather

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Glasgow’s Climate Despite being of a similar northerly latitude to

Temperatures

Moscow, Glasgow’s climate is classified as oceanic.

Due to its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean and

The average annual temperature is 8.5 °C in

westerly position, Glasgow is one of Scotland’s

Glasgow. Winters are cool and overcast, with a

milder areas. Thanks to the warming influence of the

January mean of 5.0 °C, though lows sometimes

Gulf Stream, temperatures are usually higher than

fall below freezing. In the last 17 years, Glasgow

most places of equal latitude away from the UK. This,

has experienced very few cold, snowy and harsh

however, results in more homogenous seasons than

winters where temperatures have fallen below

is found in much of Western Europe (En.wikipedia.

freezing. Snowfall is infrequent and rarely stays. The

org, 2017).

Average monthly temperature °C Fig.16 Average monthly temperature in Glasgow showing highs of 15 °C in July and August and lows of 3 °C in January

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1 most extreme instances of low temperatures have

scarce. Overcast and humid conditions without rain

been −12 °C in the area. Spring stretches between

are frequent. The warmest month is usually July

March and May and often mild and quite pleasant

with average highs just below 20 °C. Autumns are

(Metoffice.gov.uk, 2017).

generally cool to mild with increasing precipitation.

From June through to August, the summer

During early autumn there can be some settled

weather can vary considerably from day to day and

periods of weather and it can feel pleasant with

even within a same day, changing from relatively

mild temperatures and some sunny days (Holiday-

cool and wet to quite warm and sunny. However

weather.com, 2017).

long dry spells of warm weather tend to be very

High °C

Low °C

Fig.17 Average high/low temperature in Glasgow over the year

43

Rainfall There is significant rainfall throughout the year in Glasgow. Even the driest month (April) still has a lot of rainfall (50mm) (Fig. 18). Glasgow has an average yearly precipitation of 1124 mm with an average of 170 rainy days in the year (Holidayweather.com, 2017) (Fig. 19). Rain is a crucial factor in one’s outdoor experience in this city and must be considered when designing outdoor places.

Average rainfall

Average number of rainy days

Fig.18 Average rainfall and average rainy days in Glasgow over the year, showing considerable rainfall and a large amount of rainy days.

2.

1

1500 mm 1000 mm 750 mm 625 mm Fig.19 Average yearly rain fall in Scotland with Glasgow indicated by a white cross

45

Wind The dominant wind direction in Glasgow is South Western extending into West South West and South South West with winds reaching speeds higher than 38 mph (Fig. 22). Broken umbrellas often line the streets in the winter months and more should be done in the design of the urban form to protect outside users from these forces (Fig. 20).

Sunshine Although Glasgow benefits from very long hours of sunlight in its summer months, the city receives little sunshine throughout the year with an average of only one hour of sunshine a day in the months of January and December. In its sunniest month (May),

Fig.20 The inverted umbrella dance common in the streets of Glasgow.

there is an average of 6 hours of sunshine a day (Holiday-weather.com, 2017) (Fig. 21). With fewer people exercising and more people suffering from seasonal affective disorder, this lack of sunshine has a range of health impacts.

Average daily hours of sunshine Fig.21 Average daily hours of sunshine per month in Glasgow showing low levels of sunshine year round.

2.

1

Fig.22 Average yearly wind direction in Glasgow showing strong winds and a dominance of SW and WSW wind directions.

47

Evaluating Glasgow’s Comfort Zones Glasgow’s comfort zones: the city’s range of available and comfortable microclimates are somewhat limited. Much of the year is grey and rainy and leads to people spending little time outside. To extend people’s time spent outside, Glasgow’s urban environment must react to and embrace its climactic context.

In an effort to understand which characteristics of the built environment should be improved, removed, or re-used, a street extending through important variations in the city’s urban form and use will be studied. This will be done going down in scales, using personal observations backed by published studies to understand Glasgow’s successes and failures in extending outdoor comfort in varying climactic conditions.

Fig.23 Taps-Aff (Scots Vernacular) Literally “tops off.” The removing of one’s shirt in the event of warm weather.

Anecdotale but recurrent experience by the author in Glasgow often clinging to her cardigan when, at the first sign of sunshine, locals celebrate topless.

2.

2 The Benefits Of The Outdoor Being outside is essential to our mental and physical health. Sunshine is crucial to one’s vitamin D requirements. The Scottish Government recommends 15 minutes of sun exposure a day, however during the months of October and March vitamin D supplements are required (Scottish Government, 2017). Daylight is also important and is equally effective as sunlight in regulating our body clock and helping us sleep at night.

Walking not only has a huge impact on physical well-being “regular walking has been shown to reduce the risk of chronic illnesses, such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, asthma, stroke and some cancers” but is also “an effective intervention for depression” (Robertson et al., 2012). Improving the outdoor environment encourages people to walk through and spend time in that environment, even in inclement weather. This should be encouraged.

Addressing The Author’s Bias As the single subjective observer of each

environment” and indeed “studies in psychology also confirmed the influence of long-term memory in guiding and affecting people’s expectations towards the weather in the urban environment” (Nikolopoulou, 2011).

The influence of experience and expectations leads people to develop the necessary mechanisms to cope with their local area’s weather extremes to not be seriously affected by them. Populations native to a country will express an overall satisfaction with their average climactic environment but will reach a level of discomfort at completely different levels to other populations (Fig 23).

Switzerland’s summers are usually cooler than Greece’s. Although micro-climatic conditions are more favourable than in Italy and Greece, native populations express an increased thermal discomfort from the heat. “Similarly, in Greece, where winters are warmer, there is increased thermal discomfort from the cold, despite mean clothing levels being higher than in northern climates” (Nikolopoulou, 2011).

Having grown-up in Lyon, France with a humid

location, the author’s own past experience will play

subtropical climate with some characteristics of

a role in the experienced comfort and discomfort.

the oceanic climate (Glasgow’s climate is defined

“Past exposure to different conditions is key to

as oceanic), the author’s past exposure creates an

establishing adaptation levels to the particular

added bias.

49

Kelvingrove Art Gallery

M8

District 1: West End District 2: Disjointed District 3: City Centre Argyle Street Study Points Fig.24 Argyle Street stretches through three areas of distinct character.

2.

2 Argyle Street Study

Moving east, the unity of the area has been lost.

The urban form is messier with large urban gaps

Argyle Street is one of the oldest and longest

and ends in a residential cul-de-sac. East of the

streets of Glasgow. Its continuity has been damaged

motorway lays some of the business district with

over time, particularly with the demolitions caused

tall multi-story office buildings and very few pockets

by the introduction of the inner ring road motorway

of housing. Finally, after crossing Central Station, we

in the 1960s. These structural changes, as well as

reach Argyle’s eastern end which stretches through

the general evolution of the city have led to its

the city centre’s retail district, itself also almost

fragmentation into three areas of distinct form and

completely devoid of housing.

character (Fig. 24).

Moving through scales, a study of the elements

To the west, we find typical four story Glasgow

responsible for restricting or extending the comfort

tenements with local shops and businesses on

zone in a city like Glasgow will be highlighted.

the ground floor and housing on the upper floors.

Starting with the city’s overall urban form shaping Argyle Street, moving onto the three identified districs and finally onto six study points within these districts which have been identified for their variations in form and use.

Central Station

51

Motorway Streets Argyle Street Study Points Fig.25 Argyle Street changes direction and moves through a changing urban form.

2.

21 City Block Orientation The orientation of urban blocks has a number of consequences on the experienced microclimates at ground level. “Sunshine, especially on cold winter days, makes people feel warmer. In fact, capturing direct sunshine and blocking wind can make an outdoor public space feel 10°C warmer” (Municipality of Edmonton, 2016). Improving year long access to sunshine (on those days the sun is shining) is crucial to extend Glasgow’s comfort zones.

In an ideal world, the urban form should provide a street pattern and orientation that frames and shelters public spaces, with blocks and parcels oriented to optimize solar access as well as impede prevailing winds. Controlling wind speeds is also crucial element in tempering the effects of rain.

Argyle Street runs North West through the West End with streets meeting both head on and at an oblique. The grid form is less structured than to the East where Argyle Street runs nearly NW-East and streets meet it at a right angle (Fig. 25).

53

For Ideal Sunshine In Sun Rhythm Form, Ralph Knowles explains

For Ideal Wind Protection Block orientation is important to enhance

that “streets that run east-west in a built-up area

access to winter sunshine. Unfortunately however,

will tend to be shadowed during all of a winter

Glasgow’s dominant wind blows south-west, the

day. The streets thus remain dark and cold”. As

same direction as the ideal orientation for sunshine.

illustrated opposite, the north-south streets receive

Block formation and the orientation of new builds

sunshine only around mid-day. “However, streets

should reflect on both natural forces at once

that are laid out on an angle will receive sun either

to create sunny but sheltered outdoor spaces

in the morning or in the afternoon during winter; all

(Fig. 26). Further protection from winds can be

streets, therefore, get some sunshine” (Municipality

obtained through landscaping nearby terrain and the

of Edmonton, 2016) (Fig. 27).

introduction of appropriate vegetation.

Fig.26 Glasgow’s dominent wind runs south-west, the same direction as the ideal orientation for sunshine. For ideal sun exposure and wind protection, the ideal block orientation should be mid way between south-west/north east and west/east.

2.

21 North

Summer

Winter

Winter

AM

Summer

AM

South

Fig.27 Diagram re-interpreted from the Winter Design Guidelines of the municipality of Edmonton Canada. “Shadows cast during Winter and Summer Solstice in Edmonton, with three-storey (10m) buildings and a building-to-building distance of 15m�

55

Streets Argyle Street Fig.28 Schematic street map of intersections along Argyle Street Lengths of secondary streets equate to the distance before there is a bend in the street or the street ends. Street orientations change and are rarely running south-west, protecting from dominant winds..

2.

21 Street Orientation: Wind and Sunshine The dotted lines indicate the dominant wind direction in the city and it’s apparent that the street pattern rarely runs in the same direction (Fig. 28). Argyle street is at an angle, protected from the dominant winds and able to receive sunlight throughout most of the day with the Eastern end from the most shading in the winter months.

This schematic map indicates the streets

truncated at the point at which they change direction. Straight and long continuous street corridors can lead to increases in wind speed and discomfort. Within the studied area (site extended 400 m on either side of the street), only nine streets stretch out-with the boundary.

The micro-climate along Argyle Street and in the area in general mostly benefits from the orientation of the street network.

that connect with Argyle Street. The streets are

57

Covered Walkways Argyle Street Fig.29 In red are highlighted covered walkways in the studied area. Considered covered walkways are arcades, pedestrian corridors through train stations and overhangs of more than 2 m wide.

They do not include temporary cover such as awnings or tents.

2.

21 Covered Walkways Covered walkways are a great way to relieve pedestrians from the effects of rain. These are very common in most cities suffering from excess sunshine as they create softened shadowed edges where climate can be tempered and comfort zones extended. They are also widely used in cities facing prolonged rainy seasons (Fig. 30 and 31). It is odd

Fig.30 (Left) Covered walkways are very common in Singapore where the threat of rain is constant and particularly so during the rainy season with a yearly average of 224 rainy days and 4000mm of rainwater.

that Glasgow has so little of them (Fig. 29). Perhaps the concern was in blocking sunlight from reaching far within buildings. There are plenty of see-through and wear resistant materials that could now be used to shelter without shadow.

Fig.31 (Right) The street network in the centre of Bologna Italy offers almost continuously covered pavements protecting from the sun and the rain. The city has an average of 630 mm of rain per year with 112 rainy days compared to Glasgow: 1124 mm with an average of 170 rainy days in the year.

