Figure 4-5 – Aggregation Centre at Wote Agricultural Training Centre (ATC

Figure 4-5 – Aggregation Centre at Wote Agricultural Training Centre (ATC)

Source: Atkins analysis 4.2.1.3. Development Phasing & Infrastructure

Crucially, the project should be developed in phases, with the initial focus being on the production and aggregation of mango and other fruit suitable for juicing and pulping (e.g. tomato, passion fruit, citrus, papaya, etc.), to ensure supplies to the Makueni Processing Plant, in Kalamba. The project could then expand into other horticultural produce, and later grains and livestock.

The aggregation hub would benefit from being private sector led venture, with some public sector involvement. The private sector would be needed for the development of effective marketing and sales networks, the creation and delivery of efficient finance and insurance products, cost-effective logistics and good overall fiscal management. The public sector stakeholder/s (County Government or Municipality) could ensure a strong regulatory base, supporting the enabling environment and engagement with the farming community and cooperatives.

For the aggregation hub, the ATC are open to hosting commercial activities, and currently ANI Oils (formerly AGIP) are setting up a biofuel plant using cotton seedcake, croton nuts and caster seeds on the site.

The ATC Kwa Kathoka site has adequate infrastructure for its own activities, but going forward, improvements are required to support the additional needs of the aggregation hub and also to provide improved resilience.

> Water is sourced from a borehole on the site, and while the yield is low, it is sufficient for the ATC’s current needs.

Additional water extraction, harvesting and storage capacity would be needed for the hub. > Electricity is provided to the site through a connection to the KPLC grid, with interruptions in supply being covered by on-site diesel generators. Additional power would be needed to cover general use at the hub as well as for the cold storage, and there is scope for roof-top PV. > The site has good road connectivity, being close to the

Wote-Makindu highway, but the last 300 metres into the

ATC is an earth road. With the additional vehicle activity expected with the aggregation hub with a requirement for year-round access, this segment would need to be upgraded (refer to proforma section 4.2.2.1). > Organic waste on the site is currently composted, but the ATC are planning for an anaerobic digestor which, depending on capacity, could be used for any organic waste from the sorting and packing activities of the hub (over-ripe and damaged produce).

4.2.1.4. Climate Smart Support Services

As a semi-arid County with a high reliance on agriculture, Makueni is vulnerable to climate hazards and already experiences a high variability in yields from year to year based on climatic conditions. The County’s experience with the County Climate Change Fund has put Makueni in a strong position to adapt to climate change and ensuring local resilience. Building on these strong foundations and given the high level of awareness of climate change locally, the aggregation hub model offers an opportunity to provide a range of services that will strengthen agricultural resilience to climate change. This will ultimately both improve the reliability of the supply of produce to the VCs and improve farming livelihoods – including access to inclusive finance and insurance, delivery of extension services and focused training programmes.

The Climate Secretariat in the County have identified the most at-risk wards across Makueni based on a combination of factors (weather, poverty indicators, etc.) and have established stakeholder groups in the priority wards. These groups are then supported in identifying projects and developing proposals. Projects have mostly focussed on water (rainwater harvesting, sand dams, etc.), though some green energy projects are now under discussion. A significant part of the Secretariat’s work is in dissemination of information to the ward groups, using SMS and WhatsApp. While additional work is needed to extend the Secretariat’s reach across the County, they have a well-established network that the aggregation hub could link in to. The position of the Climate Secretariat should be strengthened upon completion of the Climate Change Act, with it then becoming a full operational County department.

This section outlines the climate-smart support services to be delivered through the Climate Smart Centres to enhance both the resilience and productivity of the sector, whilst improving inclusion of excluded groups. The model for the Climate Smart Aggregation and Service Centres is to build on, and collaborate with, successful programmes which already exist in the County, including, among others, existing agriculture extension services, SACCOs and other farmer-based organisations, and three leading programmes: Village-Based Advisors (VBAs), PROFIT and KCEP-CRAL. These programmes, as well as other national and international examples of successful climate-smart support services, are presented as best practice case studies to guide the implementation process within the centres.

Case Study 4-1: Privatisation of agricultural services

Commercialisation of agricultural advisory services

While most countries have established extension services to support their agricultural sectors, many of these have now been commercialised in order to make them sustainable and immune to government budget cuts. Two established services are CACSH in the Caribbean, which is a commercial but government-owned operation, and ADAS in the UK which is fully privatised.

