Before you fly Asiana, we'd like to introduce you to a few of your travelling companior1s in First and Business Class. They come from all over the world and you will find them on every Asiana flight. From the finest Chateau Talbot, to the full bodied flavour of a vintage Zinfandel from Ca/ifomia's most exclusive vineyards. Of course, even; single bottle is only brought aboard a few hours before you fly. Just enough time to reach the perfect temperature to complement our First Class Menu.
But as we wouldn't want you to tire of your travelling companions, we van; the wi11e list to match the variety of our menus. So, should you need to loosen your be/Ito make room for the cheese, you can relax in the knowledge that our seats are among the widest in the air. So wide, in fact, that you'll only ever find two abreast. After all, two's company and three's a crowd.
''
~
/
The Jewel of Asia
, ... Asiana
• Reservations · ARS: (02) n4·6688 • Seoul (02)774-4000• Pusan (051) 465-4000 • Toegu (053)421-4000 • Kwongju (062) 226-4000• Cheju (064)43-4000• Ulsan (0522)61-4000 • Pohang(0562)77 -4000• Chinju (0591 )758-4000 • Andong(0571 )54-4000• M:>kpo(0631)78-4000 • Yolll (0662)652-4000 • Taejon(042)284 -4000 •Inchon (032)872-4000 • M:>Sa1(0551 )22-4000• Suuxm (03311216-4000
BEAUTY OF KOREA
POKCHORI The simple object pictured above was once a common household utensil. The "chori" or scoop was used to separate rice from the sand and stones that inadvettently were harvested along with the grains. Although the chori has lost most of its practical use today, it still has a great deal of symbolic meaning. Stacked in twos or threes sometimes, and hung in the home, the chori reflects the
hope tha~ as precious rice was once collected in its scoop, so too, will much gcxxl fottune be left there also. Long ago, on the last clay of the final month of the lunar year, chori sellers would roam the streets and alleys shouting that they had special "pok(gcxxl f01tune)chori" for sale. Koreans felt it important to buy this object as soon after midnight or as early in the morning as possible to ensure gcxxl fottune for the coming year. +
6
~
s COVER:
. KOREAN ART & CULTURE
c
The sot, a traditional
0 iron kettle, is a symbol of good housekeeping. When family moves,
considered to be
6
History of Korean Dietary Culture by Yun .500-srok
T
12
E
The Scientific Significance of Traditional Korean Food by An Myungsoo
N
the beginning of housekeeping. (See pages 46- 53)
A Taste of Korean Life
N
putting the sot on the fireplace was
TRADITIONAL FOOD:
T
s
14
Dietary Customs and their Characteristics by Kang In-tee 20 Life's Milestones:
Ceremonies andby Park Food Tae-sun 28 Korean Holidays:
Customs andbyFood Yim ]aefJae 36
TABLE SETTING &COOKERY by Han Pok-chin 44 ALife Dedicated To Re-establishing Tradition
Hwang Hye-song Expert on Choson Royal Cuisine by Koh jae-sung
46
The Kitchen by Kim Kwang-6n •
Korea Foundation t>g~4.i!-\'Pl
I
S6KOREChong-)u of so chong-ju: the poethry f the space and tnSeatC 0
Colors of Life !ryKimHUXl-young
v
Chung-ju
Thfee poems of S6
··········· ··············
: ~"'
···················
~
·· ~ · ~ · oid Man's Song
62 KOREAN ARTISTS ABROAD
Korean Women Shine on New York Opera Stage by Kim &Jnghi
KOREANA Published quarterly by the Korea Folllldation Sal~ Namdaemunno, Chung.gu, Seoul, Korea KOREANA 'NaS registered as a quarterly magazine with the Mini.<t1y of Infonnation, the Republic of Korea, on August 8, 19l7 Registration Nofu-1033. ©The Korea Folllldation 19)2. All rifiJts re;en;ai No jXJrt rf this publimtion may l:x! reprrxluarl in anyfonn witl:xJut tl:x!priorJX!I1nislion rf tl:x! KormRJundation 7l:x3 opinions expi'ES"Ui by tl:x! autfxJrs do not nf1:&Jrily repiTN!I'It tlm3 rf tl:x! tditors rfKOREANA or tl:x! Korm RJundation ·
PUBLISHER/EDITOR &:)N Chu-Whan
66
ART DIRECTOR Park&':llllg-u
NEWSMAKER
KIMSOU
CffiCULATION OvenHJS The Korea Folllldation
Art of Harmonism: AFirst at the Pushkin Museum by Na &Ingman
C!D. Box 2147, Sroul, Koret Tei(02) 7526171 Fax: (02) 757-3}49
70
Dlmestic
ON THE ROAD Myung-Hwa~
Tea and the Life It Offers
ClD Box 70)2, Sroul, Korel
Tel (02)274-5443, :WLW
Ilchi-am Hermitage by Kim ]oo-young 74 INTERVIEW
Advertising inquiries should be addressed to AD SEOUL RM ill], Uons Building ~;m
Same Experiences, Different Lessons: Interviews with Two Top Korean Writers
Lee Mun-yol vs. Cho Jung-rae by Chi jungnam 77
Meeting of Dance and Drama
Rain or Snow in the Morning by Han &lngchul
lu
ro,
Tel (02)27483;6 Fax: (02)2748337
LAYOUf &Dffi!GN ART~CEPUBIONS
35-11 Tongin<long 01orgno-ku, Sroul, Korea Tel (02) 734-7184 Fax: (02)737-'1377
CURRENTS
A Year of Diversity in Publishing by Kim T'ae-young
01ur~
01~Sroui,K=
~lSUig
PRlNI1NG Moonwha Printing Co, Ltd 167-21 Hmyang-dong &lngcbng-gt\ Sroui,Korea Tel (02) 46&0!61-5
Printed in Korea No,remi:lcr L19)3
Price per copy: US$5 (W3,500)
Aspoon from the Koryo Period (918- 1392)
Basic Formation
of Traditional Food
As stated previously; Korea began to farm cereals such as foxtail millet, Chinese millet, kaoliang and barnyard millet from the mid-Neolithic Age and rice from about 2JfJJ B.C Excavations at the historical relic site in the residential area of Chifap-r~ Pongsan-kun of Hwanghae Province, dating back to early YJJJ B.C, have yielded stone farming tools and foxtail millet and barnyard millet grains. From the peat bed of Kahy6n-~ Kimpo-kun in Ky6nggi Province (2100 B.C) and the residential area of the 31st Namky6ng Relic of Sams6kkus6k in P'y6ngyang (late 3000 B.C), rice grains have been excavated along with foxtail millet, confirming that rice was grown during this period As Korea is situated in the monsoon region of the Temperate Zone, the amount of sun and annual precipitation was just right for rice farming. So rice became the staple of the Korean diet very early. Though small in area, the Korean Peninsula has an extremely varied climate, so in the regions not quite suited to rice farming, cere als appropriate to the region were grown This brought about the development of a dietary culture based on the mixing of rice and other cereals. In order for farming to flourish, there had to be a development in farming tools. In Korea, the Iron Age took place from about YJJ to 100 B.C and stone farming tools were replaced by ironware during that period Tools made of iron have been excavated from Kuj6ng-ni, 8
Ky6ngju-kun in Northern Ky6ngsang Province, Yaean-ni, Kimhae in Southern Ky6ngsang Province as well as Wiw6n-my6n in Northern P'y6ngan Province. It was only during the Three Kingdoms Pe riod that rice became a staple of the Korean diet. The three kingdoms of Kogury6 (37 B.C-668), Paekche (18 B.C-660) and Silla (57 B.C- 935) all engaged in land reformation, expanded irrigation systems and actively propagated iron farming tools. Rice finally became the staple when the necessary requirements for rice farming (such as cows for tilling} became available and thus contributed to the increase in rice production Among the three countries, Paekche had the most ideal climate for rice farming, while Silla grew barley and Kogury6 foxtail millet along with rice. It was only in the Unified Silla Period (618-935), with the development of tools and the land, and the subsequent general increase in rice production, that rice became the main cere al consumed Aside from rice, barley, wheat, foxtail millet, Chinese millet, beans, red beans, mung beans, African millet and buckwheat were also grown It was during the middle of the pre-Han era that Chang K6n took wheat to China from the western region on the country's border. Around the 4th century, it was introduced to Japan from Korea. Thus, it seems likely that wheat was first introduced to Korea around the 1st century with the coming of the Iron Age. Barley is thought to have been introduced to Korea earlier than wheat, but the exact date is unknown After the introduction of barley; it was mostly harvested in the Y6ngnam (southeastern) region, and came to be consumed as a staple together with rice. Though areas such as P'y6ngan Province had a relatively ideal climate for growing wheat, it was not produced on a large scale but mostly for family consumption In the 1930s, the area for wheat farming amounted to only half that of barley nationwide. Wheat has never been consumed as a staple.
Seafood, meat, fruit, and vegetables were widely consumed as well as grains. . By the Three Kingdoms Period, shipbuilding skills were highly developed and deep-sea and underwater fishing became a mapr source of food. Although not every kind of seafood and fish consumed in ancient times is known, in the excavation of seashell mounds found in Kimhae, thirty different kinds have been recognized They include clams, abalone, large clams, oysters, and mud snails. During the course of research work at the seashell mound in Dongsam-dong in Pusan, and Ungki in Northem Hamky6ng Province, bones of sea bream, mackerel, pike, shark and s6ngkae (a type of echinOderm) were found as well Since various kinds of fish are carried by the currents to Korea's seas, numerous other kinds must have been consumed also. High quality sea tangle was taken from the sea and prepared for consumption, even being exported to the Parhae Kingdom (({>9-fJ2B) and to China All of these sea products consumed in ancient times continue to be central to the Korean diet Korea is geographically not suitable for live stock farming, but hunting was popular and cows, horses, pigs and hens were raised on a small scale. Kogury6 people were especially noted for their outstanding hunting skills in their largely mountainous terrain and they consumed a lot of game such as roe deer, wild boar and deer. Silla people used to raise livestock on
nearby islands, catching them whenever the need arose. Paekche was also skilled in raising cattle, hens and pigs. However, horses and caws used for carrying loads and in farming, and hens mainly kept for their eggs, were not consumed indiscriminately; instead pheasants were a more common source of meat The history of fruit and vegetable consumption also dates back to ancient times. When pennants and chestnuts were noted local produce, pears, peaches and hazelnuts were also popular. As for vegetables, lettuce, eggplant, gourd plants, radish and yam were some of the ones cultivated Among them, yarns have a long history; dating back to antiquity, while lettuce was brought from China by a Silla envoy. This envoy was said to have paid a lot of money for the lettuce so it was called ''Vegetable Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold" Silla even had Woncron, a gardening law, for overseeing vegetable and fruit cultivation. In addition, many kinds of mountain and field greens such as bamboo shoots, kubi (a kind of grass), bracken, t6d6k (a relative of ginseng) roots, and broad bellflower, were consumed
The grain-based food of Korea developed from misu karu (flour of roasted assorted grains) to roasted rice-cakes, steamed rice-cakes, steamed rice, and finally, boiled rice This was in accordance with the development of instruments for hulling, pulverizing and cooking. During the Three Kingdoms Period, mortars, huxzdol (another kind of mortar buried in the ground), millstones, and treadmills were used for hulling and pulverizing and earthenware steamers for cooking. An earthenware steamer used vapor to cook the food, and it is the oldest existing relic found in the seashell mound of Najin, Ch'odo (Bronze Age, 1000 - 300 B.C.).
Kogury6 wall paintings of the 3rd century (3rd tomb of Anak and the Yaksuri old tomb) depict food cooked in an earthenware steamer. Of course bowl-shaped earthenware pots were also used in cooking from the beginning of the farming period, but food cooked in a steamer is of a much better quality. As for the kinds of food cooked in the steamer, five-grain rice (a mixture of any five of the following rice, millet, soybeans, red beans, barley, barnyard millet, and sorghum), steamed rice cakes (solki, chi1ngp'y6n) and glutinous plain rice-cakes were the most common Sauteed rice-cakes (kaoliang pancakes) were also consumed It was only after the later period of the Three Kingdoms that cast iron kettles were in common supply for rice cooking. Since cooking rice is a simple procedure, it became an everyday food and rice-cakes were developed in a large variety of forms as the special dish for Parties or ceremonial rituals.
The inost typical forms of fermented food are wine and soy sauce From the early stages of farming, grains were used to make wine and from then on, rice or other grain-based wines became the traditional drink Soy sauces, or
chang made by processing beans, were used everyday as a source of protein. It is not known when chang was first made but it is thought to coincide with the time that beans were first cultivated Wine and clxmg making techniques became highly advanced in the Three Kingdoms Period And these techniques were transfe(fed to Japan Many kinds of food produced in each season were processed and stored to be consumed at a time when they were not available In order to retain their freshness and nutritive value they were fermented The fermented vegetables consumed during the Three Kingdoms Period can be divided into those preserved in salt water, those in a mixture of salt, wine and rice porridge, and those in SC!f sauce or paste These became the original forms of kimch'i Fermented food made with salted seafood came to be known as crotkal These fermented foods were part of the basic diet during the Three Kingdoms Period, a fact that has been confirmed from the hae(general name referring to all kinds of fermented vegetables and seafood) which was among the gifts sent to the bride of Silla King Sinmun, married in 683. The skills needed to process fermented food became highly developed early on And as this food was always consumed, the fermented taste supplemented the five basic Korean tastes of sweet, salty, sour, bitter and hot Meals consisting of main and subsidiary foods were developed gradually from the beginning of the farming period through the late Three Kingdoms era Rice with various grains became the staple Soy sauce, kimch'4and fermented seafood became the side dishes, or the subsidiary food, adding taste and nutrition to the staple
The Foundation of Traditional Dietary CultureFrom Unified Silla (618-935) to Late Koryo (918-1392) l)Food Kory6, from the beginning of its foundation, actively implemented farming encouragement policies such as distributing land according to rank, and giving tax benefits on land newly cleared for farm use. Also, the quantity of rice reserves for emergencies and the price of grains were regulated in order to increase rice production Naturally, the skills in making wine, ricecakes and rice pastries became highly developed, and making rice wine became a popular custom Steamed chestnut rice-cakes, steamed mugwort rice<:akes, pancakes made with glutinous rice and kaoliang, tt6k sudan and yaksbik (glutinous rice mixed with honey, jujubes, chestnuts) were some of the rice-cakes enpyed during the Kory6 Period Steamed chestnut ricecakes were made by mixing ground chestnuts and rice flour in a ratio of 2 to 3 and steaming them with honeyed water. Since rice flour is not glutinous, it was sifted through a sieve and made glutinous by evenly blending it with air and then adding honeyed water to adjust the amount of moisture to hasten the cooking pr(} cess; a method which is used to this clay. It was during this period that the custom of making red bean porridge on the winter solstice and sharing it with the whole village became a popular custom Radish, turnips, lotus roots, taro, leeks, dropwar~ lettuce, hollyhock, green onions, water shields, garlic, shallots, cucumbers and eggplants were cultivated as vegetables during the Kory6 Period Mountain greens and wild mushrooms were consumed as well. High quality radishes and pears were grown to be made into cb'imcb'ae or water vegetable kimcb'i such as chopped radish pickled in salt water and chopped kimcb'i Cb'imcb'ae was fresher and the nutrient composition of tl1e vegetables superior to the fetmented vegetables enpyed during tl1e Three Kingdoms era, and tl1e preservation method was vety scientific Fragrant veg10
etables, such as lettuce and small green onions, were used for ssam (rice or meat wrapped with vegetable leaves), which is one of tl1e simplest, most well-balanced dishes. In the initial period of Kory6, everyone from the commoners to the king refrained from eating meat due to tl1e influence of Buddhism The system used for cow slaughtering was very crude, and at one time it was even banned. Therefore, meat dishes were not enpyed until the mid-Kory6 Period when highquality catde were raised on Cheju Island ranches and meat dishes were then restored and developed. Among the famous meat dishes of the Kory6 Period were s6lya my6kcb~ roasted prime ribs, and s6ll6ng t'ang (bone and tripe soup). In addition to beef, pork, lamb, chicken, pheasant and swan meat were also consumed. 2) Drinks and Sweets
During the Kory6 Period the culture of tea reached its peak Atea village was formed near Mt Chiri-san to grow tea leaves and high quality tea such as Yongpong Satan was imported during the Song Dynasty of China There was a tea chan1ber at the court for brewing tea, and during national ceremonies such as Y6ndung Hwe (light festival on tl1e 15th of the first lunar month where one offers one's wishes to the Buddha) and Palkuxm Hwe (ritual ceremonies held for local gods), tea rituals were petfotmed and refreshment tables prepared. This tea culture went so far as to be institutionalized and Hangro tadam kunsa, or "Soldiers in Charge of the Tea Fire On the Road," were instituted to serve tl1e king witl1 tea whenever he went on official trips. Along with the tea culture, pastries became higl1ly developed. Pastries can be largely divided into yu-milgwa (fried honey cookies), yugwa (fried cookies made from glutinous rice), tasik (small cakes made of green tea), c!x5n-gu'Cl (candied fruit) and kwap'y6n, jellied fruit. Among these various types, yu-milgwa was
mast popular during the Koty6 Period Yu-milgu.a was served at wedding feasts, and tea with yu-milgwa was used for entertaining guests. Noodles developed into a food for festive occasions, and sangbwa or steamed wheat-flour buns were first brought from China in the Won Dynasty and subsequently became very popular. The rice wine enpyed during tl1e Kory6 Period can be divided into cb'6nju, or clear strained rice wine and p6pju) wine made according to certain rules. When soju was intr(} duced during the late Koty6 Period, distilled drinks began to gain popularity. Also, breweries began to be developed during this period and countless varieties of rice wine, such as p:xioju (grape wine), cb'angp'oju (iris wine), bwangkukju(chrysanthemum wine), cbukylipju (bamboo leaf wine) and okapiju (root bark wine), were consumed.
Revision of Traditional Dietary LifeChoson Period
From the Chos6n Period, agricultural techniques became more developed, and tl1e types of cultivated grains more varied. From the beginning of the Chos6n Period, practical farming textbooks such as Nongsa cbiksO!, Y6ngyang cbapro~ and Nongka cbips6ng were written TI1ey .contributed greatly to the development of farming techniques appropriate to Korea. From that time on, many farming books, such as Pankye sura~ Cblingpo sanrim ky6npjl.e, Yinnwn sbipyuk cb4 were published, bringing agricultural development to tl1e whole peninsula From tl1e mid.Chos6n Period, irrigation was extended, and rice planting methods were carried out on a national scale With this, the planting of rice and barley became easier, and cows began to be widely used in fatming. Among the grains grown during this period were 69 kinds of rice, 15 kinds of foxtail millet, eight kinds of beans, seven kinds of red beans and four kinds of barley, among others. In addition, cowpeas, peas, buckwheat and corn-which had been introduced in the 1700s-were also grown
It was also during tl1e Chos6n Period mat chili peppers, pumpkins, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes and other foreign foods were first introduced Chili peppers and pumpkins are thought to have been brought in from Japan before or after me Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, but in Japan mere is a belief that me chili pepper was brought from Korea. Anyhow, the chili peppers grown on the Korean Peninsula, unlike the ones mat were originally introduced, were uniquely sweet and hot (a mixture of chili and paprika), and this contributed greatly to the development of me particular taste which is most characteristic of Korea's traditional food Sweet potato cultivation was developed over almost a hundred years after meir introduction by Cho 6m, who sent seeds to Pusan from Taema Island on his way to Japan as a correspondent in 1753. They have since been widely grown and consumed. Potatoes were brought in from China in me 1800s and were relatively easily cultivated in me nortl1em regions. Fishing techniques were furtl1er refined and due to the increase in sea products during me Chos6n Period and me development of bmter economics, fisheries started to be managed on a large scale. As a result, the production of seafood showed a rapid increase. The principal catches of large-scale fishing during tl1is petiod were croakers, herring, codfish and anchovies. After seaweed and sea tangle, popular local produce from antiquity, sea laver began to be cultivated as a major product as well Laver was bred on Wan-do Island of Cholla Province from tl1e mid.Chos6n Period. The sea produce was dried, processed in salt water or fermented and supplied on a nationwide scale The most famous sea produce is Alaska pollack, which is considered to be of tl1e best quality when it is dried in Januaty Around me 17tl1 century; 140 different kinds of fermented seafood, including fermented croaker, salted dry croaker, salted oysters witl1 chili pepper, and fetmented flatfish with rice punch, were consumed. Mea~ pheasn~ chicken and pork were also widely eaten Beef raised on Cheju Island was especially tasty and noted for its quality Also roe deer, deer and l : x~;u>s feet were considered culinaty delicacies. The usual way of preparing these meats was to make beef jerky, kuui or roasts, tchim or steamed food, kom t'ang or soup, and jelly
Food reserves were kept for medical research and famine relief for use during natural disasters. Kuhuxmg cb'uxzlyo, a book written in 1554 during tl1e reign of King My6ngpng, introduces 851 different kinds of famine relief food which were stored at the time. And TongiJi jXJkam written by H6 Kyun in 1613 gives a detailed explanation of tl1e selection and characteristics of food related to medical research Also, Kyubap cb'ongs6, written by Pingh6kak Lee in me early 1800s, shows simple eff01ts used to rationalize dietary habits by citing from TongiJi jXJkam and Hyangyak cbzps6ngjxlng Keeping pace wim me traditional food mus developed, chinaware witl1 white slip and grayish-green glaze, white porcelain wim blue decorations, and plain white porcelain continued to be widely supplied by the nation's 139 chinaware and 185 ceramic factories. Thus, tableware culture became extremely refined. Brassware factories supplied an ina¡easing amount of brassware During me Chos6n Period, due to me influence of Confucianism, me political and moral standard of me time, a strictly patriarchal and extended family structure began to take root in society, and along witl1 tl1is, me norms of traditional rituals and ceremonial occasions (comingof-age, man¡iage, funeral, and ancestor memorial ceremonies) were carefully observed. Naturally, the notms concerning food in each of these ceremonies were rigid and strict And since the family structure was an extended one wim several generations living under the same roof, managing tl1e food became a mapr affair. The procurement of food, its processing, cooking and distribution were the sole responsibility of the housewife. Not only that, but preparing breakfast at dawn for the elders, procuring home-brewed liquor, cooking side dishes, and stocking soy sauce, pastes and fermented foods were considered very important A unique tradition of making holiday and seasonal food to supplement nutrition in each season as well as to wish for a good harvest and consolidate harmony witl1in the family and tl1e village came to be observed. TI1e basic holiday food was tice-cakes. Typical holiday dishes included white rice-cake soup on New Year's Day; five-grain rice and wild greens on tl1e 15th of me first lunm¡ montl1; crescent shaped rice-cakes on tl1e 1st of me second lunar month; azalea flower pancakes on
me tl1ird of the tl1ird lunar montl1; steamed ricecakes mixed with tender zelkova leaves on me 8th evening of the foutth lunar montl1; glutinous rice-cakes wim suricb'i on me Tano Festival CStl1 of me fiftl1lunar monm), grilled wheatcakes on Yudu Festival (1Stl1 of me 6th lunar month), ory) crescent rice-cakes on Ch'us6k (Hatvest Moon Festival in August), cluysanthemum pancakes on tl1e 9th of me nintl1 lunar month; and steamed rice-cakes on tl1e days of memorial ceremonies in me tenth lunar month Aseasonal dish made wim me rare products of each region was also enjoyed in each season, but this custom was observed only in some patts of the countty
Rapid Changes in Traditional Food and Tasks Ahead
Korea has developed a unique traditional food culture over a long period of time But recently, traditional food has undergone rapid changes. Food supply has been managed so well to the point mat any food can be acquired in almost any season Food producing skills have developed to the point of being able to produce food under any conditions. Also, foreign foods have begun to be widely consumed. Furtl1ermore, fermented foods that used to be made at home are now often factoty produced or mass produced Restaurants and otln places catering to large groups of people flourish, providing more oppottunities for eating out Wim such rapid changes and development almost unl1eard of in the history of industrialization, mere is a new need to find ways to modernize traditional food + 11
The Scientific Significance of Traditional Korean Food An Myung-soo Profes<iOr of Food Dietetics Departmn~
Sungshin Women's University
he diet of a people is one of the most fundamental elements of its culture. It reflects the thinking and value system of the time in which people live as well as their past history and accumulated experience. The typical food of a people evolves from the environment in which they live, the climate, and their habits. So, once consolidated, the diet changes little over time. In addition, the dietary customs peculiar to a certain people reflect their social customs and lifestyle.
T
Traditional Food as Common Inheritance Diet is one of the traditions passed down from generation to generation and is the common heritage of a people. The traditional culture of a people is the result of the activities and ideas which are learned and created collectively Traditional food has been formed by natural conditions, political, economic, and cultural factors. Therefore, traditional food is the final result of much modification and experimenta-
tion The resultant food habits are the most suitable as well as the most nutritious, healthy, tasty and sanitary for people living in given conditions. Thus, the technique of combining different foods, cooking and processing them, is the result of long experience and, as such, can be considered a scientific process. Traditional Korean dietary culture is no different in this respect Rice farming was found to be most suitable to the climate, which consists of four distinctive seasons. Accordingly, Kcr rean food, since ancient times, has developed around rice, in addition to beans and miscellaneous cereals. Traditional Korean Fermented Foods The main rice dish, with its accompanying side dishes, provides all the necessaty nutrition and taste to keep Korean people healthy Since the basic Korean meal consists of a high percentage of grains it is simple in taste. Thus, fermented foods have been developed because they have five different tastes (swe~ salty; hot,
Shrimp chOtkaJ(Ief~
12
sour and bitter). Also, fermentation keeps perishable foods fresh and edible for a long time. It also preserves and even enhances the nutritive quality of the ingredients. Fermented foods include: fermented soybean foods, fermented seafood, fermented vegetables, and so on. Therefore, the peculiar nature and character of the taste of Korean food can be explained by the prevalence of fermented foods with their own, peculiar, fermented taste. Soybean foods are made by treating soybeans and then preparing a variety of products. Kanjmg soybean sauce, is of pri.ma.ty importance in seasoning everything from meat to soup. Whereas Japanese soybean sauces include a lot of wheat and are, therefore quite sweet, Korean soybean sauces are salty and thin Korean toenjmg soybean stew and soybean paste soup, taste "refreshing" as well as light and simple due to the basic nature of the soybean Koch'ujmg (hot soybean paste), one of the basic seasonings, makes Korean food very distinctive from other types of cuisine. J3e.
anchovychOtkaJ(middle), koch'ujmg (right)
sides sal~ fermented soybean foods include various amino acids and vitamins. Recent research has shown that soy sauce protects the fat in a diet from oxidation With a digestible source of protein, there is some likelihood that soybean foods contain an anti-cancer element Kimch ' ~ fermented vegetables, were developed for consumption in circumstances in which fresh vegetables were not available. The long Korean winter lasted from four to six months, and so kimch'i became an essential food It was also well-liked by Koreans. Made to retain all the nutrition of fresh vegetables, kimch'i can be made from the vegetables of any season Thus, kimch'i has become an essential sidedish at any meal in any season and in any place. Each pari of Korea has its own special kimch ' ~ different climates cause the vegetables to ferment to a lesser or greater degree. Kimch'i contains various vitamins and inorganic substanoes It is also a good source of vitamin C and raw fiber, which helps eliminate constipation and intestinal problems. Because of its sharp, hot taste, kimch'i is becoming a popular food around the world It is important to note that chili peppers are the main seasoning used in most Korean dishes. In particular, kimch'i and koch'ujang hot soybean paste, contain a lot of chili pepper powder. The hot element of chili pepper makes the stomach strong, prevents the oxidation of fats and provides a lot of vitamin C There are about 140 kinds of cl.i5tka~ fermented seafood, in Korea. Some cl.i5tka~ like those made of shrimps, anchovies, or other fishes, are generally used to make kimch'i The cl.i5tkals used as side dishes are made of cuttlefish, shell fish, crabs, or oysters. The Balanced Meal The basic Korean meal consists of tice as the main dish, soybean foods, dried slices of meat seasoned with spices, and fermented foods. Soup seasoned with spices, and grilled foods are shared together with side dishes. The basic dish is created from a wide variety of ingredients which combine to form a nutritious, tasty meal One rule for each meal is that the method of preparation (for example grilling, ftying, steaming) is not to be repeated, nor are the same ingredients to be used twice. Therefore, the traditional Korean cook has to be very inventive. Meals are divided into different categories
vegetables are eaten on the same day, providing a good supplement of cellulose. The dish made of five grains consists of a mixture of any five of the following: rice, mile~ soybeans, red beans, barley, barnyard mile~ and sorghum It contains vitamin B1, calcium, iron, and cellulose. Beans, especially, are high in protein and thus offer a supplement of amino acids lacking in rice. Boiled rice with other cereals reduces the quantity of sugar in the blood
Fermented foods, together with rice and other grains, form the basis of the traditional Korean diet. according to the number of side dishes, of which there can be three, five, seven, nine or twelve. The simplest meal has three side dishes, for e.xample, hard-boiled tubu (soybean curd), seasoned bean sprouts, and fresh lettuce, which could go along with a bowl of rice and barley, thick soybean stew, and fetmented green vegetables. The Nutritive Value of Festival Food Korean festival food includes rice-cake soup, dumpling soup, cakes made of glutinous rice, rice-cakes steamed on a layer of pine needles, dishes made of five-grain rice, rice-gruel prepared with red beans, sweet rice drink, and seasoned dried vegetables. These foods are still very popular with most Koreans. In addition, nuts are eaten on the fifteenth of the first lunar month to guard against boils for the year. The nuts include pinenuts, walnuts, peanuts, and chestnuts, and they contain a high concentration of the fatty acid alpha toco pheroL which is necessary in cold winter. Together with the nuts, nine seasoned dried
Traditional Cooking The traditional Korean diet consists of balanced, nutritious meals which are made through a variety of cooking methods and techniques developed over generations of experimentation Many Korean foods are made using malt. One example is the mixture of chopped fish with rice, radish and mal~ called shiklx!e. The starch of the rice is decomposed by an enzyme found in radish and malt. The food is not cooked, so that the enzyme remains alive,.thereby protecting the person from suffering indigestion, especially during festival seasons. Bean sprouts or soybean sprouts offer a good supply of vitamin C In order to retain nutrients the vegetables are slightly cooked quickly at a high temperature with little water.