59

Building Height and Built Density When extruding the study area’s buildings we are able to observe a clear variation across Glasgow’s urban form with considerable change in building height and density (Fig. 32).

Starting in the west of the studied area, the grid is softened with a unified urban form. Almost all buildings are of a similar height (4 stories).

Moving East, differences in height become dramatic, this is coupled with a loss of the rigid urban grid (Fig. 33). The motorway has created a void in the city and much of the land nearby is still devoid of development. In the East, the urban landscape is very dense with smaller but regular changes in the height of buildings and a decreased ratio in empty land to built land. These variations across the city will have a significant impact on the micro-climactic conditions at street level (Fig. 34).

West

Fig.32“A rough skyline causes turbulences and enhances air circulation between buildings” (Krautheim, 2014).

2.

21

Fig.33 The study area’s built land with the buildings that shape Argyle Street in dark. Density clearly changes within the area.

East

Fig.34 Section showing building height and mass for the entire studied area (topography not considered).

61

District Reasons To Visit, Reasons To Stay Urban environments tend to offer a great

District 1: West End Glasgow’ west end is known as a bohemian

variety of environmental choices and it can usually

district filled with cafes, bars, tea rooms, clubs,

be assumed that people found outside are there

restaurants, quirky shops, Kelvingrove Park and the

by their own choice. These three districts offer

University of Glasgow.

variations in character both in form and in use.

These two aspects are often deeply interlinked.

When one’s presence in a specific place is

Argyle Street acts as a high street for Finnieston, an area of the West End that has undergone a tremendous amount of change over recent years

chosen, one can usually easily end one’s exposure

and was ranked first in The Times 2016 list “20

to the elements when desired by moving to

Hippest Places to Live in Britain” (Whateley, 2016).

somewhere else. However, when this inherent

Along this stretch of Argyle Street can be

control is lost “people who are found outdoors

found a wide array of shops and services. These are

because they have to work, or waiting for a third

located on the ground floor of tenemental housing

party to arrive, have a higher probability of being

which offer the critical population mass necessary

dissatisfied with their environment” (Nikolopoulou,

to support these businesses. For this reason, shops

2011).

tend to be local and supported by people from their

This spread identifies the number of accessible

immediate vicinity. There is also: Kelvingrove Art

uses likely to attract a wide range of people to these

Gallery and smaller scale cultural centres; sports

three districts. If the number of possible uses is large

facilities such as the Glasgow Club Kelvin Hall;

then it is likely that a great number of people are

religious buildings such as Sandyford Hendeson

there by choice (Fig. 35).

Memorial Church and Baitur Rahman Mosque.

2.

22 District 2-3: Disjointed To the west of the motorway we find an

District 4: City Centre This stretch of Argyle Street is one of the main

orphaned stretch of Argyle Street: disconnected

shopping streets in the city centre. It is a main

and difficult to access whether by car, foot or cycle.

thoroughfare from Central Station to Merchant City.

On one end, there is a cul-de-sac and the end

A wide variety of people mix in the area, people

reaches to multi-story social housing, currently being

working, people travelling and people shopping.

demolished or refurbished. There are few shops or

The large amount of shoppers attract buskers

services aside from a nearby school and church and

and street artists as well as a greater number of

some industrial specialised units. This area is wedged

beggars.

between two large motorways and is unlikely to attract much footfall.

To the east of the motorway and stretching

Argyle’s eastern end is pedestrianised and offers a range of shops, mostly retail and low-cost shops.

The lack of housing in the area means that once

to Central Station, lays the city’s business centre.

these shops close, the street remains quite empty,

Tall office blocks and little street definition is

particularly along the pedestrianised bit.

predominant. Remaining tenements are usually derelict and some relatively new housing blocks do not offer the critical mass necessary for anything else but lunch time sandwich shops and a tesco express. Due to the lack of substantial housing, the area is remarkably empty in the evenings and weekends.

Fig.35 Photos of shop fronts found in each district.

The West End and the City Centre both have a large number of shops but the West End shows a greater diversity with city centre shops mostly being retail. There are a lot less shops and services within the Fragmented district.

63

Building Height and Built Density Comparing the buildings facing the northern edge of Argyle Street with those facing the southern edge of the street further highlights the characteristics of each district.

In the West End we have a very unified urban form which helps protect from excess wind and allows sunlight to reach the ground all year round. “Wind tends to bypass low, densely built areas, but it is caught, directed downwards, and intensified by tall freestanding buildings� (Gehl, 2011) (Fig. 36).

In the fragmented district we find considerable variations in buildings heights throughout the district, along the street and in buildings facing onto each other. Gaps between buildings are much more prominent (Fig. 37).

West End

Reaching the city centre, building mass becomes more homogeneous although noticeably more dense than the West End both in land use and building height.

These variations in urban form leads to changes in the experienced micro-climates at street level.

This will be detailed in the following pages.

2.

22

West End

Disjointed

City Centre

Fig.36 Location map of Argyle Street running through three districts.

Buildings lining the north edge of the Street in yellow and those lining the south in blue.

Disjointed

City Centre

Fig.37 Section showing building height and mass of the northern edge of the street (yellow buildings only); section of the southern edge (blue buildings only) (Topography not considered)

65

Micro-climactic Conditions On a sunny day and then on a rainy day, an observational study was conducted along Argyle Street to compare the changing micro-climates of the three districts. Meteorological data was compared to the author’s experienced microclimates to help shape an initial opinion of each district.Variables such as clothing were controlled (Fig. 38).

Sunny Day Sunny and mild Tuesday 18th of July 2017: 12-13h Temperature: 25/23°C Humidity: 55% Wind Direction: East Wind Speed: 11.807 mph

On a sunny day: particular attention was placed on access to sunshine and protection from the wind. This was done through the observation of the impact of surrounding buildings and the availability of places and furniture that allowed the enjoyment of them. On a rainy day: particular attention was placed on the built form and whether it created opportunities for respite and general protection from rain and wind.

Keeping an eye on the weather forecast and reacting quickly when conditions were appropriate allowed the selection of days with similarities which further emphasised their differences. Similarities between the two selected days were temperature ranges (25/22°C), high humidity (55% and 71%) and wind speeds between 8-12 mph. Differences were sun vs rain as well as wind direction (East versus West).

Rainy Day Rain showers and fog Tuesday 24th of July 2017: 12-13h Temperature: 26/22°C Humidity: 71% Wind Direction: West Wind Speed: 8.971 mph

2.

22

(+

)

Fig.38 The clothes I wore during my micro-climactic investigations.

The same set was worn during both days but a rain jacket was added on the rainy day.

67

District 1: The West End

variations in building height. This is meant to reduce wind speeds at ground level.

Gehl says that “In low, moderately built-up

On the rainy day, puddles accumulated along the

areas, the annual number of acceptable hours for

edge of the pavements, bringing back memories of

outdoor stay can easily be twice as high as that for

cars driving through and splashing me; the pavements

the surrounding open land” (Gehl, 2011), this is

too narrow to avoid said splashing or to allow

because “pedestrian areas are generally sheltered;

umbrellas to squeeze past each other comfortably.

usually considerably better than if there were no

Hugging the building edge, very little offered

buildings at all” (WCDP, n.d.). Low buildings cast

cover; the occasional tree or covered lane but no

smaller shadows and moderately built up areas drive

prominent public overhangs, only the occasional

winds over the top of the buildings, which in turn

awning, covering smoking consumers.

allows the retention of a considerable amount of

The long rows of colourful shops however gave

heat produced by the city (Fig 39 and 40). District

promise of solace, large windows advertising friendly

one’s form is moderately built-up with four story

and dry interiors. It was comforting to know I could

tenemental buildings so a pleasant micro-climate is

get out of the elements if needed. The wind wasn’t

to be expected.

excessive. The built edge does not generally have

On the sunny day, this area was very pleasant.

great variations aside from the tenements traditional

Most of the street was sunlit, with rare overhangs

cornices and ledges. Bay windows, most typical on

offering occasional shade. However, aside from by

residential streets, are here missing.Variations in

Kelvingrove Art Gallery, there is no public furniture

facades such as bay windows or balconies also help

to enjoy the sunshine with. Pubs and cafes however

slow down the wind.

do spill out onto the pavement and Kelvingrove Park is not far.

The streets facing onto Argyle Street do not run west/east and so helped reduce the effects of the wind (the wind moved East that day). The district built mass is mostly uniform with only small

2.

22

Fig.39 “A highly integrated street pattern encourages high levels of air movement. Winds are ‘smoothed’ over low, densely built areas” (Urban design compendium, 2007).

Fig.40 The taller the building, the longer the cast shadow and the less sunlight available at ground level. Keeping tall buildings on the northern edge of the street is good practice.

69

District 2: Disjointed This district’s only identifying characteristic is the lack of coherence throughout. Plans for the flying motorway in the area led to considerable demolitions of existing urban form. New buildings have slowly been added over the years to fill in the gaps on either side.

On the western edge of the motorway, new housing was built around a cul-de-sac. The area is isolated and difficult to get to, trapped by the motorway. Thirteen story modernist blocks

Fig.41 Staggered buildings in large open spaces create unpleasant wind conditions at street level.

are being occasionally demolished, occasionally refurbished. These generally fail to relate or frame the surrounding environment. New housing blocks are generally six stories high, of good quality and with a pleasant interaction with the street. Trees and greenery are prominent. This is very much a residential area with few shops and services.

On the eastern edge of the motorway, the financial district of the city has grown over time.

The buildings are generally very tall and often stand alone within an urban block. Due to the general lack of housing, people present tend to be office workers.

The area becomes thoroughly empty outside of working hours. Observing the area during the lunch hour is observing it at its busiest.

On the sunny day, the area was considerably

Fig.42 Areas of buildings of dramatic height changes lead to unpleasant wind forces. Homogeneous heights create protected spaces with areas of no more than five stories usually best sheltered.

2.

22 more windy than the west end. There were a small amount of cafes offering outdoor seating but those were all located on the eastern end, closest to the centre where the urban form is denser. “The character of urban air flow is mainly determined by the ratio of buildings to open space� (Rowe and Koetter, 1978). Indeed, staggered buildings lead to unexpected changes of wind direction in urban streets which leads to high levels of discomfort (WCDP, n.d.) (Fig. 41). On both sides of the M8 are found large pockets of empty land and considerable variations in building heights.

Fig.43 Podium bases to towers, if properly designed, can be used effectively in areas where wind problems are anticipated.

Chaotic skylines and tall buildings lead to a down-draught effect of wind hitting and being forced around the sides, up and down said buildings (Fig 42).

This leads to increased wind turbulences as well as chillier micro-climates at ground level which in cities like Glasgow is generally un-welcomed (Parkinson, 2015) (Fig. 43). This is most pronounced when buildings stand face-on to prevailing winds (southwest in Glasgow) (Fig. 44).

On a rainy day, the area feels even more desolate than usually, even at mid-day when most of the office workers should be out and about getting their lunch.

The wind unexpectedly attacks me from different directions as I move through the area and I feel considerably less dry. Buildings with completely

Fig.44 Tower blocks lead to down-draught effects and increased wind speeds at street level (Parkinson, 2015).

square corners also lead to an acceleration of wind around the width of the building.

71

District 3: City Centre The Eastern end of Argyle Street is the densest in terms of built area, with very little vacant land.

Most buildings are large retail units and offices and the lack of housing means many of these require very little internal natural lighting. Building height varies between 2 and 7 storeys and ground floor uses are generally active although the windows don’t always allow views within and tend to contain staged advertising.The street edges are generally hard with uses such as retail not being appropriate for colonising the pavement. Once the pedestrian stretch is reached however, there is room for street furniture and temporary market stalls. A small grocer’s truck is often present and seasonal events are also common.

