Koreana Winter 1996 (English)

r.

DINING

~1JILE.MAS"

ATTHEHILTON It's the classic dilemma - you choose Chinese, he fancies French, and your guests are keen on Korean.

On the other hand, there's that rather dishy waiter in the Italian - but no, you tell yourself, lets compromise and pig out in the Buffet Restaurant.

Or Japanese perhaps ?

And there's also that Mediterranean thing on Wednesday nights at the Garden View .....

Call us on 317 3012 and let us resolve our dining dilemma. Alternatively, spend the entire evening at the bar and discuss it over a bowl of nuts.

8 E 0 U L

Atklaitk • Bali • Batang Ai • Bangkok .Beijing • Brisbane • Cairns • Colombo • Guam • Jakarta .Kuala Lumpur • Kuching • Kyongju • Melbourne Nagaya • Osaka • Perth • Petaling Jaya • Shanghai • Singapore • Seoul • Sydney • Sydney Airport • Surabaya • Taipei • Tokyo • Tokyo Bay

BEAUTY OF KOREA

The Wine Stream at

P'os6kch6ng Pavilion

In Kyongju, the ancient capital of Shilla, there is a vivid reminder of the Shilla people's love for wine, poetry and the joys of a life of leisure and refinement. Located in a quiet bamboo grove not far from the slopes of historic Mt. Namsan is the site of P'osokchOng Pavilion, a retreat enjoyed by Shilla monarchs and their courtiers.

Today, the pavilion is gone, but a stone channel for floating wine cups, constructed more than 1,000 years ago, still remains. The site gets its name from the Chinese characters for abalone; the shape of the stone channel resembles the oval sea mollusk According to the writings of the Chinese calligrapher Wang Xi-zhi (307-365), in 354, on the third day of the third month, 42 sages gathered at the Lotus Pavilion (Lanting) on the northern slopes of Mt. Huijishan in the southwestern part of what is Zhejiang province today for a celebration of poetry and¡ wine. The sages built a twisting waterway on which they floated cups of wine.

The goal was to compose a poem before a wine cup

reached one's seat. Those who failed to compose a poem in time were ordered to drink three cups as a penalty. This game soon spread throughout China. Courtiers and aristocrats built similar"'wine streams in their gardens and enjoyed the company of.good friends, wine and poetry. Later the custom spread to the Shilla Kingdom.

Many of the Chinese wine streams were built in the shape of the Chinese character for country or wind, but Shilla's wine stream was modeled after an abalorie shell Some folklorists have noted that it also resembles the female genitalia, a hint of the folk worship of sex and sexual organs at that time. The width of the stream is uneven but it measures approximately 30 centimeters across, 20 centimeters deep and 22 meters long. According to a 1991 study by the Kyongju Cultural Research Institute, which actually filled the stream with water and floated wine cups, it takes approximately 10 minutes for a cup to float the entire course, more than enough time to compose a simple poem. •

KOREAN ART 8c CULTURE

Cover: The history of a

C

drinking culture is, in many way.s; the history of a people. This issue

0

N

of KOREANA focuses on Korea's traditional al-

T

coholic drinks and drinking customs. Featured on the cover is a

E N

T

10

traditional crockery pot still for distilling liquor.

4

History of Traditional Korean Alcoholic Drinks

s

by Lee Hyo-gee

Ten Best Traditional Korean Wines

by Yu Tae-jong

20 Korean Drinking Customs

by Choi Seung-beom

26 A Few Poems on Makkolli

by David R. McCann

30

Chumak: A Haven for Travelers ŠThe Korea Foundation 1996 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of The Korea Foundation.

The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of the editors of KOREANA or The Korea Foundation.

KOREANA, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Information (Registration No. Ba-1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in French, Spanish, Japanese and

by Bae Do-sik

38

Aesthetics of Antique Wine Bottles and Cups

by Choe Ha-rim

44 INTERVIEW

Yun Kwang-cho: Exploring Art and the Way in Punch'ong Stoneware

by Kim Young-uk

52 KOREAN HERITAGE

Chinese.

S6kkuram Grotto

by Kang U-bang

Korea Foundation

Vol. lO, No. 4 Winter 1996

60 ON THE ROAD

Namsan Ky6n~'s Where Art and Nature Meet

by Kim joo-young

68 KOREAN ARTIFACTS ABROAD

KOREAN A Published quarterly by The Korea Foundation 526 Namdaemunno 5-ga, Chung-gu, Seoul100-095, Korea PUBLISHER-EDITOR

One Man's Dream: Kory6 Art Museum

Kim Joungwon EDITOR-IN-cHIEF

Hong Soon-il

by Kim Kwang-on

ART DIRECTOR

72

Park Seung-u

KOREAN ARTISTS ABROAD

The Paintings of Nikolai Sergeevich Shin

by Choi Tae-man

ASSOCIATE EDITOR

Kim Yourrg-uk EDITORIAL BOARD

Kim Hyung-kook Kim Moon-hwan Lee Ku-yeol

78 DISCOVERING KOREA

Kim Kwang-on Kim Seong-wou Lim Young-bang

Korean Ginseng

by Nam Ki-yeul

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IN KOREAN UIERAIURE JOURNEYS

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¡ ~

Koryo Dynasty The brewing of grain wines was further diversified during the first half of the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392) to include makkolli and ch'ongju, whiCh is made by refining makkolli Alcoholic brews began to be made not only through a single fermentation process, for example, fermenting cooked rice with yeast and water as a one-time process, but also through multiple fermentations by adding a certain amount of cooked rice to the already fermented concoction to enhance the flavor and increase the alcohol content It was also during this period that specialty wines began to be produced by adding various herbs or fruits to the grain. Wines were produced and sold by temples because they often functioned as inns at the time. An office was established in the royal palace to produce wines for national ceremonies, including the royal ancestral rites held at the national shrine which required libations of rice wine.

Makkolli was also called t'akchu (turbid wine), pakchu (thin wine), or paekchu (white wine) for its appearance and consistency. Besides makkolli and ch'ongju, a distilled liquor called soju was introduced to Korea in 1277 through trade with the Mongols and Yuan Chinese.

In addition to soju, which was produced using a single distillation process, stronger liquors such as kamhongno, which required two distillations, were produced. Soju, which was also known as hongno, kiju, hwaju and aragilchu, the last a name alluding to its Arabian origin, quickly gained such tremendous popularity among the upper class that many squandered their wealth on it.

The government became so alarmed that it branded soju an extravagant commodity and banned it Most of the Korean liquors known today can trace the origin of their names back to the Koryo period. They were made mostly with rice and wheat or rice malt. One of the more memorable names introduced at the time was 6

Techniques for prcxlucing fermented alcoholic beverages with yeast or malt were well established by the late Three Kingdoms period Winemaking ¡techniques of Kogury6 were exported to China and led to the creation of Korean wines called kory6ju and kogaju.

Hongju of Chin do Island, a wine made from an indigenous red herb (above).

Alcohol is always present at weddings, funerals and other ceremonies as well as wherever the people ofa village gather. Officiants make an offering of food and makkom to the gods before the start of the Miryang Paekchung Nori, a traditional folk game (right).

ih waju (J'lear blossom wine), a variety of makkolli so named because it was brewed from rice with rice malt that had fermented during the pear blossom season.

More brewing and distilling techniques were introduced from Sung and Yuan China together with many new kinds of liquor during the latter part of the Koryo Dynasty. Mayuju (horse milk wine) came to be known in Korea

as a result of contacts with Mongols, whereas the grape wines from the Western world arrived through Yuan China. Chinese sangjonju and paekchu were favored by the privileged class.

Two distilling techniques were introduced to Korea. One originated in the Middle East or India and was brought to Korea by the Mongols during the early Koryo period, while the other, an original Mongol technique, was introduced

Pae Y ong-shin (above) has been designated an intangible cultural asset for keeping alive the 35(}year-old art of making kyodong pc)pchu, a liquor from Kyongju. A small table for alco-

hol is always placed before the altar of food offerings because offering libations is an important part of the memorial rites to ancestors (below).

to Korea after the Mongols established their Yuan China dynasty with which Koryo came into frequent contact. Both techniques soon became firmly established in Korea. Koreans even developed a new technique combining distillation with grain fermentation to produce noju made from a single distillation and hwalloju that required multiple distillations. Two major methods of alcohol production, grain fermentation

and distillation, were thus established during the Koryo period.

Choson Dynasty During the Chason Dynasty (13921910), most of the KoryO-era beverages continued to be produced with their production techniques being further refined. Plain rice was replaced with glutinous rice and multiple brewing came to be favored over single brewing.

The variety of wines increased, and distilled liquors, in particular, improved so much so that they were exported during the reign of King Sejong (r. 14181450).

Sejong encouraged comparative studies of Korean and Chinese medicinal herbs and included information on the distribution of herbs in the Geographical Description of the Eight Provinces (P'alto-chiriji) compiled in

1432 He also promoted the publication of medical works such as Emergency Prescriptions of Native Medicine . (Hyangyak-kukuppang, 1417) and Compilation of Native¡ Korean Prescriptions (Hyangyak -chipsongbang, 1433). These medical books had a great influence on the eating habits of the Korean people and contributed to a scientific approach to the Korean diet.

The ingredients for medicine and food were often of the same origin; medicinal herbs, for example, were used in the making of cakes, porridge and beverages, including alcoholic beverages.

All kinds of herbs were used in the making of wine. Ginseng wine was made with ginseng; a variety of pine wines used only pine needles, chrysanthemum leaves and pine needles, pine cones, pine sprouts, pine sap, young branches of pine or pine pollen, and even a "lying pine wine" that was stored for a certain time in a cavity made in a pine log; and a variety of bamboo wines made with the water in which bamboo leaves were boiled, bamboo oil, and stored in the hollow of bamboo stalks. Some wines used a single herb whereas others used a combination of many. In all, over 130 kinds of herbs were used to make more than 60 kinds of herbal wines.

Flowers were also added for fragrance. Wines enhanced with chrysanthemum, azalea, lotus, shepherd's purse, plum blossoms, rose, cherry blossoms, camellia or apricot blossoms were especially popular. The flowers were usually put in a cloth sack and soaked in a wine jar in a mixture of roughly one gallon of flowers to five gallons of wine.

Wines were also made with various fruits such as pomegranates, citrons, mandarin oranges, crab apples, grapes, walnuts and pine nuts.

In a Confucian society in which ancestral spirits were revered with the utmost formality, the making of wine needed for the libations made during the frequent memorial rites became a regular undertaking in every household.

Moreover, a housewife had to keep a 8

generous stock of wines for each season because good wine and good food were indicative of her family's status.

Wines of regional origins thrived during the late Choson period with each region's traditional winemaking techniques being introduced to other parts of the country. It was at this time that yaksanch'un of Seoul, hosanch'un of the Cholla-do provinces, nosanch'un of the Ch'ungch'ong-do provinces, pyokhyangju of the P'yong-an-do provinces and ch'ongmyongju of the Kl'1mch'on area became popular throughout the country.

A new brewing technique combining distillation and fermentation was also introduced during this period.

Representative of the spirits brewed using this process were kwahaju (summer wine), a mixture of soju and rice wine, and songsunju (pine ~prouts wine).

After the opening of Korea's ports to international trade toward the end of the Choson period, foreign liquors were imported in large quantities and quickly became popular with the upper class.

A mixture of yeast and other ingredientsattheheightoffermentation (top). Rice, yeast and other ingredients used in the making of alcohol (middle), and botdes containing the finished brew (bottom).

Japanese Colonial Period Japanese sake and beer were introduced to Korea after the two countries signed the Treaty of Kanghwa in 1876, which opened Korea's ports and made way for Japan's eventual colonization of Korea in 1910. In 1907, when Korea was a protectorate of Japan, the Japanese government proclaimed a, t;Ix on liquor, making it a major source of revenue. Homemade wines were banned and a brewery was aesignated in each village to produce taxed alcoholic beverages.

By 1930 traditional homemade wines had all but disappeared along with the secrets of brewing that had been passed down from generation to generation.

Public breweries, which felt the strain of heavy taxes, made little attempt to improve their products. In particular, no improvements were made in the traditional t'akchu, the main casualty of the flood of Japanese sake.

Post-Liberation Period After liberation in 1945, taxation of liquor continued in more or less the same form as during the colonial period except that molasses was substituted for grains in 1952. Beginning in 1962, sweet potatoes were used mainly to make soju.

Distilled soju was banned in 1965 and was replaced with diluted soju. Tapioca began to be imported in 1974 for making alcohol In the 1970s, Korean companies began the large-scale production of Western liquors such as grape wine, whiskey, brandy, gin, vodka and rum; domestic beer had a head start, beginning in 1934 when the Japanese Kirin and Sapporo breweries established breweries in Korea.