Korean cuisine is very distinct from those of other nations. This is primarily due to the high percentage of fermented foods consumed The Korean diet has recently been scrutinized by dietitians and research workers because it is found to be well balanced and nutritious. With weight and cholesterol problems plaguing much of the developed world, many experiments have been carried out in order to determine the perfect diet Amazingly enough, according to many, Korea has just that diet Whereas in Europe, the average diet consists of 40 percent carbohydrate, 30-40 percent fa~ 15-20 percent protein and 10-15 percent sugar, the Korean diet consists of 70 percent carbohydrate, 13 percent fa~ 14- 17 percent protein and no sugar; this is considered to be the perfect balance. Also more and more evidence points to the healthiness of eating ferrnented foods. So the next time you want to try a different restauran~ why not try a Korean restaurant and see if the food meets all your requirements for health and nutrition â&#x20AC;˘ 13
Dietary Customs and their Characteristics Kangln-hee Professor of Home Economics, MyongJi UniveThity
HE DEVELOPMENT OF Korea's dietary customs was influenced by its climate, geographical features of the peninsula, the social structure, and the folk mores and family rituals which evolved over time. Since the Chos6n Period, Korea's eating habits have developed in various ways. These eating habits can be seen in the table service enpyed at court and in noble families, the common people's food and the local food specific to each region Food can be categorized as everyday food, special delicacies, food consumed outside the home and preserved food
T
Everyday Food Everyday food is food we consume on a daily basis. There is evidence of an agricultural society on the peninsula from the time of the New Stone Age, and since that time, rice has been the staple of the Korean diet There are many kinds of rice. Rice can be boiled alone, boiled with other cereals such as barley, red beans, other beans and fivegrains (a mixture of any five of the following: rice, mile~ soybeans, red beans, barley, barnyard millet, and sorghum). Since the Korean family structure was an extended one until the Chos6n Period, the average number of people in a household was around twenty, which meant that rice had to be cooked in large quantities in a special rice kettle. In order to cook such a vast quantity of rice properly without burning it, it was first carefully washed to remove the sand, stones, husk and so on Then, after evenly spreading the rice in the kettle, water was added The level of water was adjusted by putting a palm down on top of the rice. Water was added until it reached about halfway up the back of the 14
Rice and other grains are part of every Korean meal. Rice is often mixed with barley, millet, beans, sorghum, or a combination of several grains.
hand Then the fire was well built up until the rice boiled. When the water was almost completely absorbed, the fire was allowed to die down and the rice could then slowly absorb the steam At this poin~ if watery or soft rice was desired, new 1~ were thrown on the fire and slowly burned But if thick, solid rice was required, then the fire was allowed to keep burning strongly so that the water and steam evaporated quickly: If there was an elderly person in the household, ''two-tiered rice" was cooked One side of the rice kettle was raised higher than the other so that the rice on the lower side would be softer and more watery: This is an example of how Korean women devised ingenious ways of cooking both soft and hard-boiled rice simultaneously for the elderly and the young members of the family: The rice cooked in this way was rich in gluten and tasty: While this obviously had something to do with the quality of rice, the kettle and method of cooking also played important roles. The heavy lid of the kettle raised the pressure inside so that the rice became sticky and glutinous. Traditionally, there was a superstition that when the cooked rice was scooped from the pot into the bowls, luck would escape if the scoop faced the outside of the house. Therefore, a way of luring good luck was to move the rice scoop from the outside towards the inside with it facing the inside of the house. To scoop the cooked rice correctly, first the uppermost layer was smoothed gently: Then the rice was scooped into the bowl of the eldest member of the household first The rice bowls of men were called cbubal while those of women were called pari. Usually in winter, brass cbubal and pari were used while porcelain was used in summer. 15
Chuba! was rather high with the top wider than the oottom, which was round and deep. Pari was low, round and flat The shape of these bowis was also instrumental in measuring the amount of rice to be cooked For instance, in order to measure the amount to fill a chuba~ its lid, filled to the brim with uncooked rice, was used The same technique was used with pari since its lid was quite deep, though smaller. The difficulties the daughter-in-law had in scooping the cooked rice into so many bowls at each meal were not insignificant. "The Hardship of living with In-laws," a folk song of the Chos6n Period, goes something like this ''No matter how hot chili pepper may be, living with the husband's parents is even hotter and sharper. Oh, how difficult it is to scoop rice nice and even into the bowls! " It was difficult to judge the right amount of rice to scoop into each bowl and how much white rice to mix in the bowls of the elders of the family-since the common people, who led harsh lives, usually cooked rice mixed with cereal. The song also refers to the hard time the daughter-in-law had in scooping the rice for the elderly from the middle of the pot where the water is more concentrated, and hence sofrer. Rice, is always accompanied by subsidiary dishes. Using vegetables, mea~ fish and seafood as ingredients, soup, tchigae (stew), ch6n-gol (casserole), steamed dishes, hard-ooiled dishes, roasted dishes, ch6k (kebab), seasoned greens, dried slices of radish or cucumber seasoned with soy sauce, fermented sea foods, and kimch'i were made. Soup and kimch'i have always been basic requirements of a meal. Contrary to western cuisines, where there is little distinction between the main and subsidiary foods, in Korea, the side dishes are shared while the main food is served individually. Made to complement the rice, the side dishes also serve as an important source of nutrients. In the side dishes, the taste varies according to the person doing the cooking, though the same ingredients and condiments may be used The person who turns out tasty, delicious food is said to have a "tasty hand." But this was not considered something that could be acquired overnigh~ and only through long years of experience was it possible to become 16
an accomplished cook with a "tasty hand." More often than no~ cooking expertise was passed down from mother-in-law to daughterin-law or from mother to daughter. During the Chos6n Period, the eldest daughter-in-law of a family had to go through a difficult and painful training period under her mother-in-law in order to acquire the "tasty hand" passed down through the generations as a family tradition When the "tasty hand'' was successfully passed down, the mother-in-law transferred the right of management of the household to the daughterin-law by giving her the keys to the storerooms where the most important food, rice in particular, was stored. In this way, family traditions were kept alive through the generations. This system of transferring cooking methods contributed to the formation of unique eating habits in each household, and furthermore, allowed local specialties to be created When the rice and side dishes, so painstakingly prepared by the housewife, were put on the table for the elders, the table was carried aoove the waist with two hands by the housewife with her head slightly oowed to the older members who were already seated The housewife put the table down several steps away, and then, gently kneeling, she quietly and carefully had to slide the table over to where the people were waiting. She then had to politely tell them to enpy the meal, still keeping her head slightly bent forward, and taking the lids off the bowls. While the elders were having their meal, the daughter-in-law had to remain seated next to them to help them with the various dishes so that they were not inconvenienced in any way. When the meal was nearly fmished, she had to go out and get them the scorched-rice tea. Scorched-rice tea was obtained by pouring water over the scorched rice that had stuck to the bottom of the pot while the rice was cooking The water and rice were then boiled together. The scorched-rice tea thus made was fragrant and savory. When the meal was almost over, the few spoonfuls of rice remaining were mixed with this tea and consumed with the side dishes left. This tradition was maintained not only for the taste but to provide moisture to the spoon and the rice bowl so it would be easy to clean off any remaining grains.
It was customary for everyone to have three meals consisting of main and subsidiary food. But workers who had to do hard physicallaoor or farmers during busy seasons usually had four or five meals a day. Even now, in riceplanting season, the farmers have their breakfast at dawn, and then about ten in the morning, have saecb'am or a mid-day snack, followed by lunch at aoout one in the afternoon And then at about four in the afternoon, in between lunch and dinner, another snack is consumed Dinner is usually served after all the work for the day is over. Special Dishes By Korean tradition, the most typical special dish is rice-cakes. The old saying "rice-cakes above rice" indicates that rice-cakes are preferred to plain rice. Traditionally; rice-cakes were consumed mostly in autumn and in the winter. With the harvest over and the rain falling, people could not go out to work in the fields. And as there was an abundance of rice, it became a pastime to make and eat nee-cakes. During winter, the most frequently eaten form of rice-cake was inje6lmi, made of glutinous rice. Plenty of inji5lmi was made in advance, and it was the delicacy of delicacies when roasted on a grill over the brazier during a long winter night After roasting the hardened rice-cake, it was then dipped in c/xxb'6ng or grain syrup, and sometimes in ripe persimmon When rice-cakes were made, they were not consumed by the family alone but were always shared with neighoors. From this custom came expressions like "celebrating New Year's Day on other people's rice-cake." The rice-cakes made on special holidays or during ceremonial rituals were called panki Stacked on a wooden plate to be passed around to neighoors and relatives, the sharing of panki was called panki sari When one knew how to distribute panki fairly, according to the importance of the relationship of the person who was receiving i~ then the distributor was said to have "carried out panki sari well'' Under the eX1ended family system of the past, it was one of the virtues of a housewife to know how to carry out panki sari wisely. Moreover it was an important factor in maintaining good relationships with the various family members and neighbors. Special dishes, aside from rice-cakes, included noodles, cold noodles, grilled wheat
cakes, thick mixed grain porridge and dumplings, which were cooked differently depending on the season Among some of the porridge dishes were the young pumpkin porridge, red bean porridge, mung bean ponidge, and sea food ponidge. A Chas6n Period document called Yimui5n sbipyuk cbi describes how a special delicacy was made by washing the fallen petals of Japanese apricot flowers, boiling them in melted snow and then boiling this together with cooled white rice ponidge. This porridge was enjoyed more for its dignified fragrance than taste. Customs Related to Outdoor Food
Outdoor food refers to the food consumed
Atable laden with traditional foods (top), cold noodles from the northern provinces {left), yaksik, glutinous rice mixed with chestnuts, jujubes and pinenuts (center), hwajon, decorated with flowers (right).
outside of the home. ln Korean tradition, this consists of food taken while working, food taken while on an outing, and food taken while traveling First of all, there was turaejXlb, food eaten outdoors during work and at a kind of pimic Farmers working in the fields gathered around in a circle to share a meal The name is derived from tura~ which refers to cooperation among people who take turns helping each other with farm work during the busy farming season During the rice-planting season in spring or the harvesting season in autumn, it was customary to bring turaeJXlb out to the fields four or five times a day. Noodles were most commonly eaten as turaeJXlb. Sometimes rice 17
was cooked as described in the "May Song" of the "Fatmet S Monthly Song": ''Why don't you beat the rice in a mortar, missus Better make plenty of rice mixed with barley, soup and lettuce with hot soybean paste'' 0
Side dishes, mainly consisting of green vegetables, such as lettuce to wrap around rice with hot soybean paste, and rice mixed with barley, were frequently canied out to the fields in vast quantities For turaejXlb, any kind of food that could be easily consumed while working in the fields was appropriate and there was no special f01mula to be observed There is one beverage that must be mentioned: rice wine. It was traditional for rice wine to be included in the morning snack for the workers which was sometimes called the ''wine snack" Farmers used to drink rice wine with a gourd before the meal to wet their throats or after the meal to clear away the aftertaste. During the rice-planting season, farmers would often sing a tire-planting song in chorus Outdoor food consumed in the mountains or when working in the fields was called a "field meal" Among the different kinds of food prepared for these meals, rice and wine were the most common. Grilled meat was also prepared as an appetizer to go with the drinks. In addition, the upper class prepared something called kuj6lpan, which consisted of various kinds of side dishes placed in the kuj)lpan dish. This was a large dish with nine different compartments to keep each food item separate from tl1e otl1ers. Also among the foods associated with outings was a fried flower eaten while admi.ting t11e seasonal flowers that were in bloom Flower outings usually took place on tl1e third day of the tl1i.rd lunar month or on the nintl1 day of the ninth lunar montl1 It was customary to admire flowers while eating fried flowers chosen from those in full bloom in the fields or in the mountains. When going on a flower outing, one always took along glutinous rice flour, cooking oil and a frying pan, and used the flowers in that locality as an ingredient in meals. 111is tradition of eating outdoors while trying to assin1ilate oneself to nature, is one of the best examples of the role of nature in the 18
dietary customs of Korea. The food associated with travel was called hanghan. This consisted mostly of roasted cereal flour. It was made by first washing tl1e cereals carefully, drying tl1em, and roasting tl1e clean, dry grains to be pounded into a fine powder. After being prepared in such a fashion, it could always easily be mixed witl1 water anywhere to satisfy one's hunger, and it is still popular today in tl1e fotm of misu karu, a roasted flour of assotted grains. Bran cakes or rice balls as big as a fist mixed with salt were also prepar¡ed for short distance trave4 as tl1ey did not keep fresh for long. For the subsidiary food, dried fish or meat was convenient to carry. But these were the hanglxm of the well-t<Xio upper class. The
ordinary people eatTied soybean paste cakes as a subsidiary food during travel The cakes were made by mixing green onions and gat'lic witl1 soybean paste and turning tl1e mixture out in round, flat cakes, which were then spread on the lid of a pot in the yard and coated with sesame oil TI1ey were salty and yet tasty, as well as¡being suitable for carrying around willie traveling. Preserved Food
Preserved food refers to fresh food that has been processed so that it will not spoil Foods ar¡e usually processed when the ingredients are in abundance. In Korea, the custom of preserving food has developed over a vety long period of time. The most typical preserved
during the winter when vegetables were scarce Many hands were needed to make kimch'~ so there was a tradition of helping each other out The sisters-in-law or relatives and neighbors would each pick a different day for making their kimcb'i and take turns helping each other, a custom called p'um-a sbi. When people helped each other to make kimcb'~ ¡the salted cabbages or remaining ingredients were shared, or the freshly made kimch'i was handed out as a gesture of gratitude to the helpers. The housewives of poor households who did not have enough money to make their own kimcb'i helped as many households as possible. Thus, they managed to collect enough kimcb '~ or the ingredients necessary to make kimch'~ to fill up their own jars. Glutinous rice-cake (left), ceramic containers used for storing soybean paste and other condiments (above), kujolpan (below).
foods are chang or soybean sauce and paste, and kimch'~ fermented vegetables. The making of chang is one of Korea's oldest dietary customs. It consists mostly of soybean sauce and paste. But ever since the chili pepper was introduced to Korea during the mid-Chos6n Period, hot soybean paste has also been made. These forms of cbang were considered important as the basic seasoning for food, and a great deal of attention went into taking care of the earthenware jars in which they were stored. Traditional houses had terraces built above the ground for keeping these special storage jars. There was a large jar for soy sauce, a middle sized one for bean paste and a small one for hot soybean paste. The jars were kept clean by dusting and polishing them
everyday. When making preparations for cbang preserves, soybean mash was first made at the end of the tenth lunar month and wo.uld be ready to be used by the first lunar month of the following year. Next, it was dried in the sun and made into soy sauce from the end of the first month until early in the third month An auspicious day was especially picked for making cbang and it was customary to avoid the day of Sin~ or the Monkey Day, on which all sorts of activities were avoided, as well as a day on which any woman of the household had her monthly period. To make kimch ' ~ cabbages were pickled, processed and stored when the vegetables were plentiful so that they could be eaten
The traditions of Korea's dietary culture can be characterized as follows: First, courtesy towards elders was important Distinguishing the elders from the young, even when scooping rice into the bowls, and the custom of eating everyday meals only after the meal table had been brought to the elders, are indications of the importance of this tradition Koreans have always considered courtesy towards their elders the highest form of virtue Second, was the sense of independent tradition. The special cooking methods of a household were handed down from generation to generation, thus maintaining the unique tastes of the household's meals. In addition, certain dishes came to be considered unique to a particular area Third, was the sense of community. When one cooked a special dish, it was always shared with neighbors and relatives instead of being consumed alone so that the happy events and tragedies of a household could be shared with others. Also, the customs of turae and p'um-a sh4 taking turns helping each other, reflect the strong community spirit in which the ''you" is more important than the '1" Finally, there was the enjoyment of refined and poetical pursuits. The custom of working and eating together derived from a spirit of generosity and a refined sense of community. Meals were followed by drinking and singing Also, during field outings, flower petals were picked to fry and eat, allowing for a closer relationship with nature, and ultimately, assimilation with it + 19
Life's Milestones: Ceremonies and Food Park Tae-sun Head of Liberal Arts Research Department Kwangju National Museum
EING born into this world has always been considered an act of grace and a mystic phenomenon Although we know that human beings are conceived and given birth by their parents, the mystery and wonder remain The re lief that human beings are born into the world by divine will was common in ancient times because people wanted an explanation for the mystery. Korea was no exception By inculcating a divine dimension, human life came to be regarded as very precious. And, accordingly, people marked special events and gave them special meaning. From this, arose ceremonies to celebrate the milestones of coming-of-age, marriage and death These three ceremonies cover the individual life up to the time of death, and, in some places, another type of ceremony was added, the memorial. These four ceremonies in Korea were called "the four formalities" and they have been continued throughout the ages and given great impor-
8
tance_
Although birth was not included in the four formalities, it was seen as extremely important The actual birth itself, the third day, every seventh day up to the 49th day, the hundredth day and the first anniversary of a newborn baby were all celebrated Birth and the Stages of Life
Just before delivery, three bowls of rice and three bowls of soup are set on a table. Helpers rub their hands in supplication to Samshin or Sanshin, the Goddess of Childbirth, who governs pregnancy, safe birth, and child rearing. Samshin is also called Samshirang or Samshin halmoni (Grandmother Samshin) depending on the region The table for Samshin includes plain white rice, seaweed soup, and water 20
); "'91 ",C:~ Ataboo string protects the health of the mother and child (above), doljanch'~ the first birthday (right).
drawn from a well at daybreak Then someone, usually the mother-in-law; prays for the mother's health and the baby's longevity, rubbing her hands while she recites. This is called pison which comes from the amalgamation of pile/a (pray) and son (hand). When a woman has delivered her baby, plain white rice and seaweed soup are served to the mother. On the third day after delivery, the mother washes herself with boiled sagebrush water and the baby with warm water for the first time. Three bowls of plain white rice and three bowls of seaweed soup are prepared and set on a table for Samshin and again pison is performed It is only from this third day that others can see the newborn Every seventh day up to the 49th day, a
special ceremony is held There days are called ire, with the prefix of the number, one to seven, added Thus ch'o-ire is the first of the seven days, tu-ire is the second, 50ire, ne-ire, das6t-ire, y)s6t-ire and manfj:mg-ire. On each of these special days, early in the morning, plain white rice, seaweed soup and sometimes rice-cakes are prepared and served, and pison is performed Then the relatives gather to bless the baby. Sometimes the food is shared with neighbors. The royal family or rich people used to make large quantities of rice-cakes from glutinous kaoliang and give them to passers-by at the main and rear gates of their compound on these special days. The custom is called inbushim which means the cleansing of filthiness. After the final seventh day ceremony, all tam are released The taboo strings (which had been tied at the entrance) are untied; the family members can visit mourners' houses, the mother can do ordinary work, and the baby can be.brought outside. The hundredth day after the delivery is called paegil and a special ceremonial feast is held to celebrate. In the morning, plain white rice and seaweed soup are prepared for Samshin and pison is performed for the last time. After the mother has eaten the rice and soup, the food for the banquet is arranged on a table. Different kinds of rice-cake are served for paegil: steamed rice-cakes, which represent purity and cleanliness; glutinous kaoliang ricecakes and glutinous rice-cakes coated with mashed red beans, which represent endurance and strong will; rice-cakes steamed on a layer of pine needles, which represent generosity; and stuffed rice-cakes, which represent the full mind Each cake is made for longevity, purity
and divinity. It is important that at least one hundred people partake of the cakes so that the baby will enpy a long life The neighbors and relatives should in tum present rice and string, as they represent longevity and good fortune The paegil party is to bless the baby and to prevent any disasters which may hinder the baby's growth The first anniversary party is called doljanch'i and is more elaborate than the paegil party. The main foods served are ricecakes and fruits. The same four kinds of rice<:akes as for paegil are prepared, especially the steamed ricecake and the glutinous rice<:ake Other cakes of cinnamon bark and steamed rice balls rolled in various colored powders or steamed in different layers are also served. This steamed, layered cake, called rainbow ricecake, is made in the hope that the baby will have a wide range of accomplishments, as varied as the colors of a rainbow The special custom observed on ch'6tddol is called doljabi On a table, various things are spread, such as rice, ricecakes, cookies, money; thread, books, paper, a writing brush, and a bow and arrow. For girls, a pair of scissors and a
ruler takes the place of the bow and arrow. The baby is formally dressed in traditional costume, and is encouraged to take hold of anything he or she likes. According to the item, the baby's future is foretold Money or rice indicates future wealth Thread represents longevity; and books or a brush represent scholarship. The dol food is also shared with relatives and neighbors, who usually give presents with blessings. The presents include thread, clothing money; rings, spoons and chopsticks, bowls and toys. Every birthday is celebrated by sharing food with relatives and neighbors. As in the case of paegil and do~ tables for Samshin and for the god who takes care of the house are prepared in the main living room, and prayers are offered for longevity and good fortune The person celebrating his or her birthday eats the food placed on the table for Samshin The word used for birthday in Korean varies according to the person concerned. The usual term for birthday is saengil which refers to members of the younger generation, sang shin for the elder, and fanil or famshin for religious people and kings.
Coming-of-age According to Yes-q 7be &ok of Etiquette, the coming-of-age ceremony is held between the ages of fifteen and twenty for boys and at fifteen for girls. For boys, the parents must not have lost any of their parents or cla;e senior relatives during the previous year, otherwise the ceremony is postponed. Traditionally; Korean boys of fifteen years old were supposed to have a kn0Vledge of Nono (Analects of Corifucius) and Hyog;K5ng (&ok of Filial Piety) At this age, the boy is expected to understand the proper manners, ways and teachings of the sages. It was considered important that the ceremony be performed after the boy had learned these things. The ceremony was usually held in the frrst month of the lunar calendar. Three days before the ceremony; the master of the family announces the event to the family's ancestral tablet hall and chooses the officiator of the ceremony. The ceremony starts with samgarye, the three decorums. During the first decorum, shifÂĽ1, a topknot is tied on the boy's head, and the officiator receives a topknot cover piece called kuan from a helper (a member of the boy's household) and puts it on the boy's head after 21
delivering a congratulatory address. The boy now bows with his hands placed tqsether and held high, and then enters a room to change sagysan~ ceremonial clothes, into shimu~ a white coat Then he comes out of the room and the second decorum starts. The kuxm is removed and the ka~ the Korean hat made of horsehair, is placed on the boy's head Then the third decorum begins. The boy again goes into the room and changes shimui for chosam, black clothes. Samgarye is now considered to be completed When girls become fifteen years old, their hair is done up in a chignon Called kuallye for boys, the ceremony for the girls is called kyerye The mother becomes the officiator and another woman from the household, the helper. As in the case of kuallye, a new name is given to the girl and the information is conveyed to the family shrine. The food for the ceremonial table includes wine, dried, spiced meat and boiled mea~ all relatively simple. But other foods, such as nro dies, ricecakes, other mea~ wine and fruits, are prepared for relatives and visitors.