On the sunny day, a lot of the street was illuminated although the southern edge cast greater shadows than in the west end district. The large pavements were very busy and lots of secondary activities were happening. Buskers were regularly placed with musicians, bubble blowers and dancers sharing the space and attracting crowds. Seating was found where more space was available such as on St Enoch Square, just off Argyle Street and on the pedestrianised stretch.

Although the street corridor is well defined

Fig.45 Overhangs and covered walkways protect from down-draughts and rain. These should retain an interaction with the outside and allow movement to and fro.

2.

22 (generally a standard height and few gaps in the fabric), the relative narrowness of the street (width is less than three times the building’s height) can lead to adverse conditions being channelled along the entire corridor (WCDP, n.d.).

This was experienced on the rainy day where rain and wind movements were less chaotic than in the previous district but more sustained. “These effects can be reduced by the introduction of sharp changes in direction� (WCDP, n.d.). Argyle street being particularly straight in this area and the grid being most regular further emphasises this effect.

However, as said previously, variations in building faces helps reduce wind speeds.

Thankfully, overhangs are much more present in this district with many opportunities for cover. These vary in scales, some are only helpful for a stationary break but others line the streets and allow a considerable distance to be covered protected without being removed from harsher elements (Fig. 45).

During both the sunny and rainy day, this district offered the most variations in outdoor opportunity.

This was the only place that offered public seating.

There was room in the sun and in the shade, as well as cover from the rain and the wind. The urban form is generally protective.

73

C:1407

A:1088

Argyle Street Study Points Fig.46 The six study points along Argyle Street identified by the related street number.

2.

23 Street Six Study Points Six points along Argyle street have been

A. High Street At numbers 116, 250 and 1088, we find shop

selected for detailed study to break down how the

lined street edges, representative of each district.

transforming scales and components of the street

These have been selected to allow a comparison of

help shape the experienced micro-climate (Fig. 46).

their successes and failures.

These six areas will first be studied in section looking at proportions and vertical and horizontal differentiations, then through the movement of users and number of lingerers and finally through dominant materiality and colours.

B. Tunnel Both 500 and 190 are covered spaces near train stations, the first residual, under the M8, the other under Central Station in a tunnel lined with small shops.

C. Landmark At number 1407 we find Kelvingrove Art Gallery, an important cultural institution, standing alone

B: 500

facing onto tenements.

B:190 A:116

A:250 75

A High Street

116 Argyle Street: City Centre

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed District

1407 Argyle Street: West End

2.

23 B Tunnel

190 Argyle Street: Hielanman's Umbrella

500 Argyle Street: Under the M8

C Landmark

1407 Argyle Street: Kelvingrove Art Gallery

Fig.47 Photos of each study point organised into three categories: A, the high street; B, tunnels and C, Landmark.

77

Sectional Study

Proportion & Enclosure

The experience of a space is a complex

In Urban Design Compendium 1, buildings and

combination of a variety of factors. Developing

public spaces are said to need to be scaled “to foster

a clear understanding of the physical and spatial

a sense of urbanism so that streets, squares and

characteristics of a place is an important starting

parks are defined by appropriately scaled buildings

point. Studying in section allows a structured

and/or trees fronting onto them” (Urban design

investigation of the environmental changes that

compendium 1, 2007). Successful height to width

occur along Argyle Street. Individual aspects will

ratios for streets are defined as being between 1:3-

be isolated to allow a step by step comparative

1:1.5 (Fig. 48).

understanding of each point of interest.

Although drawings cannot truly illustrate

This idea is also included in the Scottish Government’s urban design publications. “The

“the experiential and perceptual richness of

public realm is defined by height as well as width

three-dimensional spaces”, they “allow multiple

or, more accurately, the ratio of height to width.

interrelated layers of data to be understood

The actual ratio depends on the type of street or

simultaneously, revealing connections and patterns”

open space being designed for. This is a fundamental

(Mantho, 2015. p223).

urban design principle” (Scottish Government, 2010). A proportional study allows a preliminary understanding of the six points of interest and is detailed in the following pages.

This ‘fundamental principle of urban design’ is however presented without any real evidence as to why these ratios work. It is important to point out the great number of very successful streets around the world that do not comply with this ratio (Fig. 49). The pleasantness of a street is influenced by many more aspects than its height to width ratio.

Fig.48 (Opposite) Height-to-width ratios as detailed by The Scottish Government in their Designing Streets Publication.

Fig.49 (Above) The Shambles in York, England, voted as Britain’s most pictureque street.

A2.

23

Mews 1:1 ratio

1:3 ratio is generally effective

Spatial definition of street through use of planting

Large squares and very wide streets

Spatial definition by

Spatial definition by

building height

recess line

18 m

20 m

21 m

1088 Argyle Street: West End

Fig.50 Section through 1088 Argyle Street, in the West End, with a height to width ratio of 1:1.2

79

23 m

41 m

20 m

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed

Fig.51 Section through 250 Argyle Street, in the Disjointed District, with a height to width ratio of 1:1.78

A2.

23

23 m

25 m

13 m

116 Argyle Street: Centre

Fig.52 Section through 116 Argyle Street, in the City Centre, with a height to width ratio of 1:1.08

81

6m

17m

190 Argyle Street: Hielanman’s Umbrella

Fig.53 Section through 190 Argyle Street, between the Disjointed District and City Centre, with a height to width ratio of 1:0.85

B2.

23

36 m 9m 500 Argyle Street: M8

Fig.54 Section through 500 Argyle Street, under the M8 in the Disjointed District, with a height to width ratio of 1:0.25

83

56 m

15 m

1407 Argyle Street: Art Gallery

C2.

23

21 m

10 m

Fig.55 Section through 1407 Argyle Street, in the West End, with a height to width ratio of 1:0.37

85

1088 Argyle Street: West End The buildings framing the study area are of the same number of stories and very nearly the same height (only a 1 m difference) creating a very balanced look (Fig.50). The height to width ratio is of 1:1.2 which is not quite within the specified Scottish guidelines.

The street is lined with shops with some spilling out onto the pavement and the floors above hold flats.

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed On the southern edge we find a Glasgow tenement with shops at the ground floor but empty derelict flats above (Fig. 51). Opposite is a 12 story modern flat, a building the size of an urban block with active use poorly integrated at the ground floor.

unexpected drafts at ground level. Thankfully however, the tall building is on the northern edge of the street and does not cast an extensive shadow onto the ground throughout the day.

116 Argyle Street: City Centre The height to width ration here is 1:1.08, almost a square and again not within the suggested ideal range (Fig. 52). However, in actuality the street feels remarkably wider than it is taller. This is due to the shorter buildings on the southern edge and the long overhang on the northern edge. Having the totality of the street for pedestrian use further highlights this horizontal aspect.

The Ideal High Street Comparing the proportions of these three study

Many of the units are empty and those that are in

points, each typical of their own district further

use do not have the same visual benefits at ground

emphasises the importance of other elements in

level because large columns block their view as one

creating an attractive outdoor place. None of these

walks along the building edge.

streets comply to the ideal sense of enclosure

The buildings framing the streets have a 21 m

detailed by the Scottish Government. However the

difference which creates an unbalanced scale. The

author would argue that the West End and the City

height to width ratio is 1:1.78, considerably larger

Centre both create a harmonious street experience

than the Scottish Government’s suggested range.

with plenty of visual variations. The city centre

The height of the building leads to considerably

however also offers cover from the elements which

worsened wind activity both in speeds and in

is lacking in the west end.

2.

23 190 and 500 Argyle Street: Tunnels Along Argyle Street we find two long stretches

1407 Argyle Street: Landmark Landmarks often stand alone whether in their

of covered spaces (Fig. 53 and 54). Both of these

scale or in the landscape. For designing squares,

contain entrances to train stations but the one

Scottish regulations specify a height to width ratio

under Central Station is much busier being

of 1:4-1:6, however the space in front of Kelvingrove

Glasgow’s biggest train station.

Art Gallery cannot be defined as a square (Fig. 55).

The space under Central Station feels much

The gallery sits on the edge of the park and the

smaller and darker than the one under the M8. The

space between the street and the building’s entrance

height to width ratio is similarly too small (1:0.85

is more of a landscaped walkway with flower beds

and 1:0.25 respectively). The oppressive nature of

and benches. The asymmetry is not unpleasant.

these proportions however is less impactful under

On the street edge we find tenements with

the M8 since this area is much more open to the

active uses spilling onto the pavement that relate in

elements and much brighter from natural light.

scale with trees found on the opposite pavement.

Although the space under the M8 is more

The long grassy stretch is appropriate for the scale

pleasant in scale, it is desolate with no other use

of the gallery. The overall vastness of the space

than allowing a through connection and holding

means that climactic conditions might be overall

a small local train station. From lack of natural

worst than in more contained streetscapes nearby.

ventilation, the Hielanman’s Umbrella’s air is often stale and greasy but always very busy with many small shops and pedestrians moving through the space.

The proportions help shape the feel of a place however in this case, the more claustrophobic space is the busiest due to its central location and multiple shops and the more pleasant space is empty due to its lack of interest.

87

Vertical Variation The relationship between open and closed elements of a facade has a significant impact on the experience of the street. “How much of the facade is open and the arrangement of these openings is an important characteristic of the street wall” (Mantho, 2015). “If facades lack interesting details - niche, holes, gateways, stairs, and so on - it can be very difficult to find places to stop” (Gehl, 2011).

This is particularly important at ground level and transparent glazing should be used where possible to encourage interaction between the outside and inside. “A high degree of visibility through building windows and/or doors supports safe and active streets and urban parks or plazas” (Municipality of Edmonton, 2016).

Openings, irregularities, projections and tapered facades create interest, help reduce wind speed and offer temporary shelter or relief from climactic conditions. The following sections highlight the relationship between open space (windows) and closed space. The more varied the elevation, the more visual interest and the more likely they will have some impact on micro-climactic conditions.

Shop Signs are also highlighted for the visual interest they create.

A2.

23 Shop Signs Closed Facade Transparent Glazing

1088 Argyle Street: West End

Fig.56 Section through 1088 Argyle Street, in the West End, with varied elevations and ground floor transparent glazing allowing a clear connection between indoors and outdoors.

89

1

5

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed

Fig.57 Section through 250 Argyle Street, in the Disjointed District, with varied elevations but ground floor glazing obstructed by signs and only allowing partial connection between the outside and inside.

A2.

23 Shop Signs Closed Facade Transparent Glazing View Obstructed

116 Argyle Street: City Centre

Fig.58 Section through 116 Argyle Street, in the City Centre, with a lack of vertical variation and ground floor glazing obstructed by signs and mannequins, only allowing a partial connection between the outside and inside.

91

1

5

190 Argyle Street: Hielanman’s Umbrella

Fig.59 Section through 190 Argyle Street, between the Disjointed District and City Centre, with a varied elevation and clear connections between the outside and inside.

B2.

23 Shop Signs Closed Facade Transparent Glazing

500 Argyle Street: M8

Fig.60 Section through 500 Argyle Street, under the M8 in the Disjointed District, with defining edges being concrete columns (poor variation) and a clear connection throughout.

93

1

5

1407 Argyle Street: Art Gallery

C2.

23 Shop Signs Closed Facade Transparent Glazing View Obstructed

Fig.61 Section through 1407 Argyle Street, in the West End, with a good vertical variation and clear connection between outside and inside into the tenements on one side and an unclear but inviting connection into the Art Gallery.

95

1088 Argyle Street: West End Open elements dominate these elevations both at ground level and on the upper floors creating a large amount of interest and interaction between the outside and inside (Fig. 56). Cornices create variation along the facade helping to slow down wind and creating a small amount of protection from the rain when hugging the buildings.