In the meantime, the quality of traditional wines deteriorated because the use of rice for making wine was prohibited. Wines had to be made with

Various traditional liquors which are now commercially available (top).

Each one is made according to an old recipe. The famous kodong piJpchu from Kyongju (above).

flour and other materials due to the chronic shortage of rice, Korea's main staple, which was largely imported.

The ban on rice wine was lifted in 1971 and rice makkolli began to be produced' again.

In 1985, the government designated as cultural assets many traditional wines: soju distilled in Andong, hongju made in Chiodo, kwahaju produced in Kimch 'on, igangju made in Iri, solch61chu produced in Seoul, songsunju made in Kimje, sogokchu brewed in Hansan, tongdongju brewed in Kyonggi-do, and ch'6ngmy6ngju made in Chungwon. In 1994, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries designated experts in the making of the paegilchu of Songhwa and Kyeryong and insamju and the ok'yangju of Ki:imsan as "masters of traditional wines" in an effort to preserve and promote traditional Korean wines. + 9

Ten _Best Traditional Yu Tae-jong Professor of Food Science Keonyang University

orean liquor and wine are rich in the fragrance and flavors of traditional culture.

The azalea wi'ne of MyOnch'on, thick, flavorful nongju, the crystal-clear soju from Andong, sogokchufrom Hansan, smooth rice makkolli-they are all part of Korea's epicurean cuHure, slowly being forgotten in the busUe of modem society.

In traditional society, alcoholic beverages were made_at home, using seasonal grains,

K

¡ ~

10

flowers and herbs, and served at family ancestral rituals and when guests visited. From ancient times, Koreans also enjoyed a cup of wine with their meal.

The distillation or brewing of wine and alcoholic beverages continued to develop through the Chos6n period. Today gourmands estimate that there are some 50 different traditional alcoholic drinks. Here Professor Yu Taejong introduces ten of Korea's favorites. -Ed.

Makkolli Korea's oldest and most popular alcoholic beverage is makolli. It is usually referred to as nongju, or farmer's wine, but farmers are not the only ones who have enjoyed it.

During the Koryo Dynasty (9181392), it was called ihwaju, meaning pear blossom wine, because the nuruk, the malt or yeast used to start rhe fermentation process, was made during pear blossom time. It was also known as t'akchu, or turbid wine, because the thick liquid which resulted from the fermentation of the nuruk, water and steamed rice was not filtered prior to bottling.

The milky wine has a rather low alcohol content of 6 to 8 percent and a somewhat sour yet refreshing taste because it is still in the process of fermenting. It also contains a good amount of carbon dioxide gas, due to the ong oing fermentation, which adds to its thir.st-quenching quality. For this reason, makkolli was an important part of Korean life; it was enjoyed by people when they relaxed after a day's hard work or when they celebrated and comforted one another on special occasions such as weddings and funerals.

Makkolli contains a good amount of rice protein, 1.9 percent, as well as vitamins Bl, B2 and other B complexes such as inositol and choline. It has about 0.8 percent organic acid, which contributes to its sour taste and thirstquenching properties and increases a person's metabolism. Many Koreans who live to a healthy old age are makkolli drinkers.

Korean Wines AndongSoju The soju from Andong, Kyongsangbuk-do, is a distilled liquor produced from fermented nuruk, steamed rice and water. It is said that Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, created this liquor during his stay in Andong, while preparing to invade Japan. Andong was known for its good water, which no doubt contributed to the highly-reputed quality of soju. Soju was a very valuable commodity in olden times, and records show that it was used for medicinal purposes as well. Even today in the Andong area, it is used to treat injuries and various digestive problems

as well as to improve one's appetite.

Soju has a high alcohol content of 45 percent, as it is aged in a storage tank for more than 100 days after fermenting for 20 days. Despite its potency, it is known for its smooth taste and rich flavor.

The traditional maturation method was to store the distilled liquor in a jar placed underground in a cave with a temperature of under 15 degrees Celsius for 100 days, during which time it would be periodically opened and the froth skimmed off the top of the brew with a soft cloth or a sieve. According to the Kory6sa (History of Kory6),

while stationed in Andong, Koryo's General Kim Chin enjoyed drinking soju so much that he gained the nickname "soju disciple," as he neglected his duties because of drinking.

In the Andong area, almost every household used to make soju of its own in order to serve guests and for funerals and weddings, but this practice was all but stopped du~ing the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945).

Only recently has soju worthy of its old reputation begun to be produced again using scientific methods of brewing, distillation and temperature control. ~ ~

e:

Cho Ok-hwa, who has been designated an intangible cultural asset in the art of making Andong soju, stirs up nuruk (left). A bottle of An dong soju (below).

11

Insamju of Kiimsan

The insamju, ginseng wine, of Kumsan and information about its . brewing method and beneficial effects are mentioned frequently tn publications from the Choson Dynasty (13921910), notably Imwon shimnyuk-chi (Sixteen Treatises Written in Retirement, 1827) by So Yu-gu and Poncho kangmok(Encyclopedia of Herbs). Kumsan, a ginseng production center, has long been known for its superior ginseng with its firm flesh and high saponin content. (Saponin is the primary substance responsible for ginseng's medicinal benefits.)

Korean ginseng has been acclaimed as a multipurpose remedy for hundreds of years and its medicinal efficacy related to a wide range of health concerns has been scientifically proven.

It helps relieve stress, fatigue and depression, and is effective in treating heart disease, high blood pressure, hardening of the arteries, anemia, diabetes and ulcers. It also induces lustrous skin by preventing dryness. In addition, some medical reports suggest that ginseng can work as a cancer suppressant.

Many ancient records indicate that ginseng wine was first developed during the Paekche period (18 B.C.- A.D. 660). Kumsan ginseng wine is made using a unique method. The nuruk is first made by mixing wheat and ginseng. Once the nuruk is ready, tiny ginseng roots, rice and water are added to it to make the wine starter. This is then fermented with a mixture of steamed rice, tiny ginseng roots, pine leaves and mugwort. It takes about 10 days to make the wine starter, 60 days to ferment and 30 days to age. In other words, the whole process takes about 100 days, and the longer the brew matures, the more flavorful it becomes.

The failure rate is low thanks to the ginseng nuruk, which is ideal for the proliferation of needed microbes.

The¡ wine has a unique flavor that comes from the blending of the pine leaves, mugwort and ginseng. It has been traditionally believed that drinking a certain amount of ginseng wine strengthens the body.

The ginseng wine of Kumsan is completely different from the liqueurtype drink made by immersing ginseng in alcohol. The latter is visually appealing, but lacks taste, not having undergone the fermentation process.

Sogokchu of Hansan

Kiimsan insamju from Kiimsan in

Ch'ungch'ongnam-do (above). Kbn y ong-shin, who has been designated an intangible cultural asset for the making ofHansan sogokchu, examines a mixture of nuruk and other ingredients (right).

12

Sogokchu is believed to have been produced in Hansan, Ch'ungchOngnamdo, since the Paekche period. Many connoisseurs claim that it is one of Korea's representative wines. The water for making the wine is drawn from a well in Poam-ri, Hansan-myo,L Only a small amount of nuruk is added to a mixture of regular rice and glutinous rice to make the wine, which is why it is called sogokchu, "small grain wine." Some brewers use malt, and others add ginger, wild chrysanthemums and peppers. There are two types of sogokchu: one takes seven to eight days to prepare and can be made anytime throughout the year, whereas the other variety is begun in February and completed in May or June.

A dose-up of fermented rice and nuruk (left). Nuruk is wrapped in a doth for

kneading (right).

This is a clear wine with a clean taste. It is also called the "sitters wine" because once upon a time, a scholar traveling to Seoul to sit for a national examination for coveted government positions stopped at a tavern in Hansan for a drink and enjoyed the sogokchu so much that he missed the examination altogether. There is another tale about a thief who in the midst of a burglary stopped to taste some sogokchu. He enjoyed it so much that he kept on drinking and was finally caught still sitting there. Yet another tale tells about a guest who liked the sogokchu his host served so much that he could not bring himself to leave, so there he remained seated.

Sogokchu has an alcohol content of 15 to 16 percent. The proportion of rice, nuruk and wheat flour is 10:1:1.

The rice is washed, ground, cooked into porridge and fermented for seven days at a low temperature to make the nuruk. Then rice, twice the amount of the nuruk, is either steamed or cooked into porridge and added to the nuruk.

This mixture is then allowed to ferment for about three weeks at a low temperature.

Kamhongno Kamhongno is a purplish pink wine from the northwestern region around P'y6ngyang. Its basic ingredients are rice, millet, sorghum and malt, to which herbs used in traditional medicine are added, such as perilla, Iongan, dried orange peel, cinnamon, dried clove buds and ginger. It is fermented, distilled three times and allowed to

mature for 120 days. It has an alcohol content of 41 percent, although a new variety with only 21 percent alcohol is being developed. In Jm won shimnyuk-chi, it is recorded that kamhongno is like red dew and the best of all wines. Also it is noted in Tongguk seshigi (Compendium of Seasonal Customs in Korea, 1805) that kamhongno was one of three notable wines along with pyokhyang)u of P'y6ngyang and samhaeju of Hanyang, today's Seoul.

Kamhongno is made by soaking millet, which accounts for 30 percent of the total ingredients, !n water and then steaming it. A watery nuruk is obtained from the millet, to which steamed sorghum, rice and water are mixed in and allowed to ferment.

After eight days, the mixture is placed in a pot still for distillation. The herbal ingredients, which are wrapped in silk, are either placed in the mixture during fermentation or are added during the distillation process. After the third distillation, the liquor is placed in a jar to mature.

The blending of the rice,-millet and sorghum together with the perilla and Iongan extracts creates an excellent taste and color. The overall preparation is very complicated and calls for painstaking attention. The resulting drink is believed to promote urination, cleanse the blood and cure frostbite and boils. People who drink it say that it does not cause hangovers or the cotton mouth, headache or stomachache associated with excessive drinking.

13

Munbaeju During the Koryo Dynasty, it was not unusual for a person to present a local specialty such as wine to the king to obtain a government appointment, and it is said that the family that first developed munbaeju did just that The family kept its winemaking process a secret and made the wine exclusively for the king. The recipe has been handed down for generations in that family, and it has been designated in recent years an important intangible cultural asset by the government Munbaeju is made by fermenting nuruk, millet and sorghum, distilling the mixture in a pot stilL and allowing the distilled liquid to mature for six months to a year. It has the flavor and fragrance of native pear blossoms, from which its name is derived, although pears are not actually used in its making. Although munbaeju is similar to the Chinese spirits kaoliang and maotai, it does not have the strong alcohol smell and flavor associated with these and other spirits. Munbaeju is made by fermenting a mixture of nuruk and cooled steamed millet (about 25 degrees Celsius) for about eight hours in a cloth wrapper. It is then mixed with water to make a watery nuruk. After two days, cooled steamed sorghum is added to it, and after a day, the same amount of sorghum obtained through the same method is added and the mixture is left to ferment After ten days, a 16-proof spirit is obtained, which is then distilled in a pot still and allowed to mature in a storage jar. The final liquor has an alcohol content of over 40 percent

Igangju Igangju is a high-class distilled liquor that has been made in the Cholla-do and Hwanghae-do provinces since the midChoson Dynasty and is noted in such publications as Tongguk seshigi and Imwon shimnyuk-chi Igang means pear and ginger, the liquor's main ingredients Cho ChOng-hyong has been designated an intangible cultural asset of ChOllabuk-do province for his skill in making igangju. His recipe has been 14

~

handed down in his family for six generations. c~ To make igangju, the juice of five pears is mixed with the extracts of 20 grams of ginger, 3.75 grams of cinnamon and 7.5 grams of turmeric. The mixture is added to 18 liters of 30 percent soju, which is then sweetened with honey.

The soju must be the type distilled from fermented liquor, not the diluted variety, because the latter does not mix well with ginger. The ginger, cinnamon and turmeric extracts are obtained by soaking each in a 48 percent soju for 30 days.

Everything is mixed together and then filtered. It is stored more than a month to mature.

Ginger was grown extensively around ChOnju, ChOllabuk-do, which The late Yi Kyong-chan (above) was may be one of the reasons igangju designated an intangible cultural asset developed in the region. In making in the art of makingmunbaeju which igangju in the past, peeled pe~rs were had been passed down in his family grated on roof tiles and filtered through since the Koryo Dynasty. Iganju, a disa soft cloth to obtain the pear juice, tilled liquor that was enjoyed by the which was then mixed with ginger upper class during the Chosi5n Dynasty extrac~ similarly obtained, and honey, (below) and a traditional jar for distilladded to a bottle of soju, and placed in ing Andong soju (right). boiling water. In .Chason chujosa (History of Winemaking in Chason), fii published in 1935, igangju is described as $ a sweet, pale brown alcoholic drink, <3 mainly catering to high-class tastes.