22
Sixtieth Birthday Anniversary A person's sixtieth birthday is called /x;e-g:lp or /x;e-g:lp-)On Celebrations are usually organized by the person's offspring. The banquet is magnificent The main table, called mangsang is placed in front of the parents, and another big table, kyonjlsang also for the parents, is separately prepared The offspring fill a cup with wine and offer it to the parents and bow two by two. Meanwhile, there is dancing and music, and a Korean drinking song is sung by the invited performers. The senior guests are carefully looked after and served wine and side dishes. Hoe-gap is also called buxtnifiP, huanifip-)On or su-y)n Marriage Traditionally; marriage can only take place ~ when the couple has been recqsnized and ace: cepted as suitable by the families. This is considered extremely important as, not only do the Samgarye, the coming-of-age ceremony two individuals marry; but the two families are (above), an elaborate feast is prepared for the also brought together in a close and lfsting relatraditional wedding ceremony (below). tionship. In traditional Korean society; the act of mar-
i
riage consists of four separate prCJCeS)eS and is based on the book, Sarye p'yon !Jl11l (Inquiry into the Four Ceremonies) The agreement to marry, or uihon, is the first step in the marriage process. The right ages for marriage prescribed in the book Etiquette are between sixteen and thirty for ooys and between fourteen and twenty for girls. However, if the ooy or the girl or their parents are in mourning for more than a year, then any discussion of marriage must be postponed. At first, the views of ooth families are communicated through a matchmaker. Only after the girl's family agrees to the marriage can those involved move on to the second step. When ooth families .agree to the marriage, the family of the ooy sends a letter propaling the marriage to the girl's family; along with another letter in which sa}4 the Four Pillars (the year, month, day and hour of birth) of the bridegroom-t(}be, are written This letter is folded in five and the Four Pillars are written in the middle. The letter is put in an envelope on which the characters, saju, are written Then the envelope is sealed, put between stems of a twig of bush clover, tied with blue and red thread, wrapped in a cloth, and sent to the girl's family by the matchmaker. After receiving the saju, the girl's family sends a letter agreeing to the marriage and another letter in which the dates for sending the ooy's family a wedding chest and for the marriage ceremony are written This sending of documents is called
naJXh'ae Napp'ae is the sending of blue and red silk cloth and a letter in a wedding chest to the family of the bride-t(}be. The cloth was usually meant for two sets of traditional costumes for the bride-t(}be, and if there was any left over, it should not be for more than ten sets of traditional dresses. Sometimes, hair ornaments or bracelets were sent instead of the silk, and farmers usually sent cotton seed, chilies, charcoal and seaweed. Cb'iny)ng is the receiving of the bride at the bridegroom's house. Originally; the bridegroom went to the bride's house on horseback and gave a pair of wild geese made of wood to the bride's family. Then, the bridegroom brought tl1e bride back in a palanquin to hold the ceremony of exchanging oows. Later, the giving of the geese, cbonan, and the ceremony of ex-
changing oows, kyobae, came to be held at the san1e time in the bride's house. Clxman is held when the bridegroom arrives at the bride's house. A folding screen is set up towards the north and a table is put in front of it The bridegroom puts a pair of wild geese on the table, a testament of his love, and then bows. These days, a marquee is set up and a wedding table is prepared in the center of the main room or yard Usually; a branch of pine, bamboo, chestnuts, Chinese dates, red-beans, rice, a pair of live hens and a live cock, a candle stand, blue and red thread, and a cup are put on the table. The bridegroom stands to the east, and the bride to the west The bride oows first and the bridegroom bows in return Then, they repeat their oows. After oowing, the couple shares a cup of wine three times, and the ceremony is over. On the wedding nigh~ the couple see each other in private with a drinking table called cbuansang or iny)nsang which means the table of the oond of affinity. Only when the table is taken away can they go to bed. The next morning the couple oows to the bride's parents and other senior family members. On the third day the couple leaves the bride's house for the bridegroom's house. This is called sbinlxzeng The couple may go to the bridegroom's house on the first day; after a month or after a year. These events are called tangil-sbinlxzeng talmug4 and IXJemug4 respectively. The presentation of the new bride to the bridegroom's parents for the first time is now called p'yebaek The bride offers wine and slices of dried beef or steamed hen as a side dish. The mother-in-law then casts Chinese dates or chestnuts at the bride wishing for the prosperity of the offspring of the new couple. Three days after the couple's arrival at the bridegroom's house, the bridegroom again visits the bride's house and this is called cbaelxzeng Sometimes the bride accompanies the bridegroom In earlier times, the bride visited her home only after eating the food of the first harves~ called kunch'in When the bride returned to her in-law's house after a certain period, a party was held with the neighoors.
Funerals Funerals are the most serious ceremonies because they deal with the dead and their spirits. The funeral ceremony is a complicated pr(} cess starting from the time of death and continuing for up to two years. After that there are the yearly memorial ceremonies. When someone is near death, they are moved to a proper bed or to the main room of the house. All the descendants gather, and they hold the person by the hands and feet while watching the person taking their last breaths. This is called imjJng Koboh the invocation of the deceased's spiri~ varies according to region The dead person's clothes are taken to the roof of the house in order to call the spirit of the deceased. Holding the collar with the left hand and the waist with the right hand, the clothes are shaken toward the north while invoking the dead person by calling his/her nan1e. In the case of a man, his official name or pseudonym is called. For a woman, her nan1e and the name of her¡ birth place are called. Sometimes, the address of the dead person's house comes first The clothes used to call the spirit are either kept on the roof or in an open shed. It is believed that three messengers come from the underworld to take the spirit immediately after death So three oowls of rice, three pairs of shoes, side dishes and money for the purney are prepared for them in the yard or at the main gate of the compound As soon as the invocation is over, the family undo their hair and begin lamenting Any silk clothing and ornan1ents are removed and they wear nothing but white clothes. The chief mourner and the chief female mourner (a housewife) are appointed and they take charge of organizing the funeral The children of the dead wear overcoats and stand to the left when the dead person is their father, or the right when the dead person is their mother, and they all undo their hair. They should be prudent in speech and in their deeds. Washing and clothing the deceased is called silp and y)n~ respectively. The clothes of the deceased are taken off and the dead body is washed with perfumed or sagebrush water and then dressed in the garments prepared. In the case of a paren~ the children put three spoons of raw rice into the mouth of the deceased using a willow spoon This is the parent's last 23
focxl and it is given to help the deceased on his way; it is called panham (holding rice). The hair of the deceased is comlxxi and the fmgernails and the trenails are cut The nails and the hair which comes off of the head while combing are put in a small bag, cl:xJbalnang When panbam is over and the body is clothed, strings are used to tie the arms, the legs and the trunk separately; this is called sory)m (small tying). Then, the limbs are tied to the body with seven knots; this is called taery)m (big tying). The distinction between sory)m and taery)m was clear in early times, but they are usually done tcgether these days. After )On~ the corpse is placed in the coffin, and this is called ipkwan This is when the mourners lament most Clothes are put in the
Three bowls of rice, three pairs of shoes, side dishes and money are prepared for the deceased's journey(near right). Atraditional funeral procession (far right).
coffin to fill the space The coffin is then closed and nailed shut with wocxlen pegs. A table is prepared and there, the case in which the mortuary tablet is kep~ is placed Candles and incense, wine, fruits and dried, spiced meat are all arranged Mourning clothes are called sangbok During the funeral, mourners wear hemp caps with one sleeve of the overcoat hanging free Afterwards they put on their hemp mourning clothes and hold the mourning ceremony. After the mourning ceremony; an evening ceremony is held for the deceased and the mourners begin to receive visitors offering condolences. This is called munsang or cbosang Each visitor offers incense in front of the mortuary table~ laments and then bows twice The visitor and the chief mourner then exchange bows. While the coffin is carried out of the room, one person breaks a gourd dipper on the way. Then a ceremony; called parin, is held for the departure The coffin is put on a funeral bier and fastened down, and the bier is carried by bearers to the burial ground At the head is my6ngj6ng, the flag bearing the name and so24
cia! status of the dcx:eased Then a small bier, )Ong)X), follows to carry back the spirit of the
dead person after the funeral Next comes the manjang paper or cloth streamers on which funeral odes are written. A hemp cloth, konf!!lo, is also carried and it is used to clean the coffin before lowering it into the grave Then comes the sangy6, or bier. The tomb is constructed under the guidance of a geomancer. Before the construction starts, a ceremony; sany6k, is carried out and offerings are made to the Mountain God. Then a grave is dug and everyone waits until the arranged, auspicious time for the next step, hay6k, lowering the coffin into the grave At the right time, the coffin is carried by the mourners from the bier and is lowered into the grave The coffin is covered with the my6ngj6ng, and a board is inserted next to it Then the coffin is covered with earth, the tomb is made and a sproa1 ceremony is held PangJk is the process of bringing back the spirit of the dead person by carrying the small spirit bier back from the mountain to his house along the same road The mortuary tablet and the box for the spirit are enshrined, and all the mourners gather to lament tcgether. After the burial, the ceremony called uje is perfo1med, just in case the spirit wonders from the body which has just been buried The ceremony is held th.Iice on the day of the funeral, on the next day; and on a certain day after the scx:ond Each ceremony is the same, performed in the month after the burial After cl:xJko~ the end of lamenting, the family writes thank-you letters to the visitors who came to offer condolences. Sosang is a ceremony held one year after the death, and is similar to uje. When sosang is over, relatives of the deceased change mourning clothes for ordinary clothes. Taesang takes place two years after the death At this time, visitors are received, and the ceremony is more splendid than sosang. After the ceremony; the mourning shrine is removed, the family take off mourning clothes for the last time, and the mortuary tablet is
moved to the family shrine In recent times, people consider mourning to be over after taesang But according to Yes6 (The Book of Etiquette), there are two more mourning ceremonies, tan?ft? and kilje. Tamje was held two months after taesang on a Fire or Pig Day. Kilje was held one hundred days after taesang on a Fire or Pig Day. The mortuary tablet was rewritten on that day. After that all the prohibitions were over, and the mourners could eat meat and wear ordinary clothes. Not until the kilje was over was the funeral considered to be fmished The ceremonies before kiije were considered ceremonies of bad luck, and those after kilje of gocxlluck Sadang is the ancestral shrine in which the spirits of the ancestors are kept Though mast of these shrines have now disappeared, sadang was the site of family history and served as a reminder for Koreans over the last several hundred years. In the pas~ when a person died,. the spirit was served food every morning and evening for a full two years at the mourning shrine The meal was prepared in the usual way with sproa1 bowls, chopsticks and a spoon reserved for the dead person. The meal had to be served as if the person were still living in the house Special food, with extra dishes, was offered on new moon and full moon days, great emphasis being placed on the attitude of the cook who was supposed to put all her heart into the meal When all was ready; a ceremony was held in which lamentation was important On bitthdays in particular, both the food and ceremony were more elaborate Wine, fruits, dried, seasoned mea~ soup, skewers of fish and mea~ rice-cakes, cold rice drink, rice and accompanying soup, and greens were all prepared in spcx:ial pots with handles. All the focxl had to be cut in large picx:es or cooked whole The decoration was simple and few colors were featured After taesang the mourning shrine was dismantled and the mortuary tablet was enshrined in the ancestral shrine, which contained the mortuary tablets of ancestors of the previous four generations. Sbije is held once in the middle month of each season A Fire or Pig Day is chosen and a service is offered to four generations of ancestors. Once tl1e day is decided, it is announced
at the ancestral shrine three days before the appointed day. Ship is held in the main room of the house. For ancestors of the previous four generations, the ceremonies are held at home, but for those more than five generations back, the descendants gather once a year, usually during the lOth lunar month, and hold the ceremony at the burial mound The offerings are prepared by a tenant farmer who tends the fields. The oldest grandson of the main family supervises myoj?. MyojJ is similar to the four seasonal services. Before the ceremony commences, a smaller ceremony for the Mountain God is held Those participating stand in order of their relationship to the deceased and according to seniority from the left of the mound When myojJ is over, the members have a talk with the ancestors and discuss family affairs and the food prepared for the service is eaten In the district of Ky6ng-gi, services called cb6/lye are held at the burial mounds every festivaL such as Hansik (the 105th day after the winter solstice) and Cb'us6k (the harvest moon festival on the 15th of the 8th lunar month).
Offerings are limited to fruits of three different colors, dried, spiced meat, and rice-cakes steamed on a layer of pine needles on the Harvest Moon Day, or rice-cake soup on New Year's Day. The services are relatively simple After mourning for two years, at midnight on the memorial day, a ceremony called kip is held by the descendants. A special table is set up in the main room, and the mortuary tablets are brought from the shrine According to family customs the tablets are set up together or separately. Fixed rules for arranging the offerings must be followed The tablets should be placed to the north. Close to the tablets, a cup of wine, cooked rice and soup, seasoned meat on skewers, soup again, seasoned vegetables and fruits are placed Facing the table, there are some other rules for the arrangement of offerings on it 1 Red fruits are placed to the east and white ones to the west 2 Chinese dates then chestnuts, pears, persimmons (or dried persimmons) are placed in that order from the west in the front row. 3. Skewered fish is placed to the east and
skewered meat to the west 4. Dried slices of meat seasoned with spices are placed to the west and a cold drink made from fermented rice is placed to the east The life of a person is a series of events from the beginning, birth, to the end, death Suffering and pleasure succeed one another following the.natural succession of prosperity and poverty, success and failure Such events were believed by Koreans to be pre-ordained according to the will of the Heavens. So they used to hold ceremonies to pray to the spirits of their ancestors and various nature gods (Mountain God and Childbirth Goddess) for the fulfillment of their wishes. They believed that an innocent heart and deep devotion were essential to ensure the success of these ceremonies. They offered prayers, performed purifications of the mind and the body, and took extra care in choosing materials and preparing the food The food therefore, was made with the whole-hearted good intentions of the people and this in tum influenced the dietary culture ofKorea â&#x20AC;˘
25
UST how did the custom of using a spoon for eating in Korea come arout? Neither in China nor in Japan is the spoon used as extensively as in Korea The reason is probably to be found in the glutinous quality of rice, or its stickiness. In ancient Northern China, or in the northem parts of the Korean Peninsula, cereals such as foxtail mile~ Chinese millet and barley were consumed as the staple. But rice mixed with cereal or barley is not glutinous and cannot be picked up and placed in the mouth with a pair of cho[A5ticks because the grains simply fall off. In general, the northern Chinese people preferred non-glutinous, crunchy rice. According to the Y6nbaeng journal written by Kim Ch'ang.Op in 1712, "The Chinese people, after roiling rice, throw any remaining water away, and eat the rice only after it has been roiled again in new water:' Rice cooked in this fashion loses all its gluten This method of cooking rice is called t'angk6p6p or soup eradication methcxl, and it is still used in China today. In order to eat the non-glutinous rice correctly and politely, a spoon is obviously the most appropriate tool So the Chinese used roth a spoon and a pair of cho[A5ticks until the Won Dynasty. Then, what did the people do on the Korean Peninsula? Bronze spoons and chopsticks have been unearthed from the Royal Tomb of King Munyong of Paekche, one of the Three Kingdoms. And from Kumkwanch'ong (an ancient tomb from which gold crowns have been found), spoons, dated to around the late 5th century or early 6th century have also been ex-
J
cavated. Recently, too, point stopped imitating ChiKoreans bronze spoons have also na and developed their own been found in an old tomb are the only people unique spoon shape, even in Kuam-dong, Ch'ilkokexporting it to Japan kun in Northern KyongDuring the Koryo Periin East Asia to eat sang Province dating from ex!, the spoons became ben~ the 4th or 5th century. The thin and long They were so their soup chopsticks found in the ornamental that they beMunyong Royal Tomb of came inconvenient for use in and the Three Kingdoms taper eating. Many chopsticks gradually towards the end, from the Koryo Period have their rice with and the spoons look very been excavated and it can similar to those excavated be concluded that a spoon spoons. from Pukwi Sokham of and a pair of chopsticks Hapuk Chonghyon in Chiwere used teY5ether as a set na Thus, it is logical to assume that Koreans Among the three countries of East Asia, Koused spoons they copied from those of the Chi- rea is the only country that uses a spoon today. nese, or simply used Chinese ones In the Angy6pki of Ch'ongchang Kwanchon As for the bronze spoons excavated from SO, in a document dated from 1795, the followP'yongsan in Hwanghae Province datirig back ing statement can be found: "A man was to the Unified Silla Kingdom, an oval and a found adrift this year in Yuku, and the local round spoon with slightly bent handles formed people said laughingly, 'Since your custom is to a set An oval and a round bronze spoon set always use a large rowl and shovel the rice was also found in Anapchi of Kyongju Some with a brass spoon, how can you not help beof them have straight handles and others only ing poor! " slightly bent ones. However, spoons of such Also the Chos6n Period journal written by shape have not been found in China a German merchant in 1800 stated tha~ "KoreAt the Chongch'ang-won (the subsidiary ans use earthenware and wooden spoons with building of Tongtaesa Temple, built in 752 dur- very long handles. Therefore, they do not ing the Nara Period of Japan), a chzmp'ar~de bring the bowl right up to their mouth to spoon and gilt bronze chopsticks are preserved. scrape up the rice. Instead they scoop the food An oval and a round spoon form one se~ and with the spoon with dignity. It looks so much they are wrapped in paper on which idu (the more elegant and is a prettier sight than the writing using Chinese characters for sound and Chinese." In his Y6lba journa~ Park Chi-won meaning in ancient Korea) characters are written wrote, "I was surprised that there were no From this, spoons. in China" it can be As stated arove, Korea is the only country in Eastern Asia today where spoons are still used Cho[A5ticks are commonly used throughout the region but in Korea more than 80 per-
KOREAN ~
26
CULTURE
Spoons and chopsticks from the Koryo Period
cent of all food consumed is in soups. This percentage is the highest in the world, and forms a unique t'ang(soup) culture. So the spoon continues to be used At court or in the ruling ;a,ngban class, silver spoons were used instead of brass. Silver spoons are a very scientific, practical dietary tool as silver can detect poison in food Also, a silver spoon was added to the silver dagger or unjmgio, the personal effects of women, so that it could be used anywhere at anytime to detect the presence of poison During the early Chos6n Period, the swallow tail-like handle of the spoons disappeared, and the bend in the handle became less severe. The surface of the spoon became oval in shape, resembling a lotus petal Then, from the rnid-Chos6n Period on, the spoon handle became longer, thicker and straighter. Also, the surface of the spoon becarne rounder. The artistic and practical side of the spoon became more evidn~ and therefore
it took on a more practical shape, like the familiar ob1rt we know today. And one side of the chopsticks gradually became thinner. Japanese chopsticks are thinner than Korea's, and Chinese chopsticks look like plain sticks with slightly thinner ends. Taej6n Ch'angjl, who conducted a study on the function of chopsticks, concluded that the Korean-style chopsticks were the best for eating From this, we can see how !~cal the shape of our chopsticks is. Koreans initially scorned the spectacle of Westerners eating food with what looked like steel rakes. Forks reminded Koreans of animal claws and were used to cut and tear food along with a knife. Thus, they suggested carnivorous behavior. However, the knife and fork were necessary because a big lump of meat was placed on the table and carved up according to individual appetite. In contr~ chopsticks are used to pick the food up. One Westerner who
watched Asians eating said that it '1ooked like a bird pecking at its food" In Korea, it is normal to eat not only the soup with a spoon but also the rice. Once the spoon is held in the hand, it is not put on the table until the meal is over. When it's time to use chopsticks, the spoon is put over the rice bowl or the soup bowl Chopsticks are used to pick up food from the side dishes. When the chopsticks are not in use, it is quite all right to put them on the table. The method of using the spoon and chopsticks is quite specific There is a saying that "someone holding the spoon too high up the handle gets married to someone living far away" to discourage the habit It was probably discouraged because there was the danger of always dropping the food Also, if they were held too close to the bottom, it looked crude and there was the risk of dirtying the fmgers withfood + 27
Traditionally, the foo:i eaten during holidays was determined by the occasion, the season and the customs. Ricecake soup was served on New Year's Day, glutinous rice or fivegrain rice (a mixture of any five of the following rice, mille~ soybeans, red beans, barley, barnyard mile~ and sorghum) on the 15th of the first lunar month, cakes made of rice flour and mugwort paste during the Tano Festival (the fifth day of the fifth lunar month), rice-cakes during Ch'us6k (Harvest Moon Festival on the 15th of the eighth lunar month) and red bean porridge during the winter solstice (the 11th lunar month). Such traditions of consuming certain kinds of holiday dishes on different occasions are not the result of personal choice or temporary desire On the contrary, these traditions evolved quite naturally over a long period of time. There are goo:i reasons for preparing a specific kind of foo:i at a specific time of the year and much of the traditions inevitably arose as a result of seasonal and agricultural activities. Since it is only natural to cook foo:i after it is harvested, the foo:i usually consumed varies with the seasons. Foo:i dependent on seasonal changes is called seasonal fcxxl, and it can be part of an 30
everyday diet or part of an occasional diet As barley and wheat are harvested in summer, it is during this season that boiled barley (instead of rice) and noo:iles are usually consumed In autumn, rice and foxtail millet are reaped so they are the typical ingredients in foo:i eaten then Of course, the same applies to the side dishes. In spring wild mountain greens are mostly eaten as side dishes, while in summer; the vegetables grown in fields, such as lettuce and cabbage, are consumed Foo:i made of ingredients prcxiuced in each season, however, cannot really be considered holiday food But a cake made with rice flour and mugwort paste, with mugwort picked in spring, is a special holiday dish as it is enpyed on a special day or during a given holiday. Thus, due to certain traditional customs, a seasonal dish is occasionally consumed or transformed into holiday food. Various Functions of Holiday Dishes Naturally, traditional holidays are not ordinary days. New Year's Day is for paying respect to our ancestors. The 15th of the first lunar month is a day for offering tribute to the village gods, and the Tano Festival (on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month) is a day of wish-
ing for the crops to grow well Ch'us6k (Harvest Moon Festival) in August is a day for offering the various freshly harvested crops to the gods before consuming them As such, these four special days are unique in the year, a time for special rituals and games. Taking a rest from everyday work, people hold ancestor memorial services or perform sacrificial rites for the village god, and during the festiva!, with the whole village participating, they play special games. People put on new clothes, eat delicious holiday foo:i and visit their relatives and neighbors to exchange greetings. Naturally, the foo:i cannot but be different from everyday food. There are a number of reasons for preparing a special holiday dish on a traditional holiday. Firs~ the significance of the holiday can be brought to life and its function indicated by the special foo:i prepared Holidays, such as New Year's Day and Ch'us6k are for worshipping our ancestors, praying for a rich harvest or performing exorcisms to prevent tragedies. In order to properly perform these holiday ceremonies, we must prepare all sorts of foo:i offerings. On the 15th of the first lunar month, we
cook rice with five different grains to bring about a bumper crop, and on the winter solstice, we cook and mash red beans into a porridge to drive the ghosts away. Just as it would not seem like Ch'us6k or New Year's Day if we did not perform ancestor memorial services, it would not feel like the 15th of the first lunar month if we did not eat the fivegrain rice In order to bring the tradition of the holiday alive, a dish appropriate to the occasion is necessary. Second, by making and eating a holiday dish with the crops and greens grown in the given season, the consumers receive a supplement of nutrients not obtained from everyday food All foods are most nutritious when consumed during the season in which they are harvested. So holiday food helps us to stay healthy. For instance, there's the eating of ricecakes made of mugwort paste during the Tano Festival Mugwort is a wild green plant known to give one energy and it is widely used as a precious herb in traditional Oriental medicine In addition, it is also sad that its effects are best during the Tano Festival Therefore, it is customary to pick mugwort during the Tano Festival, dry it to make a medidne, and use its tender leaves to make rice-cakes. By observing the traditions of
eating freshly harvested rice on Ch'us6~ making rice<::akes and rice wine to go with it and consuming various kinds of fresh autumn fruits and vegetables, we eat every kind of food grown in autumn Third, by eating delicious food not usually eaten and reserved for that day, we can enpy the holiday in a festive mood Traditional holidays provide relief from the tedious daily i: chores of l!fe, and revitalize us. Good clothes ~ not usually worn on ordinary days are worn, ~, games are played, and delicious food is cone: sumed. In this way, the holiday is truly enpyed. Exchanging New Year's greetings (left), the The delicious food and rice wine offered at Tano Festival(above), rice¡cakes flavored with weddings and on other special occasions also mugwort leaves and flowers, a specialty of the helps to heighten the festive mood and make southern provinces (below). the day feel special Various kinds of rice<::akes and wine, fruit and meat are prepared in addition to rice Fourth, the offering of special dishes on holidays helps to reduce the workload of the housewife receiving and feeding many relatives and guests. If the usual rice and side dishes had to be cooked, it would indeed be too much work for the housewife So holiday food was invented. Holiday food is much more conve nient and easier to prepare and to serve Thus, 31
she was liberated from the burden of doing too much cooking for guests and for the family. For instance, on New Year's Day, there are always many guests. Not only does one have to pay respects to one's ancestors through the memorial service performed with all relatives in attendance, but many neighbors also call on the elderly people of the household So, ifs easier to just serve boiled ricecake soup, the holiday dish of New Year's Day. Sticks of ricecake are prepared beforehand in vast quantities, and when the need arises, or at each meal time, the housewife can just boil the pre-prepared stock and put in the slices of ricecake and the meal is ready. Chicken, beef or pheasant meat prepared beforehand decorates the soup in the form of a trimming, so there's no need to come up with various kindS of side dishes. Not only is it easy to cook and serve, but the dish washing is easy. If the slices of ricecake and the trimmings are prepared in advance, a meal can be served as easily as boiling ramy)n or instant noodles, so ifs a very convenient dish. The same is true for red bean porridge, the holiday dish of the winter solstice. Rice is added to the soup made from strained red beans and all is boiled together. Rice-cakes made of glutinous rice flour and rolled into the shape of a bird's egg are thrown in as well It is believed that the red color of the porridge serves to drive ghosts away. As plenty is made, the porridge can continue to be consumed for several days after the holiday. It only needs to be heated up each time before serving It is perfectly delicious on its own, without many side dishes. There are two Korean sayings derived from the convenience of porridge. They are "as easy as eating a bowl of cooled porridge" and "as easy as cleaning the porridge ~:x.r ¡ Both sayings describe something thafs easy to do. The Significance of Customs As explained so far, holiday food is most important for the significance associated with it and for the traditional customs which surround it on the special day it is served Hence, it is necessary to look even closer at the significance of various customs and their relationship with holiday dishes. Each holiday has its own, unique significance, and more often than no~ there is more than one meaning attached to it So holiday dishes also have several meanings. For example, 32
Traditionally, holidays were a time for special foods to celebrate the occasion and supplement the diet.
Rice-cake soup (top), red beans to drive the ghosts away (bottom), sacrificial rites for the village god (right).