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed Open elements do dominate the elevations however at ground floor, visibility into the buildings is poor (Fig. 57). On one side advertisements block the view into shops and on the other, advertisement as well as large columns prevent visual access whilst walking along the edge of said building.

Both buildings have some projections along the facade with those along the tenement being more pronounced.

116 Argyle Street: City Centre Vertical variation is quite poor here, most likely due to the lack of active upper floor uses (Fig. 58). Upper floors are either used as storage or as additional shop floors with no requirement for outdoor connections. Ground floor windows are taken over by advertisement, objects for sale and

mannequins, preventing visual access into and out of the shops. The facades are mostly flat with variations at ground floor, recesses and projections are both found, tempering the connection between outside and inside and offering cover from the elements.

The Ideal High Street Traditional tenements tend to have a high percentage of glazed openings as well as variations along the facade with decorative projections. These offer visual interest as well as help slow down wind speeds. Bay windows (also typical of tenements) work in the same way as balconies (which tend to be modern additions), they add life into the street as well as break continuous facades helping to create pleasant micro-climates at ground level, whether that is through blocking wind or acting as sun traps.

Balconies along with projections and recesses can also offer respite from the elements, particularly rain.

2.

23 190 and 500 Argyle Street: Tunnels Vertical variation is limited within these

1407 Argyle Street: Landmark Vertical variation is strong here with on one

contained spaces. In the Hielanman’s Umbrella, the

side tenements with decorative projections and a

street edges are unified with the rest of the station,

large percentage of glazing, and on the other, the

painted dark green with shops signs in golden letters

Kelvingrove Art Gallery with a very interesting and

(Fig. 59). Windows are mostly transparent and allow

layered facade (Fig. 61). Both edges will help temper

a connection between the outside and inside. This is

climactic conditions especially in such a large and

further emphasised by indoor lights shining into the

exposed space.Visibility into the gallery is limited

darkness of the space.

due to the changes in level but the space is inviting.

Under the M8, views through the space interrupted only by large concrete columns (Fig. 60). There is no clear start and end to the space as well as no variation within the height of the space.

Variation is limited and the area could do with the introduction of an appropriate use (a skate park or street art/graffiti wall perhaps).

97

Horizontal Variation: Soft Edges Alexander said “if the edge fails, then the space never becomes lively” (Alexander, 2013). Designing outdoor places should always start at the edges, these also tend to have the most protected microclimactic conditions. Moving towards the centre, smaller places of interest need to be present. “If spaces are desolate and empty - without benches, columns, plants, trees, and so forth (...) it can be very difficult to find places to stop” (Gehl, 2011).

Areas with both commercial activity and residential life such as the West End are usually rich with interest. “It is within these zones that the most dynamic mix occurs, with shops, workspaces, storage yards, and houses existing side-by-side” (Urban design compendium, 2007).

Edges should be enlivened “with balconies, bays, porches, awnings, colonnades or other projections that provide a more comfortable threshold in inclement weather, prolonging activities and enabling uses to overlap into the street” (Urban design compendium, 2007).

Soft edges not only offer protection from the elements but also offer psychological respite through the knowledge that accessing indoor spaces is possible.

A2.

23 1

5

Pa

P

L

L

P

Pa/ F

1088 Argyle Street: West End

Fig.62 Section through 1088 Argyle Street, in the West End, with most of the street meant for cars, narrow pavements with restaurant furniture. (Pa/F: Pavements and Furniture; P: Parking; L: Car Lane).

99

1

5

Pa/ F

L

L

L

L

Pa

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed

Fig.63 Section through 250 Argyle Street, in the Disjointed District.

The street is dominated by cars but pavements are relatively wide.

(Pa/F: Pavements and Furniture; Pa: Pavement; L: Car Lane).

A2.

23

Pa

Pa/ Del

F

Pa/ Del

Pa

116 Argyle Street: City Centre

Fig.64 Section through 116 Argyle Street, in the City Centre, with the totality of the space available to pedestrians and street furniture placed at the centre. Material changes delineate lanes for early morning delivery trucks.

(Pa: Pavements; Pa/Del: Pavements and Delivery Access; F: Furniture).

101

1

5

Pa

P

L

L

P

Pa

190 Argyle Street: Hielanman’s Umbrella

Fig.65 Section through 190 Argyle Street, between the Disjointed District and City Centre, Pavements are narrow and widened to make room for parking spaces.

(Pa: Pavement; P: Parking; L: Car Lane).

B2.

23

L

Pa

L

500 Argyle Street: M8

Fig.66 Section through 500 Argyle Street, under the M8 in the Disjointed District.

The space is entirely pedestrian but difficult to reach with long traffic lights prioiritising cars on the motorway.

(Pa: Pavement; L: Car Lane).

103

1

5

Pa/ F

L

L

L

L

Pa

1407 Argyle Street: Art Gallery

G

W

C2.

23

CW F

W

F

CW

F

Fig.67 Section through 1407 Argyle Street, in the West End. The majority of the space is open to pedestrians although the four car lanes do impede through movement.

(Pa/F: Pavement/Furniture; L: Car Lane; Pa: Pavement; G: Grass; W: Walkway; F: Furniture; CW: Covered Walkway)

105

1088 Argyle Street: West End This stretch is a two way street with a single

116 Argyle Street: City Centre The entirety of this stretch is given up to

lane both ways and parking on either side. The

pedestrians with a range of public benches, phone

pavements are relatively narrow and often cluttered

booths, bins and city signs arranged along the centre

with bus stops, bike racks, bins, lights, electrical

of the street (Fig. 64). Changes in materials are used

boxes, etc (Fig. 62). A restaurant has taken over

to highlight where delivery trucks may drive and

some of that pavement space. Although the edges

park and where they may not. The intermediate

are softened by visibility into the buildings, there

spaces connecting outdoor to indoor along this

are not many options for lingering. Parking could be

stretch are the most pronounced with many

taken back to offer public and permanent seating

overhangs. extruding and intruding into the street

options.

edge. Offering opportunities for lingering in both the

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed

edges and the centre of the space make this area more horizontally successful.

The high rise building reaches the ground with large metallic columns (Fig. 63). Although the ground floor is mostly glazed, many of the units are empty and any beneficial impact is lost by the columns that form a visual block. Although a small overhang is created and used by pedestrians, the columns do not allow movement between them and the rest of the building. The small left over space however is commonly used to hide trash.

2.

23 190 and 500 Argyle Street: Tunnels Although traffic is reduced in the Hielanman’s

1407 Argyle Street: Landmark The scale of the street and tenement remains

Umbrella to prioritise taxis and buses, much of the

enclosed due to the presence of trees along the

space is given up to motorised traffic (Fig. 65). There

edge of the pavement (Fig. 67). Aside from relatively

are no places to linger aside from a shop offering a

narrow pavements, the street is entirely for car

single barrel and chair.

use, making crossing relatively difficult. Once on

Under the M8, the majority of the space is

the other side however, large expanses of grass

available for pedestrians, however, the lack of variety

and paved walkways lead up to the gallery. On a

of uses or opportunities for lingering makes the

sunny day, people are found sitting on the grass and

space somewhat sterile (Fig. 66).

relaxing.

Horizontal variation is important for creating

About half between the pavement and the

interest in a space and enhancing opportunities for

entrance to the gallery are found stone benches.

pause. Room for pedestrian is great but without a

These are well done and clearly durable however

reason to stay, it quickly loses its appeal.

users tend to move on relatively quickly. Their location is indeed extremely exposed. Aside from a tall and centrally placed flower bed, the seating area is cool and unprotected leading to few people remaining for longer than five minutes.

The staircases leading up and into the gallery however act as much more popular seating spots.

They are protected from dominant winds and release more warmth than the polished stone benches. It is easy to move in and out of the sun or rain as the steps extend covered areas that remain open throughout the year.

107

Sunny and Rainy days: Behaviour “Most of the time, people outdoors require direct sunshine and protection from the wind to be comfortable. On all but the warmest days, parks and plazas that are windswept or in shadows are virtually deserted, while those that offer sunlight and protection from the wind are heavily used” (Gehl, 2011). This statement will be explored through a study conducted in the six locations with aim to

Sunny Day Sunny with scattered clouds Thursday 20th of July 2017: 12-13h Temperature: 17/15°C Humidity: 60% Wind Direction: West South West Wind Speed: 12.428 mph

understand how dominant pedestrian movement and the number and location of lingering pedestrians changes between a sunny and a rainy day and how the form of a place influences these differences (Fig.

Rainy Day

68).

Movement flows have been simplified as a single line for simplicity of discussion. Lingering pedestrians are considered as such if they sit or stand or play in an area for more than a minute. Pedestrians standing at a bus stop or waiting to cross a street were not considered as lingering out of personal choice and are therefore not included.

The studies were conducted on Thursdays between 12-13 for ten minutes each time. The time of week and day was chosen to ensure a maximum number of pedestrians in all locations. Study days were chosen for their climactic conditions, aimed to be similar in most aspects to further emphasise the impact of the rain.

Light rain and cloudy Thursday 27th of July 2017: 12-13h Temperature: 17/14°C Humidity: 78% Wind Direction: South South West Wind Speed: 16.778 mph

2.

23

Fig.68 A lingerer on a sunny day and a rainy day at 116 Argyle Street (City Centre High Street).

109

1088 Argyle Street: West End

Lingerers

8 Lingerers

Dominant Movement

Overhang

A2.

23 3 Lingerers

Fig.69 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 1088 Argyle Street: West End High Street

111

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed

Lingerers

8 Lingerers

Dominant Movement

Overhang

A2.

23 2 Lingerers

Fig.70 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 250 Argyle Street: Disjointed High Street

113

116 Argyle Street: Centre

Lingerers

34 Lingerers

Dominant Movement

Overhang

A2.

23 17 Lingerers

Fig.71 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 116 Argyle Street: City Centre High Street

115

500 Argyle Street: M8

Lingerers

0 Lingerers

Dominant Movement

Overhang

B2.

23 1 Lingerers

Fig.72 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 500 Argyle Street: Disjointed, Tunnel.

117

190 Argyle Street: Hielanman’s Umbrella

Lingerers

4 Lingerers

Dominant Movement

Overhang

B2.

23 5 Lingerers

Fig.73 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 190 Argyle Street: Centre, tunnel.

119

1407 Argyle Street: Art Gallery

Lingerers

42 Lingerers

Dominant Movement

Overhang

C2.

23 25 Lingerers

Fig.74 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 1407 Argyle Street: West End Landmark.

121

1088 Argyle Street: West End During the ten minute study there were only 8 noted lingerers in the area, they were either sitting in the outdoor area of a restaurant, or standing against a wall or waiting on their food order (Fig. 69). Although the environment is pleasant, there are little opportunities for lingering. In the rain, lingerers decreased even more to one man smoking under an awning and a couple waiting in the covered lane for the rain to disperse.

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed This area had the same amount of lingerers

means people are more likely to stay, the many overhangs mean even in the event of rain there is opportunity to remain outside.

190 and 500 Argyle Street: Tunnels The tunnels were the only study points where more lingerers were found during the rainy day (Fig. 72 and 73). This highlights two things of interest.

First, dotting covered spaces in the urban landscape offers respite from poor weather. Second, these covered spaces need to be attractive (have active uses like within the Hielanman’s Umbrella) and pleasant (allow ventilation and sun light filtration like under the M8).

during the sunny day study as in the west end (8), they were mostly found by shop entrances, enjoying some sunshine, smoking a cigarette or eating on the go (Fig. 70). When raining, the number of lingerers dropped to 2. They retreated between the columns, the only place of shelter in the studied area.