Caribbean Agricultural Commercial Services Hub (CACSH)

The Hub was established to deliver goods and services provided by CARDI (Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute), operating as a self-sustaining business.

Their services now include advice on soil and water management, pest and disease control, business planning and farm management. CARDI also support work on the development of agriculture value chains across the Caribbean including hydroponics, coconut processing, abattoirs and the Ebini Integrated Agribusiness Project in Guyana (a 5,000-acre mixed farm that maximises the circular economy). CARDI supply fertilisers, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, seeds and plants, from approved producers focussing on local companies.

ADAS

Originally part of the UK Ministry of Agriculture, ADAS (Agriculture Development and Advisory Service) was privatised in 1997.

ADAS provide regular advisory services to all its members, as well as a range of consultancy and contracting services covering all aspects of farming and environmental management. Though privately run, ADAS prioritise environmental and social interests, and will not partake in projects that may be environmentally or socially damaging.

With over 300 full-time employees plus 250 part-time contractors, the company is the largest independent agriculture advisory service in Europe, and now exports its services worldwide.

A1: Improve access to inclusive finance and insurance

Research consistently shows that access to agricultural insurance products significantly increases yields, and in turn household incomes. In particular, weather-based index insurance products, which can be triggered by remotely monitored metrics such as rainfall or temperature thresholds, provide a way of reducing costs to the point where premiums become affordable to small farmers. With rainfall variability an increasing threat to farmers, expanding insurance coverage in the County would be an effective way of building resilience.

There are, however, a number of very clear barriers to insurance uptake across many of Kenya’s farming communities, including: the perceived value of insurance and the cost of premiums paid up front with no guarantee of a return; the difficulty in aggregating demand to make an insurance pool attractive to insurers, and the mismatch between farmer needs for insurance and the products currently available. The Climate Smart Aggregation Centre provides an opportunity address these barriers and facilitate access to inclusive and appropriate forms of insurance for the agriculture and livestock sector. Building on the experience of successful projects such as Pula’s ‘Pay at Harvest’ model in Nigeria, the mechanism below could lead to more effective uptake of insurance: > VC companies engage with insurers, and draw on their network of suppliers to ensure commercially viable demand for insurance products; > The companies pay insurance premiums upfront on behalf of their suppliers; > The companies pay their farmers for produce in the normal way, and a small part of the proceeds of the sale is retained by the VC company to cover the cost of the insurance premium – in this way farmers only feel that they are paying at a point at which they have income.

If contract farming is being used (see Action A7), this mechanism can be written into the contract; > If a pay-out occurs, farmers receive the benefit of insurance, and repay the premium to the VC companies.

To enhance climate resilience within this model, the VC companies could opt for weather-based insurance products and incentivise climate-smart farming practices among their farmers in the form of reduced premiums for farmers who, for example, are practising water-conserving techniques. Because weather-based schemes pay-out based on environmental triggers, and not recorded losses, there is an incentive for farmers to adopt resilient practices – if a farmer is able to maintain a reasonable yield despite poor conditions, they may benefit from an insurance pay-out while at the same time being able to sell their produce to the VC.

In Makueni, both the Program for Rural Outreach of Financial Innovations and Technologies (PROFIT), and Kenya Cereals Enhancement Programme Climate Resilience Agricultural Livelihoods project have been working with financial institutions to provide farmers with better access to finance and financial products (see case study 4-2 and 4-3). NEMA, meanwhile included enhanced access to insurance as part of its concept note to the GCF for the Makueni Climate Resilience and Food Security project. This experience, and recognition of insurance as a key tool with which to build resilience, could be leveraged to support the provision of insurance through the Climate Smart Centres. Case Study 4-2: Program for Rural Outreach of Financial Innovations and Technologies, Kenya

The Program for Rural Outreach of Financial Innovations and Technologies (PROFIT) was developed and tested in Kenya from 2010 to 2019. Promoted by the IDB and AGRA, the aim of the Program was to provide financial services along the agriculture value chain, with the objective of improving the productivity, profitability and resilience of small-scale rural stakeholders.

The Program sought to work with established financial institutions, overcoming the existing barriers associated with loans (perception of high risk and little or no collateral), through the provision of blended finance combined with technical assistance – which was determined to be a critical factor for successful lending. The blended finance used concessional capital to partially de-risk lending to farmers. Risks are further reduced through the provision of insurance and technical support (including new farming techniques and market linkages), while operating through SACCOs and other farmer-based groups spreads the individual risks.