The harmonious blending of the flavorful soju, spicy ginger, fragrant turmeric and cinnamon and the fresh taste of the pear juice ¡gives a subtle aroma to this lemon-yellow drink.

Turmeric, used for making curry, is an ingredient used in herbal medicine for treating mental and nervous conditions.

Cho Chong-hyong, the maker of this wine, says that turmeric contributes to the unique characteristic of this liquorno headache after drinking. Compared with regular soju, igangju goes down smoothly. It is recorded that trade representatives from the United States drank this wine during the reign of Choson's King Kojong (1864-1907), and the South Korean representatives took 200 bottles of this liquor when they visited P'yongyang for a general assembly of the Inter-Parliamentary Union in 1991. ~

Paegilchu of Kyeryong Paegilchu is a popular traditional wine in the Ch'ungchOng-do, Cholla-do and Kyongsang-do provinces in southern Korea. It is also ~ know as shins6nju, "wine of the immortals."

The recipe for this wine was supposedly given to Yi Ch'ungjonggong, a high-ranking civil servant, by King Injo (r. 1623-1649), the 16th king of the Choson Dynasty. The wine recipe was handed down in the Yi family as a brew for ceremonies. Now, after fourteen generations, it is kept alive by Chi Pok-nam, the wife of Yi Hwang, a descendant of Yi Ch'ungjOnggong. Chi was designated an intangible cultural asset by the Ch'ungchongnam-do provincial government and as a brewing expert by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

The main ingredients of paegilchu are glutinous rice and whole wheat, to

which other minor ingredients are added such as chrysanthemum , schisandra chinensis fruit, azalea flowers, safflower and pine leaves. These plants are cultivated by the wine maker herself, and the chrysanthemum is a native variety.

The most important ingredient for making good wine is good water. Chi uses only water drawn from a well on the backhill of KongjOng-dong, Kongju, which never runs dry even in times of drought. The quality of the water is excellent for winemaking.

Paegilchu has an alcohol content of 16 to 18 percent, and is well known for its smooth taste and aroma. In the old days, the first lunar month was considered the best time to brew paegilchu, but now that temperature can be easily controlled, it is brewed year-round.

The fermented substance is distilled to obtain a 40 proof spirit.

Intangible cultural asset Chi Pok-nam (opposite) mixes various ingredients such as crysanthem um petals, pine needles and safflower with rice (right and above) to make paegilchu (top), a traditional liquor famed for its color, scent and taste. Chi stores wine on a terrace like other people store soy sauce and bean paste (left).

16

Azalea Wine (Tugyonju) According to Imwon shimnyuk-chi, the wines made with flower petals and other aromatic materials are listed as aromatic wines. For aroma, medicinal herbs or other herbs are added to grain wine. Depending on the additional ingredients, they are called pine shoot wine, pine leaf wine or ginseng wine.

This sort of wine has been mentioned in written records since the Koryo Dynasty.

During the Koryo Dynasty, the most representative of this variety of alcoholic beverage was flower wine, including chrysanthemum wine, peach flower wine, pine pollen wine and azalea wine. Of them, azalea wine, tugy6nju, is the most frequently mentioned.

Azalea wine made in Myonch'on, Tangjin-gun, Ch'ungch6ngnam-do, is the most famous of all. The starter for

Korea's oldest and most popular alcoholic beverage is makk61li. It is usually referred to as nongju, or farmer's wine, but farmers are not the only ones who have enjoyed it.

Tugyonju from Myonchon, Ch'ungch'ongnam-do(above)ismade by adding azalea flowers and rice to the wine starter (upper right and right). Dried azalea petals, dried wolfberries and a storage vessel (far right, clockwise from top).

18

making it is made by adding boiled water to washed, powdered rice on the first Pig Day of the first lunar month.

The mixture is stirred well and left overnight to cool. Powdered nuruk and wheat flour are blended into the mixture. In advance, the nuruk powder is sifted through a silk-thread sieve and placed outside to gather dew.

Azalea flowers, their stamens removed, are added to the starter along with either steamed regular rice or steamed glutinous rice. The flower petals and the rice are not mixed together, but alternated in layers. Another method is to place a silk purse of dried azaleas in the wine when it has fermented for over a month. The winemaking process takes more than 100 days. The azaleas give the wine a lovely color and aroma. The alcohol content of the wine is over 18 percent.

In My6nch6n, there is a legend con-

cerning this wine and Pok Chi-gyong, a prominent figure in the founding of the Koryo Dynasty, who lived there.

Once Pok fell ill, no medicine could help him. His daughter, Yang-nan, climbed Mt. Amisan to offer a 100-day prayer for her father. On the last day of her prayer, a god appeared in her dream and told her to make wine with well water, azalea flowers and sticky rice, and after 100 days to give it to her father regularly for an extended period. She did so and Pok recovered. The god also told her to plant a gingko tree.

The gingko tree and the well from which the water was drawn for making the wine still exist.

Kugijaju (Wolfberry Wine) Once upon a time, according to a legend, a passerby saw a young woman whipping a white-haired man who looked more than 80 years old.

When the stranger asked the woman why she was beating the man, she said the old man was her son, but he looked much older because he had not drunk kugijaju, a liquor made with wolfberries. She was 395 years old.

The passerby returned home, made the wolfberry wine and drank it himself. He did not grow old even after 300 years.

The ingredients of this wine are nuruk, rice, malt, water and wolfberry including its berries, roots and leaves.

The mixture is stored in a cave for five to seven days for fermentation.

When the wine is ready, it is filtered through a bamboo strainer. Kugijaju is a clear yellowish brown. It is a bit sticky, with a rich aroma and refreshing taste. The alcohol content is about 16 percent, which makes storing it for a long time difficult. It can be stored for ~bout a month at 15 degrees

Celsius, and in a cooler cave or in a refrigerator, it lasts longer. If it is stored in a clay jar, it maintains its original taste better, and if it is warmed before serving, it tastes much smoother.

According to ancient documents, wolfberries are good regardless of one's constitution. The wolfberry has been traditionally touted as a miracle longevity drug. In Tongui pogam (Exemplar of Korean Medicine, 1613), it is noted that wolfberry has no toxicity and is good for strengthening bones and muscles as well as relieving fatigue and increasing energy. It is also known for being a good medicine for stomach, liver and heart troubles. Its components include rutin that strengthens capillaries, betaine that normalizes liver functions as well as essential fatty and amino aci~s , vitamin B and vitamin C. +

19

Korean

Drinking Customs Throughout history and everywhere in the world, opinions ahout alcohol have been mixed. Some call it the best of all medicines, while others claim it is the worst of all poisons.

Choi Seung-beom Professor of Korean Literature Chonbuk National University

o one can be sure when the drinking of alcoholic beverages began in Korea. There is no accurate record about the introduction or discovery of alcohol in Korea. However, Chinese historical documents tell of the Korean people enjoying alcohol before the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-AD. 7th century) of Shilla, Paekche and Kogury6. Alcohol was an essential part of life, consumed during rites honoring the heavens, when planting or harvesting was completed, or when families celebrated special occasions.

They drank, they sang and they danced.

This was true throughout the Korean peninsula, in the north and south.

Historical records indicate that the people in the northern part of Korea drank first, then reveled in singing and dancing. In the south, singing, then dancing were said to precede drinking.

Who knows if this order was actually followed, but clearly when people drink, they get in the mood for singing and dancing. No doubt early Koreans drank to better enjoy themselves.

Certainly the origins of Korean literature, music and dance, indeed all art

N

forms, shared a common thread related to the consumption of alcohol. Wine figured prominently in the Song of Confucian Scholars (Hallim py6lgok), a

late Koryo (1216) poem with lyrics telling of the escapades of gentlemenscholars affiliated with the Hallim, an academy of letters. A variety of wines is mentioned: "golden" wine, pinenut wine, "sweet" wine, wine made from water filtered though bamboo leaves, pear blossom wine, wine made of the bark of roots, and so on. The poem tells of the gentlemen filling elegant cups and drinking in turn according to their age.

Yi Kyu-bo (1168-1241), a renowned Koryo poet and contemporary of these gentlemen, was fond of drinking. He loved poetry, the k6mun-go (six-string zither) and wine so much that he, and others, called himself "Mr. Three Pleasures.", Poetry, music and wine were both temptations and means of expression for Yi There is hardly room here to tell of all the Korean poets and artists who enjoyed drinking. Therefore this article will focus on the role of wine in everyday life.

Throughout history and everywhere in the world, opinions about . alcohol have been mixed. Some call it the best of all medicines, while others claim it is the worst of all poisons. Both points of view actually say more about the drinker than the drink itself. The manner in which one drinks has much to do with determining alcohol's positive and negative effects. Wine can be medicinaL but it can also be harmful if not consumed in moderation.

Ho Chun, a famous practitioner of Korean medicine in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, noted the following in his" Exemplar of Korean Medicine (Tongui pogam, 1610): Alcohol is good for circulation. It helps gastric function, adds luster to the skin, reduces anxiety, and diffuses anger. It has a fierce character, however, and when imbibed in excess can cause yellowing of the liver and deterioration of the gall bladder. When drinking, men rage like heroes, but they regret their actions when they wake up the next morning. If one overdrinks, the liquor's poison gradually rots the heart,

Yi ln-mun's Gathering of Friends (1829)showsagroup of men meeting at a mountain villa to drink and enjoy the wonders of nature.

20

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As Ho suggests, the man¡ner of the drinker and the amount he drinks determine which side of alcohol's dual character manifests itself. Each person has his own capacity for drink Some people can drink a lot; others hardly a thimbleful. Still, no one is immune to the effects of alcohol. As the old saying goes: "The person drinks the first cup of wine, the wine drinks the second cup of wine, and with the third cup, the wine drinks the person!'

Grading of Drinkers About 40 years ago the poet Cho Chihun (1920-1%8) published an essay entitled "A Ranking System for Drinking," in which he established 18 ranks for alcoholic consumption. His system has been frequently invoked by Korean drinkers ever since.

The first rank is reserved for people who, while able to drink, choose not to do so. The second refers to people who drink but are afraid of alcohol. Third are those people who can drink, are not afraid of drinking but are leery about getting drunk Fourth are those who know how to drink, are not afraid to drink and will get drunk, but only by themselves because they do not like paying for other people's drinks. Fifth are mercenary drinkers who like to drink but only buy drinks for others when it serves their purposes. Sixth are those who drink to improve their sex lives. Seventh are those who drink because they cannot sleep. Eighth are gourmands who drink to whet their appetite.

Cho further ranked grades one through eight as go players are ranked.

Grade eight drinkers were given second class ranking, grade seven was the equivalent to third class in go, grade one was ninth class, and anyone lower than that might as well be a member of the temperance league.

Cho dubbed grade nine drinkers 22

"student drinkers" who were learning the true nature of wine. Tenth grade was for lovers of the true taste of alcoholic beverages. Eleventh was for those completely enamored with drink Twelfth were masters of wine.

Thirteenth were wine-lovers who had attained a complete grasp of drinking etiquette and customs. Fourteenth were known as "sons of Bacchus." Fifteenth were scrooges who rarely shared their alcohol or emotions with others.

Sixteenth were otherworldly drinkers who could drink and did drink, unbounded by cares of the mundane world. Seventeenth were those who enjoyed seeing others drink but could no longer drink themselves. Eighteenth were "Nirvana drinkers" who had passed onto another drinking world because of their drinking.

The latter nine grades refer to drinkers who, in Cho's view, have achieved "enlightenment" in that they understand the true nature of alcohol and are able to act according to their own will. Grade nine would correspond to the first class for go, drinkers in the tenth grade approach an understanding of the ways of drinking and drinkers in each higher grade have achieved a higher level of understanding, until the eighteenth grade, which corresponds to the master grade in the game of go. Anyone surpassing these standards is superhuman and beyond Cho's, or anyone else's, categories.

Everyone who likes to drink should consider what class or grade they fall into. However, according to an old saying: "If you drink wine like water, you're not worth the price of the wine!' No matter how much one loves to drink, life is not something to be idled away in a drunken stupor. If one is going to drink, it is imperative that he understand the correct way to drink It is no coincidence that the Korean term chudo, or drinking etiquette, contains the word do, or teachings.

Lin Yu-tang, the Chinese writer renowned for his book The Importance of Living (1937), once described how

drinking customs should change with the setting and season.

When drinking at formal occasions, one must drink in a slow and leisurely manner. When drinking in a familiar environment, one must drink vigorously but in a dignified manner. Sickly people should drink only small quantities, while it is imperative that those with sadness in their hearts drink themselves senseless. In spring, drink in the garden. In summer, leave the city and drink in the suburbs. In autumn, drink aboard a ship, and in winter drink at home. When drinking at nigh~ take the moon as your drinking companion.

I wonder where Lin would rank on Cho Chi-hun's drinking scale . . I have seen Lin smoking a pipe, but never drinking , so I cannot say for sure, though I imagine he would be at least a 10 or 11 on Cho's scale.