116 Argyle Street: City Centre This was the busiest high street both in the sun and the rain (Fig. 71). The central location means a lot of people move through the area, the pedestrianised space, active use and street furniture

1407 Argyle Street: Landmark This area had the largest number of lingerers, due in part to the number of groups that come to the Art Gallery (Fig .74). The gallery offers a large amount of covered spaces that remain publicly open throughout the day and year. It is in these places that the majority of lingerers could be found during the rainy day.

2.

23 Observations Walking demands space, in streets with narrower pavements, less lingerers are found.

Lingerers are predominantly found along the edges of the buildings or on or near street furniture.

“Preferred stopping zones are found along the borders of the space or at the edges of spaces within space” (Gehl, 2011).

“Niches are popular places in which to stand, offering an attractive semipublic/semiprivate situation. One is partially present and may withdraw a bit further into the shadows if more privacy is desired” (Gehl, 2011). In Glasgow this is particularly the case when it is rainy. In times of sunshine, sunsoaked located are preferred but areas of shade also attract a wide range of people.

Pedestrian movement systematically gravitates closer to the building edge in times of rain, this even when the building does not offer real protection.

When overhangs are present, pedestrians prefer these areas and will walk out of their way to remove themselves from the elements. Opportunities to remove oneself from the elements should be far more common in Glasgow.

123

Choices To Pause As first detailed by Paciuk, “perceived control” or the knowledge that action can be taken over a source of discomfort is enough to improve thermal satisfaction in a place (Paciuk, 1990).

Offering a variety of places to linger or sit in any one place is crucial to encourage the staying of a greater variety of users. “A well-equipped public space should offer many different opportunities for sitting in order to give all user groups inspiration and opportunity to stay” (Gehl, 2011) (Fig. 75).

Seating opportunities can be informal, however formal seats are crucial for a more inclusive environment, often a needed rest point for the elderly or disable. South-facing, semi-covered and covered spaces are of particular importance in the Glasgow environment. Seats should face onto elements of interest with people watching often being most enjoyed by users.

Having a range of possible seats has no impact on the actual micro-climatic environment but will improve the general experience of an area. Indeed, “ultimately, the degree of perceived control is more important than whether that control is actually exercised” (Nikolopoulou, 2011).

116 Argyle Street: City Centre

ABC2.

23 250 Argyle Street: Disjointed

1407 Argyle Street: Landmark

1088 Argyle Street: West End

190 Argyle Street: Hielanman’s Umbrella

Fig.75 Photographs of the selection of places to sit or rest in the studied areas with either end of Argyle Street (Kelvingrove Art Gallery to the West and the pedestrianised stretch to the East) having the largest selection of choices.

The studied area under the M8 is not included due to the total lack of formal or informal places to stay.

125

Materiality and Colour Humans are able to visually recognise materials and infer their properties. Indeed, one interacts with endless variations of materials on a daily basis, effortlessly making sense of what is edible, irritable, soft or rough, based on sight alone. Experiments by Sharan, Rosenhotlz and Adelson (2009) confirmed this statement by having subjects identify a wide range of materials and their likely characteristics from brief exposition to photographs alone. “Even with unfamiliar materials, we seem to be acutely aware of their specific visual and physical

Materials and Thermal Conductivity W/(m K) F E E L S W

Building Brick 0.6-1.0

Asphalt 0.75

A R M

characteristics� (Flemming, 2013). Some properties

Glass window 0.96

Concrete Stone 1.7

such as thermal conductivity of course cannot be directly seen so it is through learned associations

F

that one is able to imply a warmth or cool to the

E

materials that surround us (Fig. 76).

E

Materiality takes on an even more important

L

role in special urban cases. In the case of a landmark

S

that stands on its own, removed from a tight urban fabric and perhaps more prone to poor micro-

C

climactic conditions, they can encourage people to

O

stay outdoor for longer periods of time. Tunnels are

L

rarely pleasant environments, mostly used to bypass

D

an obstacle. Materiality and colour choices can offer

Timber 0.17-0.19

Sandstone 1.7

Slate 2.01

Marble 2.08-2.94

Aluminium 205

Copper 401

significant improvements.

Fig.76 Common materials found in outdoor urban spaces and their thermal conductivity W/(m K).

At room temperature, the lower the conductivity the warmer the material appears to be.

A2.

23 116 Argyle Street: City Centre

250 Argyle Street: Disjointed

Although some of the street edges is of marble

Materials are very mixed in this area with

and glass, high-quality street materials often meet

relatively new buildings (metal and glass) interacting

low-quality shop fronts (Fig. 77). The majority of

with derelict tenements (sandstone, brick) (Fig. 78).

materials present feel cold. Street tiles are colourful

Shop fronts are marble, glass, shiny plastic and wood.

and their hues warm. The introduction of plants and

The overall feel is mostly cool. In this area, warmer

wooden elements would help further enhance the

materials would be of particular use.

experience of the area.

Fig.77 Photographs of dominant materials found at 116 Argyle Street.

Fig.78 Photographs of dominant materials found at 250 Argyle Street.

127

1088 Argyle Street: West End

500 Argyle Street: M8

The shop lined street front offers a great

Although the colour range is limited, there is a

variety of materials and colours (Fig. 79). Tiles and

huge range of textures under the M8 (Fig. 80). This

metallic shutters are common but their coolness is

seems to be partly a result of an overlay of previous

thankfully undermined by the many warm materials

materials as well as efforts to control behaviour

and colours (woods and reds) found along the street

(preventing the homeless from sleeping on ledges or

edge.

preventing skateboarding). The range of colours is very limited and reduces visual interest.

Fig.79 Photographs of dominant materials found at 1088 Argyle Street.

Fig.80 Photographs of dominant materials found at 500 Argyle Street.

ABC2.

23 190 Argyle Street: Hielanman’s Umbrella

1407 Argyle Street: Art Gallery The sandstone of the tenements is a paler red

The tunnel was remodelled in the early 2000s to have a unified look throughout that replicates

than those used for the Art Gallery. They both

the colours of the overall station (green and gold).

however offer a warming and pleasant effect. The

Although those colours are successful in the rest of

materials used along the walkway leading to the

the station, the author would argue that the green

gallery are durable and beautiful but share a blueish

further enhances the darkened aspect of the tunnel

and generally cool quality that do not help the

(Fig. 81). A lighter green might be more successful

micro-climactic conditions in an already exposed

and still be compatible with the color range, while

piece of land (Fig. 82).

also working against the perpetual obscurity.

Fig.81 Photographs of dominant materials found at 190 Argyle Street.

Fig.82 Photographs of dominant materials found at 1407 Argyle Street.

129

3

Enjoying the Weather: Extending Comfort Zones

131

Glasgow’s Comfort Zones: Evaluated City Glasgow’s urban form has been shaped by a

District The West End and the City Centre have a wide

wide range of events, both planned and unplanned.

range of shops and services drawing in a more

The role of climactic conditions however is

diverse crowd of users than found in the disjointed

rarely mentioned as a physical shaper. Whether

district. However, the lack of housing in the city

purposefully or by chance, Glasgow’s gridded centre

centre means that user numbers drop significantly

and west end is at an oblique to dominant wind

once shops are closed. Still, the expressed choice of

direction. Moving out of the city centre, streets tend

being in both of these districts is clear.

to bend and change direction fairly regularly, helping

The same districts have a built form and density

reduce wind speeds. Although some of the city’s

more conducive to a protected micro-climate

urban blocks do run North-South, a poor choice for

whereas the disjointed district suffers from gaps and

maximising sun light throughout the day whether

dramatic changes in building heights which enhance

indoors or outdoors, none of those shaping Argyle

wind, rain and cold temperatures at ground level.

Street suffers from this fate.

Covered walkways are not common although a greater number of them are found in the city centre. This is a real missed opportunity as they allow respite from the elements without completely removing the user from the natural environment.

Building height and built density changes considerably throughout the city. A more homogenous urban form is common in areas dominated by traditional tenements. More modern developments tend to be built as stand alone objects. This lack of coherence has negative consequences on micro-climactic conditions.

3.

1 Street None of the studied locations fit the ideal proportions defined in Designing Streets. However most of them did feel enclosed and unified. Other factors were clearly fundamentally more important in creating a pleasant environment.

Horizontal and vertical variation is fundamental in creating a visually stimulating and worthwhile space to linger in. The softer the edges, the more likely pedestrians will choose to stay in a place.

Transitional spaces, often covered but visually connected to the outside and a diverse range of seating (preferably made of materials of low thermal conductivity (wood, plastic, bricks) rather than high thermal conductivity (metal, cement, marble) are crucial elements in retaining people throughout changing climactic conditions. Places to linger should be located in the sunlight and/or protected from dominant winds and rain.

In times of rain, pedestrians instinctively choose to walk or linger in protected places. Simple interventions can and should be done along main pedestrian routes to offer much-needed respite.

Materiality and colour choices are significant elements in extending comfort zones. Spaces with overwhelmingly cool materials will see less people lingering than those containing bricks and wood.

133

Scale of the City “Many problems can be avoided if careful work is done at the city and site planning level to reduce the effects of the most annoying climactic factors� (Gehl, 2011). This starts by providing a more walkable and therefore inviting urban environment in winter.

Fine-grained and compact developments with uses that address the street such as small blocks, narrow frontages and frequent storefronts will help create an attractive sense of place.

Exposure to sunshine and sunlight will extend comfort zones and improve happiness and wellbeing. Design spaces and buildings that maximise this access, block prevailing winds and downdrafts and offer regular respite from winds.

Functional public art in high pedestrian traffic areas is a great way to create interest whilst providing seating and weather protection. This should be encouraged and facilitated by the council.

Following the aspirations of the Scottish Government, consider designing podiums for tall buildings to create a 1:1 ratio with street. Trees can also be used to help provide a sense of enclosure in areas with lower heights and less dense buildings.

3.

2 Sunlight Where possible develop urban form along streets that run at an angle (avoiding the direction westeast) to maximise sunshine year long (Fig. 83).

Always consider solar access in the placement of outdoor spaces and buildings to ensure the creation of minimal shade onto those open spaces, both in summer and winter (Fig. 84).

Place pocket parks in well lit areas.

Design set-backs into buildings to act as sun traps with both glazed units and thermal mass.

Narrow tower blocks to allow sunshine through.

To avoid casting excessively long shadows over pavements and outdoor spaces, accommodate taller buildings on the north side of the street (Fig. 85).

Well lit landmarks and focal points can help wayfinding and improve the experience of place through perceptual warming. Place electrical outlets by trees and street lamps to allow for seasonal feature lighting such as tree wrapping (Fig 86).

Fig.83 Barcelona’s urban form runs at an angle and maximises sunshine access.

Fig.84 Glasgow Royal Concert Hall is south facing and attracts a great range of people especially when the sun is shining.

Fig.85 The ‘walkie-talkie’ worsens climactic conditions at street level (overheating and excess wind) + casts a long shadow.

Fig.86 In the winter months, Royal Exchange Square is covered in a drape of thin lights, considerably enhancing the area.

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Wind Orientate the built form to counter dominant winds.

Avoid placing tall buildings head on to dominant winds as this will lead to down-drafts.

Avoid dramatic changes in building heights as this will lead to unexpected drafts.

Avoid dramatic changes in built density, large empty spaces tend are more exposed and tend to have unpleasant micro-climactic conditions.

When a long stretch of land is flat and empty, consider planting trees or vegetation along it.

Fig.87 Tall South-West Facing buildings in Glasgow create increased wind-chill at ground level.

Fig.88 Shetleston Housing Association Offices by Elder and Cannon in Glasgow respects the dominent building heights.

Fig.89 Tress along the water edge in Govan help slow down winds and create a more pleasant micro-climate.

3.

2 Rain Colonnades and arcades should be integrated with active uses to create a safe, interesting and attractive extension to the public realm (Fig. 90).