Case Study 4-3: Kenya Cereals Enhancement Programme Climate Resilience Agricultural Livelihoods

The Kenya Cereals Enhancement Programme Climate Resilience Agricultural Livelihoods (KCEP-CRAL) project promotes regenerative agriculture through land and water management and farming of drought tolerant crops, focusing on cereals and legumes. To date the project has benefited just under 15,000 households in Makueni County.

The project, which is in its third year, provides technical advice and financing to farmers (on a declining cost sharing basis over three years), supporting their transition to regenerative agricultural practices and crops. Credit lines are linked to approved suppliers and service providers. The project has a broad range of partners including donors and Government departments, including Kenya Meteorological Department and the National Disaster Management Authority.

A2: Create practical and business training programmes for farmers

Limited knowledge of effective farming and livestock management practices was acknowledged as a significant issue constraining the agriculture and livestock sector in Wote. This also includes a lack of business support and knowledge sharing with regards to marketing strategies, value addition and supply chain management. Through the Climate Smart Aggregation and Service Centres, it is envisioned that the established Village-Based Advisors model (see case study 4-4) can be built upon to address these issues, both by expanding the number of advisors in the County, and also providing additional training and expertise in relation to climate-smart agricultural practices.

Farmers’ understanding of the potential impacts of climate change for the community’s livelihoods is critical to ensuring climate-smart sector growth, thus creating awareness of climate change impacts and improving the resilience of agriculture and livestock practices should be the initial target of training. Building on the strong foundations established by the County Climate Change Fund, and the relatively high level of awareness of climate change, the Climate Smart Aggregation Centres provide an opportunity to deliver a range of localised practical and business training initiatives that will develop farmers’ adaptation skills, improve water efficiency and enhance access to climate risk information (Section 4.2.1). As outlined for Kwa Kathoka ATC in the ADP, farms could also be utilised as test beds for practical training, with improved yields demonstrated in participating farms in other counties previously. Development of integrated and focused training programmes for farmers and pastoralists across Makueni County should consider the following subjects as a minimum:

> Information on maximising productivity and resource efficiency. Collaboration with national projects aimed at improving agricultural productivity and value addition, such as the National Agricultural and Rural Inclusive

Growth Project (see case study 4-4) should be explored in order to facilitate this. Provision of support could include assisting farmers in undertaking soil testing to identify the most suitable fertilisers, in addition to training on efficient implementation of livestock management.

It will also be important for farmers to gain knowledge on relevant benefits and costs of agricultural inputs and how to best use them; > Climate-smart techniques that will enable farmers and pastoralists to be prepared for more variable weather events and reduce the current dependence on rain-fed farming during dry seasons. For instance, this could include collaborating with the Kenya Climate Smart Programme on techniques like water harvesting to improve water availability and increase resilience. Training on how to access and interpret weather and climate information will also help in adapting to climate change (see Action A4); > Improving understanding of available crop and livestock varieties, including which have optimal output and are most resilient to temperature fluctuations and droughts, in preparation for the introduction of such varieties in Action A3; > Strategies for protecting crops and livestock against pests and disease, including the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and best practice. Farms could also be utilised as test beds for agricultural students, with improved yields demonstrated in participating farms when students collaborate with farmers; > Provide support and accessible information regarding the process of acquiring business certificates and other necessary documentation for trading of produce, as well as business management practices such as marketing, accounting and supply chain management. This should include advice on how farmers can best position themselves to benefit from Wote’s agri-processing facilities (Section 4.3.1) and long-term contract farming (Action A7).

Due to social norms, discrimination or reduced participation in cooperatives, SIGs often lack access to information about training or extension services. In particular, remote farming communities can have difficulties attending training centres due to transport costs, mobility restrictions, or time availability. In response to this, training initiatives should consider visiting local communities to provide training programmes, tailored to be culturally appropriate and relevant for the community’s practices. It is recommended that a cohort of young people are trained as peer educators for the Climate Smart Aggregation Centres, as individuals will be more likely to engage in training if developed by peers. Training a youth cohort (or a cohort of other SIGs) could also represent an opportunity for additional income. In addition, the location, timing and length of trainings should be compatible with women’s care and community responsibilities to encourage their participation. A clear, well-designed communication strategy in a format and language accessible to all should be implemented to inform communities about training opportunities and the associated benefits in terms of increased production and revenues.