Drinking Rules My own acquaintance with alcohol is now in its 40th year, but I have never achieved the heights of Pyon Yong-no (1892-1961), the poet who wrote the famous Forty Years of Drunkenness (1953), and therefore cannot compare my philosophy of drinking to his. Still, I have found my drinking rules to be useful and take the liberty of introducing them.

- Take care to use the appropriate glass for each drink Sake dnink from a glass made for whiskey tastes bland, and drinking Korean soju from a beer glass is improper.

- Fill the glass or cup four-fifths full.

People often say that a cup must be filled to the brim, but an overflowing drink wastes precious alcohol and can intimidate the drinker.

- Do not finish a drink in a single gulp. Take at least three swallows to finish. This is true of all drinks, whether whiskey, sake or makk6lli. When drink-

ing beer, an exception can be made for the first glass, but after that, there can be no more exceptions. After each sip, place the glass on the table and pick at an appetizer or converse with Others.

- Do not drink during the daytime.

Not even a glass of beer. Unless one wants to sleep the afternoon away, daytime drinking should be forbidden.

- Regardless of the season, never drink before sunset. I agree with those who say that alcoholic beverages do not taste their best during the daylight hours. But what about summer when the days are long? No matter. Whatever the season, one must wait until dusk for drink to taste its best.

- Never drink on an empty stomach. Even beer requires some snacks or appetizers on the side. Three different kinds of snacks are good. Whether it is whiskey, soju or sake, even the toughest physique needs something to soak up the alcohol, even if it is only kimchi - When drinking, two is definitely not enough company. You have to invite a third person, even your girlfriend, to have a good drinking party. It is not enough to have only two people talking back and forth while drinking.

- When drinking in a bar or beer hall, one must be careful not to listen to the conversations of other drinkers.

And one must never exchange glasses with other parties. The spirit of conversation is a beautiful thing, but if one is not careful, small disagreements can escalate into big arguments.

- One should avoid the custom of going to a second and then third drinking venue, the Korean tradition of ich'a and samch'a. Mixing different types of drink or alcohol strength doubles the effect of the liquor.

A friend of mine ridicules my drinking rules, saying that the whole idea makes him lose his appetite for drink He says, "If I followed your rules, I'd never experience the true joys of drinking." People may accuse me of never "graduating" from Cho Chi-hun's "student drinker" category, but this is

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A painting of an aristocrat entertaining guests with wine and music by Kim Hong-do

23

Wine has been part of people's life since ancient times. . It has made humanity feel closer to its deities and individuals closer to one another.

how I have imbibed in the past and how I will continue to enjoy my drink.

I have my rules and I plan on obeying them for the rest of my life.

P'ungnyu: Art of Drinking Koreans often talk about p'ungnyu when discussing the "art" of drinking.

What is p'ungnyu? There is not enough space here for a detailed explanation, but in short p'ungnyu can be likened to the feeling of fresh wind and clear water.

In "The Fishermen's Song," an anonymous Koryo Dynasty poet writes this line that offers some insight into the meaning of p'ungnyu: "As far as one can see, the mountain is illuminated by moonbeams. So why do we need [a beautiful woman] on our boat? This is p'ungnyu enough for us."

Must one have song, dance and women to have p'ungnyu? The dictionary defines p'ungnyu as "the rejection of the common or vulgar in favor of tasteful, elegant enjoyment." Of course, song, dance and women are sure to liven up any drinking party, but one should remember the devotion of one's ancestors to p'ungnyu to prevent such parties from descending into the vulgar.

In an essay, the 17th-century poet Shin Hum (1566-1628) once noted the delicate balancing act between good taste and vulgarity at the drinking table.

24

Yi Kyong-yun's A Gendeman Taking a Nap shows a man resting beside wine botdes (top); this painting by an anonymous artist shows an aristocrat on his way to a drinkingpartyatascenicspotin theforest(above).

A drinking party can turn into a drinking hell if human greed is allowed to take over. While entertain. ing a guest is acceptable, one must be careful not to let the party ve er toward a greedy or lustful direction for the intersection between happiness and tragedy lies in the realm of human greed.

Consider the following drinking party to which a lady was invited. The 16th century poet Im Che (1549-1587) once sat down to drink with the famous P'yongyang kisaeng Han-u (literally "Cold Rain"). After exchanging several cups of wine, Im passed a cup to Han-u and recited a poem using a pun to invoke the literal meaning of her name.

The northern sky clear I left home without my raincoat Snow came to the mountains and a cold rain to the fields.

Drenched by cold rain it looks like rJJ freeze in bed tonight Im Che's poem was an attempt to enhance the atmosphere of their drinking party. Han-u must have known this for she poured 1m another cup of wine and sang a song in which she continues the pun.

Freeze? Freeze? Why should you freeze?

Where have you left your nuptial pillow and quilt?

Drenched in cold rain you will melt in bed tonight Here it is not a question of whether the two were really attracted to each other or not It is simply an example of the p'ungnyu of drinking.

In the history of Korean literature, ChOng Ch'ol (1536-1593), a renowned poet of the mid-Chos6n era, was probably the most prolific writer of drinking poems.

If a friend had good wine at his house, Chong went right over to enjoy it

Yesterday I heard that farmer SOng

from over the hill had new wine.

I kicked the ox to its fe~ threw on a saddle-blanket and rode up here.

Boy, is your master home?

Tell him ChOng Ch'6l has come to visit (Translated by Kevin ORourke)

Sharing the pleasures of drink was part of the traditional Korean concept of p'ungnyu. Only a vulgar cad would hoard good liquor for himself at home.

My friend, if you have some wine at home be sure to invite me.

When the flowers at my house ¡ bloom I wlJJ call you.

Let's discuss ways of forgetting ti?_e worries of one hundred years.

This old shijo recalls the custom of sharing a bottle of wine and the experience of a beautiful pear blossom or orchid with a friend. Chong Ch'ol's Changjinju-sa (A Time to Drink) is an excellent example of poetry singing the praises of flowers and wine.

There is an interesting story regarding Shin Yong-gae (1463-1519) and drinking. Apparently Shin loved drinking so much that when his friends were gone and he had no one to drink with he would sit down across from a pot of chrysanthemums and lift his glass to the flowers. Gazing up at the moon he would say, "One cup for you, one cup for me." After emptying his cup, he poured a cup for the chrysanthemum.

"A cup f0r you, my dear, then another cup for me." And so on, until he slumped down next to the flower pot and fell asleep. The scene exemplifies the essence of p'ungnyu.

ChOng Ch'ol wrote a poem that was really a dialogue with wine. In it, he sings to wine and wine responds with its own song. Certainly only a wine-loving poet would write this way. ChOng was truly a model of traditional

p'ungnyu. He also wrote an essay entitled "A Warning About Wine."

I enjoy wine for four reasons: for washing away discontent, for recreation, for the entertainment of guests and because it is difficult to refuse wine when offered. When discontent is my reason for drinking, one could say it is a matter of fate.

When I drink for recreation, it is much like whistling. When I drink to entertain visitors, you could say I do it with a sincere heart But when my mind is made up, it is better that I not be shaken by the words of others, even if wine is urged upon me.

At the beginning of ChOng's essay, he warns of the hazards of wine but the conclusion is clear: he cannot ~ive up drinking. This observation never could have been made by someone who did not understand the true nature of wine.

I think it was Charles Baudelaire who said the following: Wine and man are like two comrad~ly warriors who fight and reconcile endlessly. The loser always embraces the victor.

Wine has been part of people's life since ancient times. It has made humanity feel closer to its deities and individuals closer to one another. The warm feelings that bind people are not something that can be turned on and off as one pleases. No one can simply decide to stop drinking the wine they have loved. Like the old proverb-"A pan that heats easily cools just as easily" one must learn to drink at the knee of respected elders if one is to drink responsibly in adulthood (In Korea, periodic ancestral memorial rites provide a natural opportunity to sample wine.) And one must never force wine upon someone who does not want to drink.

Modern life is hectic, but when drinking one should remember p'ungnyu and the wisdom of one's elders, savoring the taste of the drink and the atmosphere with a relaxed and unhurried mind. + 25

A Few Poems on

Makk6lli David R. McCann Professor of Korean Literature Cornell University

first encountered makk61li during the two years I spent in Andong, Kyongsangnam-do province. One of the teachers at Andong Agriculture and Forestry High School, where I was teaching English conversation, had moved to a new house, and was having a housewarming party. Everyone was invited for Friday evening.

The day came, and two of the teachers came by my boarding house to take me to the event. A short walk,

I

26

and we entered the small gate to the front of the yard, took off our shoes as we climbed up to the porch, and then entered the room. Lots of wonderful things to eat, including beans that I learned to pick up, one by one, with chopsticks. Soon, someone poured a small metal bowl full of a milky liquid, and reached it across the table for me to drink. I asked, "What is this?"

"Makkolli," he replied. "Go ahead and drink. Try it."

I brought the bowl to my lips and

drank. I still remember my first impression, now some 30 years ago: milk with chalk ground up in it! Another taste, to be polite, and the chalky taste was gone. There was something amazingly tasty about it, telling me about the water and rice and dark rooms where big jars full of the brewing rice wine sat for a few days in the summer when fermentation was rapid; q. week or more in cooler weather.

Several years later, my wife and daughter and I returned to Korea, and

spent two years in Seoul. It was the early 1970s, and the government was being careful about rice consumption. .There were rumors that the smaller portions in the restaurants aii.d homes, just a handful of rice, it seemed, compared to the magnificent great bowls I had consumed in Andong, were the result of the government plans to export rice. And the makkolli! It was terrible, brewed up from who-knowswhat combination of chemicals and strange grains. I feared that I would never taste a cool, delicious bowl of it again.

Near the end of our stay, some friends in Taegu invited us to come down and attend a ceremony to relocate the family burial mounds. The Korean army had evidently appropriated the original burial site, and there was to be a large and solemn ceremony to resettle the ancestors remains.

We had to take a small bus to get out to the village and then walk for a

good distance to the tomb site. It was a cold, late-fall day. The women were preparing the food, the offerings, and attending to the other arrangements down in the valley, while up on the side of the hill, in the sun, a group of the older men were gathered around a table. Our friend's younger brother came up and told me the grandfathers wanted me to come over and talk. I was a bit nervous about that idea, but I said I would join them soon. Twenty minutes later he was back. Come over now, he said, so I went.

I had learned how to sit in the presence of older people, and how to speak with honorific verbs, and in general how to act in a deferential way.

One of the gentlemen asked where I was from; another, how old was I; a third poured something into a bowl and held it out, saying, "Do you know makkolli? Drinkf' I declined once, and he said, "Go on, drink" Again and again he urged me to drink. I took the cup

with both hands and turned slightly to the side, preparing to take just a small taste and set it down, as I should. But as the bowl came up to my lips and the first taste of the makkolli reached my mouth, the smell rose to my nostrils, I tilted my head back and drained the bowl. I sat there for a moment, appalled at what I had done, until one of the old gentlemen poked the man beside him in the ribs and said, "Ha! He knows how to drink makkolli all right."

Now it is possible to buy something called makkolli in New York City, or even Syracuse. It is sold in bottles, and does not taste the same as that delicious brew on a hillside n~ar Taegu.

That was a magic brew; quite illegal, at the time, I suppose.

Many Korean poets have written about makkolli, or other forms of drink The following are a fe~ examples that tell something about a way of life that is as hard to find as a good bowl of makkolli.

27

Market's Closing

We foals are pleased enough just seeing each others faces.

Carving a melon by the barber shop, gulping makkolli at a wine stall, we all have old friends faces.

Talk of drought in the southwe~ of debts to the co-op.

Tapping time with our feet to the remedy-vendor's guitar, why do we always feel such longing for Seoul?

Shall we find some place to play cards?

Tip our wallets and head for the wine house?

Gathering on the school grounds we eat pieces of dried squid and we drink.

Gradually the long summer day ends.

With a pair of rubber shoes or one salted fish, down the moan-bright road the market limps to a close Shin Kyong-nim, born 1936. His book Farmers Dance, from which "Market's Closing" is taken, contains a number of poems about life in rural Korea in the 1970s. The book was awarded the first annual Manhae Prize in literature, named in honor of the poet, monk, and nationalist leader Han Yong-un.

The poem's translation is from The Silence of Love: Twentieth-Century Korean Poetry, edited by Peter H. Lee. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu, 1980.

A wine decanter and cups made byYunKwang-cho

28

In Praise of Makkolli -At Sorabol College of the Arts, the Shanty on Namsan Mountain-

With all the buildings in Seoul of any note destroyed in the War, we put together a shack up on Namsan for our S6rab61 College of the Art.s; and gave most of our lectures on credit With our hungry stomachs, we teachers climbed our way panting to the foot of the mountain, where the staff of the education affairs section would ready the makkolli in a bucket "Please have a few bowls before your lecture."