To reduce risks of flooding through pressure on the drainage and water network, design permeable and soft landscaped surfaces near roadways to provide a natural filter for heavy rainfall. Design these to take on other roles such as pocket parks, traffic calming, or safer crosswalks on wide streets (Fig. 91).

Catch basins for surface runoff should always be located away from pedestrian crossings and bus stops.Vehicles driving through them may splash pooled water onto pedestrians.

Encourage temporary coverage such as awnings and canopies (Fig. 92).

Transform disused lanes into attractive and active pedestrian routes offering partial shelter.

Fig.90 Argyle Arcade in Glasgow creates a beautiful covered extention to the area.

Fig.91 Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems in Oregon, absorbing rain water and acting as traffic claming.

Fig.92 Restaurants along Kilmarnock Road with retractable awnings to encourage outdoor use even on rainy days.

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Scale of the District An urban district is usually defined as such because of features that distinguish it from the rest of the city. Special attention should be placed on its dominant uses and on the quality of place that it aspires to be. Building types should be designed to improve micro-climactic conditions. Glazing and openings in buildings should be placed to face areas of outdoor activity to allow for interaction, supervision and observation.

Prevailing winds should be blocked and sun traps created with structures or landscaping, so that outdoor spaces feel warmer and are usable throughout the year. Spaces where pedestrian traffic is common and desirable should be connected with elements such as treed arcades, awnings or canopies to moderate the impacts of inclement weather.

3.

3 Sunlight Consider shadows cast by tall buildings particularly over schools and public facilities (Fig. 93).

Maximize solar access onto playgrounds and outdoor seating areas in order to improve comfort during colder months (Fig. 94).

Avoid excessive overshadowing of buildings, whether by earthworks, vegetation or walls, by placing trees away from southerly elevations in particular.

If trees must be placed on the southern face of a building or outdoor area, give preference to deciduous trees. In the summer, when leaves are present, they will provide shade, but in the winter, when leaves have fallen, they will allow sunlight to filter through (Fig. 95).

Always consider the full mature height of trees, they must not grow to block out sunlight, cause problems to foundations or overshadow solar panels.

Fig.93 Sottish Poetry Library by Malcolm Fraser in Edinburgh (recently amended) with sunlit informal amphitheatre.

Fig.94 Kelvingrove Bandstand receives plenty of sunlight and is protected by surrounding vegetation.

Fig.95 Deciduous trees in Glasgow green let the light through during the winter days.

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Wind Use landscaping and vegetation to provide shelter from wind (Fig. 96).

To reduce ground-level wind speeds, vary building heights along a block length. One or two storey variations are preferred (Fig. 97).

Designing a podium at the base of a slim tower will help dissipate downdrafts. Open spaces on podiums should be used for landscaping and amenity spaces (Fig. 98).

Extend towers by adjacent structures of decreasing height, achieving a “pyramid� effect will allow most of the wind to dissipate before reaching the street level.

Fig.96 Trees along the Clyde help slow down winds and create a more enjoyable micro-climate.

Fig.97 Building heights vary along the length of a block along Bath Street.

Fig.98 A tower along Renfrew Street is surrounded by a podium, helping disipate downdrafts.

3.

3 Rain In areas that serve as outdoor gathering spaces, particularly where transit stops are located, provide shelters and wind blocks.

Bring back the Victorian habit of building freestanding, covered but open air gathering spot such as the Umbrella at Bridgeton Cross (Fig. 99).

Throughout the city, create destination nodes with services for sheltered cafes.

Identify key unprotected routes, such as through urban parks or large squares and create beautiful open-air coverage to allow continuous movement through rain or shine (Fig. 100 and 101).

Fig.99 The Umbrella at Bridgeton Cross is a covered space connected to the elements, allowing respite without removal.

Fig.100 Bell’s Bridge in Glasgow offers a covered glazed overhead surface to protect from the elements.

Fig.101 Covered route through the Park de la Villette in Paris, France.

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Scale of the Street The careful design of buildings and streets is crucial to extend actual and experienced microclimactic conditions.

Strong indoor-outdoor relationships between buildings and their surroundings allow people who need to warm up to still be connected to outdoor activities. To enhance this, frosted or tinted glass should be avoided and clear glass should be clear of obstacles such as posters and signs.

Contrasting or saturated colour palettes should be used on building facades, particularly at ground floor, to highlight pedestrian-scaled massing and entrances. This will also improve the visual diversity and interest of the street. Materials that are warmer and more comfortably in cool temperatures should be chosen. For example, wood is warmer in winter than metal and more consistent in the summer. In south facing areas, dense materials such as brick and stone will absorb and retain heat. Durable, comfortable and aesthetically pleasing materials will also encourage lingering in places.

Varied fixed and flexible street furniture should be incorporated to improve comfort. They should allow users to sit in or out of the sun, alone or near others and face onto places of interest such as trees, fountains or active frontages.

3.

4 Sunlight Major glazing areas should be placed on the southfacing side of the lot to benefit from improved heat and sunlight. This should include transitional indoor and outdoor spaces as well as patios and porches (Fig. 102).

Transparent glazing also allows visual access to internal uses, passive surveillance and illumination between outdoor spaces and building users at night (Fig. 103).

Setbacks can act as sun traps and shelters from the wind. Surfaces within sun traps will reflect or radiate heat and can enhance year round comfort.

Design building facades to include the possibility for temporary or permanent speciality lighting (seasonal or creative lighting) (Fig. 104). Using down-ward facing light fixtures will reduce light pollution.

Design facades to sensitively reflect both natural and man-made light. Lighter colours on south-facing walls can passively reflect light. Building light fixtures can be used to illuminate streets, neighbouring building and open spaces.

Fig.102 The Hidden Garden behind the Tramway Theatre by Zoo Architects is south facing and warmed by the sun.

Fig.103 Dundee Repertory Theatre by Nicoll Russell Studios is invitingly open, both during the day and at night.

Fig.104 House of Fraser illuminating the street edge with festive lights.

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Wind Building facades can help reduce wind speeds if they incorporate openings and irregularities such as balconies, tapered or stepped back facades and softened corners (Fig. 105 and 106).

Wind speeds in open spaces can be reduced by planting dense vegetation along the edges of the space and against any long continuous flat wall (Fig 107).

To improve comfort in seating and dining areas, incorporate wind screens, lighting, gas heating and any other heating features. Simple offering blankets and cushions to users will extent outdoor comfort.

In public spaces, create unique and protected areas using movable items such as walls, baffles and landscape planters than can be reconfigured at wish.

Fig.105 Bay windows along a tenemental block on West Princes Street, Glasgow.

Fig.106 Do Architecture’s re-interpretation of the traditional tenement in Govan, Glasgow.

Fig.107 Trees along George Square helps create protected spaces in an otherwise exposed environment.

3.

4 Rain Design partially covered street furniture to reduce the intensity of the rain. These should be open enough not to become a visual obstacle (Fig. 108).

Wherever possible, weather protection should be provided along building frontages including ramps and stairs (Fig. 109).

Primary entrances to multiple-unit residential buildings should be accentuated through the use architectural elements such as colonnade structures, canopies, awnings, portes-cochere and marquees.

On key retail streets, pedestrian comfort and protection from rain and wind can be enhanced through the design of arcades and overhangs.

When possible, transparent materials should be used for awnings and canopies to allow the sun to penetrate (Fig. 110).

Fig.108 Seoul bus shelter offering partial protection from wind and rain without blocking through view from the pavement.

Fig.109 Smart Ideas for Smarter Cities, interactive adverts offering temporary shelter from rain.

Fig.110 Central Station’s main entrance is extended with a glazed roof to temperate the outdoor climate.

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Conclusion Glasgow’s climate is a key characteristic of

is of particular importance, especially so in urban

the city. Its variability affects pedestrian behaviour

contexts where many more users interact with a

throughout the day, often reducing the amount of

building’s exterior than with its interior.

time residents are willing to spend outside. However,

In cities with difficult climactic conditions

exposure to the ever changing natural world has a

such as Glasgow which suffers from low levels of

large range of physical and mental health benefits.

sunshine, strong winds and a majority of rainy days,

Every city should be aiming to create outdoor public

this impact takes on an even more crucial role.

spaces that encourage year long use and accessibility

Cities tend to have better climactic conditions than

to all.

non urbanised places due to the protective nature

Although human behaviour is often shaped by

of a dense urban form. Cities also increase street

climactic context, well-being is much more complex

level air temperatures through energy loss and

affair than some would like to believe. Humans are

heat absorbent surfaces. In cold regions, this can

not condemned to weather apathy. Glaswegians

considerably improve outdoors conditions.

can tolerate poor weather and feel comfortable

Although Winter cities have started producing

outside at much cooler temperatures than residents

design guidance to extent outdoor liveable hours,

of warmer and sunnier regions. Residents of

this is yet to be done in more temperate cities such

Copenhagen have developed an outdoor cafe culture

as Glasgow that do not suffer from snow but instead

over a relatively short period of time. Climactic

suffer from elevated levels of rain. The focused study

conditions did not change but public space and

of Glasgow’s urban form has shown many failures in

residential culture did.

improving street level climactic conditions. Although

Architecture has often been thought of as a

successes are also apparent, very few of them

means to avoid the natural world and create a

seemed to have been implemented with the climate

controlled and neutral indoor environment, shaped

in mind.

around the idea of standard and shared climactic

City councils can and should facilitate functional

conditions. Reflecting only on the control of interior

public art that creates temporary shelters and

environments is however simplistic. The impact of

mediate climactic conditions. Street furniture

buildings on outdoor micro-climactic conditions

can not only encourage lingering but also offer

protection and slow down street level winds. The small design project in annexe is a clear example

shadows and chaotic wind patterns).

Existing built form is often hard to correct

of the changes in user behaviour that can happen

but architects have the freedom and therefor

when a small intervention in the landscape is

the responsibility to use climactic conditions as a

made. Cyclists moving through the area at a high

guiding tool for their designs. Enhancing connections

speed and intimidating walkers were slowed down

between outside and inside and extending

and pedestrians encouraged to pause and play.

comfortable conditions into the entire year should

Protection from the elements was limited but the

be a design priority.

sense of enclosure and the artistic interest of the intervention drew people in and encouraged users to stay for a considerably longer time than they had been previously.

Lighting is a powerful tool and can create a sense of warmth in a place. This is also the case with choices of materials and colours. Glasgow’s traditional red sandstone buildings offer a welcomed relief from the almost perpetual gray skies.

Vegetation can be integrated to minimise exposure to un-welcomed elements in large open spaces.

New additions to districts and neighbourhoods should be considered within the larger context of climactic conditions. Buildings can improve or worsen pedestrian experience. The walkie-talkie in London is a great example of introverted design (a focus on creating more floor space on every floor) leading to a whole range of outdoor climactic consequences (dangerous over heating, long

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Annexe: Live-Build Project Over the course of a month I participated in a co-design summer school run by Here+Now a landscape architecture firm based in Edinburgh with the aim of developing a series of temporary landscape interventions and community engagement events to enliven the Seafield promenade near Portobello, Edinburgh (Fig. 111 and 112).

Divided into teams of four, we used a codesign approach to develop our ideas and built interventions. My own reflection on climactic conditions and extending outdoor comfort zones became a key component in the development of our ideas. The area is windswept and there is no opportunity for cover or rest along the promenade which runs on the back end of industrial land.

Fig.111 (Top) The chosen site on the Seafield Promenade containing a long stretch of concrete blocks giving onto boulders.

Fig.112 (Bottom) The site photographed from the beach at low tide.