Case Study 4-4: National Agricultural & Rural Inclusive Growth Project (NARIGP), Kenya5

NARIGP is a national government project, implemented through the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Irrigation and the State Department for Crop Development, with funding support from the World Bank. Introduced in 21 counties, including Makueni, the project’s objective is to increase agricultural productivity and the profitability of identified priority value chains among selected smallholder farming communities. NARIGP also aims to provide an immediate and effective response to rural communities in the event of an eligible crisis or emergency.

One of the core goals of NARIGP is to support the strengthening of farming co-operatives and training institutions that help farmers and communities work together to improve productivity and value addition, and to achieve efficiency and economies of scale. Key activities include: (i) developing value chains and commercial agriculture; (ii) improving catchment management practices; (iii) promoting innovative technology, farming methods and sustainable agricultural practices that help target beneficiaries to improve efficiency and quality of their production; and (iv) complementing existing subsistence strategies that promote climate resilience with new measures such as efficient irrigation, drought and disease-tolerant crop varieties and erosion controls, as well as dissemination of climate information (e.g. seasonal and long-term forecasts).

NARIGP also aims to support County governments and other partners to strengthen their roles and capacity as enablers of community-led initiatives for farmers and vulnerable population, including integrating community-led interventions in County Integrated Development Planning (CIDP) and budgeting processes.

5 Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Irrigation (2018) National Agriculture and Rural Inclusive Growth Project: Vulnerable and Marginalized Groups Framework. A3: Introduce technology and extension services to improve resilience and productivity

Sector productivity has been restricted by low adoption of appropriate modern technologies and the high costs of inputs and productive resources. As a result, there is a need for enhanced access to technologies and infrastructure that could increase sector resilience and productivity. Furthermore, existing unsustainable farming practices continue to damage Wote’s already fragile ecosystems, including issues with agrochemicals polluting water sources through run-off. In order to address these issues, there is a pressing requirement for the introduction of modern, sustainable technologies and management practices across the farming community. Building on the VBA model (see case study 4-5), it is envisioned that the Climate Smart Aggregation and Service Centres will support the expansion of extension services, making use of the aggregation system that ensures regular visits to different farms or local centres, which can provide practical support on the effective implementation of climate-smart practices and technologies.

A viable option for the introduction of modern technology is the availability of communal resources, for instance through operationalisation of an agricultural resource centre at the Climate Smart Aggregation and Service Centre, which can be booked to use by cooperatives, thus reducing the upfront capital cost for individuals and encouraging collaboration. With the Climate Smart Centre also facilitating access to credit, individual farmers can be supported to buy necessary inputs from trusted suppliers (as with the KCEP model), overcoming the problem of access to reliable sources of seed for climate-resilient crops, for example. This will particularly benefit SIGs, smallholder farmers and cultural minorities, and vulnerable groups who are disproportionally affected by the impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, it will be crucial to prioritise culturally appropriate and affordable options, or to provide financial and technical support to these groups. Introducing climate-smart technologies can also represent employment opportunities for SIGs. Appropriate technology and climate-smart management practices to consider include:

> Crop varieties with increased resilience to climatic shocks and insufficient soil moisture, including promotion of drought resistant crops such as green grams and millet, which will reduce the vulnerability of the sector. This should incorporate intercropping to deliver a greater yield on a certain piece of land; > Improved livestock management practices, for instance fodder production and conservation for drought periods, as well as the adoption of local breeds with increased resilience to increasing temperatures and droughts.

More climate-resistant breeds are typically in a better position to fight diseases. For Makueni, small-scale farmers are encouraged to focus on indigenous livestock breeds, such as Maasai Zebu cattle or Galla goats. In addition, cross-breeding that is heat-stress and disease-tolerant is another option for improving livestock breeds and reducing mortality; > Rangeland reseeding accompanied by reduction, or temporary exclusion, of livestock numbers as appropriate to rehabilitate overgrazed rangelands and minimise land damage. Pastoralists are also encouraged to increase the practice of rotational grazing, which will minimise damage to land through overgrazing and reduce health risks; > Use of conservation land tillage by small-scale farmers to guard against poor yields and high production costs.