New Year's Day would be practically meaningless without the customs and food associated with it In fact, holidays would hardly exist if it were not for their ancient customs and cuisines. Special dishes served on different holidays serve different purpcre;. First of all, a holiday dish plays an important role in sacrificial rituals. As offerings at ancestors' memorial services or to gods worshipped at home, special care is taken in the preparation and offering of the food on this day. Ricecake soup is always offered at the New Year's Day ritual and ricecakes at the Ch'u.s6k rituals. It is for this reason that the New Year's Day ritual is called a "ricecake soup ceremony.'' For the usual ancestor worshipping rites, white rice and red bean riceokes are among the most important kinds of food offerings. But on New Year's Day, riceoke soup is served instead of white rice. And white ricecake is served instead of red bean ricecake at Ch'us6k ceremonies. Since the Ch'us6k rituals are to offer the freshly harvested crop to the ancestral spirits first, the rice-cakes are made with the newly harvested rice. This is why on New Year's Day and Ch'us6k, ricecake soup and ricecakes are invariably offered at the rituals, and even in the homes that do not perform ancestor memorial services, they are usually prepared as a holiday dish The holiday food offered during ancestral rites should always be white and so the ricecake soup and the ricecakes are always this color. And rice is always the basic ingredient in holiday dishes since it was considered a sacred grain It was believed that ghosts like white and shun red. Since red was believed to drive ghosts away, the red skin of the ~ was peeled off before the beans were made into cakes and offered to the ancestors. The only grain used in these ritual foods was rice because other grains would make the food less white and less delicious to the spirits. As the family wanted the spirits of their ancestors to enpy the food, they made it appealing to them Second, there is the holiday food used in rites to predict how good the harvest would be_ The fivegrain rice consumed on tl1e 15th of the first lunar month is a good example. Since there's a full moon on that day, all sorts of ritual ceremonies in supplication of a good ha1vest are widely performed. Asacrificial rite asks the village god for a rich harvest And games such as tug-of-war with the whole village participat33
ing take place. The outcome is used to predict many customs associated with driving ghosts the result of the harvest So ifs only natural that away are performed on this day. Because the the holiday dish of that day is connected with color red has the power to drive gh05t:S away; these rituals. On that day; we eat the fivegrain red-bean ponidge is the main holiday dish. In rice or glutinous rice in the hope of a good har- China, there is even a story concerning the orivest of all the different grains. We dont stop at gin of the custom of eating red 00111 ponidge on the winter solstice. cooking and eating the food, but also offer i~ There once was a silly man who, for no apwith brief prayers, to the guardian god of the house and the goddess governing childbirth as parent reason, was scared of red beans. He died well as to the kitchen god and family gods. Fivegrain rice and wild greens are given to cows on special days to predict how good all the crop harvests will be. The outcome of the comfug harvest is predicted from the way the food is consumed by the cow and the order in which it is consumed For instance, a good harvest of grains is anticipated if the cow eats the rice first, and vice versa. In some regions, the holiday food of the day is placed in front of the cow shed in the hope that the cow will stay healthy and not have any accidents for the whole year. Also on the 15th of the first lunar month, there is a tradition of pokssam, which is wrapping rice in laver. Pokssam literally means that one is wrapping jXJ~ or luck, with the laver. Originally; laver was used to wrap the rice, but some- Rice-cakes made from newly harvested rice are times castor-bean plant a staple at every Ch'usok holiday. leaves, taro leaves or ¢11y greens were used as well Pokssam is then eaten in the hope that by dcr on a winter solstice day to be reincarnated as a ing so there will be a rich harv~ so the more harmful ghost spreading illness everywhere. that is eaten, the better. From that time on, on each winter solstice, red Holiday dishes also chase gh05t:S away and beans have been scattered to scare the diseaseward off misfortune. The most typical dish of spreading ghost away. this type is the red 00111 ponidge of the winter There are some people who think this story solstice. Winter solstice is the day with the was the reason behind Koreans eating red 00111 longest night of the year, so ifs perceived as a ponidge on this day; but it is more plausible that day on which many ghosts appear. Thus, the custom began as a ritual to prevent the ap34
pearance of gh05t:S on the longest night of the year. The red 00111 ponidge is stewed, and one l:xJ\vl is put in each room, on the wooden floor and in the bam, and at different places inside and around the house, and at the shrine of the village god The rest is consumed by the family. Third, there are other customs of using food to prevent tragedies from happening When a person's fortune indicated that he or she would be harmed in water, the person was considered safe if wrapped rice was thrown into a well in the middle of the night Also, there who thought they had an especially unlucky year would go around the neighborhood, begging for some grains. Then a small amount of it was wrapped in window paper and hung on a rope between two pine trees on the 15th of the first lunar month. In this way, misfortunes were thought to be prevented. This is a ritual that originated from the belief that the gods or the ghosts out to harm people would be appeased by eating the good food and be persuaded not to harm people. Fourth, among the holiday dishes cooked with gods or ghosts in mind, there are there said to be good for health or to bring luck for the whole year if eaten on a certain day It was believed that if red bean porridge was eaten on the winter solstice it would help maintain good health There is an old saying: "colds can be prevented with the red bean porridge eaten at the winter solstice." It was also said that one would not suffer from any headaches for the whole year if rice-cake soup was consumed on New Year's Day. Its protective effects were considered to be increased by a candle lit on the fireplace while the soup was being cooked And on the 15th of the first lunar month, roasted peas, walnuts, ginkgo, chestnuts and other hard nuts are cracked open and eaten to
.. strengthen one's teeth They were also eaten because it was believed that by doing so one would not suffer from any boils or swellings. And on the morning of this day, unheated rice wine, dubbed "hearing enhancing wine," is also consumed with the belief that by doing so the ears would remain clear all year long. In addition, on this cx:casion, it is customary for women to drink with men In mid:July by the solar calendar, when the weather is very hot, three Pok Days are designated. On these days, many kinds of food known to strengthen the body are consumed. Due to the sweltering heat, peer ple sweat a lot and lose their appetites. Then, of course they can easily fall sick So samgyet'ang or chicken broth with ginseng, jujube or Chinese dates and glutinous' rice, or croaker stews are consumed to give the body strength Fifth, special holiday food reminds us of the significance of the holiday. New Year's Day celebrants reflect on the fact that everyone is a year older as they eat rice-cake soup. 'How many bowls of rice-cake soup have you eaten?'' is a polite way of asking how old a person is. It is even said that a person doesn't really age if he or she doesn't have a bowl of rice-cake soup on New Year's Day. So ultimately, not celebrating New Year's Day with a bowl of rice-cake soup is like not observing New Year's Day at all The rice-cake soup enables us to celebrate New Year's Day properly and reminds us that we are a year older. Other kinds of holiday dishes also help to make the meaning of the patticular holiday come alive. The red bean porridge of the winter solstice serves the same purpose as the 1ice-cake soup of New Year's Day. From ancient times, the winter solstice was called the small New Year's Day. Since daytime is the shortest on that day, and after it the days gradually become longer, the winter solstice was considered to be like the beginning of a new year; hence the tenn ''Small New Year's Day'' came to be used Therefore, just like the rice-cake soup, red bean po1ridge eaten on this day was also a sign that one was a year older. Even today, there are some older people who admit to being a year older only after having eaten red bean porridge on the winter solstice even though the New Year's Day hasn't arrived yet The red bean porridge is cooked, together witl1 glutinous rice balls, in the shape of bird's eggs, and it is said one should eat as many of the rice-cakes as one's age.
Forbidden Food In contrast to what weve observed so far, there are certain kinds of foods that are traditionally forbidden on certain i oli9;1ys. These are the foods one avoids eatinifDn a particular day to ward off misfortune. The food forbidden on a certain day is called taboo food. However, this forbidden food is not considered taboo for the whole year, but only on certain days according to tradition - ~ in a negative sense, the forbidden food can··atso be called a sort of holiday dish and can be included in the category of holiday food. For instance on Sangyou-il, the first Hen Day of the new year, one d ~ not slaughter a hen for consumption This o~ted from the belief that hens would not do well if one was killed and consumed on this day. Also, on the 15th of the first lunar month, it was customary not to mix rice with water, to make a kind of porridge, at breakfast If the rice was consumed in this way, it was believed that weeds would grow thick in the fields. And if glutinous rice is mixed with water and consumed on the 15th of the first lunar month, one would meet with a sudden shower while on the road Also on the eve of the 15th of the first lunar month, or the following morning, one avoided drinking cold water or eating scorched rice or 1 ground chili pepper. Otherwise, the person would be stung by a bee or an insect Such customs are believed to have been established to correct bad dietary habits. Feeding Body and Spirit ., Holiday food is largely either for sacred rites or for consumption on the special day. It can also be divided into beneficial dishes and harmful dishes. Sacred food was prepared and offered to the benevolent gcxfs, including the village gods and the family gOds. It was also offered to one's ancestors. Special dishes were prepared for ghosts that might bring tragedy or diseases to people. The offerings were made for a good harvest and the well-being of the family. In order to ward o~ghst bringing harm and bad luck, food that-•they shunned was put in places they were likely to approach Holiday food for people can also be divided into two categories. There are the holiday dishes which actually help one to stay healthy and so ward off illness, and those which help one
to reflect on the significance of the holiday and heighten the festive mood. The former makes one sound in body while the latter makes one sound in mind As such, holiday dishes are beneficial in several different ways. From the religious point of view, they help calm peoples minds, giving them hope for a brighter future. They also provide nutrients and at the same time enhance the festive mood. Nowadays, with many kinds of food being mass produced in factories, a lot of the spirit of holidays has gone. In addition, the normal calendar used by most people today is solar, not lunar. Special food is necessary not only to compensate for the excessive consumption of instant food with its many additives and preservatives, but also to help us maintain a balance of nutrients. Also, holiday dishes are a delicacy which whet the appetite, giving variety to diets at certain intervals. Equally important is the seasonal aspect Holiday food largely consists of food that has been harvested at its peak and so has the greatest nutritional value. There is a particular significance, difficult to understand in our modem age, in preparing holiday dishes to be used as offerings at rituals, the subsequent sharing of the food with the belief that one will receive luck, or in cooking holiday dishes with the belief that they can prevent misfortune and diseases. Holiday food can put people in a religious frame of mind, and by contributing to the practice of a restrained diet, prompt us to think about the relationship between gods and men Even from a scientific point of view, holiday food with religious and mystical m~anigs attached to it is different from ordinary food. For, if we eat a specific holiday dish believing tlut by doing so we will have luck and remain healthy, then, through the power of faith, the effects are, to some extent, obtained. There is a medical term called the placebo effect, which refers to the psychological reaction to ingesting a substance which the recipient believes has a phaimacological effect Even though the ingested substance may not contain any medicine, the patient believes that it does and so the substance affects tl1e patient Therefore, aside from the practical functions of providing variety in diets and contributing to the maintenance of a balance in nutrients, it's necessary to recognize the religious and mystical role that holiday food plays aswell. • 35
Han Pok-chin Professor of Traditional OJoking Department Ch\mch'on Profes:;ional College
36
Atable fit for a king-literally! Re-creation of a meal served to monarchs during the Choson Period. 37
HEN we take a Glrefullook at Korean food, we find a close cultural exchange between Korea and other Asian countries. Common characteristics of Korean dietary culture and that of China and Japan are easily found; the form of the meal based on rice is an example. However, in spite of some shared characteristics, the food and customs of the three countries have developed in totally different directions. Let us take a look at the different kinds of food, ways of preparation and customs associated with serving the foods in Korea
W
fish are sometimes added to the mixture. Nuts and beans are also used for potridge which is mainly eaten for breakf~ as a deliGICY, and occasionally offered to people who are sick Thin rice gruel is made of whole grains of rice ix>iled in water and then strained.
Main Dishes
Noodles, Kuksu Noodles are usually eaten at lunch time as a simple and light food. Mainly made of the starch of whea~ buckwhea~ or arow~ noodles can be divided into three different types: warm noodles in hot soup; cold noodles in cold meat soup or white water kimcb'i soup; and noodles mixed with vegetables and meat without soup.
Rice, Pap Pap consists mainly of plain white rice, to which other grains are often added. The grains are lx>iled in water and then well steamed until the rice is thoroughly cooked. Sometimes, vegetables, seafood or meat is mixed with the rice. Pibim JXIP is lx>iled rice mixed with other foods and hot soybean paste. Porridge, Clzuk To make porridge, whole grains or broken grains are boiled with plenty of water until they are thoroughly cooked and the mixture becomes thick Vegetables, mea~ fish or shell-
Dumpling Soup, Mandu and Rice-cake Soup, Ttok-kuk Dumpling and rice-cake soup; like ¡noodles, are also served as a simple main meal On New Yeat0S Day, every Korean family prepares riceGike soup to offer to its ancestors. It has been the first meal of the day since early times. Dumplings consist of a thin pastry skin which is filled with a variety of ingredients. The contents include minced meat, kimcb'i, tubu, bean sprouts and other vegetables, nuts, meats and seeds. Dumpling soup is particularly enjoyed in winter. Rice-Gike soup is made of sliced white rice-Gikes ix>iled in meat stock .
Atraditional lunch, complete with noodles(Ieft), beef soup(right). 38
Shared Side Dishes Soups, Kuk and T'ang Soup is the most important side dish when the main dish is rice. Soups are divided into cleat¡ soups, thick bean paste soups, meat stock soups, and chilled soups. Soups are made with shellfish, vegetables and seaweed as well as meat The meat is usually used to make the stock, and then vegetables are added to make soups well balanced in meat and vegetables. Especially in the Glse of beef, all parts of the animal, including the bones, intestines, and the blood, are used For seasoning soups, sal~ soy sauce, soybean paste and hot soybean paste are used During the hot smruner, chilled soups made of cucumber, seaweed, and sea tangle are often eaten
Stews, Tchigae
Stews are served in one common pot and are thicker than soups. They are mainly divided into. soybean stew, hot soybean stew, and clear stew. Soybean stew is most loved by Koreans, and the taste differs according to the way the soybean paste has been prepared and the ingredients added. The main additions include tubu, fresh chilies, beef, anchovies and various v~etabls. Hot soybean stew also includes fish, tubu and many v~etabls. Gear soup is seasoned with salted fermented shrimp and includes tubu, radish and shellfish
stove near the table. Specialized restaurants have special tables with a stove in the middle of the table Steaming, Tchim and Son
Korean steaming is done by boiling the food in a soup or by cooking the food in steam In the former method, meat, like pork or beef, is boiled on a small fire for a long time until it is
soned and stir-fried. Namul should contain enough sesame oil and sesame powder to be soft and tasty. Some fresh mountain v~etabls are seasoned with hot soybean paste to which vin~ar has been added. CbaJXb'ae is a dish of mixed v~etabls, to which glass noodles and a little beef are added. Parboiling reduces the bulk of v~etabls and loses less nutrients than other types of cooking Sesame oil is a mapr seasoning and the main source of v~etabl oil which helps absorb oil soluble vitamins. Sesame powder is another seasoning which is also nutritious.
Instant Beef Casserole, ChOn-gol
Hard-boiling, Chorimand Ch'o
Cli5n-gJl is a casserole of seasoned meat and v~etabls, fried and then immediately boiled with very little water. It is cooked on a small
Hard-boiled dishes are mainly shared side dishes. Meat, seafood and v~etabls are boiled and 5trongly seasoned to create c!XJrim which can be kept for a long time Chb is sweeter than c!XJrim and refers to food that has been well boiled in the beginning with starch paste added to thicken the sauce The seasoning of ebb does not need to be as strong as that of chorim The most popular ebb is made of sea mussels.
Tofu (tubtt)stew
very soft In the latter method, usually fish, shellfood or shrimps, are placed on a steamer over boiling water. Both are called tchim Son is a kind of tchim, the main ingredients of which are v~etabls and tubu The v~etabls include pumpkin, cucumber, cabbage and ~ plant, which are boiled or steamed with other minor ingredients, including minced beef. Salad, Saengch'ae
Any kind of fresh, seasonal v~etabl can be mixed with seasoned soy sauce, hot soybean paste or mustard to make a salad Other ingredients include sugar and vin~ar , so that the taste is both sour and fresh V~etabls like radish, lettuce, cucumber, and parsley are preferred. Sometimes salads are made of seaweed, cuttlefish, shellfish or shrimps, parboiled first before being mixed with the dressing and v~eta bles. Seasoned Vegetables, Namul
Namul is sometimes called sukch'ae, which means cooked v~etabls. It is the most popular Korean side dish and no meal is complete without as large a variety as the housewife has time to prepare Green v~etabls are parboiled in hot water and seasoned with various ingredients. Other v~etabls like bracken, royal fern and the root of broad bellflower are boiled, sea-
Pan-Frying, ChOn and Chijim
Meat, fish, or v~etabls are sliced, seasoned with salt and pepper and then dipped in flour and ~ batter before pan-frying. Pan-ftied fish is called cb6nyu6 and all chOn used to be known as cb6nyubwa in the royal palace. Cb6 nyuhwa means "flowers pan-fried in oil" and refers to the seasonal flowers that were ftied and eaten. Cli5n is usually cooked in a shallow pan. Chijim consists of different v~eta bles mixed. with flour and fried in a little oil P'yongan Province is famous for pancakes made of ground mung bean paste and Tongnae in Kyongsang Province is well known for pancakes made of spring onions and seafood, served sizzling at the table Broiling and Grilling, Ku-iand ChOk
Ku-i or cli5k is broiled or grilled food Meat, fish, v~etabls, and mushrooms are first seasoned or marinated and then put on skewers. San-cb6k consists of raw ingredients. After skewering, the food is broiled or grilled. Ummc/J6k consists of pre-cooked skewered food. Cbijim-nurum-cli5k is made of raw ingredients which are skewered, then dipped in flour and ~ batter before being cooked. 39
Seasoned and Raw Fish and Meat, Hoe Hoe is raw or slightly cooked meat or fish which is eaten with seasoned soy sauce, seasoned hot soybean paste, mustard paste or oil and salt mixture. For raw hoe, the soft parts of beef, fresh fish such as croaker, flatfish, pomfret or oysters, and sea cucumber are used Some kinds of white fish, octopus, squid, and shrimps are slightly boiled before being served as lxJe. Pickles, Changatchi Seasoned vegetables are pickled in soy sauce, soybean paste or hot soybean paste. The vegetables include garlic, garlic stalk, sesame leaves, radish and, cucumber. Just before eating, some of the pickles are cut into slices and again seasoned with sesame oR sesame powder and sugar. Sliced Boiled Meat, P'y6nyuk A large piece of beef or pork is boiled, C(Nered with a clot:1 and then pressed The remaining mass is cut into thin slices and eaten with seasoned sesame sauce or fermented shrimp sauce. The parts of the meat used for p'y)nyuk can come from any part of the animal Jelly, Chokp'yon and Muk The tough parts of beef such as the leg, muscle, or skin are boiled for a very long tinle. The meat is discarded and the broth is poured into square vessels, and cooled to make chokp'y5n The .¢lly is cut into slices or small pieces and served with seasoned soy sauce. Muk is made of the starch from the mung bean, whea~ or acorns and it is eaten in the same way as chokp'y5n, sometinles adding vegetables and beef. Seasoned mung bean muk is called t'angp'y5ngch'ae
lack p'o is dried without seasoning Fermented Vegetables, Kimch'i Kimch'i is unique to Korea and is the most important accompaninlent to any meal or even to a snack Korean cabbage and/or radish is salted, seasoned with spices like chili powder, spring onions, and garlic and then left to ferment When ready the kimch'i has a sour taste due to the presence of lactobacillus The hot taste of the chili stimulates the appetite and helps digestion Seafood is also added as a minor ingredient to supply protein and add to the taste. Fermented Seafood, Ch6tkal and ChOt Cli5tkal is made from raw fish, shrimps or shellfiSh mixed with salt and seasonings. The proteins and nucleic acids are hydrolyzed freeing the anlino acids and giving cli5tkal its peculiar smell and taste. Shrimp cli5t and anchovy cli5t are mainly used as minor ingredients for kimch'i Cli5t made of pollack spawn, cuttle fish, shells or oysters are used as side dishes.
Rice-cakes, Ttok
40
Fried Rice-cakes, Ch6nby6ng Glutinous rice is kneaded in hot water, shaped and then fried After being shaped, seasonal flowers or leaves are placed on top before the cakes are fried to create hu;aj5n Shaped cakes, called chu-a~ are stuffed with sesame-seed powder or Chinese dates mixed with honey. The cakes are shaped into halfmoons, then fried and served in honey. Pukkumi is glutinous rice powder or kaoliang powder kneaded in hot water then shaped in a round, thin form, stuffed and fried Pounded Rice-cakes, Injolmi Rice or glutinous rice is steamed and powdered while still hot in a mortar or a small stone pounder for a long tinle. After pounding, it is
Korean rice-cakes, t.O~ are mainly divided into two categories according to the method of cooking They are either steamed or fried, the latter being first steamed and then fried Tt6k can further be divided by the method of preparation into two types: the pounded and the shaped
cut into shapes and rolled in powdered sesame, bean flour, mung bean flour or other flours. Sometimes mugwort is added, which gives a natural green color to the cake.
Fried Flakes, T'ui-gak and Pu-gak T'ui-gak is roasted dried flakes of kelp, sprouts of tree-of-heaven, or walnuts. Puiftk is prepared by frying potatoes, chilies, sesame leaves, laver, and leaves of the tree-of-heaven, which have all been thoroughly dried Beef or FishJerky, P'o Meat p'o is usually made of beef seasoned with soy sauce and then dried Fish p'o is prepared by drying the whole fish or by drying slices of the flesh seasoned with soy sauce. Pol-
Steamed Rice-cakes, Siruttok Grains are powdered, mixed and steamed There are two kinds of sirut.O~ with or without layers. Sirutt.Ok with layers has powdered red beans, mung beans, or sesame between the layers of rice powder or glutinous rice powder.
Shaped Rice-cakes Floured glutinous rice dough or kaoliang is kneaded in hot water, made into small balls, boiled in hot water and then covered with bean flour or powdered sesame to form
ky)ngdan Songp'yun is floured rice kneaded in hot Rice-cakes could be quite elaborate.
water and made into half-moon shapes. These
cakes are stuffed with beans, sesame, chopped or powdered chestnuts or other similar ingredients, and then steamed on a layer of pine needles. Songp'yun is particularly made on the Harvest Moon Day or Cbus6k Steamed glutinous rice flour or flour that has been kneaded with hot water and then ooiled is used for tanja The dough is cut or shaped and covered with powdered chestnuts, sliced Chinese dates or citron
are kneaded with honey and shaped in a tasik frame Sesame, beans, the angelica plan~ pine flower pollen and flour are also used for tasik Chonggwa or CMn-gwa Citron, Chinese quince, ginger, broad bellflower r~ lotus root or ginseng is ooiled in honey, malt or sugar. y otkangjong
Grains are fermented with dried barley sprouts creating wheat-gluten Roasted beans, sesame, wild sesame and peanuts, raw pine nuts or ground raw walnuts are mixed with the wheat-gluten, hardened and cut in small pieces.
Confectionery Yu-gwa YugllXl is also called kanpj)ng sanja and k11Xlji1l Powdered glutinous rice is kneaded, shaped, cooked, dried, fried in oil and then covered with various coatings like sesame, black sesame, chopped pine nuts, grains of boiled white rice, ground grains of glutinous rice and then ooiled and dried Ground cinnamon or angelica plant powder is added YugUXl is divided into various types according to its shape and coating Yu-milgwa The most representative of this class of confectionery is yakkua The cakes are made of flour kneaded with sesame oil, honey, wine and ginger juice before being fried and dipped in honey. There are different kinds of yakkua They are named according to their size and shape. mandugua is a kind of yakkua which is stuffed Suksilgwa Suksilgwa literally means "cooked fruits." Chestnuts or Chinese dates are ooiled in honey. Another method of preparation is to chop chestnuts, Chinese dates or ginger and, after kneading them into a dough, shapes are made The former and tl1e latter suksilgua are called ebb and na~ respectively. Kwap'yon The flesh of sour fruits such as cherries, Chinese quince, and apricots are ooiled down in honey, poured into a square vesseL and hardened into ¢lly. Then, it is cut into slices and served with raw chestnuts or other fresh fruits. Tasik Powdered grains, herbs or flower powders
Beverages Hot beverages are called cb'a, tea, and cold beverages are called bUX~CIJ'aeor i1mcb'6ng
Yu-milgwa, fried cakes dipped in honey (top), chOnggwa made from lotus roots (above),
a tea table laden with a variety of confections (below)
Nokch'a Nokcb'a, green tea, is made of dried tea leaves steeped in hot water. It was introduced during the Three Kingdoms Period, at the same time as Buddhism But the habit of drinking nokcb'a declined during the Chos6n Period when the national policy was to encourage Confucianism Instead of nokcb'a, sungnyung
scorched-rice tea, and makk6lli, a fermented rice wine, became the main beverages. But recently, nokcb'a has been revived and the number of people who enpy drinking it has greatly increased Other varieties include barley, pb'stears, corn, brown rice, or wild sesame seeds, which are roasted or pounded and then boiled in water to make tea. Ginseng, ginger, cinnamon bark, fruits of the Maximowiczia cbinesis (the five tastes fruits), the Chinese matrimony vine, arow~ citron, Chinese quince, and Chinese dates are also used for tea. Hwach'ae
Hwacb'ae is a beverage based on honey. Rice-cakes, glutinous rice-cakes or barley-cakes are usually eaten with it Fruits such as citron, pears, strawberries, mandarin cherries, watermelon, and peaches are also used for bUXICb'ae Sbikbae is a unique beverage made from rice, lightly fermented with dried barley sprouts. Misu or misu karu is roasted, ground, mixed grains blended in water with honey or sugar. The yellow pollen of pine tree flowers, songl:r wa, is also mixed in honey to make a drink
A setting with three side dishes is standard, so let us examine this one as an example One bowl of rice, a bowl of soup and a dish of fermented v~etabls are placed with three shared side dishes, each cooked differently, either broiled, grilled, deep-fried or hard-boiled The ingredients of a meal should be as varied as the method of cooking permits. Traditional Korean vessels all have different uses. Each one' has a special name cbubal or saba! for rice, t'anggi for soup, cbocb'ibo for stews, kimcb'ibo for kimcb'i, cbaengcb'op for cold water, and cbonpji for soy sauce or seasoned soy sauce with vinegar. One set of vessels is used for each meal and
Table sett(t)gs vary accor!ing to the main dish and the puros~
of the 4o
meal.
The Table Setting Table settings are largely divided into two kinds, either according to the main dish or according to the purpose of the meal
Some cooks made elaborate sculptures gut of food (left). The table setting used for ordinary meals (right).