With such kindness they looked after us.

Thus I came to realize suddenly, once again, how makkolli is indeed one of the best things there is.

So Chong-ju, born 1915, author of numerous books of poetry, as well as essays, literary criticism and other writings. His first book, Flower Snake, was published in 1938. Unforgettable Things, an autobiography in poems from which "In Praise of Makkolli" is selected, was published in 1983.

The poem's translation is from Unforgettable Things; Poems by 56 Ch6ng-ju, translated by David R. McCann.

Si-sa-yong-o-sa, Inc. Seoul, 1986.

Wine House at Sunset

Clouds the color of fire cool now like metal As rain falls somewhere, drops for the sunset of my dreary youth my lips are ho~ red as cockscomb, and I drink down, one after another, bowls of cool makkolli Truly, if all my young days amount to no more than one bowl of makkolli, what more could I hold to, regret, or try?

Sweethearts and Friends

For friends one is glad in sadness; In love, a sweetheart is better.

This night, while the red peppers ripen and the strawberry flowers loose their fragrance, you sing! I shall drink.

Kim Sowol (1902-1934), one of Koreas most remarkable poets of the 20th century. Sow61 published a book of his poems, Azaleas, and gave up the literary world by 1926. <All translations are by David McCann>

Ca1Jit.1g my own name over and over, intq the deepening twilight I set off again on the road.

Kim Jong-gil, born 1926, author of many books of poems, of literary criticism, and of translations and literary criticism in English. "Wine House at Sunset" is from the collection Hadong, River Village.

Minumsa, Seoul, 1977.

A white porcelain faceted bottle with underglaze blue decoration, Chos6n Dynasty, 17th century, height Z7.5 em 29

Chumak: A¡Haven for Bae Do-sik Folklore Researcher

B

efore the advent of modern industrial society, the chumak, inn or tavern, was a haven for travelers. Its proprietor, invariably a woman, was always happy to serve wayfarers wine, snacks and meals, and engage them in conversation. She was a most welcome sight for travelers.

Chumak were concentrated in and at around the Seoul area. Oryu-dong, a point halfway between Seoul and lnch'6n, had a great number because this was where travelers would arrive about lunchtime if they had set out in the morning. There were also many chumak at Mungy6ng Saejae, the highest pass along the road from the southeast region of the Ky6ngsang-do provinces to Seoul. Travelers including scholars coming up to Seoul to sit for

In big towns, chumak were located near the market area or in clusters along the roads, but in small towns or in the countryside, a ch umak usually stood by itself at the foot of a hill or at a ferry crossing They did not have gaudy signs like today's establishments, only a kerosene lantern with the Chinese character for wine hanging over their entrance, or simply the word "tavern" in Chinese characters on the door.

A tavern scene painted by genre painter Shin Yun-bok (b.1758) (above); a restored chumak at Mungyong Saejae 30

¡ Travelers

31

national government examinations called kwago and itinerant merchants had to pass through the area's villages which included villages now known as Sangch'o-ri, Chungch'o-ri and Hach'o-ri.

According to Kim Ch'ang-hlii, a 76-yearold proprietor of an inn in the area, 70 to 80 years ago, there were many chumak that enjoyed a flourishing business offering rice wine, pork and rice mixed with mountain vegetables to travelers.

32

At Mungyong Saejae, there were both private chumak and government-operated ones, such as Choryongwon and Tonghwawon, the remains of which can be seen today. A chumak situated at the midpoint of the Mungyong pass was restored in 1983 so that visitors to the area could experience an old-time tavern, but unfortunately, it has since been closed because of financial difficulties.

Chuknyong, at the middle of the spine between the Sobaek Mountains, is along what was a route connecting the southeastern region and the central region on the way from Yongju, Kyongsangbuk-do to Ch'ungju and Tanyang, Ch'ungch'ongbuk-do. It came to be called Chuknyong because the route was opened by General Chukchuk of Shilla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935).

During the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910),

at home. The most important

Chason Dynasty. The tree still stands and many traditional-style chumak have been opened along the streets nearby the fork. As in the times of old, each has a paper lantern bearing the Chinese ideogram for wine hanging above its door.

functions of a chumak were to

Scenes of Chumak

provide drinks, meals and

As chumak were located in places bustling with travelers, they were always crowded, particularly at night.

Mrs. Isabella Bird Bishop, a British author and traveller who visited Korea in the late 19th century had the following to say in her book Korea and Her

A chumak in the isolated countryside had to provide all the usual services and make the lonely and tired travelers feel

accommodations. The chumak was a mixture of today's bar, eatery and inn, as well as a place to exchange news and gossip.

Neighbours.

There are regular and irregular inns in Korea. The irregular inn differs in nothing from the ordinary hovel of the village roadway, unless it can boast of a yard with troughs, and can provide entertainment for beast as well as for man.... Low lattice doors filled with torn and dirty paper give access to a room the mud floor of which is qmcealed by reed mats, usually dilapidated, sprinkled with wooden blocks which serve as pillows. Into this room are crowded mabu [grooms1 travellers, and servants....

Wolmaejip, a chumak near the Kwanghallu Pavilion in Nam won, Chollanam-do (above); elderly men enjoying a drink in a modern-day chumak (left)

there were many chumak in Chuknyong because the route was well traveled. In the early 1980s, a reproduction of a traditional chumak was opened in Chuknyong to enable visitors to try local foods and wines.

Ch'onan Samgori, a three-pronged fork in Ch'onan, Ch'ungch'ongnam-do, where the roads leading to Seoul, the Kyongsang-do provinces and the southwestern region of the Cholla-do

provinces intersect, was another place famous for chumak. It has long been famous for a large weeping willow, called the Nungso Willow, which according to legend, grew from a willow slip that widower Yu Pong-so planted in the ground at the fork in the road as a symbol of his love for his daughter, Nung-so, where he bid her farewell before leaving for a new posting at a frontier region in the early

Yet, chumak were renowned for the generosity of the proprietors and they were often noisy with travelers' chatter.

As Mrs. Bishop recorded, "... many a hearty meal and good sound sleep may be enjoyed under such apparently unpropitious circumst<Cnces . . . .

The Korean inn is not noisy unless wine is flowing freely, and even then the noise subsides early. The fighting of the ponies, and the shouts and execrations with which the mabu pacify them, are the chief disturbances till daylight comes and the wayfarers move on. Traveling after dark is contrary to Korean custom."

C. C. Dallet, a French Catholic priest, wrote of tavern scenes in his introduction to Korean Church History.

33

The inns on the road are sordid dilapidated houses, scarcely furnished. Travelers sleep with their essentials on their bodies. When it is very cold, horses and oxen ~ in the barn are covered with straw. The meal trays for the guests are round, 30-50 centimeters in height and in width. No matter how many people eat at the same time, each gets a separate tray. The dishes are rough porcelain or brassware, and chopsticks and a brass spoon are laid on the tray. The usual fare is rice, pepper and vegetables. If one pays more, meat and salted fish are served. The food is seasoned with salt, sesame seed, and ricinus oil or mint oil. Beef is very hard to get except in Seoul and mutton is hard to see, but there is dog meat, which missionaries say does not taste too bad. The most common vegetables are radish, cabbage and ferns.

This is an account of chumak from a foreigner's point of view in the late 19th century. There are some factual errors, but it enables one to picture what a chumak was like.

When a chumak was bustling with people, it must have resembled a festival. When there was a national examination, chumak would be full of people who were on their way to Seoul, and social status rather than money determined where one stayed. A guest of low status was assigned to a corner room or a wooden-floor room even if he was willing to pay a fortune. The good rooms were reserved for the yangban, or aristocrats, and among them, the most powerful took the best room.

When there was a squabble between guests, more often than not the servants traveling with them ended up in fisticuffs. In such case, the proprietor often did not get paid for the wine and food, and she had to clean up the mess, a trying task.

There is an interesting anecdote concerning chumak in the Y6lly6shil kisu 34

(Narratives of Y 6lly6shil), a collection of historical events in the early Chason Dynasty. A court minister named Maeng Sa-song (1360-1438) tried to visit his hometown, Onyang, as often as he could. As he was an unpretentious, upright man, he usually dressed like a provincial commoner. One day, on his way up to Seoul, he stopped at a chumak in Yang-in for the night. Because he had only one servant with him, he was assigned a spot in a corner of the wooden floor. A yangban from the countryside, on his way to the capital to sit for the national examination, was sitting in the best spot and acting rather haughtily, trying to show off his social status.

Perhaps because he had nothing exciting to do, the yangban asked Minister Maeng to play a word game with him. Minister Maeng, pretending he was a nobody, accepted the invitation. The game involved posing questions and answers ending with the words kong and tang, respectively, and whoever failed to use the right ending would have to treat the other to wine.

Minister Maeng started. "Why are you going to Seoul, kong?"

"To sit for a national examination, tang."

"Then should I help you, kong?"

"Don't be ridiculous, tang," responded the yangban, displeased at Minister Maeng's presumption.

A few days later, Minister Maeng was interviewing examinees in the guest hall of the palace when this very person he had met at the chumak entered. The minister asked, "How are you, kong?" The man's face grew pale; know ing that making fun of a state minister could mean death. He prostrated himself on the floor and pleaded, "I deserve death, tang." The minister did not reproach him, but appointed the man to a government position.

The Makeup of Chumak In big towns, chumak were located near the market area or in clusters along the roads, but in small towns or

in the countryside, a chumak usually stood by itself at the foot of a hill or at a ferry crossing. They did not have gaudy signs like today's establishments, only a kerosene lantern with the Chinese character for wine hanging over their entrance, or simply the word "tavern" in Chinese characters on the door. One could also recognize a chumak by the sliced boiled beef or the pork head displayed on a board outside the door, or by a cylindrical bamboo sieve used for filtering wine that was usually hung from the thatched roof.

Despite the absence of a sign, chumak had names, not given by the proprietor but by her patrons. If there was a spindle tree in front, it was called Spindle Tree House, a paulownia tree, Paulownia Tree House. If there was a If it well, it was called Well Hous~. was located by a bridge, it was named after the bridge. If the proprietor had a lump on her neck, it was called Lumpy's House, a mole on her face, Mole's House.

In the yard were .several wooden platforms on which the guests sat when drinking and eating, and there were several rooms for sleeping. The unique feature of chumak was that the kitchen was accessible from the proprietor's room, and if the proprietor was busy, she could cook while sitting in her own room. In the kitchen, a huge soup cauldron was always boiling, ready for guests at any time of the day.

In winter, wine bowls were heated by dipping them into the soup cauldron, and there was always boiling water in a small cauldron in a corner. When an order was placed, the wine bowls were filled and heated.

Chumak came in all sizes and shapes. A big chumak had a main building, smaller buildings that served as a servants quarters, a storehouse, a place for travelers' belongings and stables for the travelers' horses, oxen and donkeys.

A chumak in the isolated countryside had to provide all the usual ser-

vices and make the lonely and tired travelers feel at home. The most important functions of a chumak were to provide drinks, meals and accommodations. The chumak was a mixture of today's bar, eatery and inn, as well as a place to exchange news and gossip.

And since there were no theaters, tea rooms or sing-along establishments like today, people gathered there to enjoy simple forms of entertainment. It was a haven for weary travelers, and also a place where various cultural aspects were transmitted because people from all walks of life were forced to interact.

The wine available at chumak was of limited variety, mostly makk61Ji, thick, milky rice wine, soju, a distilled spirit, and some special homemade wine reserved for wealthy guests. The most popular, especially among commoners, was makkolli. A regular or generous guest was served thick, rice wine, whereas a stranger or an unwelcome guest was given wine diluted with water. It all depended on the proprietor's whim.

An order of wine was always accompanied by a bit of food. As each guest entered the chumak, he would take a set of chopsticks from a bunch stacked in a container and help himself to the prepared food or put some meat on a charcoal grill. There were always some people who were more interested in eating than drinking. Because the chumak would lose money if a customer paid for one bowl of wine while eating several servings of food, most chumak employed a young man called chungnomi whose job was to watch out for such customers. The shabbily dressed chungnomi did miscellaneous tasks including broiling herring or seasoned beef slices over a sizzling brazier. A sociable drinker or a person more interested in food could get more than his "fair" share by befriending the chungnomi.

Chumak also offered meals. The most popular was changgukpap.

There are two theories on the etymology of this beef soup. One is that soy

A chumak recently constructed on the site of an old one at Mungyong Saejae (top); a chumak at the Nak-aniipsong Folk Village in Polgyo, Chollanam-do (middle); changgukpap, a beef brisket soup, traditional chumak fare (above).