This involves any method of soil cultivation that leaves the previous year’s crop residue on fields after planting to reduce land degradation and runoff, supply additional organic matter for soil improvement, in addition to other benefits such as carbon sequestration. Animal-drawn or manual ploughs are also recommended for small plots to limit fuel emissions from tractors and reduce the costs associated with hiring equipment;

> Introduction of green houses, enabling farmers to diversify production and enhance resilience to climatic shocks.

Green houses are typically more effective in terms of water and nutrient management, as well as protection against pests and disease; > Support and development of micro AD technology at farms, which can generate gas and fertiliser from animal and human waste. This could include the introduction of simple and affordable systems like rubber-balloon biogas plants6. The produced gas can be recovered and used directly for cooking and lighting, while the nutrient-rich sludge can be utilised as a fertiliser; > Enhancing water availability through simple and affordable mechanisms, including dug wells on small plots and drip irrigation that can generate significant increases in water use efficiency; and > Renewable energy options, for instance solar energy at farm level to support small-scale activities such as irrigation, as described in Section 4.2.2.

Finance is a critical enabler for introducing climate-smart technology and management practices, with significant opportunities within the Climate Smart Centres to mobilise finance to accelerate the low-carbon transition in the agriculture and livestock sector. For instance, livestock credits could be introduced to the community for methane offsets, whereby farmers are paid for methane-reducing actions such as using high-quality feed or methane-inhibiting antibiotics. For such programmes to be successful, a trusting relationship will need to be developed between the farming community and facilitators of livestock credits, for example through training and workshops.

6 Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Luethi, C., Reymond, P. and Zurbruegg, C. (2014) Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. Dubendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology. Case Study 4-5: Village-Based Advisors (VBA), Kenya

The VBA model was designed by AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa) in response to the decline in extension services to agriculture. The objective is to provide targeted and financially sustainable advisory services, based on regenerative and climate smart agriculture, which could be replicated throughout the agriculture sector.

Under the model, VBAs are chosen in consultation with other farmers, in most cases being leading farmers who are well trusted. The VBAs are given training on relevant agronomics (including fertiliser use, drought tolerant crops, improved varieties and irrigation methods), and are also linked to input companies (such as suppliers of seed, fertiliser, livestock and irrigation infrastructure). The VBAs monetarise their role through commissions on sales of inputs, as well as through organising and aggregating sales of produce.

The model has been rolled out to three counties in Kenya, including Makueni, where it operates in three sub-counties: Makueni, Kaiti and Kibwezi West. There are plans to expand coverage. To date around 50,000 farmers in Kenya are registered with VBAs. Each VBA supports up to 700 farmers, through both visits in person and via AgriBot, a digital chat platform developed by Microsoft. The AgriBot allows VBAs a low cost means of providing support (including weather forecasts, price information and advice) to those farmers registered with them.

The VBA work in parallel with the County Extension Volunteers (CEV). While the CEVs are recruited by the County and paid a stipend, the VBAs are trained in agriculture and entrepreneurship and are leading the new Agriculture and Livestock Policy which promotes private sector engagement in extension service provision.

A4: Provide accessible and tailored climate information

The Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) produces seasonal forecasts and advisories that are downscaled to the County-level and can be tailored to specific crops. There is, in general, a gap between producing the information, and ensuring that it can be properly interpreted and applied; understanding what action is sensible given a forecast of below average precipitation, for example. Progress is already being made in this area through the VBAs, CEVs and KCEP services, and the local Climate Smart Aggregation and Service Centres provide an opportunity to work further with KMD to support extension workers to carry out interpretation sessions for farmers around seasonal forecasts.

Enhanced capacity to understand and use seasonal forecasts benefits both agri-processing VCs, as well as farmers, by allowing climate-informed decisions around planting and crop management, and thus reducing losses. KMD have previously run Participatory Scenario Processes (PSPs) targeted at specific crops in a number of different counties, and the Kenya Climate Smart Agriculture Project (KCSAP) also provides services to strengthen the use of agri-climatic information, both of which provide a good model to build on. The design of this service should explicitly consider the role of poor farmers and their ability to access, and act on, climate information. If coupled with services to improve farmers’ access to credit, the seasonal forecasts can be a trigger to invest in farm inputs that, for example, increase the ability to withstand below average rainfall conditions. 4.2.1.5. Supporting Mechanisms and Capacity-building Interventions

In order to best prepare the farming community of Wote, and the wider Makueni County, to benefit from the aggregation approach and In order to best prepare the farming community of Wote Municipality to benefit from the aggregation approach (section 4.2.1.1) and supporting services (section 4.2.1.4) proposed for the Climate Smart Centres, the following capacity-building interventions and soft initiatives should be implemented. These interventions can be adopted early in the implementation process to maximise the potential benefits of the Centres for the County’s agricultural and livestock producers, whilst also enhancing the resilience of the sector and improving inclusion of excluded groups.