According to the Main Dish
Pansang is the usual table of rice, soup and shared side dishes. The setting of pansang varies according to the number of side dishes, starting from three, and going up to five, seven, nine and twelve The setting with twelve side dishes was only for kings, and the table was called surassang which literally means "table offered to the king'' 42
for each person, and all are of the same material Ceramic ware is for summer, and silver or brassware, which keeps the heat in, is for winter. The contents of each vessel are enough for only one person Cbuk-sang is a table for early morning meals or a simple meal The main dish is a semi-liquid food like cbuk, porridge, or miun~ thin rice gruel The main dish is arranged with dried side dishes, water kimcb'i and clear stew. Dried side dishes like seasoned slices of mea~ fish or salted dry fish are good accompaniments to cbuk Noodle soup, rice-cake soup or stuffed dumpling soup is often the main dish for
lunch or for a simple meal Deep-fried fish, a dish of mixed vegetables, kimch'i or white radish water kimch'~ for example, are served as side dishes. When there is a big party for a birthday; or a marriage, a large table is prepared and a separate changuk-sang is put in front of the person who is the center of the celebration On such occasions, the changuksang is called immae-sang According to the Purpose Chuan-sang is prepared to serve wine. The side dishes are chosen according to the type of wine served. Hot food with soup, like cli5ngol and tchifpe, deep-fried fish, seasoned
fish or mea~ sliced boiled meat and kimch'i are all suitable Kyojl-sang is a big table which is prepared to serve many guests during a celebration. The main dish is noodle soup, ricec1ke soup, or stuffed dumpling soup and the side dishes vary according to the season Possibilities include steamed vegetables, deep-fried fish, sliced boiled mea~ broiled or grilled meat or fish, seasoned meat or fish, and vegetables. There should be two kinds of kimch'i from among the following cabbage kimch'; stuffed cucumber kimch'; white radish water kimch'i and kimch'i pickled in soy sauce For des~ various confectioneries and a sweet beverage
are separately served. After the meal at the wine table or at the large table is finished, a dessert table tangUX/.sang is separately prepared. It can also be prepared to serve snacks to guests or visitors. Various rice-cakes, confectioneries, and beverages are served
Guarding Heritage The ingredients of traditional Korean food and the different cooking methods have created a dietary etiquette which has been well preserved over time The traditional, dietary culture of a country is importan~ not only because it is a cultural heritage, but also because it is the most basic, essential element affecting and directing the development of the culture of a people Dietary culture is deeply interrelated with the life of people in general Cooking and table setting methods are also interrelated with the utensils; clothes such as aprons and table cloths; kitchen furniture like tables, the cooking fireplace and other equipment Traditional dietary culture is important in that food plays a very strong role in forming the people's attitude towards tradition, and hence their attitude towards the future Dietary culture therefore, must be properly preserved and harmonized with modern life The traditional Korean die~ which over time has been developed to suit the people and the climate, can only be preserved if our descendants remain faithful to tradition These days, many Kor~an children prefer foreign foods like pizza, hamburgers and Coca-cola, which they consume when away from home We urgently need to teach them about good food and health Dietary etiquette must become basic knowledge Housewives should also know how to arrange a table properly so that our heritage is not lost It should be noted that traditional Korean food in general is not suited to wide, flat dishes used in the west or colorful vessels used in Japan Of course it is sometimes necessary to use a different style of vessel, but food and vessels should harmonize with each other. Needless to say; a well-prepared table creates a certain sense of peace and well-being, and this feeling leads to stability in the family; and so the society and the nation â&#x20AC;˘ 43
ALife Dedicated To Reestablishing Tradition
Hwang Hye-sOng Expert on Chos6n Royal Cuisine KohJae-sung Chief Editor, Monthly Munwlxlpe(Cultural Assets)
HE ROYAL CUISINE of the Chos6n Period encompasses a wide assortment of techniques, food and related customs. As such it should be regarded as a highly advanced part of our cultural heritage. Today; royal cuisine is the mcxlel and showpiece for all types of Korean traditional cuisine The rituals and regulations governing royal cuisine were not common knowledge as they were carried out and enforced behind the tightly closed doors of the royal palace It goes without saying tha~ because the food was being prepared for the king and the royal family; it was the very finest in the nation Some of its art was even passed on to the outside world and influenced the dietary culture of the ruling class. The kitchen Sangung or master chef, and assistant cooks kept all the secrets of royal cuisine Traditionally; management of the palace household was divided into six different departments: sewing, embroidery; bathing, cooking, cookie-baking, and washing. The palace kitchen was divided into an inner kitchen and an outer kitchen, the former being exclusively used by the master chef to prepare the king's meals and, with his assistants, to prepare birthday meals for the queen, princes and princesses. Assistants also prepared food, tea and drinks for palace feasts and parties. As the Chos6n Pericxl came to an end and the master chefs and assistant cooks died off one by one, the means of passing on the art of royal cooking were lost and its continuation was threatened. When royal cuisine was designated as a mapr cultural property in 1970, there was only one former chef left in the country: Han Hi-sun Han had entered the palace at the age of 13 and served two kings, Kojong and
T
44
Sunpng, and Queen Yun Han was thus designated the first Human Cultural Property of Royal Cuisine After Han passed away in 1972, Professor Hwang Hye-s6ng inherited the title in November 1973. Hwang was born July 5, 192D in Chonan, South Chungch6ng Province as the only daughter of a wealthy family. She was a top student at Kongju Primary and Middle Schools 6 and went on to Kongju Girls' High 5\:hool Her ~ mother was an ardent believer in academic achievement and did everything to ensure her daughter received the best education When her daughter took the physical aptitude t~ she put a silver ball in Hwang's pcx:ke~ lest she fail the weight requirement When Hwang finished her second year at Kongju Girls' High School, her mother transferred her to Jikushi Girls' High School in Fukuoka, Japan Thereafter, Hwang graduated from Kyoto Women's College (currently Kyoto Women's University). After obtaining teaching credentials in home economics, she returned to Korea¡and became a home economics teacher at Taedong Girls' High School (currently Chungnam Girls' High) in Taejon at the age of 20. About two years later, she was assigned to Sukmy6ng Women's College (currently Sukmy6ng Women's University), where she taught nutrition One day at Sukmy6ng, Hwang was approached by the Japanese dean who asked her if she was interested in teaching traditional Korean cuisine. She was embarrassed since she knew nothing about it But Hwang was a determined woman, so she visited Naks6njae in Changd6k Palace where the royal tradition and cuisine remained intact Although Korea was a colony of Japan at the time, Queen Yun, who was the second
§ Hwang Hye-song (above) Hwang's teacher, Ms. Han Hi-sun (below)
wife of Korea's last king, Sunjong, lived at Naks6npe. At the remmmendation of Hwang's school principal, who had connections with the royal family, Hwang was allowed to make frequent visits to the kitchen there. At the time, Queen Yun was living with two personal maids, one sewing assistant in charge of the queen's wardrobe and four royal chefs. One of the four chefs was Ms. Han Hi-sun, Queen Yun's favorite. She taught royal cuisine to Hwang This changed Hwang's life forever. Over a period of 30 years until Han's death in 1972, Hwang learned everything about the art of royal cuisine, and went on to refirie the whole process and tum it into an academic sub¢ct The two women first met in 1942, three years before Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule. Hwang was 22 and Han was 54. Everyday after class, Hwang took the streetcar to her new school of royal cuisine, the Naks6njae kitchen At first, she was not allowed to touch anything She just watched Han preparing the dishes, looking over her shoulder and taking copious notes. Even that was difficult Han was so fast with her hands that it was hard to keep up. If she became curious and asked questions, she was scolded and told not to open her mouth and drop saliva onto the focxi Hwang had to visit Han on her days off at her own, separate quarters to satisfy her curiosity. This continued until 1972, when Han died In the meantime, Hwang frequented the library at Changgy6ngw6n in search of old books on the art of royal cuisine in order to begin systematizing royal cooking methods. She discovered three very rare volumes and studied them methodically Based on those old culinary books and what she learned from Han, Hwang wrote a guide book to royal cuisine called RaJa.! Cuisine of tl~
Yi Dynasty She went on to write 30 other cookbooks including Encyclopedia of Korean O:x:>king Taste of Korea, and Royal Cuisine. Professor Hwang continued teaching royal cuisine at Sukmy6ng University until 1950, when the Korean War broke out Then, she became a professor at the Teachers College of Seoul National University and later dean of the College of Home Economics at Myongji and Hanyang universities. She was thus established
as an authority on Korean cooking and food, especially royal cuisine. In 1962, the Korean government designated Professor Hwang a specialist on the Cultural Property Committee. Hwang then played a mapr role in having royal cuisine designated Cultural Property No. 38 and recommended Han as a Human Cultural Property Unfortunately, Han passed away one year after she was awarded the honor and Hwang succeeded her in the role the next year, in 1973.
After the art was designated a Cultural Property, Professor Hwang established a royal cuisine research institute in 1972, in order to popularize the tradition Having retired from teaching at Sungkyunkwan University in 1975, she is now dedicating her life to grooming successors to the institute. In order to promote royal cuisine among the general public, Professor Hwang has been holding annual exhibitions since 1971. This year, she held a widely acclaimed traditional cuisine exhibition at the Korea House in Seoul Professor Hwang's exhibitions of royal cuisine have not been limited to Korea She has held three exhibitions in Japan, two each in the United States and the Philippines, and one in France. Her appearance on Japanese TV to introduce the art of Korean royal cuisine was a great success. Since ,1986, Japan has been dispatching four or five teams of 15 trainees every year to study at Professor Hwang's institute. It was Hwang who prepared the Korean cuisine menus and trained chefs for Korea House, Hotel Shilla and other first-rate hotels. Recently, Professor Hwang has also been lecturing She teaches classes twice a week at her institute and attends numerous seminars as a guest speaker. In establishing and main:;; taining this royal cuisine tradi~ tion, Professor Hwang is not ~ alone in her family As a mate ter of fact, all of the women in her family are dedicated to this task Her eldest daughter Han &:>k-ru is the director of Professor Hwang's institute; her second daughter &:>ksun is the director of Han &:>k-s6n O:x:>king Institute, and her third daughter &:>k-jin is a professor of traditional cuisine at Ch'unch'6nJunior College. Thanks to Professor Hwang, the great art of Korean royal cuisine has not been lost and now people from all over the world can enpy an ancient art in these modem times. â&#x20AC;˘ 45
en Kim Kwang-on Profesror of In Ha University, Director of In Ha Museum
HEN I WAS YOUNG, I enjoyed going in and out of the kitchen, in spite of my mother's constant warning that "if a man gee; into a kitchen he will lose his manhood" It was always interesting to watch the burning firewood as I crouched before the front of the hearth What I liked best was the smell of the freshly cooked rice when mother opened the lid of the huge pot and steam came billowing up. Never paying the slightest attention to mother's constant complaints and scolding, I enpyed eating my meals alone on the small veranda which was next to a cuplxYard in the kitchen The kitchen and my mother are synonymous in my memory: both smelled alike Role of the Kitchen
The kitchen is one of the mast important areas in a house. Not only is it ,important for cooking and heating the house, but it was always the place where the grains w~re ~de in a mortar and where the women and .girls washed themselves at the end of a long, hard day: The younger members of the family had their meals in the kitchen, daughters-in-law cried out their tears of frustration and anguish there, and many used the poker instead of a brush as they tried to educate themselves. Therefore, the kitchen was not only a kitchen It was a bathing-room a resting place, a school and the center of family life in traditional Korean society. For the newly married daughter-inlaw it was her place of employn~ where for twenty or thirty years, from the third day of marriage, she had to go in and out from morning till night like a kitchen maid In fact, women spent mast of their lives in the kitchen and the housekeeping and organization of the family took place there 46
History of the Kitchen
The history of kitchens is second only to the history of mankind The first Korean houses in the New Stone Age, about four to five thousand years ago, were dugouts. There was no division between the kitchen and the living area The kitchen was situated in the center of the hut and around the cooking area was the living area Kitchen "equipmenf' consisted of stones. A hollow was dug out of the floor and paved with smooth, river stones. A ridge made of more stones or mud around the edge of the hollow kept the fire from spreading to the rest of the hut Gay vessels with their tops open were buried in the earth and used to store grains. Fire served to cook the food, warm the house and give light The top of the house had a hole in it through which the smoke could escape In the Bronze Age (7th~8 centuries B.C) and the early Iron Age (4th century B.C ~1st century), the kitchen floor became square or rectangular and the kitchen was moved to one side of the house Some houses had a kitchen area in the center and another one near a wall The central kitchen was mainly used for heating and the wall-side kitchen area for cooking A mud chimney built on the side of the wall conducted the smoke out of the house It was called kokbl or kkotku! anci similar chimneys of this primitive form could be seen in the mountain houses of Kangwon-do province until quite recently. The floor of the house was lowered and the roof was heightened by the use of eaves. As housekeeping became more elaixr rate, a separate storeroom was built By the time of the Three Kingdoms, the kitchen had almost completely evolved This is known from the wall paintings found on many tombs. In particular the paintings on the walls
of the Kogury6 Tongsu Tomb dating from the mid 4th century B.C. tell us much about kitchens in ancient Korea. In those paintings, the kitchen is already a separate area with a tiled, sloping roof supported by eaves. On one side of the roof there is a bird sitting. There are three women working inside the kitchen One is standing in front of an ea.rthenware steamer on the fire. She holds a big, flat spoon in her right hand and chopsticks in her left She is checking the rice-cakes in the steamer to see if they are done. The second woman is crouching in front of the fire and looking after it The third woman is arranging vessels on a round table with legs. The smoke from the fire goes out through the chimney which has been made in the shape of a duck's neck The chimney is vertical against the wall Considering that the picture shows a separate, tiled kitchen in which three women are working, it seems probable that this is a palace kitchen or one belonging to a rich family. The kitchen is reminiscent of the separate building used for food preparation known as a panbikkan The wall paintings of the Tongsu Tomb also contain scenes of a mill and a cowshed. In the mill scene, two women are working. One woman is on a one-legged treadmill and the other is winnowing the grain. This singlelegged treadmill was introduced from China in the mid4th century, which leads us to pa;tulate that the two-legged treadmill was invented by Koreans at a later date. Other pictures resemble scenes commonly seen today. The well with a large water dipper and the cowshed holding three or four cows look surprisingly modem Another scene shows an outdoor kitchen similar to one that might be created today on occasions when guests are numerous or in summer, the outdoor kitchen was always built near the main kitchen The only difference is that then it was built at right angles to the fireplace. Ago-clown with a log frame, common to Kangwon-do Province, is to be seen on the wall of another tomb. Records of Kitchens The first record of a Korean kitchen is found in San-kuo<:hih a Chinese history book written in the 3rd century B.C It consists of a simple sentence "The kitchen is generally locat48
ed to the west" However, this record suggests that already a custom was being followed at that time which has continued up to the present Koreans consider a house facing south with a mountain behind it to be the best In fact, the belief is so strong that there is a proverb saying "people should do good deeds for three generations in order to merit living in a house facing south" The mountain at the back, the north, protects the house from the harsh, northeasterly winter wind and the sun shines directly into the house. Because of these two advantages, south-facing houses were always prized The sentence in the Chinese history book should thus be understood as saying " in a house facing south, the kitchen is located to the west'' In such a kitchen, when a woman scoops rice out of the pot with a big, flat wooden spoon, the spoon automatically faces the inside of the house. This was the reason for placing the kitchen in the west If, on the other hand, the kitchen faced eas~ then the spoon would face the outside and this was considered unfortunate and even detrimental to any existing fortune. For, when the spoon faced the inside of the house, it meant good fortune. According to the Chungbo sallim ky6ngje (Augmented Supplement to Farm Management) by Yu Chung-nim, printed in 1766, it was in the Chos6n Period that "it was considered good to build the kitchen in the southwest but the northwest was considered bad" The Word for Kitchen The word pw3k (kitchen) is first seen in the first edition of, Tushi-onhae, Vulgate Elucidacions of the Poems of Tu Fu, printed in the late fifteenth century. Puok is replaced by the words cli5nfii or cli5nju in the southeast and some parts of southwestern Korea. The two words might have been derived from ch6npjukkan, part of ky6ptchip or a house with several wings, often found in Hamgyongdo Province. The kji5ptchip has rooms arranged like the Chinese character EB, chOn and so is often called a cli5ntc!Xljip, a house of the chOn character. Ch6npjukkan, the kitchen, a cowshed and a mill are pined together in this style of house. Ch6ngjukkan and the kitchen are not
divided by a wall and the fireplace was built at the front of the cb6ngjukkan, food being therefore prepared there and not in the kitchen The kitchen was merely an area lying halfway between cli5npjukkan, the cowshed and the mill, providing a passage to c/i5ngjukkan from the outside. Ch6nfiukkan was the widest and warmest place in the house. Therefore, guests were received here and it was also used as a bedroom for the young and old at night Needless to say, this was the place for memorial and wedding services as well as for the shrine for the houseprotecting god Thus, the cli5nfiukkan played the part of a central room in the house. One reason for using the word cli5npji instead of pw3~ the usual word for kitchen, was that the food was not made in the puok but in the ch6npjukkan in Hamgyong Province, for example. In some parts of southern Cholla-do Province, it is called puttumak Among the hermits who lived in the mountains collecting wild ginseng, caring for cattle and cooking, the fireplace was called cli5nf!Pe Origin of the Word for Kitchen The words c/i5nfii and c/i5ngju most likely come from the Orochons, a tribe of people who lived in Hsingganling in Manchuria The Orochon house was a round tent and the fireplace was situated opposite the entrance. The area near the fire was called malro or malh4 which is similar to the Korean word for a wooden floor, maru. Malro was the main place in the house where the master sat In addition, the gods were enshrined here. From the entrance, the right side of the tent was called juingidui and men sat there, nearer to malro, while women sat nearer to the entrance. At nigh~ juingidui was the place where a young couple would sleep. juingidui might have been a word introduced to Korea and later changed to c/i5nfiu or c/i5ngji The word c/x'5npju is found in the books
ShinjUng yuhap (New Augmentation if Summing the Styles of Chinese Characters) published in 1576 and in Onhae t'aeson chipyo (Vulgate Elucidacions if Collective Essentials of Conception and frlivery) published in 1600. Since the kitchen was such an impoitant place in the Korean home, extra care was taken in choosing and mixing the soil for it According to Sallim kyongje (Farm Manage-
mmt) written by Hong Man-son (1643-1715), "The soil should be dug from clean earth after about a spoon of earth has been removed from the surface. Then the soil is mixed with water drawn from the well at daybreak, to which perfume is added." A Dragon Day was chosen in the fifth month when a sacrifice was offered to the godof the kitchen. The offering included meat from a pig that had been killed that morning. For houses in which silkworms were raised, an additional ceremony was carried out On a CDw Day in the first month, a white hen was killed and a ceremony was held for the kitchen god in supplication for the success of the silkworms.
The Fireplace The most important and sacred place in the kitchen has always been the fireplace. Housewives tried hard to keep the fireplace clean at all times and the degree of its cleanliness was the measure of their abilities. Chowang the kitchen god, was considered to reside in a small
The fireplace has always been the practical and spiritual center of every kitchen. No wonder the kitchen god has played such an important role in
bowl of water kept on a shelf in the center of the wall behind the fireplace. The housewife changed the water in the bowl each day with water freshly drawn from the well at daybreak and prayed for the well being and happiness of the family for that day. Chou:ang was also called Cbou:ang balmae (granny) or Cbou:ang taegum (excellency) depending on the district Instead of a bowl of water, in some places Cbouxmg was considered to reside in various other things including: a gourd dipper fitted with a piece of hemp on a lathe; a piece of white paper or white cloth pasted to the wall; a piece of folded paper with a piece of dried pollack pasted to the wall; a small jar filled with rice behind a kettle; or a kettle on the cooking fireplace. In the last case, when a birth was drawing near, people would pray at the shrine for an easy delivery. In some areas, Cbowangwas not considered to reside in any separate place. Instead the kettle lid was overturned and offerings were made when people prayed to Cbowang
Korean folk beliefs.
49
Customs
Clx;uang is relieved to go up to the sky on the 23rd day of the 12th lunar month There, Clx;uang precisely informs the Heavens of all the affairs of the house for the year until his return ¡at daybreak on New Year's Day. Therefore, if a person has rommitted any wrong then he or she must stick rice gluten over the mouth of the fireplace on the night refore C/x;uang ascends. The mouth of the fireplace symbolizes the way that Clx;uang passes to the Heavens as well as Clx;uangs mouth As it is sealed with rice gluten, C/x;uang has difficulty in rising up to the Heavens and even if he does manage the purney; he cannot report anything C.ecause his mouth is sealed In the kitchens of Korean temples, unlike those of ordinary houses, a statue of Clx;uang is kept on the shelf above the fireplace and food is served to it every morning and evening a custom probably introduced from China Not all temples have a statue, however. Some have a piece of writing as substitute. Traditionally; during the fourteenth evening of the first lunar month, people stole the soil from the yards of the rich and applied it to their cooking fireplace the next day. This was called "stealing the soil of fortune.'' It was believed that this soil would increase the good fortune of the family in the roming year. The family from whom the soil was stolen was considered to suffer a decrease in fortune. Therefore, on that particular nigh~ rich families had special guards posted to prevent anyone from stealing their soil A similar custom is found in Kyongdo chapkki (Various Events cf tlx OJpitaD and in Tonmuk seshigi (Korean Almanac). There it is written that people from Seoul dug the soil out of Chongno square and either sprinkled some in the four romers of their house or applied it to the cooking fireplace. Such customs are rooted in the fact that everything grows from the earth In addition, applying special soil to the fireplace was a way of showing respect and honoring the place where the cooking was done. Not only was this special place honored by applying new soil but the sections which had been chipped or cracked through wear and tear were also repaired Kitchen Utensils The most representative kitchen utensil is the kettle, sot Made of iron with a ridge 50
around the center of the body and a lid with a handle, the sot has different names acrording to size. The smallest sot was called ongm~ the next chungso~ then kamasotand twn6ngsot Tum6ngsot has a larger mouth and is used to steam or boil large quantities of food for parties. The lid is made of two pieces of wood shaped like half moons so that it is easy to open and close. Kamasot is sometimes used for cooking rice but it was mainly used for boiling chopped hay for cattle. Chungsot and ongsot are used for cooking rice and soup respectively. A good Korean kettle rings true like a fine earthenware pot If the sound is unclear then the iron used is of poor quality or the kettle is cracked In order to polish the kettle, water is boiled two or three times in it over a weak fire and then it is rubbed, inside and ou~ with the fat remaining in the pan after cooking some greasy meat After tha~ water is once again boiled three or more times in order to rinse the kettle. If this is done, then the kettle lasts long and can re used ronstantly. Another way of preserving the sot was to rub some of the soot from the bottom of the kettle on the outside and lid with an oily cloth The sot is a symbol of good housekeeping When a house is newly built or a family moves, putting the sot on the frreplace was ronsidered to re the Ceginning of housekeeping There are Korean sayings which epitomize the value and importance of the sot '1t's three years since the sot was removed from the frreplace" or ''just waiting after washing the sot " are used to indicate irresolute people. When a family receives a new bride into the family; a kettle furnace is built on the threshold of the rnairi room and the lid of the chungsot is placed in front of the doorstep upside down. Then the bride steps over the lid with her left foot This symbolizes the wish that the bride re "as healthy as iron and without any troubles.'' It was also a way to interview this new person who would d6 all the cooking in the future. Sot was also relieved to foretell roming disasters. If during the cooking the sot made a "buung, bu-ung" noise or the lid moved up and down to release the steam, these were ronsidered bad omens. And so, if it was the rice kettle which made a noise, the master of the house would enter the kitchen and his wife would bow to him If, on the other hand, the soup ket-
tie made a noise then tl1e husband had to bow to his wife until the sound stopped The sot was also ronsidered to re a miraculous utensil When the third Kogury6 king, Taemusin (r. 18- 44),was on his way to attack Puy6, the capital of Paekche, he saw a woman playing with a sot As he drew near, he saw only the sot and so he ordered rice to be cooked in it But the rice was cooked refore the fire was made and all the soldiers ate their fill. This story romes from Samguk sagi (History of the Three King:loms). Like the thread that accompanies a needle, the chug6k, the big fat wooden spoon, accompanies the sot Chug6k is used to ladle the rice out of the sot into the bowls. Whereas the sot symbolizes Korean housekeeping, Japanese housekeeping is symbolized by the big spoon In Japan, a mother-in-law passes the big spoon to her daughter-in-law when she leaves the housekeeping in her hands. In Korea, the mother-in-law passes the keys to all the storerooms to her ctlughter-inlaw when she is ready to hand over responsibilities. Through these simple customs, the characteristics of the two rountries can re seen Koreans take a serious view of the moral obligation of taking charge of housekeeping whereas the Japanese see the pb in a more utilitarian light For, although a lot of rice may re taken from the storeroom and cooked, it is the person who actually spoons the rice into the bowls with the big spoon who decides on the quantity of rice for each bowl The mate of the chug6k is the kuktc!Xl, the soup ladle. The center is roncave and it has a long ltmdle so that hot soup can re ladled easily. In the New Stone Age, a big shell was used for a ladle and, as soup C.ecame more and more important during the Kory6 Period, the ladle C.ecame es.sential Originally made of brass, in later times, the ladle was made of albata Nowadays stainless steel or synthetic resin are largely used Since eighty percent of Korean food falls in the category of soups, the ladle will rontinue to re an important utensil Traditionally the word for soup was used for money or paying. Expressions such as "there is no soup" and "it is a position with no soup" were rommon Chor4 the bamboo strainer, was used to sift sand out of tl1e rice. Made of fine slips of bam-
boo woven together to form a mesh, it was moved back and forth in a special way through the rice so that only the grains were caught and the sand left behind The heavier stones sank to the bottom and so were easily removed As chori selects the good from the bad, it has always symbolized good fortune. A pair of chori were often hung diagonally next to each other on doors or on the walls of the main room The geomantic theory followed this superstition Thus land shaped like a chori was considered to bring wealth to the people who lived there. On the fourteenth night of the first month, merchants sold chori tied with red string. This is called a pok chori (good luck chon). The custom was to pay the merchant whatever he asked without haggling; a discount was considered to lower the amount of good fortune received When there was no municipal water system, people drew water from a well and kept it in the tu-mong a big jar located near the fire ilsed to sift place. It was usually made of pottery glazed and also symbolized good dark brown, but rich families had tu-m6ng stones out of the made of iron Both had to be well-polished and fortune(above). A variety of utensils were found in the traditional kitchen(below ). spotlessly dean
¡Siru was used for steaming rice or ricecakes. The many holes in the bottom allowed the steam to rise up and cook the rice or cakes. The oldest Korean siru was found in a shell heap in Ch'odo in northern Hamgy6ng Province, a site of Bronze Age remains. This proves that siru has been used from the earliest times when primitive farming was just starting Until recently, two or three siru were essential in every household The ricecakes cooked in sirit were the best for memorial ceremonies, parties and festivals. No ceremony was conceivable without rice-cakes. In the harvest month, the tenth lunar month, when offerings are made to the spirits, both ricecakes and siru were offered The small siru is called ong-silu At temples or shrines, unbreakable brass siru were substituted for earthenware ones. Recently aluminum siru have become very popular. The Korean siru was introduced to Japan, where it is called seiro, derived from the Korean word An iron grilling pan, JX)nch'6~ was used to prepare grilled dishes. Also called cl:i5ktdXl or cl:i5np~ it is shaped like a Korean kettle, wide
51
and round There are handles on both sides to make it easy to put on and lift off the fire. When there was a lot of food to grill for a special gathering or part'f, then the lid of the kettle was turned upside down and used for grilling It is likely that the JX5nch'6l has been used in Korean kitchens from the time of the Three Kingdoms when iron kettles were also used When the pan needed to be oiled, then hard vegetables like radish or potato were used to brush the oil on Mainly used for water, the gourd dipper, pagaj~ was another essential implement in the Ko-
Every task required special utensils, such as the ponch'ol, an iron grilling pan (top), chugok, a flat spoon-like scooper (above left), pagaji, gourd dippers and wooden bowls (above right), the tukpaeg~ a glazed earthenware stew pot (below right), and ch'e, used for sifting (facing page).
rean kitchen It was made by cutting a gourd in half, scooping out the inside and then drying the shell Pagaji was also used to scoop uncooked raw rice, soya or bean paste (the mask made from a gourd was called Tal pagaji). Another kind of dipper made of hollowed wood with a short handle was used to ladle out cattle feed consisting of boiled straw and beans. Gourd dippers have been replaced with plastic ones and even in rural villages, the gourd dipper is rare these days. As the gourd dipper was used by housewives, a complaining woman was said to be "scratching tl1e gourd dipper:' And if a person was cheated or bought a thing for too much 52
money he was said to be ''wearing a gourd dipper." Among soldiers, a military policeman is called a pagaj4 because of the shape of his hat Tui-ungbak is made of either a gourd or a calabash. Instead of splitting the gourd in two, a hole furough which a fist can pass is made near the stem and the contents of the gourd removed To prevent it from breaking, it is covered with a net of woven bamboo and the ends are pined tqsether to fotm a handle. fu cause tui-ungbak absorbs water it was used to store rice in summer so that it would keep from spoiling. Sometimes seeds and eggs were kept inside it Tui-ungbak was often hung from the eaves or on the inner part of the roof, or outside the door. Dark glazed pottery and gourd-shaped straw holders were also used for storing food Since tui-ungbak had a rounded bottom and was therefore unsteady, when a pb looked precarious then it was said that it was "like wearing a tui-ungbak on one's foot'' Ttukpaegi is a smal~ glazed, earthenware bowl used for boiling or stewing. It has a wide mouth, is relatively deep and is used mainly for making stews with tCRnjmg soyabean paste, as its main ingredient
Korean housewives spent much time waiting for their husbands. As they waited, they would place the ttukpaegi on and off the stove, trying to keep the food hot and ready for the moment the husband returned This was a sign of their love and care for their husbands. Ttukpaegi is rough and ill-finished So when the content of something is better than its looks people say "toenjmg tastes better than ttukpaegi looks." Music which is ugly or out of tune is compared to "the sound of ttukpaegi breaking:' Ai-ttukpaegi is as small as a rice bowl and is used to steam eggs.
Ch'e is used to sift powder or liquid and comes in different sizes. Ch'e was also used to drive away misfortune. On the 15th of the first lunar month it was re lieved that a luminous ghost comes down from the Heavens. When the ghost finds some child's shoes that fi~ then the ghost takes the shoes and the owner is expected to have bad luck for the following year. So, in order to prevent the ghost from taking tl1e shoes, a strainer is hung on the outside wall of the house. Then it is believed that the ghost will be so busy counting the holes in the strainer that time will pass and daybreak will frighten it away. Certain houses had their own noodle machines. Kneaded dough was placed in the machine, the handle pressed down and noodles came out Noodles were often served at parties or during festivals. Therefore "eating noodles" means getting maiTied Noodles were also prepared on birthdays as a symbol of long life. Some houses had a machine for distilling spirits and some for pressing oil As time passed many utensils became less often used and diffi-
cult to find However, traditionally; as everything was prepared in the house, they were all well-equipped with the necessmy utensils. Other Functions of the Kitchen In the early days, no house, not even those of the well-to<io had a separate bathing-room Traditionally; it was considered rude and against accepted etiquette. TI1erefore, aristocratic men hardly ever took a bath because they were reluctant to remove their clothes in front of otl1ers. Women, on the other hand, used to lock the door and wash themselves in the kitchen using the heated water from the kettle.