35

sauce (chang) was added to soup (kuk) and then rice (pap) was dumped

Traditional drinks and drinking places are becoming increasingly popular with young people (above); p'ojangmach'a, a moveable bar set up on sidewalks at night (below); a street lined with various drinking places

36

in before serving. The other is that it was soup and rice (kukpap) sold at a chumak in the marketplace (chang).

The soup was made by boiling beef brisket, which is less greasy, and flavoring it with soy sauce, which gave it a light brown, appetizing appearance.

Another delicious dish was an assortment of boiled beef parts-brisket, ox head slices, tongue, liver and oxtaileaten with a dip of soy or spicy red pepper sauGe with a tinge of vinegar. It was the perfect complement to a bowl of makkolli.

Although not as good as changgukpap, drinkers could not resist the refreshing taste of sulkuk, a broth soup good for relieving hangovers. Also called yanggolkuk, it was made by boiling beef bones with soybeim paste and the tough outer leaves of cabbage.

It was boiled for many hours with the bean paste and other ingredients combining to give it a savory taste.

Changes in Chumak With time everything changes and the chumak was no exception. During the Japanese colonial period (19101945), various types of drinking establishments emerged and after the Korean War (1950-1953), even more appeared.

Those which emerged during the Japanese occupation included naeoejuj6m, saekchuga and s6nsuljip. In the naeoejujom, the female proprietor and her guests abided by Confucian rules of behavior that dictated a man and woman should not look directly at each other. When the woman placed a wine tray in front of a customer, she turned her face away, showing only her wrists holding the tray.

Accordingly, this type of establishment came to be known as palttukjip, "house of wrists." Saekchuga was an establishment where feminine beauty was sold along with wine. It was where the common people, who could not afford the more pricey

kisaengjip where professional hostesses called kisaeng served wine and entertained guests, could have a good time with a lower class of hostess who entertained them with traditional folksongs. They were clustered in the Tonui-dong.,. Chongjin-dong and Sunhwa-dong areas in downtown Seoul. Sonsuljip, literally stand bar, were very popular among average people because of their low prices.

Saekchuga and sonsuljip still existed after the Korean War, but in the 1960s they came to be called ninanojip and t'ongsuljip. Ninanojip came from a phrase in Changbu taryong, a traditional ballad sung by male actors.

The term t'ongsuljip came to be used because wine was sold in what was ca)led a tong, which literally means. a barrel. Of course, they did not actually sell wine by the barrel, but tP,e term was used to imply that drinkers were welcome to drink as much as they could.

In the 1970s, when Korean society

became more affluent with economic development, bars underwent a gradual upgrading. Pangs6kjip, drinking establishments which provided customers a cushion (pangs6k) to sit on and hostesses to serve and cater customers, began to appear. These establishments, a modified version of kisaengjip, were beyond the means of most people.

In the 1980s, cafes and room salons flourished. The cafe catered to ordinary people, while the room salon was an upscale establishment where the drinkers were expected to lavishly tip the fawning hostesses. There were also secret establishments that catered to the rich and famous. Located in exclusive residential areas, their existence was unknown to most people and perhaps for this reason they were very popular among the powerful and affluent. Although the chumak of old have all but disappeared, thoughts of them still evoke feelings of nostalgia in most Koreans. +

37

Aesthetics of Antique ChoeHa-rim Poet/Editorial Writer Chonnam Daily News

he genre paintings of Shin Yunbok, who was born in 1758 and is better known by his pen name Hyewon, often feature noblemen or monks indulged in merrymaking with kisaeng (profes-. sional female entertainers.) The women, who are depicted wearing short blouses, billowing indigo skirts and flamboyant hairdos, look seductively at the men who are engaged in some flirtatious behavior such as lighting a woman's pipe. Invariably, wine bottles and cups are indispensable props in these paintings of amorous scenes.

Alcoholic beverages help stimulate romantic adventurers everywhere. An excellent example is found in one of Shin Yun-bok's most famous paintings, Picnic by a Lotus Pond, which shows a group of men and women reveling in a drinking binge. The men are portrayed in flirtatious postures while the women look at them alluringly. Even the voluptuous wine pots appear to reflect the erotic mood.

T

Bottles Antique Korean liquor bottles frequently have full, round bodies and long, slender necks, a design that enables them to contain more liquor than bottles with other shapes by lowering their center of gravity. From a purely aesthetic point of view, the vessels are distinctive for their curvacious lines which flow from the bottom up over the round body and tapering neck to join at an invisible spot above the mouth that makes up the focal point of the design. In terms of function, the 38

Wine.Bottles and Cups Antique Korean liquor bottles frequently have fun round bodies and long, slender necks, a design that enables them to contain more liquor than bottles with other shapes.

Shin Yun-bok's Picnic by a Lotus Pond shows a group

of men and women reveling in a drinking binge (left); a punch'ong wine bottle with a leaf design painted in iron, Choson 15th century 39

long, slender neck restricts the outflow to make serving liquor easier. Poets have often compared the sound of . wine flowing out of the mouth of such a bottle to the sound of a cfean mountain stream flowing down rocks in a quiet valley.

The elegant, long-necked wine bottles are believed to have come into popular use in the middle of the 12th century, judging from two well-known Koryo wine bottles traced back to the early or mid-11th century Koryo period: a white porcelain bottle with an underglaze iron grass design and a celadon bottle and bowl with an underglaze iron grass design. Both are notably unsophisticated in form with almost no neck at all Representative of the wine pots from this period when celadon flourished is a gourd-shaped celadon bottle with lotus scrolls rendered in

Celadon wine bottle with incised design, Koryo, 12th century, height33.6cm 40

relief on both sides and a poem inlaid in black. However, gourd-shaped bottles of such high artistic quality are extremely rare.

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the early years of the Choson Dynasty, celadon wares reflecting refined aristocratic tastes gave way to practical slipdecorated wares with robust shapes and coarse patterns called punch'ong.

The necks grew shorter and decorations simpler and somewhat archaic. The punch'ong bottles from this period were often decorated with relatively simple designs of fish, peonies, cranes and willows, some of which appear whimsical or childlike yet appeal to modern tastes. They were followed by the celebrated Choson white porcelain carved with picturesque designs of lotus, pine, plum and cranes. These designs gave way to the blue-anp-white

porcelain ware with lavish representations of the ''Four Noble Gentlemen"plum, orchid, chrysanthemum and bam¡boo-of later years.

Cups Celadon wine cups came into being along with celadon wine pots. Typical of the early greenish-blue celadon wares of the mid-11th century is a cup with a band of carved lotus designs.

The decoration of this cup is simple and rough, and is combined with an inlaid design, a technique characteristic of the transitional period from plain to decorated celadon.

Wine cups of this style were used not only by aristocrats in the capital but also by local gentry. Compared with celadon wine bottles, celadon wine cups show little development in their form and decoration. Often the

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the early years of the Chason Dynasty, celadon wares reflecting refined aristocratic tastes gave way to practical slip-decorated wares with robust shapes and coarse patterns called punch'6ng.

The necks grew shorter and decorations simpler and somewhat archaic.

cups were sparingly decorated with simple carved designs of a dragon or two, either on the inside or the outside.

In the National Museum of Korea is a wine cup decorated with an underglaze iron lattice band around the mouth and two Chinese characters below it, a design typical of wine cups of this period.

Wine cups changed very little even during the years when the art of celadon was at the height of its development. However, tea bowls and various other kinds of bowls enjoyed brilliant advancements in craftsmanship.

Punch'ong ware also did not change much over time, although stems were added to cups. Stemmed cups usually featured designs of grass scrolls carved around the lower edge of the pedestal and the upper brim of the cup. In had addition, stemmed cups oft~n

Celadon cup and stand with inlaid chrysanthemum design,Koryo, 12th century, height 10.4 em 41

Aristocratic men enjoyed drinking parties that sometimes lasted ¡ several days and moveq from place to place. They likely had servants carry their homebrewed wine to their friends' homes or to scenic spots outdoors so they could continue their parties in a different ambience.

Celadon bottle with incised design, Koryo, 12th century, height 24.5 em

chrysanthemum designs on both the inside and outside, suggesting that they were intended for use by wealthy aris¡ tocrats. Stemmed cups of this type were produced throughout the Chason Dynasty, but their pedestals became lower and stouter, giving rise to stemmed cups with wide, flaring mouths.

42

Gourd-shaped celadon pitcher, Koryo, 13th century, height325 em

Rice bale-shaped cask with iron-painted lotus pond design, Chos6n, 15th century

Punch'Ong bottle with underglaze iron decoradon, Chos6n, 16th century,height30cm.

Wine Casks Horizontal porcelain casks with a mouth in the center of the top were used to carry liquor over long distances.

These sturdy cylindrical containers, called changgun, were designed to be hung over the shoulders by straps and carried on the back.

Containers of this folksy style were used to carry liquor from one place to another, possibly from one house to another or even from one village to another, as aristocratic men enjoyed drinking parties that sometimes lasted several days and moved from place to place. They likely had servants carry their home-brewed wine to their friends' homes or to scenic spots outdoors so they could continue their parties in a different ambience.

Almost all of the existing changgun are punch'ong and date from the early Choson Dynasty. There are no known celadon or white porcelain changgun remaining from the period. Although the casks are simple and sturdy, they are decorated with various designs including fish, grass ss:rolls, peonies, lotus blossoms, or geometric patterns.

Whatever the design, the overall impression created is one of spontaneity and humor.

Pitchers and Bowls Wine pitchers have more highly refined shapes and decorations than the simple _and stalwart changgun. Most existing pitchers have intricate inlaid designs of peony, bamboo, lotus or grapevines. It is believed that they were used in noble households;¡at first for .serving tea and later for wine. Some, such as a celadon pitcher with an iron decoration of lotus and phoenix, are extremely ornate, indicative of the refined taste of the nobility.

Bowls were often used as wine cups.

Also, jars with varied shapes and decorative patterns were produced through the centuries to meet the constant demands of wealthy noble families who regarded home brewing an integral part of their culture. + 43

INTERVIEW

Y1Dl Kwang-cho Exploring Art and the Way in Punch'ong Stoneware Kim Young-uk Associate Editor, Koreana

f the many ceramics made in Korea, the humble punch'ong best reflects the Korean character. Unlike Koryo celadon, known for its refined elegance, or Choson white porcelain, with its pure aristocratic air, punch'ong stoneware is natural, unassuming and practical, reflecting the values and needs of its common people users. Informal and unadorned, punch'ong is by its very nature imperfect, yet in it can be found an unusual charm, a fresh beauty born of that informality and lack of artifice.

"Punch'ong stoneware is one of the great masterpieces of Choson ceramics and a powerful expression of the Korean character. Its informal, homey appearance is marvelous. I fell in love with its warmth and spontaneity nearly 30 years ago and have been working with it ever since," says 51-year-old ceramicist Yun Kwang-cho, a rare artist who has developed punch'ong aesthetic with a modern flair. He has been widely applauded for his successful grafting of modern forms on a traditional foundation.

"I've loved punch'ong ever since I was a university student. Unlike celadon, which strives to create 'jade' from clay, or porcelain, which pursues its own brand of perfection, punch'ong attracted me with the frank and sensitive way it revealed the beauty and essence of clay in its natural form."

When Yun was a freshman in the Fine Arts College at Hong-ik University, a friend showed him a shard when they were out drinking. Yun was struck by its beauty and the mystery of

0

44

Yun Kwang-cho

"Punch'6ng stoneware is one of the great masterpieces of Chason ceramics and a powerful expression of the Korean character.

Its infon;nal, homey appearance is marvelous. I fell in Jove with its warmth and spontaneity nearly 30 years ago and have been working with it ever since."

its creation. Who made that beautiful thing, he wondered. Yun credits this experience for helping him choose pottery as his career.

For Yun, an artist's life and working environment play essential roles in the development of his or her art In this belief, he recently left his studio in Kwangju, Kyonggi-do province, where for he had worked for the last 20 y~ars, a new studio in the distant city of Kyongju. For many years Yun had harbored a vague notion that Kyongju, ancient capital of the Shilla Kingdom, was the place where he would put down his roots for goqd His studio is located about an hour's drive north of downtown Kyongju in a small village called Paramgol, "Windy Hollow." While not far from the city, the village is quite isolated; buses from Kyongju come by only once or twice a day. In fact, Windy Hollow can hardly be called a village. There are only seven houses and a person can easily go a whole day without seeing anyone.

"Twenty years ago when I first left Seoul for my studio in Chiwol-myon, Kwangju, it was a quiet community, but after the highway was built and the area developed, the place became too busy;' Yun says, "I decided that I had to move to a quieter place, and then I found out about Windy Hollow."

Since his childhood, Yun has loved to pore over maps and travel to wherever his heart would take him. That is how he found the site for his new studio.