A5: Organise farmers into cooperatives to share resources and maximise benefits from the Climate Smart Aggregation and Service Centres

Wote Municipality has significant land available for agricultural and livestock production, including relatively fertile soils and substantial livestock resources. However, the sector is characterised by low productivity and subsistence farming, relying on traditional rain-fed methods with low utilisation of appropriate technologies and improved seed/ livestock varieties. The business consultation process highlighted that the cost of farming inputs is prohibitively high in Wote, and, in many cases, this results in farmers using poor quality inputs – particularly in regard to fertilisers, seeds, pest-management products and livestock feeds. Furthermore, stakeholder engagement in Wote indicated that it is predominantly elder members of the community who own agricultural land and hold onto it to benefit from the products cultivated there, resulting in increased issues with access to land and conflict between generations regarding inheritance of ancestral land. In addition to these conflicts, restricted access to land poses further issues for acquiring loans or grants, due to a lack of individual collateral. One primary intervention to support farmers in addressing the challenges associated with limited access to finance and land should be to promote existing cooperatives or the formation of new groups for small-scale farmers. The majority of farmers in the County are members of existing farming groups or cooperatives, however some still operate as individuals. Crucially, enhancing the capacity and membership of existing cooperatives will allow farmers to maximise their benefits from the Climate Smart Aggregation Centres and establish communal resources and services through the anchor project, in turn reducing the upfront capital costs for members, and also fostering collaboration and knowledge sharing7. Sharing resources signifies a central component of the circular economy and climate-smart development, encouraging maximum utilisation of a single resource. Several elements of infrastructure, resources and services could be shared:

> Equipment and infrastructure – including cold storage facilities, farming equipment and delivery vehicles.

Emerging digital technology platforms could be employed to enable this process. For example, the Hello Tractor platform, which is gaining prominence in Kenya, connects small-scale farmers to tractor owners to temporarily hire otherwise idle vehicles. The outcome is convenient and affordable tractor services for farmers and an additional income source for tractor owners8 . > Resources and services – including the supply of agricultural inputs and delivery services, as well as knowledge sharing regarding best practices and business strategies like marketing, branding and price determination. Members could also profit from economies of scale relating to the transportation of produce to the County’s agri-processing facilities, markets and the Climate Smart Aggregation Centres.

7 FAO, Mobilizing Capital in Agricultural Service Cooperatives (1997). 8 The Borgen Project, Bringing African Farmers into the Digital Revolution (2019) Available at: https://borgenproject.org/tag/hello-tractor/ (Accessed: 12/02/2022).

As discussed, the community of small-scale farmers in Wote have reported a lack of access to finance and agricultural land as a significant constraint to developing into commercial farming, as well as farming training initiatives.

This includes difficulties in obtaining loans or grants, in particular, when they have little to no collateral – such as land, capital or property deeds. Based on the GeSI findings, cooperatives should be actively encouraged to exclude ownership of land as a requirement for their membership, in turn providing small-scale farmers with a platform for accessing a reliable finance source that requires alternative forms of collateral, for instance via table banking schemes. In order to address family conflicts over land, cooperatives could also consider running awareness workshops with entire households, with the potential for such meetings to be hosted at the local Climate Smart Aggregation Centres.

The Climate Smart Aggregation Centres incorporate inclusive options for facilitating access to agricultural insurance products. Prior to establishment of the Climate Smart Centres, another alternative option to maximise small-scale farmers’ access to inclusive and reliable finance is the formation of Village Savings and Lending Associations (VSLAs). Otherwise known as ‘chamas’, a VSLA comprises a collection of individuals (typically between 20 and 30) who collaborate to accumulate savings and take small loans from those savings. After a specified period, the accrued savings and the loan profits are shared amongst the group’s members. This provides opportunities for farmers who may otherwise have limited or no access to conventional banking services that require collateral for credit accessibility. Several NGOs operating in Kenya have acknowledged the importance of VSLAs in generating a secure method of saving, as well as the opportunity to borrow on flexible terms and obtain affordable basic insurance. Consequently, several organisations are supporting VSLAs by building the capacity of members to operate their groups effectively (see case study 4-6), with the opportunity for existing cooperatives to join forces with such groups going forward.