The kitchen was also a refuge for daughters-inlaw who had to suffer the strictness of the mother-in-law and the crossness of their sisters-in-law. Crouching in front of the fireplace and feeding the fire was a way to rest and recuperate. Sometimes, when the stress was too much, these poor women would break the poker in frustration as they fed the fire. Being hungry to learn and acquire knowledge, women learnt han-gul, Korean written language, in the kitchen They practiced with the poker in the ashes, pretending that it was a calligraphy brush. For it was difficult to study during such a busy life and those who did could only acquire knowledge in the kitchen Korean Cooking Fireplace in Japan Not many people know that the Korean puttumak, cooking fireplace, was introduced to Japan. TI1e old Japanese word kamado for cooking fireplace originated from the Korean words kama, kama-mok and kama-sot The Japanese name for kettle, kama, comes from the same source. TI1is fact is recorded in both Korean and Japanese books. The introduction of the kettle and the fireplace revolutionized
Japanese dietary habits. Until the Korean-style cooking fireplace was introduced, the Japanese used their own style called irori A hook was attached to the ceiling and it held a large pot under which a fire was made. In the book, The History of Kitchen Utensils, the Japanese author wrote that "The (Japanese) word kamado was introduced from a foreign country." Comparing the traditional Japanese irori to the Korean puttumak, the latter was much more efficient In certain areas of Japan, like Kyoto and Nara, the cooking fireplace is called kudo which means "a clean, divine place." A Japanese scholar in his thesis wrote that the word kudo originated from kulttuk, the Korean word for chimney. There is a Japanese shrine called Kudo near Horyu-ji Temple in Nara City. The shrine reveres a personage who originally came from Paekche, one of the TI1ree Kingdoms of Korea. It is possible that this person introduced the cooking fireplace to Japan As Korea has become more and more international and influenced by other cultures, the traditional kitchen has changed, too. Whereas the traditional kitchen was situated near the main room, in modern houses the kitchen is usually next to the living room, which is also the center of the house. This means that most of the important aspects of family life are centered around the housewife. However, times have changed drastically. No longer does a woman have to sacrifice herself all the time to kitchen work Now the kitchen is not only a place of food preparation, but also something like the housewife's private room, as well as a sitting-room for family members. As time goes by; the kitchen is taking on a wider variety of functions and is becoming more and more convenient I hope that in the near future the kitchen becomes a place which provides healthy food for the mind as well as the body: I think that this hope of mine is quite realistic because modern housewives have so much free time compared to housewives of the past Unfortunately, there is a negative aspect of this progress. Children will never know the smell and meaning of a real kitchen.. They will never realize that the smell of the kitchen is the smell of their mother_ â&#x20AC;˘ 53
JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE
â&#x20AC;˘
so ESTHETIC CONSCIOUSNESS is one way human beings relate to the structure of life. However, our everyday dealings with life's challenges are achieved not so much in direct relation with that structure as in our contact with minor details, facts or ob~ , individual people or groups. To put it another way, life's experiences are formed in concrete space and time. The human aesthetic consciousness can also be seen as a product of the concrete nature of space and time. It lies dormant, however, as an indirect and unconscious mode of response. The concept of space, while ultimately understood in its relationship with time, is an extremely important framework for revealing beauty and aesthetic consciousness because everything which has shape and anything which is to be shaped begins by forming a relationship with a spatial framework In every culture, folk tales almost always begin with: "Once upon a time there was a king who lived in such and such kingdom. .. " "Once upon a time'' establishes the time,"such and such kingdom'' establishes the place, and "a king" establishes the subject of the action In this article, I will consider how space, that is place, is related to the aesthetic consciousness of the Korean people. At first glance, this may sound somewhat vague, narrow and simple, but it is, in fact, a very difficult undertaking Why is this a difficult undertaking? First of all, when we speak of our "aesthetic consciousness," it is difficult to make a distinction between a uniquely Korean aesthetic consciousness and the universal aesthetic consciousness
A
54
Kim Hwa-young literary Critic, Profe:ror of French literature Korea University
of all mankind For this reason, in this article, I will not focus on the aesthetic consciousness common to all Koreans or Korean artists, but rather explore the aesthetic consciousness of one poet, SO Chong-ju (1915 ~ ). By analyzing a cross-section of SO's works from the point of view of his idea of the creation qf "space," I hope to reveal something of the Korean aesthetic consciousness in general The Poet, So ChOng-ju I have chosen to focus on SO Chong-ju because he best reflects, pa;itively and negatively, the last half century of Korean poetry. SO made his literary debut in 19.36 when his poem "Wall'' won the Dong-A Obo literary contest His first collection of poetry, Flower Snake, was published in 194~ and he has remained active for the last fifty years, publishing a total of 14 collections. so;Ham Hyong-su, 0 Chang-hwan and Yu Ch'i-hwan, all members of the literary group which formed around 77:;e Poets' Village (Siin purak), first published in November 1936, were relative latecomers to the 1930s literary scene. They were dominated by Kim Yong-nang, Chong Chi-yong and Pak Yongch'64 founders of the literary journal "Poetic Literature (Si munhak) and the socalled "modernists;' such as Kim Chi-rim, Kim Kwanggyun and Yi Sang Nevertheless, over the long term, they were much more influentia4 ooth quantitatively and qualitatively, than the modernists or the "Poetic Literature" group. SO, the driving force behind the Saengmj5ngp'a, the life-oriented school of Korean poets, is undoubtedly the best representative of modern Korean poet1y because of the
consistency and breadth of his poetic world Not only has he already made an important name for himself in the history of Korean literature, he also continues to play an influential role in the literary world today. A World of Earth and Flesh It's hardly surprising that literary historians classify So Chong-ju as a member of the Saengmj5ngp'a, especially in light of his early works. His first collection, Flower Snake, exudes an intense sensuality, but there is more to this collection, the only one SO published during the Japanese colonial period, than the concept of sensuality as the fountain of life. The darkness of that era and an unshakable "wall" is hidden behind his sensual desire. ())nsider one of his well known early works, "Self-Portrait''
Father was a servan~ he never came home till late at night My aged leek-root grandmother and the flowering date tree were all that stood for permanence here. For months mother would go on about how she'd love a green aprico~ just one. .. lamplight on earthen walls, this blacknailed mothet>s son beneath Grandfather went to sea, they say, in the year of the Kapho Reform; he never returned rm supposed to have his thick hair and big eyes. These twenty-three years, I've been raised, eight-tenths of me at any rate, by the wind The more I see, the more shameful the world appears. Some read sinner in my eyes. Some read imbecile on my lips. But I rue nothing When morning cracked each brilliant new day, blood drops mingled with the dew of poetry on my forehead Through light and shade I've come this far, panting like a tongue-lolling sick dog. (lrans/ated by Kevin O'Rourke)
TI1e first line has inspired many interpretations. Certainly the word "servant'' refers to scr cia! position TI1e word "servant'' and SO's use of the past tense establish the father's condition, 56
'I
pottraying him as a prisoner of his social status. This condition is directly linked to the "stationary condition" of a wall which blocks vision and imprisons, a state so effectively portrayed in SO's debut work, 'Wall." At the same time, however, the strikingly frank statement "Father was a servant'' reflects a strong sense of self-affirmation and rebellion, not because it is the statement of silent sympathy on the part of the poe~ but because it connotes the challenge inherent in the condition of servitude. In So's early poems, the poet suggests a space in which a confrontational consciousness born of contradictory circumstances is compressed For example, in 'Wall," he portrays a wall and at the same time the will to smash through that wall. In "Self-Portrair the negative images of the beginning of d1e poem - setvan~ nigh~ wizen grandmother-are later sub~ct to an agonizing challenge by d1e static inuge of the date tree, filth and poverty revealed in d1e
"black-nailed mother's son,"and negative expressions such as "sinner'' or ''imbecile." The sudden mention of the word "morning'' and "dew'' after the dark image of "night'' in the beginning of the poem reveals this challenge. However, it is not simply in the confrontation between images of "night'' and "morning'' or shadow and light that this contradiction is revealed It is embodied in the very staemn~ "Father was a servant'' The defiant power revealed in this straightforward statement compresses the confrontational structure, thus making it more persuasive. The state of imprisonment by a wall and the state of servitude are challenged by the active power and strategy of the ''wind" This consciousness of a division between the self and surrounding circumstances, between the individual and the world, this consciousness of a confrontational structure is more delicately suggested in the phrase "blood drops mingled with the dew of poetry on my forehead." ''Dew'' could be seen as the alleviation of the conflict in this poetn, a kind of purification of existence. The poe~ however, denies such a simple solution and is intensely aware of the "blood drops" mingled with the dew. Blood may circulate in the hea~ in the deepest part of the human body, but this dew, composed of the same water and yet pure, is on the forehead, the most visible and highest part of the body and the face. The dew filters the night and darkness, forming on the poet's forehead at dawn It is in that brigh~ clear, sublime dew that the "blood drops" mingle. Blood . . It is d1e starting point for S6 Chong-ju's earliest poetic consciousness, an animal world, characterized by blood and darkness, imprisoned in blood From the very beginning, SO is intensely conscious of Greek corporeality. TI1is condition, t(} gether with animal themes found throughout 11is early works (snakes, dogs, owls, etc as well as basic elements of life such as "fad1er;' "mother," '1epers," etc), reflect the wild energy of the blood and the animal world, self-affirmation, and a challenge to existing conditions. As one critic so apdy noted, "if wind is the governing force in SO Chong-ju's life, then the fundamental motive behind that wind is 'blood' In fa~ from his first collection, Flower Snake, through his fifth, Winter Sky, SO's poet:ty is invariably tinged wid1 a few drops of blood His poet:ty is, to be frank, a demanding st:tuggle to
control his own 'blood' His life is swept along and tormented by blood, and he struggles to tame and purify it" Let us tum now to "Flower Snake," the starting point of SO Ch6ng-ju's fifty-year career.
general directions. Firs~ the deep, red blood slowly becomes thinner and softer, and as a result, we fmd many images of "jade green" and "pink'' in the poems of SO's middle years. Second, the enclosed space, the darkness, the walls, the paths of his early poems open gradually. Gates begin to appear, as exits, as openings to the outside world. Third, moven~ in the form of lightness or ascension, linked to the openness of tl1e gate image and the softer colors, gradually begin to drive his poems. There is no question, of course, that this was related to Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule in 1945 and the subsequent sociopolitical changes. "A Whispered Secre4" the first poem of the Cuckoo collection published in 1946, embodies all three of these images.
A musk-mint path, a snake, a beauty. .. Unto what immense sadness were you born that your body is so repulsive? Flower-patterned ankle-strap, that silver tongue with which your grandfather tempted Eve, darts, mute now; from your red mouth The sky is blue. .. bit~ vent your spleen!
Escape, devil-head, escape
Sunil Yongi! And Nam gone to rest! Open your firmly closed ash-hued gates and
I fire my sling-shot again and again as I give chase
comeu~
see the flower-buds lingeting at the fringes of the sky!
along the musk and grass scented path, not because my grandfather's wife was Eve. .. my breathing is harsh, as if fd drunk kerosene. .. as if fd drunk kerosene.
See the unfolding flower-buds cheek to cheek, at the cozy fringes of the sky, tents woven with endless silk strands for warp and weft
ru sew you on with a needle. Colors more beautiful than a flowerpatterned ankle-strap. Cleopatra's lovely lips, blcxxlstained, fiery red . .. suffuse me, snake! Our Suni's twenty, lips lovely as a cat ... suffu'<:: her, snake! (translated by Kevin O'Rourke)
In this poem, everything that can be experienced through the body and senses has been mobilized. Note the intense smell of "muskminr the brilliant visual sensation of the primaty colors reflected in the "blue sky'' and "fiety red" lips, the taste and cxlor of "kerosene." On the other hand, the spatial aspect reflected in tl1e poem-tl1e attraction of temptation and attack, love and hate, pleasure and sorrow; beauty and repulsiveness-is completely closed, trapped inside our own physical or perhaps psychological walls, much like a Greek tragedy Add to this the complete absence of sound reflected in the expression, "mute now;" and the dramatic
Sunil Yongi! And Nam gone to rest! tension reaches its climax. And to this oppressive air-tight space, "kerosene," a powetful and thoroughly mcxlem energy, is added. I doubt there are many poems that so effectively condense the basic instincts, as they near an exph sion in a burst of "harsh breath'' Despite the dramatic tension found in the poetic space of "Flower Snake," the poem also connotes signs of a problem or defect that we will see in SO's later work The compressed power found in the early part of the poem sin1ply disappears in the latter part This anticlin1actic element seems to suggest the absence of an aesthetic distance which would unify experience within the poetic structure itself. Spatial Opening After the publication of "Flower Snake", SO's poetry underwent a process of change and developmn~ struggling to control "blood," the core of his anin1al energy and body This process can be summarized in three
See
the flower-buds breathing at the fringes of the sptingtime sky, warm as a loving breast (/rans/ateÂŁ1 by Brother Antlxmy of Taizi!)
In this poem, the eyes are turned not toward the earth but toward the sky. "Flower Snake" is clearly a poem of the eatth A blue sky only appeat¡s once in that poem, a vivid contrast to the earth And of course, the snake is asked to "suffuse'' to the eatth TI1roughout the Floux:r Snake collection, bestial, sensual human beings are lying or falling down, whether actively or passively The affinity between the eatth and the body climaxes in expressions such as a '1ong, long kiss on tl1e eartll'' SO's poetry moves in another direction after the Cuckoo collection. Gates open, blossoms unfold, the springtime sky palpitates with the promise of opening, light and beauty. 57
and gather green moss thickly over us
So's colors too have changed; the old red is oveiWhelmed by blue. A broad range of modifiers are applied to the color blue, and the color takes on a myriad of meanings-lightness, ascension, opening-all concepts lying along a single continuum of liberation In these later poems, rhythmic repetition is driven by the dynamic power of lightness and ascension, and the wind that made eight-tenths of the poet in his earliest poems gradually lases its sensual element and becomes music in the form of drums or flutes. While Cuckoo definitely embodies movement toward a broad sky, blueness, ascension, lightness and opening, we must note that the world of Cuckoo is no more than a stage, which simply offers hope for greater possibilities. It does not represent reality itself. SO's poetry during this period is still driven by aspirations, a yearning or nostalgia for the sky. Most of his verbs remain in the imperative or future tenses. It is a world not yet realized, a world of possibility and prayer. "A Song of the Goddess of Mercy in the Stone Cavern" best reflects the process of change we witness in the Cuckoo volume. The poem foretells the importance of the Buddhist world in SO's later works and, more importantly, embodies a certain poetic tranquility borne of the dialectic between the "opened" future and the "closed" past and present Here I have long stood, yearning with a yearning like that of the tide. Deep in the cracks between stone and cold stone under the tangled arrowroot vines stirs a fresh breath of youth: that still is mine. So I have stood here by Buddha's seated statue, witl1 a tiny incense sack in my loin,
breathing in and out, as day follows day, inside this cold rock, with a fresh breath of youtl1, alas, still mine. (irarmtal byBm!lxr An!l:myifTaizt)
From this point forward, So Chong-ju is completely devoted to breathing life into stones and making flowers bloom The poet is ttying 60
(/n:miaki byBialxrArtth:myifTaizt)
to discover both the goal and the means of achieving that goal in the form of some kind of archetypal myth submerged deep in the heart of the Korean people. He first attempts to achieve this through the Buddhist elements found in his Sil!a Notes (19&)), then reaches at the mainstream of Korean consciousness in the form of ascetic Taoism, national customs, traditional refinements and Shan1anism As time passes, So's attempts to breath "a fresh breath of youtl1" into "cold stone" become more frequent, rapid and easier. Jade Green and Ascension
SO's third collection of poems, Selected Poems (1955) is most interesting when considered in connection with the final stanza of "On Seeing Mudung Mountain" Even laid in thorny wormwood ditches, we should always think we're like buried .¢wels
Here we find little of the frenzied blood or red, and the deep blue of SO's earlier poems has gradually become more delicate. The pde green of the "buried .¢wels" is the central force now This visual relaxation is wmthy of our attention In Cuckoo, SO's second collection, blue symbolized an intense yearning borne of the distance that separated the poet from the sky. In the above poem, the jade green of the "buried jewels" can be seen as a bridge over tl1at insurmountable distance. Unlike the blue of the sky, an object of yearning which can not be reached by human beings bound to the eartl1, this pde green serves to push humanity slowly up into the sky. The relationship between the stone and arrowroot vines, that is the relationship between a lifeless mineral and living plants reappears, but the relationship has been turned upside-down Now it is not the relationship between an animate plant and a mer tionless rock; rather the rock (in the form of ''buried jewels'') is alive and gathers green moss which makes it even more alive. The ".¢wels" or rock represent us, humanity, and at the same time, their solitude and color resemble the sky. Through the projection of "fresh breath" on a cold rock the ".¢wels'' seem to be transparent While they are hard, they suggest lightness and movement upward into the sky. Perhaps this means a stone from eatth is beginning to resemble tl1e sky. Th~ rock here is, of course, isolated from the sky becauSe it is buried alone and covered with thick green moss. Nevettheless, it suggests a self-possessed feeling of distance, as opposed to the direct and urgent yearning for the blue sky we find in SO's eat·lier poems 111is calm sensation of distance appears in SO's third collection, Selected Poems, and contributes to the sense of harmony or ease found in So's later works. The Distance of Contemplation
Following the publication of Silla Notes (1960), So often disappointed his readers by abandoning the deep insights found in his eat·lier Selected Poems literary O"itic Kim Uchang has pointed tl1is out "For tl1e most part, SO's later poems resemble incomprehensible aphcr
risms spouted by shamans or the self-contented words of someone who has achieved emancipation and peace in this very moment . . " SO seems to be saying everything in the world is the result of karma, and consequently we needn't concern ourselves with earthly affairs. By burying himself in ancient times, such as the Silla Period, the poet is free to soar and transform himself as he pleases. Here we find no physical agony, none of the agitations of history nor any sense of solidarity with human beings living in the same time and place. Kim U-chang criticizes this as a personal failure which also reflects the state of Korean poetry in general "The poetic development of So Chong-ju typifies the core failure of Korean modem poetry over the last fifty years. His early works were characterized by an intense sensual desire on the one hand and a bold realism on the other. This was possible because of his frank recognition of the inevitable conflict between the body and the mind, and the conflict between the individual and society. The religious and shamanist point of view of his later poems, however, promise instant salvation and so almost completely paralyze any realistic sensation While SO's beginning may have been encouraging, he has retreated into a monistic emotionalism which simply adapts to his existing dialectic structure instead of building on i~ making use of his experience and the inconsistencies of his existence. As a resul~ his poetry has taken on an air of self-consoling complacency. This failure of lyricism is found throughout Korea's modern poetry. It is, in sho~ a failure to build upon a structure which can calculate the contradictions of our experience." ( Tlx Poet in an A6\? of Destitution, pp.66D7) Kim's view, when taken as a criticism of the easygoing nature of Korea's modern poetry, is thoroughly persuasive. He criticizes the poet's search for a dir~ one-track solution as "monistic emotionalism" We may a·iticize SO for la:;ing his sense of realism and for his lack of any three·dimensional consciousness, but we should not conclude that the changes we witness in his later works are entirely negative. So gradually becomes more flexible and manages to maintain a distance from his ob}:rts. 1llis is, of course, true of all Korean poets. 1his would be a shortcoming if interpreted as the
selfish emancipation of an individual who chooses to leave the world behind, but it can be a strong point if the poet uses that distance and composure to step away from the frantic confrontation of his youth and attempt to sympathize with his own condition and that of his time. It is difficult, of course, to define the boundaries between true composure and petty self-satisfaction In any case, this is an issue closely linked to the poet's age. It is worth noting that Korean poetry is much more conscious of a poet's age than western poetry. Not surprisingly, SO's poem, ''Forty;' reflects the flexibility and control he seems to have achieved around that age. Let us tum now to consider "Winter Sky," an excellent example of So's later work The lovely eyebrow of my heart's desire, · washed clear in the dream of a thousand nights, I remove and plant in the sky. A bird of prey in the midwinter air pretending to know what it is, gives way in flight (trr;msbl£d byKain ORowile)
The structure of this poem is solid, something increasing!y difficult to find in SO's later works. In the original Korean, this poem is only five lines long It consists of three subtance' ~" "my heart's desire" and "a bird"-and three movements-washing, planting and flying-all placed in such a way as to maintain strict symmetry. This formal symmetry parallels the symmetry of meaning found in the poem That is, the first lines signify the earthy world of "!," "my heart's desire," and "the eyebrow," and the latter half of the poem suggests the heavenly world The image of "planting in the sky" links the first and last parts and also serves as a conversion of space from the earth to the heaven This poem is a fine example of the relationship of space and the aesthetic consciousness mentioned at the beginning of this article. In one poem, SO portrays a number of elements all at once space as a form of resistance against destructive time, space as the ground in which humanity's emotions are rooted, humanity's a·eative will struggling to overcome the limitations of its physical being, and the space constructed
by language. The image of the "eyebrow" is one of the core themes of SO ChOng-ju's poetry. From his early works on, women, the object of yearning, are always represented by an eyebrow, but as the years pass, his "heart's desire" breaks free of the bounds of the physical and all that remains is her eyebrow Thus, in this poem, the eyebrow is the final core of the physical body and at the same time the starting point of earthly mind It does, however, still possess both earthly and bodily significance and thus weighs on the mind as always. The eyebrow in ''Winter Sky'' could only be removed and planted in the sky when earthly agony and desire was "washed clear in the dream of a thousand nights:' That image reminds us of a waning moon floating alone in a cold winter sky. Here we find the magnanimity of a poet approaching "an age free of vacillation," that is, his forties. Still, the eyebrow is the central poin~ which proves that the winter sky is not completely empty. In other words, the eyebrow is the key element which reveals the emptiness of the mind Many of So's later poems, written in his fifties, sixties and seventies, not only reveal a paradoxical relationship between material and emptiness, sound and silence (powerfully portrayed in "My Wife," (Collected Poems, 1972), they also suggest a relationship between emptiness and poetry. In order to express emptiness, the poet has no choice but to endow it with a name and form, much as he does with the colors green or blue as mentioned earlier. The form, that is the container, which reveals emptiness comes in a variety of disguises: a golden ring, a pr, a flute, a bowl of cold water. In SO's poetry, these containers holding emptiness are varied in material, color, nature and shape, but we must never forget they are all made of the poet's language. SO seems to have mastered l.ao-tze's formula, realizing emptiness by creating an emptiness, a container. However, poetic emptiness is not an abstract formula; it is the product of the progressive movement of the poet's imagination •
Translations: Tilting tm}cu; Spilling tm Mo 1 ~ transk1ted and edited by Kevin ORolrrke. Seo l~ Universli Publications Ageocy, !%'). 5:5 Oxmgju,Midang ~ F£u1v ~ ~ i q translated by Brother Arr d10ny of Taili. Soon to l:e available from Forest Books (london)
61
KOREAN ARTISTS ABROAD
â&#x20AC;˘
Korean Women S eon
Kim Song-hi
A:rociate Editor, Korea News in New York
PENED IN 1883 with Gounoo's opera Faust; the Metropolitan Opera House in New York has secured a reputation as one of the top opera houses in the world, along with Covent Garden in London (established in 1732), and the Bolshoi Opera Hoilse in Moscow (1780). Its seating capacity is 3,500. A5 the European opera houses of the 18roi were the very symbols of European wealth and success, the New York Metropolitan Opera House has J:xmme the pride of Americans. A debut at the Met is the dream of every opera singer, with good reason The past and present maestros involved with the Met make a stunning list To name a few, Arturo Toscanini and Gustav Mahler conducted in the late 1800;, and in this century, famous singers like Placido Domingo, Luciano Pavarotti, Maria Callas, Birgit Nilsson and Roberta Peters have frequently made appearances on the Met stage. Since the Met was relocated in 1966 from the 39th Ave and Broadway premises to its present location in the Lincoln Center, it has made substantial progress. Until the 1950s only white opera singers where allowed to perform on the Met stage. But after Rudolf Bing, former manager of the Met, scrapped the racist policy and opened the door for black opera singers like Maria Anderson and Martina Anwo and world famous conductors from various ethnic groups, including Karl Bohm, Leonard Bernstein, and Georg Solti, the Met seemed to embody the nickname of New York the Melting Pot In 1983, the Met set out on a new program
called ''Young Artists' Development Program" Through an infamously difficult audition, each year it has discovered about 10 to 12 promising new opera singers. And among the happy singers singled out are a handful of Koreans. Interestingly enough, the Korean singers who are presently working with the Met are all sopranos, exhibiting Korean women's power in the New York opera world Korean musicians have long made their mark in the world Instrumentalists especially have been recognized throughout the world for more than a generation But in vocal art, there is, first of all, the language barrier. Opera singers must have command of several western languages, a difficulty for Koreans whose language has a totally different linguistic structure. But more and more the American music world is recognizing the power of Korean singers, and recently; the monthly magazine "Opera News" discussed the increasing number of A5ian opera singers on the Met stage, giving special attention to the Koreans. Although there have been Oriental singers in opera before, they have only quite recently been offered principal roles. Before, Asian singers were more often than not offered Oriental roles, and for a soprano, that usually meant Madam Butterfly. But, when called on to sing Butterfly; which is infamously demanding, because of race rather than vocal suitability; most A5ian sopranos usually accept This is because the choice is either to sing Butterfly or not to sing at all The result is quite disastrous, not only for the opera itself but also the singer, whose voice is bound to be damaged
Hong Hei-kyung, one of the most active Kcr rean sopranos at the Met, who opened the door of the Met for fellow Korean singers, knew this and survived the temptation to sing Madam Butterfly. She has finally succeeded in finding her own path '1 have had offers for Butterfly from the beginning, but I know my voice and I prefer to move carefully. I made it very clear that I do not, and I cannot sing ir Hong said in an interview with 77:-e New York Times on her sparkling performance on the Met stage as Susanna in Mozart's "Figard' in March 1989. Hong came to America in 1973 at .the age of 15 to study atJuilliard The 2D years since then have brought her recognition and now she is a top opera singer who sings ''La Boheme" with Placido Domingo and "Rigolettd' with Luciano Pavarotti All in all she was the first Oriental to overcome the racial prejudice of the Met, and convinced the West that an Oriental prima donna was to be taken seriously. When she first made her debut in the 1984 Metropolitan Opera season as Serviliain ''La Clenenza di 1ito;' 77:-e New York Times wrote that with her clear and beautiful expression and rich voice, she seemed to be like a person from an 18th century painting who had come alive This wasn't the first time the American music world had recognized Hong's talent While at Juilliard, she was discovered by the well-known composer and director Gian Carlo Nenotti, who arranged her first professional appearances in two summer festivals (Spoleto Italy and Spoleto South Carolina), which were broadcast on American Tv. N e Lus;e~ in its June 8, 93 issue, presented her as a "young star of tomorrow"