Intervention 1: What do you Sea?Field We interacted with every user who would speak to us to gather information as to what people liked and disliked about the area (Fig. 113). Although opinions were often contradictory, overarching themes did emerge: a shared love for the view and shared enjoyment of the peacefulness and introspective nature of the area (Fig 114). “it’s very busy in Portobello so it’s nice that it’s calmer here” “I like that the beach is so empty. i am free to walk my dog without worrying” “the industrial side isn’t great, but the sea is good” “we love walking here, we love the views of the old volcanoes” “I like how nice and wild it is here, some places to sit would be good” “it’s a great example of Scotland: sh*te industrial land, a pub on the corner and beautiful views”

THE VIEW + SOLITUDE

Fig.113 (Top) Intervention 1: Talking to a man about his opinions on the area.

Fig.114 (Bottom) The two emerging themes that would guide our ideas: the view and the enjoyment of solitude.

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Intervention 2: Ponder Point With the intention of enhancing the existing qualities of the promenade instead of re-creating another Portobello, we used the information and opinions gathered to create a first prototype.

Made out of cardboard and bamboo sticks, a small space was delineated to frame the view and enhance the sense of isolation and calm (Fig 190).

The fins slotted into the existing concrete blocks and were shaped like a wave to echo the tides that reach over and onto the promenade once a month (Figh 116).

“I like to sit here to look at the sea” “it would act as a good shelter from the rain, or

THE VIEW + SOLITUDE

if you want to take photos of the sea” “I sit here occasionally to water my dog...having something here might make it more inviting” “it creates a more intimate space” “I don’t normally sit here because it’s too plain but I would consider it if there was something new”

WAVES

Fig.115 Intervention 2: Prototyping a place to sit and ponder and asking passers-by about their thoughts.

Fig.116 The three themes that influenced our design: the view, the enjoyment of solitude and the tidal waves flowing onto the promenade once a month.

Intervention 3: Final The final intervention consisted of eight fins of varying sizes that slotted in between the concrete blocks. They were very well received and immediately used by passers-by (Fig 117-119). They are a great example of how a simple but creative intervention can considerably change the amount of time people spend outside. Although the fins acted as mild wind-breaks, their impact on the microclimate was much more perceptual than quantifiable (Fig. 120-122).

Fig.117 A man taking a break from his cycle to enjoy a protected rest again the fins.

Fig.118 A young mother looking at the installation.

Fig.119 Users enjoying the view, sitting on the edge of the concrete blocks.

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Fig.120 This formation created a more interactive and social space with many children clambering over the fins.

Fig.121 This formation was found to be more beautiful and sculptural, offering interest from far away and creating intimacy.

Fig.122 Sit and Enjoy, an invitation to pause and enjoy a more temperate micro-climactic environment.

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Figure List All Figures have been created by the author, except when specified otherwise.

Fig.1 Kelvingrove Park filled with people enjoying the sunshine........................................................................................13 Fig.2 Crowded bus stop with Glasgow residents huddling to be out of the rain.........................................................15 Fig.3 To keep ourselves in an enjoyable micro-climactic state we change clothing, use portable equipments and build shelters. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Krautheim, M., Pasel, R., Pfeiffer, S. and Schultz-Granberg, J. (2014). City and wind. Berlin: Dom Publishers..................................................................................................................... 18 Fig.4 Graphic interpretation of a weather map showing uniform rain conditions over large areas.........................19 Fig.5 South facing hills have entirely different micro-climates from north facing hill...................................................20 Fig.6 Relaxing in a hammock on a warm summer afternoon gently swaying in the breeze. Pinterest. (2017).

Hammock Time. [online] Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/skipike/hammock-time/?lp=true [Accessed 8 Aug. 2017].....................................................................................................................................................................................21 Fig.7 Architecture as a hermetic interior, protector from the stresses of the natural world...................................23 Fig.8 Schematic bioclimactic index as a function of temperature in Celsius (vertical axis) and humidity levels (horizontal axis). Redrawn from the original, taken from: Olgyay,V. and Olgyay, A. (1969). Design with climate : bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism. Princeton: University Press Princeton.........................................25 Fig.9 A geodesic dome across the Glasgow sky controlling and monitoring the weather. Conventions. peoplemakeglasgow.com. (2017). People Make Glasgow - Tour of Glasgow City Chambers - Glasgow Conventions. [online] Available at: http://conventions.peoplemakeglasgow.com/attending-a-conference/visitoritineraries/two-hours/tour-of-glasgow-city-chambers/ [Accessed 7 Aug. 2017]...........................................................27

Fig.10 Basking in the warmth of the evening sun. Enjoying time the winter cool in an outdoor cafe with a blanket spread over one’s legs. Pixabay.com. (2017). Sit, Backgrounds, Textures - Free images on Pixabay. [online] Available at: https://pixabay.com/en/photos/sit/?cat=backgrounds [Accessed 16 Aug. 2017].....................................29 Fig.11 Touch, smell, taste, sight, hearing and thermal feeling: The world experiences through senses.....................31 Fig.12 The changing hour of day and the changing seasons are two of the evolutionary cycles we navigate........33 Fig.13 Thermal conductivity differences between materials lead to some feeling inherently warmer than others even when they are both at room temperature.................................................................................................................. 35 Fig.14 In Malaysia, white tiles are readily used for the perceived cooling they create. Pixabay.com. (2017).

Kuala, Lumpur - Free images on Pixabay. [online] Available at: https://pixabay.com/en/photos/kuala%20lumpur/ [Accessed 10 Aug. 2017]............................................................................................................................................................37 Fig.15 1950s Glasgow on a dreich day. Pinterest. (2017). Scotland. [online] Available at: https://www.pinterest. co.uk/pin/563864815829553398/?lp=true [Accessed 17 Jul. 2017]..................................................................................39 Fig.16 Average monthly temperature in Glasgow. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Holiday-weather.com.

(2017). Weather and temperature averages for Glasgow, United Kingdom. [online] Available at: http://www. holiday-weather.com/glasgow/averages/ [Accessed 9 Jul. 2017]........................................................................................42 Fig.17 Average high/low temperature in Glasgow over the year. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Holidayweather.com. (2017). Weather and temperature averages for Glasgow, United Kingdom. [online] Available at: http://www.holiday-weather.com/glasgow/averages/ [Accessed 9 Jul. 2017]..................................................................43 Fig.18 Average rainfall and average rainy days in Glasgow over the year. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Holiday-weather.com. (2017). Weather and temperature averages for Glasgow, United Kingdom. [online] Available at: http://www.holiday-weather.com/glasgow/averages/ [Accessed 9 Jul. 2017]...........................................44

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Fig.19 Average yearly rain fall in Scotland. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Holiday-weather.com. (2017).

Weather and temperature averages for Glasgow, United Kingdom. [online] Available at: http://www.holidayweather.com/glasgow/averages/ [Accessed 9 Jul. 2017]......................................................................................................45 Fig.21 Average daily hours of sunshine per month in Glasgow. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Holidayweather.com. (2017). Weather and temperature averages for Glasgow, United Kingdom. [online] Available at: http://www.holiday-weather.com/glasgow/averages/ [Accessed 9 Jul. 2017]..................................................................46 Fig.20 The inverted umbrella dance common in the streets of Glasgow.......................................................................46 Fig.22 Average yearly wind direction in Glasgow showing strong winds and a dominance of SW and WSW wind directions. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Rose, W. (2017). Climate Glasgow. [online] meteoblue.

Available at: https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/forecast/modelclimate/glasgow_united-kingdom_2648579 [Accessed 16 Jul. 2017]...............................................................................................................................................................47 Fig.23 Anecdotal but recurrent experience by the author in Glasgow often clinging to her cardigan when, at the first sign of sunshine, locals celebrate topless.......................................................................................................................48 Fig.24 Argyle Street stretches through three areas of distinct character........................................................................50 Fig.25 Argyle Street changes direction and moves through a changing urban form.....................................................52 Fig.26 Glasgow’s dominant wind runs south-west, the same direction as the ideal orientation for sun...............54 Fig.27 Diagram re-interpreted from the Winter Design Guidelines of Edmonton Canada. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Municipality of Edmonton, Canada (2016). Winter Design Guidelines Transforming Edmonton into a Great Winter City. Edmonton, Canada: The Way We Grow: Edmonton’s Municipal Development Plan........................................................................................................................................................................55

Fig.28 Schematic street map of intersections along Argyle Street..................................................................................56 Fig.29 Covered walkways in the studied area......................................................................................................................58 Fig.30 Covered walkways are very common in Singapore. Olinsingapore.blogspot.co.uk. (2011). There’s a rainforest in the food court. [online] Available at: http://olinsingapore.blogspot.co.uk/2011/01/theres-rainforestin-food-court.html [Accessed 9 Aug. 2017]...........................................................................................................................59 Fig.31 The street network in the centre of Bologna Italy offers almost continuously covered pavements protecting from the sun and the rain. Armijos.wordpress.com. (2017). Canopies | Fabric Architecture / Fabric Structures | Page 3. [online] Available at: https://armijos.wordpress.com/tag/canopies/page/3/ [Accessed 8 Aug. 2017]..............................................................................................................................................................................................59 Fig.32 A rough skyline causes turbulences and enhances air circulation between buildings.....................................60 Fig.33 The study area’s built land with the buildings that shape Argyle Street in dark. Density clearly changes within the area.............................................................................................................................................................................61 Fig.34 Section showing building height and mass for the entire studied area..............................................................61 Fig.35 Photos of shop fronts found in each district............................................................................................................63 Fig.36 Location map of Argyle Street running through three districts. Buildings lining the north edge of the Street in yellow and those lining the south in blue..............................................................................................................65 Fig.37 Section showing building height and mass of the northern edge of the street (yellow buildings only); section of the southern edge (blue buildings only)..............................................................................................................65 Fig.38 The clothes I wore during my micro-climactic investigations...............................................................................67

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Fig.39 A highly integrated street pattern encourages high levels of air movement.....................................................69 Fig.40 The taller the building, the longer the cast shadow and the less sunlight available at ground level. Keeping tall buildings on the northern edge of the street is good practice...................................................................................69 Fig.41 Staggered buildings in large open spaces create unpleasant wind conditions at street level........................70 Fig.42 Areas of buildings of dramatic height changes lead to unpleasant wind forces...............................................70 Fig.43 Podium bases to towers, if properly designed, can be used effectively in areas where wind problems are anticipated.....................................................................................................................................................................................71 Fig.44 Tower blocks lead to down-draught effects and increased wind speeds at street level.................................71 Fig.45 Overhangs and covered walkways protect from down-draughts and rain. These should retain an interaction with the outside and allow movement to and fro..........................................................................................72 Fig.46 The six study points along Argyle Street identified by the related street number........................................... 74 Fig.47 Photos of each study point organised into three categories................................................................................77 Fig.48 Height-to-width ratios as detailed by The Scottish Government in Designing Streets. Redrawn from the original, taken from: Scottish Government (2010). Designing Streets. Edinburgh: Scottish Government...............78 Fig.49 The Shambles in York, England, voted as Britain’s most picturesque street. Found at: News.bbc.co.uk.