On the way to the studio I passed Oksan Sowon, an old Confucian academy in An-gang township, north of

Kyongju, and headed up a twisting gravel road The woods were silent except for the wind. After 10 minutes of twisting and turning, I saw Yun's studio in the distance. He had put ofr our interview for a month, saying his kiln was not finished yet, and now as I approached, I could see that the studio was still under construction. Yun was in an upbeat mood, though, for his kiln had been completed that very day.

He was dressed in a white hanbok, which his mother had made for him, and his long gray hair was pulled back in a neat ponytail He greeted me with his hands held together at his chest, the customary greeting of a Buddhist monk Clearly there was something special about him. He had the look of a Buddhist monk who had forsaken the desires of the material world. His expression was so clear, so transparent Yun has a natural aversion to constraints and limits. He came to this distant place, isolated in the hills like a tiny

hermitage, to be inspired by the freedom of the wind. Windy Hollow's name is no coincidence: the tiny village, surrounded by hills and mountains, is always windy. No wonder Yun chose this site for his studio. For Yun, nature is a teacher; it is art itself. He seems to have always believed that if he worked among the mountains and forests, his creations would exude the splendor of nature. He was attracted to punch'ong for the freedom it represented. Celadon is extremely exacting. It requires clay of extremely low iron content, and the decorations used are rigidly set When one's choice of clay is limited, artistic options are also restricted.

However, it does not matter what kind of clay is used for punch'ong. Unlike celadon, each piece of stoneware is different. A fish motif on one piece will have a completely different f~el on another. Unlike celadon and porcelain, punch'ong is a forgiving craft, from the clay used, to the colors of the glaze and

Insight, Z2 x Z2 x 43 em, 1985 (top); Moon and a Thousand Rivers, 70 x 15 x 28 em, 1991 (above) 46

firing methods. In that sense, it is like the earth itself.

"This place is the home of the remarkable stoneware of the Shilla Kingdom. It is rich in the fiistory of Korean ceramics. I came here quite by accident, but the area is loaded with clay that can be used in ceramics," he says.

Yun Kwang-cho is truly a modern craftsman, one of the few artists who has dedicated his life to creative ceramics, more specifically to punch'ong. Most potters choose to carry on traditional genres or wholeheartedly embrace Western ceramic styles, but Yun has dedicated himself, in the manner of old craftsmen, to the creation of a living, breathing punch'ong art "Celadon and porcelain are gorgeous, but their beauty depends on the covering-up of natural clay. Punch'ong, on the other hand, reveals the clay's character. There is also great freedom in its decoration. It seems to suit my personality in that way."

"The pursuit of freedom"-that is an important theme in Yun's work. Many of his pieces are entitled "Meditation" or "Insight" and give form to images of Buddhist introspection and transcendence. The cylindrical and triangular forms, decorated with trees, clouds, plants, stones, the sun and the moon, are reminiscent of the muninhwa scholar paintings of the late 18th century in their artless beauty and spontaneity.

Yun has worked hard to achieve this level of aesthetic enlightenment: He has studied with Buddhist monks, practiced meditation, and learned patience and modesty in the age-old practice of tea preparation. "I try to imitate the old craftsmen's rejection of greed and ambition. Technique emanating from the fingertips is insignificant Pottery must he stresses. be made from the hear~"

Aesthetic Enlightenment Yun Kwang-cho first became known for his mastery of punch'ong stoneware

Meditation, 19 x 19 x 38 em, 1989 (top); a dining table set with modern pun chong dinnerware (above)

47

Harmony,22x22x27cm,1984

"Celadon and porcelain are gorgeous, but their beauty depends on the covering-up of natural clay.

Punch'6ng, on the other hand, reveals the clay's character.

There is also great freedom in its decoration.

It seems to suit my personality in that way."

48

in 1973, the year he graduated from Hong-ik University, when he won the Grand Prize in the Dong-a Arts and Crafts Contest Since then he has participated in 16 exhibitions at home and abroad, surprising visitors with his fresh perspective each time.

Yun was a quiet, introverted child.

His father, a government official, died when Yun was quite young, leaving a wife and six children. Yun's mother was a strong-willed woman, active in political and social groups with little time for her family. As a result, Yun spent a lot of time alone and took to making things as a way of relieving his loneliness.

"My mother was an enlightened woman, well ahead of her time. She took a liberal view toward her children's education. For example, the year I entered middle school, she to~ed me a backpack and told me to go traveling! I still enjoy traveling when I have the chance. I guess my mother had a great influence on me."

Yun joined the art club in middle school on the recommendation of his art teacher who said he had natural talent He liked the teacher and dreamed vaguely of becoming a painter. It was at the urging of his third eldest and favorite brother that Yun took up ceramics instead.

When it came time to apply to college, Yun initially planned to major in economics at his mother's suggestion.

She hoped he would become a politician and felt that an understanding of economics was essential to that goal.

Yun failed the entrance examination for Yonsei University's economics department, however. Without her son's knowledge, Yun's mother sent his application to the Naval Academy, but he was not admitted there either. He still believes that he would have become a seaman if he had not become a potter since he has always dreamed of traveling to mysterious places around the world.

- Frustrated by these failures, Yun left home to stay with a friend. During this

period he wrote a letter to his third oldest brother who was in the United States and had always been a valued . confidant. His brother offered him some sound advice based on his own experience abroad. Americans often asked him about Korean culture and in his search for an answer, Yun's brother had found that ceramics represented the epitome of Korea's traditional culture.

Since Yun Kwang-cho enjoyed painting and making things, why not try his hand at ceramics, his elder brother suggested.

The next year, 1965, Yun entered the ceramics department at Hong-ik University. He discovered a hidden tal路 ent for acting and in his first two years spent more time working on plays than in his major field of ceramics. He was the lead in every production, and soon felt torn between theater and ceramics.

However, the rushing around required of acting troupes gradually gave rise to second thoughts about theater, and Yun decided to take a break from university life by volunteering for military duty.

Thanks to his mother's many contacts, he was dispatched to the museum at the Military Academy.

It was at the museum, as he experienced the beauty of Korea's traditional ceramics, that Yun developed a desire to work with punch'ong and became interested in the relationship between tradition and creativity. It was also during this period that he met the late Ch'oe Sun-u (1916-1984), art historian and curator of the National Museum. Ch'oe would prove to be Yun's most influential teacher. In fact, Yun credits Ch'oe's genial attention for his own consistency and dedication. Ch'oe was also the one who gave Yun's studio its name: Kupwoltang.

There is an old painting that depicts Li Tai-bo, a master poet of Tang China, who was dedicated to poetry, wine and the moon. In the painting called Kupwolto, the poet reaches over the gunnel of a boat, trying to scoop up the moon's reflection in his hand. Kup is the Chinese ideograph for the action of

drawing water; w61 is the moon.

Like the man scooping up the moon in his hand, Yun creates life from clay.

A signboard made by Ch'oe Sun-u for Yun's studio hangs in Yun's study today.

Ch'oe's affection for Yun is apparent in his Writings on Korean Potters.

The mushrooms that grow under oaks are quite different from those that grow in pine groves; similarly, the aesthetic direction of a potter derives from the potter's native place and national spirit. The artistic beauty that a potter naturally discovers in his or her "place" is a source of joy for the potter and good fortune for the people who share that place. .. .

As I've watched Yun Kwang路cho over the years, I've felt great satisfaction with the informal beauty of his works. They exude a remarkable Koreanness in scale and unassuming decoration. Broadly viewed, Yun's creations prove that he is a truly "Korean" man in the sense that he is born of a "place" called Korea. And from a narrower focus, we see that his personal feelings, his heart, are invested in his creations.

The year after Yun was awarded the Grand Prize in the Dong-a Arts and Crafts Contes~ he received a grant from the former Ministry of Culture and Information to study for three years in Karatsu, Japan. Ch'oe Sun-u warned Yun that three years was too long and advised him to concentrate on studying Japanese kiln operation techniques, not Japanese art.

Less than a year had passed when Yun real1zed that he had not taken Ch'oe's words to heart. He had sent a piece to an exhibition being held in Korea and soon received a letter from Ch'oe telling him that he was a fine artist but he was becoming too ')apanized." Yun sensed this himself and returned to Korea immediately. It was in Japan, however, that he was awakened to the greatness of Korean punch'6ng.

While in Japan Yun had an opportunity to work with potters from Germany, the United States and Japan and realized that he felt nothing when viewing a piece made by a German pot路 ter in a Japanese style. It was at this point that he rushed back to Korea and found a spot in Kwangju, outside of Seoul, for his studio.

Sense of Time and Space Form is the most important element in ceramics. In a sense it is a matter of images. Thus Yun will stop by the side of the road and sketch whenever he encounters an image that intrigues him.

It is from this process that the patterns and basic form of a piece are formulat路 ed. Later he returns to his studio and creates a work of art based on that image. , he After the clay form has d~ie trims it and carves designs or patterns on its surface. Next he applies a clay slip. The design can change depending on the weather and the drying speed.

He chooses his tools and methods as the spirit moves him.

Yun uses a coarse paintbrush to apply slip. He does not drink when he throws a pot on the wheel or builds a form by hand, but he likes to work under the influence of alcohol when he is applying slip. He does this to create a bolder, less inhibited feeling. At one point he was concerned that the entire process was becoming too civilized so he started pointing in the opposite direction.

"For some time I've been trying to create forms that do not appear artificial, that seem to evolve from nature itself," he says.

After applying the slip, Yun paints on the surface of the piece. Sometimes people ask if the images are orchids or mountains, but Yun replies that there are no real objects. They are abstractions bordering on the absolute. Yun proves that ceramics are the ultimate abstract art form. While one can not discern specific objects-no flowers or butterflies, no hints of wind blowing or 49

bees flying by-Yun is clearly depicting something on the clay surfaces.

"Every artist must have a concept of the spatial and temporal. Without a sense of time and space there is no art," he adds.

The patterns and designs in Yun's work naturally follow form to become abstractions. At times, Yun may be disappointed with a piece made on the wheel, but later, when it is finished, he is surprised by the results. The final color is determined by the kiln. That is why firing is so important. Yun has always used an old-fashioned oil-fired kiln. It is inconvenient and fraught with problems, but he has stuck with it because he believes in its mystique. He relates to the kiln directly, with only his eyes and ears to gauge the temperature.

His hopes are high for each firing. And because of this he has always performed a simple rite to the household gods before he fires up the kiln. After these many years, he understands the kiln and can watch it without worry.

Some people say that a kiln firing at its peak, with the pots seemingly quivering in expectation, is a beautiful sight, but Yun disagrees. For him it is painful to watch, like the labor pains of a woman

50

A vase (above); a section of a ceramic w all which wasfeatureclinan exhibition Yun held at the Ho-Am Art Gallery in Seoul in 1994 (below)

giving birth.

"The most important thing in ceramics is form, then patterns, or glaze," Yun says. "It demands great technical skillmore than other art form-yet technique is not everything. It is just a necessary condition."

Yun got an electric kiln for the first time when he moved to Windy Hollow but he has yet to use it. He does not seem to have particularly high expectations for the new kiln. In fact, he plans to set up his old kiln right next to the new one.

Where do the roots of a Korean potter lead? They must be related to a sense of national character and the Korean philosophy of nature, but the connections seem too abstruse to explain.

Japanese potters have created near perfect replicas of Song China celadons, and yet they still have not aproxim~ted the beauty of Koryo celadon. It must be because of something inherent in Koryo celadon besides shape and form.

While modern potters embrace traditional ceramics as a valued legacy, they must break free of old forms. Yun has spent his career breaking free of old forms and patterns. Lately, he does not use the wheel. His recent hand-built

works testify to his devotion to the task of transcending tradition. The harmony of material and expression evident in his .simple forms, with their traces of hand prints and unaffected designs; reflect the spirit of traditional punch'ong, but at the same time speak of the creation of a new ceramic culture, the creation of new modern forms, in the dedicated spirit of the old craftsmen.

"I'm trying to realize the old craftsmen's unambitious devotion," Yun explains.

Yun values freedom and change in his work. Humanity is unlimited in its diversity. Humans must not be tied down. To live is to change. Yun has often thought about becoming a monk because he wants to be free of all attachments. Some 10 years ago, when he practiced meditation at Songgwangsa Temple for several months, a monk told him that his art was his path to enlightenment. Two months later, when he returned to his studio, he felt a new confidence when he looked at the clay.

He made a shape and listened to what it had to say. Whereas in the past he had paid more attention to patterns and design, he now realized that: "A pattern is a pattern." He felt free at last.

"Punch'ong reveals the true properties of the clay," Yun notes. "Celadon and porcelain are different in that respect. In punch'ong, the potter must make the clay his own. Clay has a sensitive and variable nature. I must always be willing to compromise because it is always changing. Clay has to be handled like air."

Yun says that he simply wants to find something that other people have forgotten, something that Koreans must rediscover, and show it to the world.