Korean instrumentalists have long been recognized in the West, but only in recent years have Korean female vocalists made their mark on the New York stage. 62
New York Her talent has never gone unrecognized. Starting with the award of a full scholarship from Juilliard premllege in 1982, she won first prize in the New York Metropolitan Opera competition, which opened the road to her debut at the Met In 1985, her performance as Tatyana in Tchaikovsky's "Eugene Onegin'' at the Kennedy Center in Washington D.C earned her the Artist of the Year award In 1989, she had the honor of being the first recipient of the Asian American Heritage Month Award, an award established by New York State governor, Mario Cuomo. In 19)), she was awarded the Art and Culture Prize by former President Roh Tae Woo. But this phenomenal success didn't come easily. She remembers the hard times when she frrst carne to the States as a high school student Her only English expression was, "My name is Hong Hei-kyung, and I don't speak English." But a year's study equipped her with enough English, and after that she studied French, Italian, and German at night in the belief that to be a great singer, the ability to speak several languages is essential She also believes that to sing a song properly, the lyrics must be understood Obviously this enthusiasm and hard work have made her a powetful soprano. James Levaine, the conductor of the Me~ once said that Hong's strong point is not only her voice but also her natural acting ability, which captivates the audience Despite her btq schedule, she is a very family-oriented mother of two daughters and the wife of a lawyer. Family life is very important to her. She believes it is her family that helped her survive the relentless competition in the music world "If I have to choose between my family and my music, rm sure I will take my family," the soprano says. But for now Hong doesn't have to worry about such a choice In her life, family and music are in harmony, not in confli~ helping her mature as an artist
Hong Hei-kyung
63
The world famous conductor, the late Herb:rt von Karajrn once praised Jo Sumi as the o;vner of a ''God-given voice" As if living up to the maestro's complirnents,Jo, no;v in her early :A playro lead roles while still in her als in the five top opera houses in the world : la Scala Opera House in Milan, the Vienna State Opera House, the New York Metropolitan Opera House, Paris Opera House and O:Nent Garden in London And this year, Jo won the Grammy award for Cest opera record in rcu:gnition of her rendition of "A Woman Without a Shado;v,'' condudro by Solti. She was also seledro in Italy as the Best Soprano of the Year. Jo was ma>tly roucatro in Italy, to where she mwro in 1SB3, after finishing her second year at Seoul National University, to study vocal art at Santa Cecilia Music School Even then, her talent was obvious Jo fmishro the five-year course in two years, and that year swept the Grand Prix in fOur competitions in Italy. Since her debut on the Euro pean stage in 1995, singing Gilda in Verdi's "Rigoletto" in Italy with Karajan, she has performed around the world Jo was once kno;vn as a coloratura bu~ ~tis firo with tha~ she pro.red her talent was unlimitro with a su~l performance in IX>nizetti's ''IEisir d'Amore'' The performance confumro her capacity as a lyric singer. last year, during the Ma;tly Mozart season, one of the annual Met events, she sang four Mozart concert arias, which requirro command of the lo;vest to the highest notes She has a vast repertoire, almost 30 operas. And she has won prestigious recording contradS with, among others, Philips Records All in all, she is a soprano who is more concernro about her fans in her home country than her own career. last year, Jo even turnro do;vn an offer to join the Japan tour of the Mostly Mozatt Opera team, in order to participate in the Seihwa Music Festival sponsorro by the world famous Korean musician Olung Myung-hoon For there who missed the chance to hear her sing that time, she held a recital this year in Korea. 'The happiest time for me is when I sing for Korean fans," the soprano £lid in an interview with a Ko rean newspaper. She askro the audience to come to her recital, not 'to judge her, but to enf:o/ the music"
JoSumi 64
The third Korean to join the Met was Shin Youngok, who passro the audition in 1~ Within two years of joining she establishro herself in the front rank, singing with world famous tenors like Luciano Pavarotti and Placido IX>mingo Her debut at the Met was to sing the female lead of "Rigo letto:· And this year she made the rounds with the Met team on its Japan tour, including the Japanese Culture Center, in which three operas were presentro with a total of ?/fJ opera staff She was the prima donna of "IElisir d'Amore," and there also, her talent did not go unrec:qsnized The Japanese media were busy singing her praises The youngest and latest newcomer to extend Korean women's po;ver on tl1e Met stage is 01o Yoomi, who was only 23 and a graduate student when she had the honor of teing among the final
winners of the W. Met Opera Concows She was the youngest winner in the history of the Met auclition Olo came to tl1e Unitro States in 19Xl, only two years before winning her ticket to the Met stage, to study at the graduate school of New England Conservatory. It was her tead1er, Susan Klickner, who advistrl her to enter the contest Her first appearance in the Met Opera House took place on April 5, 19)2, tefOre a Korean and American audience celebrating the birth of another prima don-
na To opera singers, the Met cannot be tl1e whole world To prwe this, last April, Korean soprano Lee Olong-mi made opera history. Up to the mo ment that the curtain was raised for Rimsky-Korsakois ''Gold Hen," Bolshoi staff were anxious, not quite sure whether this Korean soprano could
make it through The ''Gold Hen" is infamous among o~ singers for it ra:jllires mastery of old Rtfflafi expressions and various styles of dancing and acting The difficulties a prima donna has to CNerrome are not only a fOreign singers' lot but the native Russian singers' too. But Lee's performance was a sturming succe:;<;. She captivated her audience with her rich voice, mature, acting and perfect old Rtfflafi diction She OO:ame the fnst foreigner, not just the fnst Korean, to sing the prima donna of the ''Golden Hen'' Tass praised Lee as the greatest soprano Korea has ever produced ARtfflafi magazine, also desaibing the evn~ ~d that Lee's debut at the fulshoi ronfumed the value of Korean singers. But of rourse, this suo::ess didn't mme easily to Lee She stayed for three months in Mcm:w for
Shin Young-ok, with J.E. Menotti, after her May 1993 performance of "The Marriage of Figaro" in New York (above), Lee Chong-mi (below)
reheu'£lls, and devoted ma;t of her time to leam ingold Russian · Lee came to America in 1900, after fmishing her rollege education in Korea, to study at Juilliard She graduated as an honor studen~ and was offered a scholarship from the Juilliard American Opera Center, and her professional career follcwed In 1S9L she also caused a stir with her performance with the world famous tenor Jerome Heinz, who is a legendary figure in the o~ world As Jonathan Friend, the Mefs casting director, pointed out in his interview with 77x New York Times, '1t was only in the 1950's that a black singer was fnst permitted to appear at the Metropolitan" And in 1 ~ , a performance in which ma;t lead singers were black was no longer a hist:otical event When 77x New York Times ran an article in 1~ on the appearance of Oriental singers and the meeting of East and West on the world's opera stage, Will Gutchfield wrote that the blaroming of Asian opera singers was inevitable, ronsidering the passion of Asian professional musicians, e;r.ecially in Korea and Japan, while interest was dedining in the West He mnduded by saying 'Given the level of interest in opera in their home munllies and the opportunities that new exist for study and mainstream acceptance, it cannot be a matter of very much time before the Oriental presence in the world's opera horn:s bemmes so widespread as to cease being noteworthy.'' In 1993, only four years after that article, a Korean prima donna starring on the world o~ stage, including the Met, is no longer something unusual fOr Westerners. •
65
NEWSMAKER
Art of Harmonism: AFirst at the Pushkin Museum NaSang-man Drama Producer, Profes;or of the Department of Actor Training Higher Theater QJllege in Ma;ccw
N1HE HJSlDRIC OTY of MCR'O'N, !~ding artist Kim Hung-&>u (whm: pen name is Kim&lu) held a widely acclaimed exhibition of his works of 'harmonism" at the Pushkin Museum April 29 to May 30. Kim, the a~tor of 'harmonism", was not only the flfSt Asian artist to exhibit there but the flfSt living artist after Olagall in 1973. The exhibition was an event which stands as a tribute to the status of Kor~ art From July 9 to August 8, the exhibition was a!&> held at one of the world's three ma>t famous art galleries, the Hennitage in St Petersburg As a Kor~
aitic with an interest in cultural exchanges !Je. tween Rtma and Korea, I was pi~ but worried when asked to write about Kim and his exhibition in Russia, as I am not a aitic of art, but of drama The 1::asis of Kim's theory of harrnonism is the meeting of yin and )Klng in which happiness and worry coexist Yin is reality, )Klng is the alJ. stract. Thus, harrnonism is the meeting of realism and abstraction In writing about Kim&lu and his exhibition at the Pushkin Museum, can my happiness (J.ang'J and my worry (yin) rise to the level of har-
Kimsou at the reception celebrating the opening of his show at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow. 66
monism? Whatever the case, I will attempt to w~ve together in the spirit of Kim's artistic theory the r~ctions of the Ma;cow press and my cwnthoughts. The Exhibition At number 12 Volkhonka Street in Moscow there stands an impressive marble building in the ancient Greek style This is the Pushkin Museum, the building venerated as the "sun of ~Uยงia " and a~ted on the foundation of the museum of Alexander ill The museum houses over 2,(f.JJ works ranging from ancient tr~es of Greece
and Rome to the modern masterpieces of Poussin, Corot, Cezanne, Picasso, Renoir, Monet, Gauguin and Matisse Twenty-seven of Kim's works were hung in tl1e second-floor gallery reserved solely for {XIintings. It was undoubtedly a unique exhibition In an interview with the Echo Planety (Echoes of tl1e Planet) newspaper, Kim said, "I am proud to have my paintings hung with the works of great 11)aSters in a gallery which r~Â nizes only tl1e IKst.'' YUii Zakharev of tl1e cultUI"al daily Kuranty (Watchtower) called Kim's exhibition an "epoch-making event:' It would be a mistake to overlook such an event as simply the result of luck or chance. TI1ere was much planning involved and many problems which had to be overcome. The English-language Moscow Times desaibed ilie pro cess in detail About three years ago, the Russian ambas-
sador to UNESCO, V1adimir Lomeiko, saw one of Kim's exhibitions in Lu,xembourg Lomeiko was greatly impressed and told Kim iliat his att was complementary in nature to Mikhail Gorbad1ev's philosophy of life and iliat an exhibition should be held in Ma;w;v's mcst famous museum, ilie Pushkin MuseU111 So he b:gan to work witl1 Korea's UNESCO ambassador to realize such an exhibition Unfortunately it was put on hold by ilie collapse of communism in ilie Soviet Union Also, iliere was a problem at ilie Pusl1kin Museum 'They told me tlut ilie Pushkin had a histoty of showing only European artists," Kim said. "They told me to go and exhibit at a museum for Asian att So I told them tlut, although I am Asian, my att is intenutional " He was also told tlut tl1e Pusl1kin did not exhibit works of living attists As ilie local mass media was quick to point
"Self Portrait," 61X50cm, 1980-90 (top), Kimsou(above).
67
out, the fact that Kim eventually overcame sud1 obp::tions is an honor not only for the artist himself but a reccgnition of the standard of Korean art
Praises from the Media The Ma;cow media had many things to £IY about Kim: "Korean artist Kim HLing-sou has shown plasticity to Russia'' (Moskovicbie Novostz), "The balance of yin and Y1-n&' (NezavisimaY1Gazeta), ''Kirrrou, I am freedom" (Ec/x; Planety), "The balance of Korean art'' (77Je Moscow Tribune), "Never before has there been an exhibition like this at the Pushkin" (Kuranty), "The genius of Kimsou at Volkhonka Street" ( VeclxrnaY1- Moskz;a), "The r:rople of Russia have seen a war of harmony and peace" (Kommersant Daily); "The unique world of Kimsou" (Rodmoskovskiye), "The first meeting with Korean modem art'' (lzlX'StiY1-), "Harmony of the figurative and the abstract'' (Dosuk V Moskve), "The attist's philosophy of yin and Y1-n&' (Moscow Times). With sum tributes as these the media in-
68
troduced the hatmonisrn of Kimsou In short, Kim's Ma;cow exhibition was a resounding success. The NezavisimaY1- Gazeta £lid, ''Kirrrou is a mmet in the modem art world:' In its May 13 edition, it carried five photos of his ''Self Portrait'' series from 190019SD and an artide about the development of his art Through the words of two renowned jJumalists, Alia Voricenko and Viktoria Shyokhina, the Nezavisimaya newspaper introduced Kim to Russia "All artists seek hatmony, even those who are into destruction But Kim is the quintessential l1am1onist in all his aims and expression" Thitty years ago, Kimsou proclaimed, '1 am freedom'' A look at his rex:ent works shows that Kim has now gained full right to such a statement According to the wisdom of East and West, we are not antagonistic, though we have tl1e strength to fight And Herman Hesse once £lid that ''it is the extremes in both powers that agitates life''. It is interesting to see how Korean artist, Kimsou, handles this idea Kim Hung-sou's exhibition at the Pushkin
Museum was opened with a tapxutting ceremony attended by Korean Ambas£ldor Kim Sokkyu and Russian Minister of Culture Eugene Sidorov as well as many art world figures and art lovers. The r:rople carne in droves to see the art ofKimsou One old woman who had been working at the museum for ?f) years £lid, '1 have never seen so many visitors in my life It is easy to see that Kimsou's art is not the sort that was created overnight" Alexander Pomanov described his meeting with Kim in Ec!XJ Planety: "To interview Kimsou, I had to break through a solid wall of art fans who were lining up for his autcgraph Kim, after his grand opening and the subsequent crowds of visitors, looked tired. But the 74-year-old master did not brush anyone aside 1ook at me', he £lid 1 am wearing my white leather beret so that r:rople will not forget me'". Kim talked and laughed as his admirers made requests for autcgraphs He did not 9o it in the
"Nude," 80X155cm, 1980 (above), â&#x20AC;˘war and Peace," 197X440cm, 1986(left).
Kimsou opened a new art world
to the Russian people through harmonism.
al:rent-rninded way of moo: famous people but treated each peoon with lively attention This is probably the way the artist looks at all people The interview seemed all too short TI1e museurn ofi~ noting that Kim looked tired, tried to hurry me away but Kim and I kept talking on the run Limits of Western art Kim hin1self says that it is not the reaction to the exhibition tlut is important but tl1e motiva-
tion it gives for new creation But Kim's humble view aside, the exhibition was significant in more ways than one To sum up, Kim introduced Russians to tl1e the01y of ham10nism, and as the first Asian to exhibit at the Pushkin Museum, he also boosted the international status of Korean art in general. TI1us, Kim showed young Russian artists the limitations of Western art and opened up a new att world for tl1em + 69
ON THE ROAD
Tea and t _ e Lile It Oilers
KimJoo-young Novebt
ODAY, most Koreans prefer coffee to tea King Kopng ruler of the Chos6n Kingdom from 1&54 to 19(X), a pericxi of burgeoning foreign influence and deteriorating political stability, appears to have been the first Korean with a coffee drinking habit He was intrcxiuced to coffee by Karl Ivanovich Waeber, the Russian consul-general in Seou4 who took advantage of the good offices of his sister-in-law, to capture the palace coffee supply concession It wasn't long before the king was drinking coffee on a regular basis. In 1898, Kopng's compulsion for coffee was exploited in a conspiracy to murder the monarch Kim Hong-nyuk, a cou1t official assigned to serve as the king's Russian translator, attempted to avenge his banishment to the remote southern island of Huksan-do for abuse of government power by poisoning the king and crown prince witl1 a dose of opium in their morning coffee. Fortunately, tl1e king noticed a funny smell in his coffee and refused to d1ink it The crown prince's nose wasn't quite so sensitive, but he managed to vomit before the spiked brew had a chance to do any harm The role of coffee in tl1e political intrigues of the late Chos6n Pericxi may have been a minor
one, but the drink soon became popular witl1 the common people, and today coffee is so popular that recent statistics indicate that Koreans in their twenties now drink more of it than the average American. In fact, it's difficult to find tea in Korea unless you go to a Buddhist temple or traditional tea room, or happen to visit the home of a tea afficionada The Virtues of Tea It is uncertain when Koreans first began to drink tea, but there is historical documentation of tea-drinking as early as 647, as well as references to growing local demand and tl1e in1portation of tea plants from China in 828. It appears that at first only a limited sector of the population enpyed tea harvested from indigenous tea plants. Later, as Buddhism and Chinese culture spread tl1rough tl1e peninsula, the tea-drinking custom was passed on to tl1e general population through Buddhist temples. But why did people drink tea? TI1ere were several reasons. Koreans believe that tea soothes the mind and refreshes the spirit TI1e sharing of tea provides an opportunity for conversation witl1 guests. Tea-drinking stimulates a1tistic tastes and promotes creative activity and
reading. It also has medicinal effects. It cleanses the bcxiy and minc4 drives out false thoughts and transforn1S the drinker into a wise person And finally, an appreciation of the whole process- watching new shoots sprouting on a tea bush, adjusting tl1e fian1e under a pot of boiling water, listening to the sound of water boiling, watching the steam rise from a cup of tea- is believed to be tl1e road to achieving true ascetic understanding. It was during tl1e Kory6 Pe1icxi (918- 1392) that tea-drinking became popular among the common people. Of course, this popularity was based on the drink's reputation as a staple of cou1t, aristocratic and temple life. Tea, together with fruit and alcoholic beverages, was one of the most in1po1tant foodstuffs in Kory6 court life. Offerings of tea and teadrinking ceremonies were part of all national rites, including the investiture of kings or queens. Tea was used as official tribute in diplomatic relations, and the king often gave gifts of tea to.his ministers, influential Buddhist monks, and even slaves. During this period, aristocratic families bought tea imported from Song China (960- 1279), and Buddhist temples operated
y'
~
Koreans believe tea soothes the mind, refreshes the spirit, and cleanses the body. 70
large tea plantations. These temples also sponsored regular tea-brewing competitions. The popularity of tea-drinking no doubt contributed to the development of the world famous Koryo celadon People rontinued to cultivate small tea gardens near their homes through the early Chc66n Period (15th century). Government offices employed 'tea girls," who brewed tea and served it to officials and their visitors, and time was set aside for tea breaks each day There were special tea markets and drinking establishments that served both tea and alrohol Historical records indicate that even foreign diplomatic missions and travellers stopped at such establishments after 1897, and special tea ceremonies were held when a foreign envoy arrived in Kcr rea for the first time Literati Preserve the Tea Tradition Under the rule of Chc66n, however, the teadrinking tradition which had first spread through the Buddhist temples of the Koryo Kingdom began to deteriorate, and alcohol gradually took the place of tea in official ceremonies. Nevertheless, tea-drinking remained popular among men of letters who carried on the tradition together with their simple love and respect for nature. These literati would sit drinking tea in bamboo groves or under an old pine tree, on a flat rock at the edge of a stream or on the bank of a slow-moving river as they launched small toy boats. For they believed that they could best cultivate their tastes and achieve spiritual harmony by enpying a simple cup of tea while communing with nature Tea enabled men of letters to cleanse their minds and bodies as they sat discussing the best way to perform their proper role in society and life. When they chose to drink their tea indoors, it was invariably in a homely little shack covered with a roof of thatched rice straw or eulalia grass. What better way to ronfmn their spiritual solidarity? Kim Hong-do (17CD~ ?), renowned for pier neering a fresh new genre of painting in the mid-Choson Period, left behind many depictions of literati drinking tea Social class distinctions were extremely rigid during the early Choson Period, but as time passed, economic changes resulted in the deterioration of traditional relations between tl1e mling and subordinate classes. A new mling class, whose power 72
was based on property, began to develop. So tea-drinking soon became more popular among the rommon people At the same time, however, NeoConfucianism was embraced as the mling philosophy of the Chc66n regime and Buddhism was denounced as heresy The financial circumstances of Buddhist temples deteriorated as a resul~ and the tea plantations operated by them were gradually overrun with weeds. TI1e Chc66n government levied excessive taxes on anyone operating a tea plantation, and as life for the rommon people became more difcul~ few had the wherewithal to enpy tea as they had during the Koryo Period when Buddhism and the tea culture had flourished together. Ch'o (Ji, Champion of Tea in Late Choson Tea remained an important part of Buddhist life, despite repression by the Chc66n state The beverage was included in all offerings to the Buddha, and Buddhist monks and nuns rontinue to drink tea today They share tea with friends, offer tea to guests, and drink tea in the meditation halls between periods and after chanting A Buddhist monk, Ch'o Ui (1786 ~ 186) , was responsible for the resurrection of the dying tea tradition and the promotion of an understanding of the transcendental significance of teadrinking Born in Naju in the southern province of Cholla, at the age of five Ch'o Oi was rescued from drowning by a pass.ing monk and became a monk himself at the age of 16. He spent much of his life at Taehung-sa Temple and llchi-am Hermitage nestled in the embrace of Turyun-san Mountain in Haenam County on the southwestern coast of the Korean Peninsula Turyun-san (altitude 703m) is the southernmost mountain in the Sopaek-san Mountain Range, which stretches from the center of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula It ronsists of several peaks and a network of ravines which gather to form a large valley, famous for its lush forest and clear water. Taehung-sa Temple is located at the southern foot of the mountain in a forest of wild cherry trees, camellias, pines and maples which pin to make each season a delight At the age of 24, Ch'o Oi became a student of Chong Yag-yong (1762~83), a renowned sirhak (practical learning) scholar who had been banished to Kangjin County, east of Hae-
nam on the southern coast Ch'o Ui studied with Chong for three years, mastering his teacher's progressive philosophy as well as his scholarly approach A year after his teacher's death, the monk wrote Tongiasong (Eulogy to Oriental TeaJ a lyrical ode to all aspects of tea: the ecology of the tea plan~ ancient tales related to tea; famous Chinese teas; types of Korean tea; the difficulties of raising tea; and methods of picking and preparing tea In this work, Ch'o Oi notes Korean tea's superiority over Chinese tea, not only in taste and fragrance, but also in medicinal effect Ch'o Oi is famous for breaking away from rigid standards of thinking and living to develop close relationships with many respected literati and celebrated figures of that period. The most famous of his confidants was no doubt Kin1 Chong-hili (1786 ~ 1856) , best known for his unique calligraphy style, which spurred the development of a whole new school of calligraphy Ilchi-am Hermitage Ch'o Oi was responsible for teaching Kin1 about tea Ch'o disliked celebrity, however, and so built a small hermitage two kilometers up the slopes of Turyun-san Mountain from TaehUng-sa Temple He spent forty-some years at llchi-am Hermitage, isolated from the outside world llchi-am is simply a humble, one-room, grass hut built on a rough stone foundation with a handful of slender posts, a rice straw roof, and a narrow wooden slat porch However, a small stream mns past the hut Ch'o Oi used .the water from this stream to brew his tea One of Ch'o Ui's disciples described his life as follows: He lives in the shadows of Turyun-san Mountain He built a small hut in the depths of a pine forest where the bamboo grows thick A drooping willow tree hangs over the eaves, and a tangle of wild grass laps at the stone steps. Ponds have been dug in the garden, and water containers, large and small, hang from the eaves. A series of bamboo tubes cany water to the hut for tea He ~ es the days steadying his mind and reciting poetry, whetl1er the snow falls or tl1e moon hangs high in the sky. After the tea has brewed, he walks wherever the spirit moves hin1. He listens to the birds and they ex-
change glances, but he always takes cover at the thought of meeting a guest along the twisted, secluded mountain path Ch'o Oi may have lived in seclusion but he maintained a close friendship with Kim Chonghi This letter reveals Kim's affection for the reclusive monk and his appreciation of the fine tea his friend provided him: I have sent several letters but have yet to receive a reply. I know life in the mountains is hardly busy, so could it be you have chosen to ignore me because you do not wish to mingle with tl1ose of tl1e mundane world? It is not that I wish to see you nor do I hope for a letter. Neve1theless, my ties to tea cannot be cut nor can they be easily broken Therefore, I only ask tl1at you remain resolute and unwavering in your pursuit of the way of tea, never pushing, never delaying, never deviating. .. Ch'o Oi died at the age of 81 in 1866 (ten years after his calligrapher friend), but llcl1i-am Hennitage has preserved the Korean tea tradition under a succession of monks knowledge-
able in tea's significance and fragrance At present, the hennitage is run by the Ven Yo Yon At night the hennitage is silent except for the rustling of birds retun1ing to their nests. The forest is enveloped in darkness except for a lone light streaming from tl1e paper windows of the hennitage_ Perhaps the solitary monk is brewing a cup of tea. The Ven Yo Yon has written of his philosophy of tea: Tea is a path tl1at leads us to a better understanding of how man can live a good life_ The way of tea does not mean showing off or pretension We must realize that at tl1e instant we pour tl1e entire universe into a sin1ple cup, cracked and warped, tea provides us with an opportunity for introspection and the calming of our anguished mind. We must also make an effo1t to take tl1e personal expansion which we experience when we sit quietly drinking that sweet, fragrant tea and move outward to spread that feeling to our neighbors and all those close to us Tea Brews in the Heart of Korean Culture Chonab Yag-yonab ' Ch'o Ui's mentor) berew to
love tea during his 18 years in exile in Kangjin. In fact, Chong left behind many poems singing the praises of tea and, as he left Kangjin, even established a tea-drinking club comprised of his students. As a result, many of the famous temples in the Cholla region, such as Hwaom-sa, Ssanggye-sa and Taehung-sa Temples, l1ave continued to operate tea plantations over the years, and the tea.cultivating and drinking tradition remains strong tl1ere_ The tea tradition has influenced Korean culture in a number of ways. Poets often write of tea, and paintings depicting tea-drinking are quite common Tea-drinking also fostered the development of Korean ceramics (of which Kcr ryo celadon is a fine exan1ple) as well as traditional landscape gardening which placed a strong emphasis on outdoor teahouses. Chong Yag-yong spent more than ten years enjoying tea in his garden in Kangjin and, as a result, was able to produce 18 volumes outlining his philosophy. Such was the strength of traditional Kcr rean tea, providing the fuel for tl1e cultivation of a refined character capable of deep introspection and musing on tl1e future_ â&#x20AC;˘
73
INTERVIEW
Same Experiences, Different Lessons: Interviews with Two Top Korean Writers ChiJung-nam
Mm
Reporter, Los Angeles Tunes,Seoul
WO OF KOREA'S TOP AUTHORS, Lee Mun-yol and Cho Jung-rae, both experienced in their childhoods the deaths of their close relatives and fellow villagers during the Korean Wm\1950- 1953). Both of them experienced extreme poverty Both were haunted by the legacy of that ideolÂŽcal war. They were watched, followed and suppressed by d1e authorities-not for what they did but for what their parents had been dtiven to do. Lee Mun-yol's father chose communist North Korea Cho Jung-rae's parents were involved in communist partisan activities. Both, like millions of their compatriots, were victims of the bitter histoty of an unfortunate countty But both of them overcame d1eir difficulties to become best-selling aud1ors. Cho Jung-rae's Taebaek Mountains, a milestone work that boldly dealt with d1e hitherto forbidden topic of the nature of the Korean War and expressed an equally bold opinion about socialist ideals, sold 2.7 million copies, an all-time record for a Korean novel It became an unofficial textbook for college students in their search for identity. Lee Moon-Yol's bestsellers, including Son of Man, For tbe Empero1; Our Distorted Herq Portrait of A Youthful Day, and You Can't Go Home AJpin, all sold over a million copies each, making him d1e best-known contemporary K(} rean writer. But the sinlilarities end there. The lessons the two authors learned from their tragic childhoods and d1e messages they now convey to their readers are quite different In exclusive and separate interviews with Koreana, these two top aud10t's revealed d1eir thoughts on life and literature
Both Lee and Clw are tictims of Korea's bitter histotJ' of opp1'ession and conflict. Lee Mun-yol (left), Chojung-rae (right). 74
-Which writers influenced you the most and why?
Cho: '1 grew up reading most of d1e works of Oh Young-Soo and Hwang Sun-won and was impressed by their realistic romanticism. Later, I was influenced by some of d1e Russian
cially find the parables Jesus told in the New Testament very instructive If I were to compare, I think I am like Thomas Wolfe in my writing style; but I have learned to be sin1ple from Hemingway.'' -How do you assess Korean literature? Where does it stand in terms of international literary achievement?