(2017). BBC News - Shambles,York, named Britain’s ‘most picturesque’. [online] Available at: http://news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/england/8554388.stm [Accessed 8 Aug. 2017]...................................................................................................78 Fig.50 Section through 1088 Argyle Street, in the West End.............................................................................................79

Fig.51 Section through 250 Argyle Street, in the Disjointed District..............................................................................80 Fig.52 Section through 116 Argyle Street, in the City Centre..........................................................................................81 Fig.53 Section through 190 Argyle Street, between the Disjointed District and City Centre..................................82 Fig.54 Section through 500 Argyle Street, under the M8 in the Disjointed District...................................................83 Fig.55 Section through 1407 Argyle Street, in the West End............................................................................................85 Fig.56 Section through 1088 Argyle Street, in the West End.............................................................................................89 Fig.57 Section through 250 Argyle Street, in the Disjointed District..............................................................................90 Fig.58 Section through 116 Argyle Street, in the City Centre..........................................................................................91 Fig.59 Section through 190 Argyle Street, between the Disjointed District and City Centre..................................92 Fig.60 Section through 500 Argyle Street, under the M8 in the Disjointed District...................................................93 Fig.61 Section through 1407 Argyle Street, in the West End............................................................................................95 Fig.62 Section through 1088 Argyle Street, in the West End.............................................................................................99 Fig.63 Section through 250 Argyle Street, in the Disjointed District. .........................................................................100 Fig.64 Section through 116 Argyle Street, in the City Centre........................................................................................101 Fig.65 Section through 190 Argyle Street, between the Disjointed District and City Centre...............................102

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Fig.66 Section through 500 Argyle Street, under the M8 in the Disjointed District.................................................103 Fig.67 Section through 1407 Argyle Street, in the West End..........................................................................................105 Fig.68 A lingerer on a sunny day and a rainy day at 116 Argyle Street (City Centre High Street)........................109 Fig.69 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 1088 Argyle Street: West End High Street.....................................................................111 Fig.70 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 250 Argyle Street: Disjointed High Street.....................................................................113 Fig.71 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 116 Argyle Street: City Centre High Street..................................................................115 Fig.72 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 500 Argyle Street: Disjointed, Tunnel..............................................................................117 Fig.73 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 190 Argyle Street: Centre, tunnel...................................................................................119 Fig.74 Dominant movement channels and location of lingerers on a sunny day and then on a rainy day during a ten minute study window on 1407 Argyle Street: West End Landmark........................................................................121 Fig.75 Photographs of the selection of places to sit or rest in the studied areas.....................................................125 Fig.76 Common materials found in outdoor urban spaces and their thermal conductivity W/(m K). At room temperature, the lower the conductivity the warmer the material appears to be....................................................126

Fig.77 Photographs of dominant materials found at 116 Argyle Street.......................................................................127 Fig.78 Photographs of dominant materials found at 250 Argyle Street.......................................................................127 Fig.79 Photographs of dominant materials found at 1088 Argyle Street.....................................................................128 Fig.80 Photographs of dominant materials found at 500 Argyle Street........................................................................128 Fig.81 Photographs of dominant materials found at 190 Argyle Street........................................................................129 Fig.82 Photographs of dominant materials found at 1407 Argyle Street.....................................................................129 Fig.83 Barcelona’s urban form runs at an angle and maximises sunshine access. Barcelona. (2017). Barcelona. [online] Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/maps/place/Barcelona,+Spain/@41.3883768,2.152179,1164m/ data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x12a49816718e30e5:0x44b0fb3d4f47660a!8m2!3d41.3850639!4d2.1734035 [Accessed 8 Aug. 2017]............................................................................................................................................................135 Fig.84 Glasgow Royal Concert Hall is south facing and attracts a great range of people especially when the sun is shining. Mark, L., Waite, R. and Braidwood, E. (2015). Glasgow’s ‘iconic’ Royal Concert Hall steps saved – for now. [online] Architects Journal. Available at: https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/glasgows-iconic-royalconcert-hall-steps-saved-for-now/8685789.article [Accessed 2 Aug. 2017]...................................................................13 Fig.85 The ‘walkie-talkie’ worsens climactic conditions at street level (overheating and excess wind) + casts a long shadow. Cityoflondon.gov.uk. (2017). Modern architecture - Art and Architecture - City of London. [online] Available at: https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/visit-the-city/art-architecture/Pages/modern. aspx?page=all [Accessed 7 Aug. 2017]..................................................................................................................................135 Fig.86 In the winter months, Royal Exchange Square is covered in a drape of thin lights, considerably enhancing the area. Photoeverywhere.co.uk. (2017). Free Stock photo of Royal Exchange Square and GOMA, Glasgow

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| Photoeverywhere. [online] Available at: http://www.photoeverywhere.co.uk/britain/glasgow/slides/royal_ exchange_square_night.htm [Accessed 9 Aug. 2017].......................................................................................................135 Fig. 87 Tall South-West Facing buildings in Glasgow create increased wind-chill at ground level. Google.co.uk.

(2017). Cite a Website - Cite This For Me. [online] Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/maps/@55.8575742,4.2675471,517a,35y,39.26t/data=!3m1!1e3 [Accessed 11 Aug. 2017]...........................................................................136 Fig.88 Shetleston Housing Association Offices by Elder and Cannon in Glasgow. McManus, D., Lomholt, I., McManus, D. and Lomholt, I. (2010). Elder & Cannon - Architects Glasgow - e-architect. [online] e-architect.

Available at: https://www.e-architect.co.uk/architects/elder-cannon [Accessed 5 Aug. 2017].................................136 Fig.89 Trees along the water edge in Govan help slow down winds..............................................................................136 Fig.90 Argyle Arcade in Glasgow creates a beautiful covered extention to the area. Pinterest. (2012). Glasgow. [online] Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/523262050436153272/?lp=true [Accessed 11 Jul. 2017].137 Fig.91 Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems in Oregon, absorbing rain water and acting as traffic calming.

Pinterest. (2015). Stormwater Planters. [online] Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/thatstreetguy/ stormwater-planters/?lp=true [Accessed 9 Aug. 2017]....................................................................................................137 Fig.92 Restaurants along Kilmarnock Road with retractable awnings to encourage outdoor use even on rainy days...............................................................................................................................................................................................137 Fig.93 Sottish Poetry Library by Malcolm Fraser in Edinburgh (recently amended) with sunlit informal amphitheatre. Fraser, M. (2017). Malcolm Fraser on the Scottish Poetry Library. [online] Scotsman.com. Available at: http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/books/malcolm-fraser-on-the-scottish-poetry-library-1-3304393 [Accessed 12 Aug. 2017]..........................................................................................................................................................139

Fig.94 Kelvingrove Bandstand receives plenty of sunlight and is protected by surrounding vegetation. Glasgow Building Preservation Trust. (2016). Kelvingrove Bandstand. [online] Available at: http://gbpt.org/events/ kelvingrove-bandstand/ [Accessed 14 Jul. 2017].................................................................................................................139 Fig.95 Deciduous trees in Glasgow green let the light through during the winter days. Mypark.scot. (2017).

Glasgow Green | MyParkScotland. [online] Available at: https://www.mypark.scot/parks/glasgow-green-glasgow/ [Accessed 16 Aug. 2017]..........................................................................................................................................................139 Fig.96 Trees along the Clyde help slow down winds and create a more enjoyable micro-climate........................140 Fig.97 Building heights vary along the length of a block along Bath Street.................................................................140 Fig.98 A tower along Renfrew Street is surrounded by a podium, helping dissipate downdrafts. Google Maps. (2017). Google Maps. [online] Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/maps/@55.8662576,4.2570269,313a,35y,270h,39.38t/data=!3m1!1e3 [Accessed 16 Aug. 2017]................................................................140 Fig.99 The Umbrella at Bridgeton Cross is a covered space connected to the elements, allowing respite without removal. Glesga.ukpals.com. (2017). BriX at Main St. [online] Available at: http://www.glesga.ukpals.com/ streets/brixmainst.htm [Accessed 16 Aug. 2017]...............................................................................................................141 Fig.100 Bell’s Bridge in Glasgow offers a covered glazed overhead surface to protect from the elements........141 Fig.101 Covered route through the Park de la Villette in Paris, France. Rtl.fr. (2014). Felice Varini s’expose au Parc de la Villette à Paris. [online] Available at: http://www.rtl.fr/culture/arts-spectacles/felice-varini-s-expose-auparc-de-la-villette-a-paris-7777420335 [Accessed 7 Aug. 2017].....................................................................................141 Fig.102 The Hidden Garden behind the Tramway Theatre by Zoo Architects is south facing and warmed by the sun. Nugent, A. (2014). Tramway - A Hidden Treasure. [online] Groupon. Available at: https://www.groupon.co.uk/ articles/tramway-a-hidden-treasure [Accessed 2 Aug. 2017]..........................................................................................143

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Fig.103 Dundee Repertory Theatre by Nicoll Russell Studios is invitingly open, both during the day and at night.

Nicoll Nicoll Studios (2017). Gallery of Scotland’s Top 10 Buildings of the Century Revealed - 2. [online] ArchDaily. Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/793934/scotlands-top-10-buildings-of-the-century-revealed/57 bc89ece58ecedfe8000179-scotlands-top-10-buildings-of-the-century-revealed-photo [Accessed 6 Aug. 2017]143 Fig.104 House of Fraser festive lights in Glasgow illuminating the street edge. Caterlyst. (2015). House of Fraser announces record sales for festive period - See more at: https://www.caterlyst.com/c3t/insight/insight. aspx?n=8862#sthash.CmN5WgQW.dpuf. [online] Available at: https://www.caterlyst.com/c3t/insight/insight. aspx?n=8862 [Accessed 27 Jul. 2017]...................................................................................................................................143 Fig.105 Bay windows along a tenement block on West Princes Street, Glasgow......................................................144 Fig.106 Do Architecture’s re-interpretation of the traditional tenement in Govan, Glasgow. DO Architecture.

(2017). Park View, Govan. [online] Available at: http://www.do-architecture.co.uk/park-view-govan/ [Accessed 6 Aug. 2017].................................................................................................................................................................................. 144 Fig.107 Trees along George Square helps create protected spaces in an-otherwise exposed environment.

Urbanglasgow.co.uk. (1975). 65m overhaul for George Square eyesore office block. [online] Available at: http:// urbanglasgow.co.uk/archive/%C2%A365m-overhaul-for-george-square-eyesore-office-block__o_t__t_1392.html [Accessed 5 Aug. 2017]............................................................................................................................................................144 Fig.108 Seoul bus shelter offering partial protection from wind and rain without blocking through view.

Pinterest. (2017). Public facilities. [online] Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/443886106998951291/ ?lp=true [Accessed 7 Aug. 2017]...........................................................................................................................................145 Fig.109 Smart Ideas for Smarter Cities, interactive adverts offering temporary shelter from rain. Howarth, D. (2017). Ads with a New Purpose by Ogilvy & Mather for IBM. [online] Dezeen. Available at: https://www.dezeen. com/2013/06/12/ads-with-a-new-purpose-by-ogilvy-mather-for-ibm/ [Accessed 7 Aug. 2017]..............................145

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1 Fig.110 Central Station’s main entrance is extended with a glazed roof. Pinterest. (1960s). I belong to Glasgow.. [online] Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/duettists/i-belong-to-glasgow/ [Accessed 16 Aug. 2017]........145 Fig.112 The site photographed from the beach at low tide..........................................................................................148 Fig.111 The chosen site on the Seafield Promenade containing a long stretch of concrete blocks......................148 Fig.114 The two emerging themes that would guide our ideas: the view and the enjoyment of solitude...........149 Fig.113 Intervention 1: Talking to a man about his opinions on the area....................................................................149 Fig.115 Intervention 2: Prototyping a place to sit and ponder and asking passers-by about their thoughts.......150 Fig.116 The three themes that influenced our design: the view, the enjoyment of solitude and the tidal waves flowing onto the promenade once a month........................................................................................................................150 Fig.118 A young mother looking at the installation...........................................................................................................151 Fig.119 Users enjoying the view, sitting on the edge of the concrete blocks.............................................................151 Fig.117 A man taking a break from his cycle to enjoy a protected rest again the fins.............................................151 Fig.121 This formation was found to be more beautiful and sculptural, offering interest from far away and creating intimacy........................................................................................................................................................................152 Fig.120 This formation created a more interactive and social space............................................................................152 Fig.122 Sit and Enjoy, an invitation to pause and enjoy a more temperate micro-climactic environment............153

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