To improve social inclusion within the sector, it will be critical for cooperatives to promote collaboration among SIGs and provide accessible information on available funds and how to access them, including the Tetheka Fund, the Women Enterprise Fund, the Uwezo Fund, and the Youth Enterprise Development Fund9. Cooperatives can also be organised to engage and progressively include SIGs in agricultural development activities and decision-making processes10 . Case Study 4-6: Joyful Women Organisation (JOYWO), Kenya

Founded in 2009, JOYWO is a registered NGO with the mandate to promote the economic empowerment of women in Kenya and beyond through financial inclusion, collective agency, voice and influence. At present, the organisation includes a membership of over 100,000 women across all 47 counties, with each member situated within a local cooperative or community savings group.

The NGO’s flagship project has been the provision of financial resources to women to engage in livelihood projects by facilitating and promoting table banking. Through this model, a group meets once a month and members save money, take loans from the contributions made and make repayments for loans taken. In order to be a member, the group must have between 10 and 20 participants, with at least 70% being women who are engaged in income generating activities.

JOYWO aims to strengthen and develop the skills of its member groups to adapt and thrive in the changing world, this includes periodical training on table banking, business and entrepreneurial skills, modern agricultural methods and access to government procurement opportunities, as well as developing linkages with financial institutions.

9 Chamasoft, Table Banking: The Concept of Table Banking (2015) Available at: https://blog. chamasoft.com/table-banking-the-concept-of-table-banking/ (Accessed: 28/10/2021). 10 Sifa, C.B., Role of Cooperatives in Agricultural Development and Food Security in Africa (2014) Available at: Role of cooperatives in agriculture in Africa (un.org) (Accessed: 28/10/2021).

A6: Establish reliable water sources for farmers and pastoralists

Changing weather patterns, particularly due to climate change, increasingly threaten the productivity of the agriculture and livestock sector in Wote and the wider region, which typically depends on rain-fed farming. Farmers have reported an increase in drought conditions and extreme heat in Makueni County and there is recognition that a combination of changes in rainfall, population growth, and deforestation have combined to reduce water availability. The Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment study (Appendix D) demonstrates that this situation is likely to worsen over time. In the long term, the Thwake Dam mega project is a major opportunity to address several of these barriers in water supply and irrigation. Once construction is finished, the KES 82 billion dam is anticipated to supply Makueni County with fresh water, hydroelectric power and water for irrigation. If completed as planned, is anticipated that around 44,531 m3/day of water will be treated and supplied to Makueni on a daily basis, thus easing some of the problems associated with water scarcity in the County11. Phase four of construction will include the irrigation of areas both upstream, with the aid of water pumping, and downstream of the dam in Makueni and Kitui Counties, in turn enhancing agricultural output and therefore food security in the semi-arid regions. However, in the short and medium-term, interventions are required to help alleviate the pressing agricultural challenges associated with water scarcity arising within the Municipality.

The first step in addressing water scarcity should be the creation of a holistic water management strategy for Wote, taking account of climate change risks, the impact of sector activities on water quantity and quality, and the sector’s requirements, aligning these with the Municipality’s water needs.

11 The Star, Thwake Dam slowly takes shape with works 46% complete (2021) Available at: https://www.the-star.co.ke/counties/eastern/2021-02-17-thwake-dam-slowly-takes-shapewith-works-46-complete/ (Accessed: 11/02/2022). Considering the future potential of the Thwake Dam, this should seek to incorporate the solar irrigation project (contained in Section 4.2.2) and further inclusive and affordable household-level interventions such as:

> Sustainably planned community boreholes. Boreholes will increase farmers’ capacity to irrigate crops and provide drinking water to livestock in rural areas not served by the domestic water supply system; > Properly constructed and covered dug wells on small plots like gardens for household drinking purposes; > Expanded use of soil conservation techniques.

The Livelihoods Fund focuses on land restoration to improve food security and conserve water resources12 .