Cho: "In terms of literary quality, I do not think Korean literature is inferior to any. We only lack a proper intrcx:iuction to the international community. We seem to have the misconception that Western literature is better. This is the result of a long domination of world history by white people. Think: in a world where Genghis Khan is considered to be one of the worst villains of history, can anything Oriental be given a fair evaluation? But look at our writers. In what other countries have writers had to fight such fierce battles with reality? Their works, the result of such battles, cannot be compared with all that sex in Uplike's novels and the like in America, or the extreme individualism of France Park Kyoung-ri's The lÂŁlnd is far better, both in scale and style, than Pearl Buck's Nobel Prize-winning work The Good Earth or Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind'
writers. My greatest literary teacher, however, was Hong Myoung-hee who wrote fm Gg3k ]6ng He reinstated pride in our people at the grass-roots leveL and he reconstructed the Korean language, the language of the people That should be revaluated for it is a great achievement"
Lee: '1 did not have any special mentor. All good writers were my teachers. The same goes for most famous works. l11ey seemed to vary as I grew older. But, in the end, you always remember certain works longer. For instance, the Bible and the Teachings of Confucius always linger whenever I am deep in thought I espe-
Lee: ''Our history of the mcx:iem novel is rcx::lted in the Western, or rather, the Russian and European, mcx:iern novel Hursaen[!j5n was not the rcx::lt of our mcx:iem literature, but literature such as Crime and Punishment In that sense, the histo1y of the mcx:iem novel in Korea is only 70-cx:id years old But in America, serious literature disappeared about 70 years ago:'
-What is the mission of a writer and what should his or her work be like today?
Cho: "Awriter should truthfully and earnest75
ly pottray the lives of the people of his time'' -Is that why you wrote Taebaek Mountains? You were quite sympathetic with the socialistic ideals in that novel, but hasn't socialism collapsed?
Cho ''Socialism was not defeated by capitalism It just collapsed. That means that scx:ialism will be revived, overcoming its shortcomings, just as capitalism will continue to change. Perhaps we should call that new system a new capitalism. No system is perfc~ men should continue seeking forever. One of the achievements of scx:ialism is that it overcame the greatest contradiction of the last 900 years: it destroyed the illusion of the feudal system." -You were only a child during the Korean War. Is the memory still vivid in your mind, or are you writing from other people's experiences? And will you continue writing about the war?
Cho "An Ametican writer said 'All I Needed to Learn I Learned in Kindergaiten' I absolutely agree with him My memory of the twmoil of wa~· is as vivid as black and white photographs being developed in water. And while I will keep writing about the han of our people and their struggles, I resolved that I would not write about the division of our country anymore. That means that I poured everything I had and wanted to say into Taelxtek Mountains. "Throughout history, revolutionists were called dremners. And less than one percent of the people a~ · e dreamers. That means fJ} percent of the people are realists, or just content with their reality, not wanting, or rather not acting, to change. But in the long run, dreamers emerge victorious. They contribute to the bettennent of the world I wrote Taelxtek Mountains with the spirit of a revolutionist I did not want to be an oppottunist or a cowa~·d I welcomed suppression" Lee: "A writer should consider what the conunon good is. And whether you like it or no~ literary products are commodities: we are responsible for them Some may not like this statement I don't like it either. Bu~ reality is reality If you refuse to recognize this, you are either an a111ateur or you have another source of 76
income. As a wtiter, I am constantly pressed to produce quality works." -You were criticized by some who said that you stayed away from the strugglefor democracy in the 70s and 80s against our military regimes. Why is that? Lee '1 chose to be on the other side of the ship. If all passengers are on one side of a ship, the ship will be lopsided and sink Of course, there are times when the ship should become lopsided and sink even at the cost of those on board But I did not think ours was such a time. An era cannot be completely independent or separate. Ours was not the only era in human histoty when human rights were violated You can find similar situations in other times and in other countries. '1 wanted balance. A society should have variety with va~·ious voices. In the 70s and 80s, over 90 percent of our wtiters were progressive writers. That was too much Of course, I was lonely, I was tempted, but I kept my place. A writer should not blindly follow the fad of the time. During and after the Second World Wa~·, Korean wtiters were predominantly pro-communist That fad passed. So will the protest fad I was not opposed to the struggle for refonn at all I was only more concerned about maintaining some balance. Besides, in fighting the dictatolial regimes, some of the dissident elements also became self-righteous and violent I could not tolerate the logic that we should fight evil (violence) with evil (violence)." -What role did religion play in your works?
end so early,' but then I find myself thinking 'well, he had the grace of God to live longer than many others who died even earlier.' However, if you study religions, you find that all human beings basically share the same religious background For instance, what you find in Genesis, you also see in Babylonian mythology. Mankind shares similar beliefs about his existence. Religion can also broaden your view rather than natrow it" -People say writers and poets born in the Chi.Jlla area are more blessed because of its richer literary resources resulting from suppression and discrimination. Do you find that to be true?
Cho: (who was born in Cholla Province) "Absolutely Ow- histoty is that of lxm. Beyond han, there is no life for our ordina~·y people. Cholla is a gold mine of inspiration for a wtiter." Lee (who was born in Kyongsang Province) "That fettile land' can also be a writeiJs ptison A young writer from Kwangju once said to me 'Brother, you are lucky to have been born in Kyongsang. You can write anything you want to. But we Cholla writers a~·e considered to be traitors if we don't write something about Kwangju first It is a graduation course for us that cannot be avoided' So, you see, it can be a disadvantage, too. What we need is more vaiiety I don't think it matters where you were born as long as you are Korean" -What will you concentrate on in your future works?
Cho "As I said em·lier, our life has been that of Cho: "A writer should live and fight his world, not God's world That is why a religious believer cannot w1ite novels. He will become too niliilistic in life." Lee "Yes, there is such a danger. If you believe, you are apt to become preoccupied with your religious values, not only in this life but also in the next And you become narrow-minded in some ways. For instance, as a Christian, I cannot deny that I was influenced by the teachings of the Bible. If I see a tragic death, my immediate reaction is 'how sad his life comes to an
han I will continue wtiting about the lxm of ow- people. In Arirang which I ain wtiting for a newspaper now; I ain uying to pottray the lxln of Koreans dUJing the Japanese occupation" Lee '1 think what counts in the end is the message. If the message is delivered in a beautiful style, fine. Bu~ even if it is no~ what will remain is the message. So, what I will try to do is to write something that is not just 'timely,' but something that will have equal significance whether it is read now or three years later." •
A Year of Diversity in Publishing Kim T'ae-young Free Writer
N KOREAN PUBIJSHING HIS1DRY, lC$ has been a significant year. Not simply l::ecause it is the "Year of Books'', but re Gluse Korea's publishing world has fmally begun to address its structural flaws, which still remain despite quantitative expansion The events held to mark the year have been various enough but perhaps not truly sufficient A gift certifiGlte system for books has been considerably successful though recent sales of books are on the decline compared to the first half of the year. This is partly l::ecause public interest has turned tCJINard political and social problems as Korea stands on the threshold of sweeping changes. Publishers must nCJIN make concerted efforts to again engage readers' interest in literature. Recently, the number of books exceeding the one million-sales mark has been increasing in Korea. But there is also aiticism that a considerable number of these bestsellers are bought only by a specific class and age group. The success of these books is not really the result of a general interest in reading but simple curiosity and a passing trend Genuine consumers are not those with a passing interest in books, but those who have a love of books. When the interest in books is limited to a certain class or age group, it is inevitable that there will be as many negative aspects as positive ones. Furthermore, "quality books" that enlighten and guide readers are being driven out of the bookstores. There is even the possibility that publishing opportunities for these books are being lost Effects of Quantitative Growth Even though the quality of books lags re hind their growth in quantity, carefully-
planned and aggressive efforts to seek out readers and authors in order to expand the number of book-lovers are reaping some results. Books that can broaden the intellect of the reader as well as inform and guide him are gradually increasing Among them, quite a number have become bestsellers, proving that a book of high quality can also sell The most representative book of this type is My Account of Cultural Legacy Explo-
Books that can broaden the intellect of the reader as well as inform and guide him are gradually increasing. Among them, quite a number have become bestsellers, proving that a book of high quality can also sell.
ration by Yu Hong-jtm This book, which sheds light on the many relics SGlttered all over the country that we pass by without showing any interest, is not only a pleasure to read, but also suggests yet another way in which we can appreciate our culture. It states that the whole of Korea is an open museum and movingly depicts the beauty of nature, the relics that harmonize with i~ and the people. The author also gives his viewpoint on Korea's cultural heritage and traditional culture in a very candid and revealing manner. He shows his true self stripped bare of any pretense. Where could this confidence to reveal himself so thoroughly come from? Probably from the awareness that "a man feels as much as he knCJINs, and sees as much as he feels", as stated in the introduction The word ''know'' here does not simply mean reaching the state of ''knCJINing" something The author quotes "when a person loves, he knows; when he knCJINS, he ~ and what he sees will not be as before." This quotation suggests that ''knCJINing" something has to have roots in '1oving" something This book is an account of the author's explorations. It offers an explanation of the cultural relics SGlttered around the southern region, especially Kangjin and Haenam of Ch6nnam Province, which the author Gills 77
the "number one exploration site of South Korea", and Yaesan, Kyong-ju, Munky6ng, and Tamyang. It also describes the pleasure of "seeing as much as one knows." But the genuine value of the lx>ok lies in the fact that it does not concentrate solely on the characteristics, beauty and the historical background of our cultural heritage It tries to perceive our cultural heritage on a comprehensive level by delving into its significance in modern times, the stories of the people who created it, as well as the structural beauty of the relics. Furthermore, by shedding light on the fact that the creators of these cultural assets were potters, farmers and others who died without · leaving a name, it tries to explain why our view of cultural assets must be based on a real love for them Other books which prompt readers to look back on themselves, their country and culture are also enjoying wide popularity. Among them are Mountains and tl:£ Life of Koreans (Korean Future Academy), Land of a Nation and Land of Buddha (by Yun Ky6ng-ry61), Our Ancient Songs (edited by Yim Ki-jung), Our Music, its Taste and Sound (by Shin Tae-ch'61), and History of Han-kang Basin (by Ch'oi Mong-ryong and otl1ers). Mountains and t!XJ Life qf Koreans is the result of a year-long study carried out by the Korean Future Academy, and it is a comprehensive ovetview of Korean mountains, the ptimary feature of Korean geography. It contains a wide range of information on the significance of mountains to mankind and realistic ways to live in harmony witl1 them Land of a Nation and Land of Buddlxt is about Namsan in Ky6ngju, which has long been forgotten The region around Ky6ngju's Namsan used to be the capital of the Silla Kingdom and a vast amount of Buddhist relics still remain It is also a place where Kcr rea's legends, religion and art intermingle. Most people visiting Ky6ngju go to see Ch'6ns6mg Tae or P'os6kj6ng and Kaerim. But if one were to raise ones eyes just a little from tl10se places, the peak of Mt Namsan could be easily seen Those who claim to know Ky6ngju well invariably state that a considerable amount of the city's well-known 78
relics are located right on Nan1san Unfortunately, even though Nan1san is an important cultural spot, its existence has long been forgotten and ignored
Land qf a Nation and Land qf Buddlxt describes the valleys in which Namsan's relics are concentrated: Wangj6ng (Monarchy) Valley, J6lt6 (Temple Site) Valley, P'uch6 (Buddha) Valley, T'ap (Tower) Valley, Miruk (Maitreya) Valley, Naeng (Cold) Valley and Shikbae (Rice Punch) Valley. Each chapter contains an outline of the geography of a certain place as well as an explanation of the surrounding scenery and a distribution map of the relics. The various Nan1san relics shown in tl1is lx>ok include 113 temple sites, 79 Buddha statues, 63 towers and king's tombs, as well as other precious relics of the Silla Kingdom The author explains that tl1e relics still preserved in Ky6ngju's Nan1san are in harmony with nature For instance, the upper part of a tower is intricately designed while its lower part, in comparison, is roughly built, thereby more noticeable This pattern reflects the desire to give few artificial touches to the lower part in contact witl1 nature (that is, the land), and to add more and more attificial elements higher up the tower so that they can return to nature in the end The author states that ultimately, all man can do is to "just add a little something to nature'' Our Ancient Songs is a compilation of about 2fJJ poems and songs found recorded throughout Korea's history, as well as 40 other different kinds of documents published from the end of the 3rd century to the early 20th century. This lx>ok's special feature is the dual arrangement of poems and songs, categorized by period into different sections beginning with "Konghu-in," Korea's first poetic song, and ending with the ancient poetic songs of the Kory6 Period In order to make understanding easier, all dates are recorded in the dominical year with the title of the song, its composer, the document it is found in, and descriptions of the people who worked on the songs. Background information on the fables and historical subjects mentioned in the original documents as well as their creation is also giv-
en to highlight the characteristics of the poetic songs once enpyed by all Koreans, whether of the ruling or the ruled class, young, old, male or female. Footnotes are provided to point out differences in interpretation by scholars. Songs are categorized by their content, and an appropriate modern sub-title indicates the national sentiment that can be studied Our Music, Its Taste and Sound is one of a small number of lx>oks on Korean traditional music It gives a detailed explanation ofits specific elements and distinct characteristics. Easy to read, it is an ideal primer of Korean traditional music The eighth chapter especially reveals tl1e tremendous atnount of information compiled by tl1e autl10r. Entitled "The General Characteristics of Our Music -Search for its Musical Tastes'', it gives a detailed explanation based on perceptive insight and profound knowledge of the roundly flowing elements, the leisure and space, SOITOW and bitterness, found in Korean music But the most important aspect of this book is that it reveals anew the value and honesty of Korean traditional music, which suffered as Korea struggled tlrrough modernization History of Han-gang Basin is a study of the Han-gang River region, the center of Kcr rea's history and culture from the pre-historic age to the present It contains a wide range of results of recent studies of tl1e Han-gang. The Han-gang River stretches approxin1ately 500 kms, and its basin covers an area of 2h,(JJ) km2• There is evidence tl1at people have been living in this region from the Stone Age Since then, and throughout the New Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the lron Age, and the Historic Age, the Han-gang River region has been one of the histotical and cultural centers of Korea Increased Interest in Science Books Even science and management related lx>oks can be as uniquely "Korean" as lx>oks on culture, 11istoty and the people As soon as Let's Make W 77:;eory (by Lee Myun-woo) was released last July; people were reading to it The W 77:;eory, a symbolic
concept signifying Korea's unique management philosophy; struck a responsive cord in many people This 00ok emphasizes Koreanstyle technology and industrial culture It has given Koreans a new view of technology and a confidence in things Korean Interest in science can also be seen in the popularity of 17JOSe Barely Existing , a genuine science 00ok Its popularity proves that the range of readers interests can be unexpectedly deep. Authors who write real science 00oks should think about how best to appeal to readers. Tbose Barely Existing is easy to read though its content might be considered heavy and difficult Its style is warm and friendly. It explains the shape of the universe discovered
aa
so far, as if spinning a fairy tale, making mooem physics easy to read and interesting without saoificing depth
works in chronological order, allowing the reader to perceive the changes in his concepts of society and literature Literature is still read mostly by a specific class of people And this class concentrates on a particular form of literature But it is encom·aging that efforts to remedy these prol:r !ems are slowly being taken With the movie S6p'y6ncbe so popular these days, the works of its author, Lee Ch'ong-jun, are receiving a lot of attention. Among his works, Tbe Propbet and Iodo have been translated and published by Actshid Publishing Company in France. And now, his novel Your Heaven is being translated into French, as well as being exhibited at the Frankfmt International Book Fair. •
Return to Mainstream Literary works such as Park Wan-s6's W!.XJ Has Eaten So Many 'SbingaS? and Kim Ji-ha's Poem Collection are receiving notice. WI.XJ bas Eaten So Many Sbingas? is an autobiographical noveL The author, who grew up in Kaes6ng moved to a slum area in Seoul eager for a better education The 00ok gives an outstanding account of growing up in the Korean War pericxl. Kim Ji-ha's Poem Collection shifts the assessment of the author from a mainly political viewpoint to a literary one. It arranges his
'-
...... T . , ;-.:
~-
.
f L-J.. i
/ -'1
61 I _, I
rt -;;: /
~
--
1 I f f.-
'
I
1
.
D
1·
!
~ !l{ -i
.I
I ()
'
79
Meeting of Dance and Drama
Rain or Snow in the Morning Han Sang-chul Art Critic and Professor, Hanlim University
HE MOKWHA Repertory theater group pined hands with Changmuhoe dance troupe to stage Rain or Snow in tbe Morning June 27 to July 2fJ at the Post Theater. Expectations were high as it was a work promising to be neither dance nor dranu but a total meeting of the two. For Oh Tae-s6k, production and scriptwriting had always been one and the same thing and with this work he ain1ed to experiment with¡the same concept in putting tqsether dance and drama In the spirit of the ancient Greek playwrights, Oh has been working to realize an ideal form in the combination of dranutic elements. Oh is considered to be Korea's leading playwright and the tendency to combine dance and drama can be seen in his past works. Wife of tbe Spring Breeze from the 1970s, when Oh first turned his full attention to traditional elements, is a fine example. Dance was not introduced as an independent part but was incorporated into the movements of the actors which took on a unique rhythm From beginning to end, the play seemed to have been choreagraphed In one scene, two men can1e out of the sea and onto the land to procure some medicine, and walked as if dancing with outstretched wings. Heavily influenced by the traditional arts, Oh had been well aware of the blending of dance and drama in traditional mask dance plays and had often tried to achieve the same effect in modem works. However, Rain or Snow . . was different from his usual works. The original intent was to merge the two modes of expression belonging to dance and drama with the help of Korean dance specialist Kim Mae-p's troupe. 80
But fundamental problems were difficult to overcome, namely the fact that the dancers were not in tune with the grammar of dranu and the actors were not skilled in the art of dance. The ideal was to merge the two genres and thus create a third, but in reality it was a play with dance added to the foundation of drama, falling short of its goal In recent years, it seems Oh Tae-s6k has been absorbed in finding ways to give vent to the sorrow and rancour, feelings that Koreans call ban, of Korea's history. Representative works in this vein are Bic]Kle, Redemption of Fate and Moonlit Nigbt on Paekma River. Oh's work Rain or Snow .. was also an exercise in relieving ban, in relation to the Japanese occupation of Korea The lead role (played by Kim Mae-p) is a woman who was caught in the bombing of Hiroshima when she was a primary school student The radiation left her blinded and she had to live in an attic, unable to bear sunlight which caused her convulsions and foaming at the mouth After 48 years of such a life, she reaches some measure of happiness, with a husband and a daughter in her 2fJ s named Min-ju (Choi Ji-yeon). But one day Min-ju is attacked and raped by hoods and her father is stabbed to death in his attempt to catch them Thus, Oh reveals his own particularly cruel brand of violence. If the atomic bomb stands for the violence of war and politics, then Minju and her father can be seen as victims of the violence of society. Oh's relentless pursuit of tradition is apparent in the scenes of the funeral and invocations of the spirit of the dead The coffin-lowering ceremony is enacted in a clean professional manner willie tl1e spirit of the dead fa-
ther roams across the stage in a robe of white paper. In Oh's world there are no barriers between the living and the dead, an idea which Oh believes is central to Korean life. The coffin-lowering ceremony and scenes of the daughter living in a straw shack near the tomb in order to look after i~ originate in traditional Korean ideolqsy and provide a contrast to the selfishness of today's youth The play's finest moment comes after the coffin is lowered As the woman bids her husband farewell for the last time she silently expresses her tears and sorrow in dance. Such painful sadness would have been hard to express in any other medium Once again, Oh shows us the cruelty of mankind when the blind mother and her daughter are forced on to the streets to earn money. This brings to mind Bernard Pomernace's Tbe Eleplxmt Man where a hideously disfigured man is used to earn money by being offered as a sideshow freak But Oh transforms the extreme of despair to the¡opposite extreme of joy. When the motl1er sets out to avenge her daughter's rape by attacking the two hoods (Song Ji-hoo and Park Hee-soon) with a pair of scissors, she herself is subjected to attack and in despair she throws down her weapon and tears off the patches which had been covering her eyes for 48 years. At that moment the scorching sun beats mercilessly down on her eyes and suddenly her previously sightless eyes open to meet the light. It is a mort:~en as moving as any Beethoven symphony. Kim Mae-p dances her heart out in this finale but it is not enough to make the audience feel the py they had been prepared to feel Instead they are left with a feeling of regret for what could have been
Acting on a sparsely-decorated stage, the Mokwha Repertory group's performance was elusive, its impressions coming and going like the flashes of a camera It illustrated the shining but transitory nature of the art of drama and dance It is a source of regret that the Changmuhoe dance troupe could not impart the essence of dance to the acting However, the innocence and pure performance of newcomer Choi Ji-yeon as the daughter was a bright point in the play. Musically, Oh had great success in Why Shimch'6ng Didnt Throw Herself Into t!XJ Sea Twice by using the aria A Fine Day from
For Oh Tae-sOk, production and scriptwrit-
ing had always been one and the same thing and with this trork he aimed to etperiment with the same concept in putting together dance and drama. In the spirit of the ancient Greek playwrights, Oh has been trorking to realize an ideal form in
the combination ofdramatic elements.
Madam Butteifly In Rain or Snow. . . Oh used a great range of Western music, from Bach to modern pop, for the funeral scene. The only native Korean sound was that of feet tramping down the earth Western music is not alien to the thoughts and feelings of modern Koreans and Oh has shown in Sbimch'6ng .. that it can be in harmony with even the most traditional Korean sub;rt But the same cannot be said for Rain or Snow.._ Rain or Snow. .. did not quite live up to our expectations for a new form of dance theater but it holds out the promise that one day Oh Tae-s6k will deliver the goods â&#x20AC;˘
81
I
KOREA FOCUS ABIMONTHLY ON KOREAN CURRENT AFFAIRS In addition to KOREANA, the Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of increasing globalization. We believe KOREA FOCUS will serve as an important and timely reference for the world community. KOREA FOCUS offers a comprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korean current affairs. In this new bimonthly; you will find timely reports on Korea's politics, economy; social environment and culture, a chronology of recent events in Korea, and opinions on world affairs. Published in English and Japanese, its articles come from leading publications in Korea, including major daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals. KOREA FOCUS is distributed to libraries, research centers and individuals throughout the world
~loJgzrams FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN STUDIES The Korea Foundation offers fellowships for Korean studies in the fields of humanities, social sciences, and arts. The program is intended to provide scholars and other qualified professionals overseas with an opportunity to carry out in-depth research in Korea for a period of two to ten months. Each successful applicant will be provided with round-trip air fare to Korea and a monthly stipend during the grant period Applicants should complete two copies of the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Studies application form and submit their academic research proposals to the Korea Foundation by July 31, and the results of the final selection will be announced at the end of January of the following year. THE KOREA FOUNDATION FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN LANGUAGE TRAINING The Korea Foundation offers grants for Korean language training to university students, scholars and other qualified professionals overseas who wi~h to learn the Korean language at a Korean university language institute for a period of six to twelve months. 82
Each successful applicant will be assigned to a Korean language course at one of three major Korean universities, and will be provided with tuition and a monthly allowance during the grant period Applicants should complete and submit two copies of the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Language Training application form to the Korea Foundation by July 31, and the results of the final selection will be announced by the end of January of the following year. For application forms, program guidelines, or further information, please write to: Personnel Exchange Department The Korea Foundation CPO. Box 2147 Seoul. Korea lei, 82-2-753-6553
Support for Korean Studies Programs Abroad The Korea Foundation offers financial assistance to universities, research institutes and libraries abroad in their efforts to promote the study and understanding of subjects related to Korea Projects submitted for consideration must be in the fields of humanities, social sciences or arts and within the categories listed belo;v: 1) Establishment and expansion of Korea-related courses and faculty 2) Fellowship for graduate students or research grant for faculty Applications must be submitted to the Korea Foundation by July 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by the end of the following March. For application forms, program guidelines or further information please write to: International Cooperation Department The Korea Foundation C PO. Box 2147 Seoul. Korea el 82-2-753-6465
It's More Than a Pretty lobby
Think of Hotel Lotte's lobby as the dynamic hub of downtown Seoul. In a simply unbeatable location that businessmen best appreciate. And we offer the business traveler even more: 8 executive floors, each staffed by bilingual assistants and equipped with all the office machines and reference materials needed to get down to business. To keep you at your peak, we offer no less than 23 restaurants and bars. For a no less refreshing experience, drop by the health club, fabled as the Orient's most luxurious. To save more of your precious time, we offer unbounded shopping opportunities next door, including the 10-floor Lotte Department Store and the Lotte Duty Free Shop Asia's largest.
Lotte: We put enjoyment into business travel
Member in Seoul, Korea A
A
SUNVV\ I T
HOTEL LOTTE
INT£~0H
-
• • •-
L
u
0
T E L L
I N TIER N AT I O N "
l
SEOUL KOREA
For Reservations: New York: (201) 944-1117, Toll Free 800-22 LOTTE , LA: (310) 540-7010, Toll Free 800-24 LOTTE Hotel Lotte: C.P.O. Box 3500 Seoul, Tel: (02) 771-1000, Telex: LOTTEHO K23533/4, Fax: (02) 752-3758, Cable: HOTELOTTE
You Are An Integral Part Of Our Formula. At Lucky·Goldstar, our corporate formula is simple:
Our customer·first philosophy is the reason why Lucky·
customers always come first. We start with impeccable
Goldstar is today a US$32 billion corporation working in
quality to provide exceptional value. Then we add a special
over 120 countries and involved in every aspect of chemistry,
personal touch. It is this human quality that drives us to
electronics, trade, finance, construction and public service.
enhance everyday living, making life healthier and more
The future always brings c hange. But at Lucky·Goldstar our
comfortable by creating everything from petrochemical
formula for customer satisfaction remains consistent.
products to antibiotics and p ioneering research into genetic engineering. We believe this is what putting you first really means.
Ia LUCKY·GOLDSTAR Investing Our Past In The Future
Lucky-Gol d s t a r Interna tional Corp. Void o P.O. B ox 699, Seoul , K o r ea. Phone (02) 785-5694 Fax (02) 783 -9288 • C h e mistry a nd Ene rgy • Lucky L t d . · H ona m O il R e fin ery • Lucky Petroch e m ical • H oyu Ene r gy . E l ectric a nd E l ectronic s • G o ld star Co., L t d . · Gold star Info rm ation & Commu nication s · Gold s t ar Te l ecommu nication • Golds tar Soft wa r e · G o ldstar El ectr on · G o ldsta r -A ip s Electro nics • Goldsta r Precision • G o ldstar Indu strial Syste m s • Gold star In st r ument & El ectr ic• G o ld s ta r E lectric Mach ine r y • Go ldstar-H o n eywell · Machinery a nd M e t a l s • Golds t a r C abl e • K ukje E le ctric W ire . Lucky Metal s . 'n"ade a nd F i n a nce • Lucky-Goldstar Inte rn ationa l • L uck y S e curities · Lucky In su r ance • P u sa n Investm e nt & Finan ce • LG C r ed it Ca rd • Construction and Ser· •lces • Lu cky Develo p men t · L ucky Engineer ing • LG M art · H ee S u ng To uris m D eve lop m ent · L.G. A d Inc. • System s Technolog y M anagemen t • Luc k y- G o ld sta r E con o mic R esearch In s titute • Public S ervic e a nd Spo rts · The Von a m Fou n dation • T h e Vona m Educa t io na l In s ti t u te • L ucky-Goldstar Welfa re Fo undation • LG S p o r ts