Soil moisture can also be preserved by encouraging the use of organic manure that enhances water retention capacity; > Insurance for farmers who adopt solar-power irrigation systems (SPIS) as part of the solar irrigation project (see 4.2.2.4). For instance, the Counties of Turkana and

Isiolo encourage the uptake of financial and insurance facilities for purchase of SPIS13; and > Within the provision of climate-smart training at the

Aggregation Centres (Action A4), suitable training and guidance should also be available for farmers and agro-pastoralists regarding the use of irrigation and crop management techniques to improve yields.

12 Farming First, Smallholder Resilience Starts with Soils (2018) Available at: https:// farmingfirst.org/2018/05/why-increasing-smallholder-resilience-starts-with-soils/ (Accessed: 11/02/2022). 13 Panafricare, Building Irrigation Infrastructure in Turkana, Kenya (2021) Available at: https://panafricarekenya.org/1144/building-irrigation-infrastructure-in-turkana-kenya/ (Accessed: 12/02/2022). Such interventions should be promoted through the farmer groups and cooperatives outlined in Action A1 to encourage social inclusion, as well as the Climate Smart Aggregation Centres. This should be accompanied by initiatives such as changing farmer groups and associations’ membership requirements and developing awareness sessions to promote SIGs’ participation in decision-making processes and enhancing their access to information.

Organisations such as Kenya Integrated Water Sanitation and Hygiene Programme and the AfDB’s Kenya Towns Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Programme have already introduced similar measures elsewhere in Kenya. Currently there are limited local NGO initiatives targeting reliable water sources in Wote, however this presents an opportunity for local farming groups to be directly involved in designing and implementing interventions that will maximise benefits for the Municipality’s farming and pastoralist community.

4.2.2 Climate Resilient Infrastructure Projects

4.2.2.1. Project 1: Aggregation Accessibility Network Model

Project Overview

Wote’s agriculture sector is dominated by small-scale farming. These farms are dispersed across the region, and farmers rarely organize around input or output markets and other agricultural services such as transport and warehousing. Roads to farm areas are usually unpaved and in poor conditions which impacts on market accessibility and affects quality of produce during transit. This translates into high transport costs of inputs and outputs leading to expensive produce. To reduce these costs, aggregation of farms and farms produce through a collection network can aid reduce these costs and can create a platform for farmers to thrive. The proposed aggregation facility to be located in Kwa Kathoka is expected to be a focal point for delivery of aggregation and farmer extension service. The site is located southwest of Wote, close to the Wote - Makindu road which provides connectivity to key centres such as Wote, Kathonzweni and Makindu. To the north, the site is served by an unpaved road which connects to Kwa Mutune where it joins a planned new road that links to Thwake Dam and the surrounding agricultural productive areas planned to be placed under irrigation.

The aggregation hub would be supported by a network of local collection centres where produce would be collected, packed and dispatched to markets and processors, and farm inputs (seeds, feed, fertiliser, etc.) would be picked by farmers. The local centres could comprise existing collection centres many of which are underutilised and markets, which already serve as natural points for aggregation. In addition, areas such as Thwake (particularly after the completion of the Thwake irrigation scheme) and related locations along Galana river are set to be significant source of produce and the collection network could be expanded to include these areas. Poor roads limit the ability of extension agents to reach farmers and farmers to reach markets. It will be important to consider roads and aggregation services simultaneously due to strong complementarities between them. The aggregation centre services around advice and training on farming practices, and improved access to finance and insurance would enable farmers to capitalize on market access. While improvement to rural roads connectivity would facilitate the access to the services, reduce transport costs and increase access to market opportunities that further incentivize the take up of the farmer advisory services.

The map in Figure 4-6 shows the roads assessed to be part of the accessibility network connecting the aggregation hub and dispersed collection centres. Based on current conditions a subset of these roads need improvement to support movement of about 100,000 tonnes of produce per year to the aggregation hub which would equate to around 50 to 60 truck movements per day. Priority should be placed on first developing the network to the collection centres currently being developed at Kalongo, Kavuthu and Kalawani together with targeted improvements to sections of the network in poor condition particularly along the access road to ATC site. The ATC access road is earth but access is frequently maintained. Improvements are required where condition is poor and should be considered for paving along the entire stretch.

The aggregation hub would be operating its own logistics in the first instance to build the network of farmers and guarantee quality control of the produce. In the long run, there could be potential to outsource the distribution and logistics operations to a third-party logistics partner that can consolidate orders with those of other clients to offer more efficient services at reduced rates.