His work has already been celebrated at exhibitions in Japan, Britain, Australia, the United States and Finland. His participation in a 1994 invitational exhibition entitled Korean Aesthetics and Its Modern Variation at Seoul's Ho-Am Gallery was a great success. In it he revealed his capacity to express tradition within everyday surroundings

Meditation, 41 x 17 x 38 em, 1994

without being tied down by that tradition. His open trays, small plates and flower vases are adaptable vessels that can hold anything. The potter's creativity is evident in the versatility of his works. He respects the people who will use his pots and allows them to decide how they will be used.

According to Yun, a potter who cannot make a pot is not a potter. "A pot made by hand is a world apart from a pot made by a machine. Most people can't see this distinction. Artists have to make the public understand this. Only then will ceramics be respected as an art."

In the end, Yun pursues the art practiced by the craftsmen of old Korea: unaffected and unthinking, in the Buddhist sense of complete disinterest in the worldly desires of the mundane

world. In the traces of fingerprints that mark the surface of his pots one finds the spontaneity and freedom of Yun Kwang-cho.

Yun is especially busy these days, working. to refine his Tao-like art in the seclusion of his country studio. He is preparing for a show scheduled for Frankfurt in 1997. Just a month before our interview, representatives of the German sponsors came to his studio in Kyongju to finalize plans for the show.

"I've got to get to work tomorrow," he chuckled as he brought out a wine bottle that he had made himself. Yun then offered me a drink, filling my cup to the brim. I'm still not sure how many times we exchanged cups but I do remember one thing: His peaceful face seemed to be the reincarnation of a traditional craftsman in modern Korea. + 51

KOREAN HERITAGE

S6kkuram Grotto

ieee of Proportions KangU-bang Research Director National Museum of Korea

11 Koreans know about Sokkuram in Kyongju, and the grotto shrine has now gained international recognition with its addition to the World Heritage List of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in December 1995. Sokkuram is the most outstanding example of Korean Buddhist art, and the grotto's carvings and architectural structure are widely considered to be more beautiful and extraordinary than any of the works found in India, China or Japan.

People are often more interested in trivial aspects of the grotto, such as the fact that the Japanese once tried to relocate it to Seoul or that it was built facing Taewang Rock in the East Sea. How many people realize that Sokkuram is a remarkable combination of exceptional architecture, sculpture and craftsmanship or that it is a composite art form which integrates religion, politics, astronomy, geometry, geomancy, physics and chemistry?

Sculptors have traditionally focused their attention on the main Buddha at the center of the grotto and the surrounding images of Buddhist guardian deities, bodhisattvas and the Buddha's ten disciples. Students of architecture, on the other hand, have focused on the grotto's structure. Scientists have been interested in the technical principles applied in its construction, whereas religious scholars have analyzed the engravings and carvings from the perspective of Buddhist teachings. As a result, it has become exceedingly diffi-

cul~

A

52

The entrance to SOkkuram

Perfect composition and proportions were aesthetic elements inherent in almost every example of architecture from the late Three Kingdoms to the mid-Unified Shilla Kingdom period The architecture of this period can be categorized as ideal classical. This theme is also found in the sculpture of this period Another characteristic of this period is the profound interrelationship of ideology, religion, astronomy and geometry.

if not impossible, to grasp the grotto in its entirety.

During my many years of studying its structure and carvings as well as the religious, mathematical and scientific aspects of Sokkuram, I have become convinced that the essential link in the integral relationships among these many elements lies in the mathematical principles applied to its structure and carvings.

The grotto's proportions bring harmony to its overall composition. Similarly, religious ideals also emphasize harmony among the individual, society and the nation. Artistic harmony therefore is fundamentally akin to religious harmony. Pythagoras said, "There are logical roles, relationships and laws in natural phenomena. These interactions can be expressed in dimensions or numbers."

He may have been referring simply to the physical phenomena of nature, but since Buddhism also grew out of an exploration of natural phenomena, I have become convinced through my study of Sokkuram that religious truth can also be expressed in dimensions and numbers.

A Japanese architect named Miyoji Yoneda had a decisive influence on my research. He graduated with a degree in architectural engineering from Nihon University in 1932 and the following year was employed by the National Museum of Korea, then under Japan's colonial administration. For the next 10 years, until his death at the age of 35, Yoneda devoted himself to the study of Korea's ancient architecture. He also worked hard to restore Sokkuram to its original form and tried to decipher the

mathematical principles applied to its construction. Strangely enough, philosophical sentiment runs throughout the simple narrative of his studies, apparently the result of his attempt to uncover philosophical principles during his research.

I have taken this one step further, trying to define the relationships between the structure and the carvings of Sokkuram. I have also been curious about the extensive application of interrelated mathematical principles in this work of architecture. The religious sublimity and beauty one feels in Sokkuram surely originates from the harmony of proportions hidden in its structure and carvings. Of course, this is not to overlook its architectural beauty or the extraordinary sculpting skills of its creators. I simply place more importance on the intricate relat.ionship between the superbly planned proportions of its entire structure and carvings.

It is in those harmonious proportions that an encounter between nature, art, religion, mathematics and astronomy takes place.

From top to bottom:SOkkuram in 1913, being reconstructed during theJapanese colonial period, and today.

54

Structural Plans of Sokkuram Yoneda thoroughly researched the site plans of Korea's major Buddhist temples dating back to the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century) and the Unified Shilla (668-935) period. He also devoted himself to the study of the elevation and ground-plans of stone stu pas and pagodas and the building plans for Sokkuram itself. In the process which included a seven-year field survey and the subsequent publication of reports on the results of his research, he concentrated on the "proportions" concealed behind the outward beauty of Korea's ancient architecture and attempted to interpret these proportions.

Yoneda was convinced that the fundamental techniques employed in the plans for Sokkuram were based on plane geometry. He ascertained that the basic measurement applied in the construction of Sokkuram was a full

ch'6k (a traditional unit of measure equal to about 1 foot), and that squares and their diagonals as well as right tri- angles and perpendicular lines were used in building the grotto. Circles, rectangles, hexagons, octagons and sections of equal proportions were also applied in the construction.

Yoneda found that these basic techniques formed systematic relationships which played a pivotal role in the plans for Pulguksa Temple as well. He showed that the composition of the grotto and the arrangement of the planes on the pedestal of the main Buddha were created by taking one side of a square as the basic unit and creating octagonal and circular forms from extensions of its diagonal lines.

This subtle and elaborate method of design was applied throughout the grotto. To Yoneda, the discovery that the component beauty of a structure depends on the combination and selection of such geometrical techniques was of paramount importance.

The mathematical principles applied to the artistic structure of Sokkuram achieved a state of perfection combining all basic mathematical principles used during the Unified Shilla period. The unification of systematic and extremely elaborate designs results in a relic worthy of special note in the history of East Asian architecture. It also demonstrates the outstanding qualities of Korean architecture. The application of principles of solid geometry based on plane geometry can be also discerned in Sokkuram. Its vaulted ceiling was built upon a semirectangle with supplementary building material, using measurements calculated from the circular constant pi after dividing the circumference of the rectangle into ten sections above the radius of 10 ch'ok-a truly astonishing and ingenious method.

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---1----

Clockwise from upper left: A geometrical diagram of the elevation of the antechamberofSOkkuram; the composition of the antechamber including the main Buddha based ongecr IJ!etrical division using the .f2 rectangle; the.f2 geometrical division of a reetangle; the composition of the facade ofSOkkuram

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Yoneda also marveled at the proportions of the grotto in an article entitled 55

"Personal Thoughts on Sokkuram's Expression of the Celestial Body."

I have come to believe that the forms and numbers expreS"sed in the composition of Sokkuram are somehow connected to astronomical mathematics, which formed the foundation of the celestial astrology of Mesopotamia. This could be a prejudice on my part, but the supposition is worth testing because the . dimensions and forms of the two are identical. In short, the planes of Sokkuram are based on a circle whose radius is 12 ch'ok (with a diameter of 24 ch'ok). This corresponds to 12 kak in a 24-hour day.

The 12-ch'ok entrance to the grotto is equivalent to one day (12 kak). The vaulted ceiling, representing the celestial universe, expresses the eternal world. At the center is a circular lotus blossom stone lid, or sun. The stones filling the space between each plate of the rectangle appear to symbolize stars. As the grotto is an expression of Sukhavati, or Buddhist Western Paradise, the entire grotto appears to refer to the world or the celestial universe.

I.

From this, one senses that Yoneda pursued a decidedly religious interpretation of Sokkuram's structure. After carefully reviewing his writings, I realized that the secret of Sokkuram had been unlocked not by an art historian or a religious scholar but by an obscure architect.

Grotto Structure and Main Buddha Yoneda did not specify how the dimensions of the main Buddha were determined. His interests as an architect were focused on Sokkuram's structure as a whole. However, the heart of the grotto is clearly the main Buddha at its center.

It was fortunate that the restoration of the grotto's facade to its original state and the study of the proportional relationship between the facade and the 56

main Buddha were made possible thanks to research by Professor Nam Ch'on-u. Nam's findings made possible the reinforcement of the proportional theory left unfinished by Yoneda.

In this article, I frequently refer to the relationship between the grotto's structure and its carvings. Here I refer to the main Buddha in the center of the grotto. The rest of the carvings either closely adhere to the structure of Sokkuram itself, such as the Buddhist images in the upper wall niches, or are carved in relief directly on its walls. As such, they can be safely excluded from S6kkuram's floor plan.

Two distinct perspectives are necessary in defining the relationship between the grotto's structure and the main Buddha. One focuses on the relationship between the main Buddha located in the center and the vertical planes of the grotto's structure. The other focuses on the relationship between the main Buddha and the grotto's facade which comes into view as one walks toward its entrance. The dimensions of the main Buddha are identical to those of the seated Buddha depicted with his hands in a protective gesture found at Mahabodi Temple in Bodhgaya India. The historic Buddha gained enlightenment there while sitting under the bodhi tree, and the Chinese monk and pilgrim Xuan Zang (600-664) of the Tang Dynasty measured the Indian statue using the Chinese unit of measure known in Korea as tang ch 'ok.

The identical dimensions were hardly a coincidence and indicate that the size of the main Buddha was determined prior to drawing up the construction plans for Sokkuram. The relationship between the main Buddha and the horizontal and vertical planes of the grotto was determined after the dimensions of the main Buddha were fixed.

Their harmonious relationship is demonstrated in the diverse proportions of right triangles and squares of 12-tang ch'ok units found in Sokkuram.

The discovery that the dimensions

of the main Buddha were fixed before the construction of the grotto reinforces the geometric and mathematical principles unearthed by Yoneda. It would have been much easier to design the grotto first. By determining the main Buddha's dimensions in advance, the plans for the grotto naturally were subject to numerous restrictions. However, this is not evident in its structure, as it stands in complete harmony with the main Buddha. Furthermore, the composition of the pedestal of the main Buddha is unified through a perfect and unfathomable mathematical relationship despite having been designed after the mathematical principles of the structure and the dimensions of the main Buddha had been determined.

The main Buddha measures 11.53 tang ch'ok in height, almost 12 tang ch'ok. The planners of Sokkura!Jl must have designed the grotto using 12 tang ch'ok as their basic unit. The combined length of one side of the main Buddha and the pedestal also equals the diagonal of a 12-tang ch'ok square, reinforcing this supposition.

Next and equally important is the relationship between the grotto's facade and the main Buddha. Although it is difficult to visually perceive the relationship between the main Buddha and the vertical and horizontal planes of the grotto, it clearly was planned meticulously a s it is the first impression of the grotto as one approaches it from Pulguksa Temple.

An important feature of the facade is the pair of octagonal columns standing between the entrance passage and the main chamber. The octagonal columns fit into a skylight in the ceiling.

The columns symbolize entry into the realm of Buddhism or the sacred area of the main chamber where the main Buddha is enshrined. At the same time, the skylight illuminates the face of the main Buddha and serves as a strong link in the structural relationship between the passage and the main chamber.

The octagonal columns are divided

into upper and lower sections by stone brackets in the shape of lotus petals.

The skylight was inserted in the upper .portion of the columns with the lower portion constituting the ¡principal entrance. Thus the two octagonal columns, which consist of pedestals engraved with lotus blossoms, carved stone brackets and the skylight, served to accentuate the main Buddha viewed from the entrance to the main chamber.

The carved brackets jutting out from the middle of these columns clearly divide the entrance into two sections.

The lower section is for the comings and goings of believers and the upper section reveals the face of the main Buddha at its center. The skylight is above the columns, over the Buddha's head. The entrance is thus divided into two parts: the upper portion symbolizing the celestial world and the lower part the earth. The bold introduction of the brackets appears to have been planned with this purpose in mind. At the same time, the brackets link the columns to the dome. As such, Sokkuram's essential structural elements were transformed into symbolic forms which took on religious significance.

The relationship between the main Buddha and the facade (the restoration of which I was involved in) based on the structure of the skylight suggested

by Professor Nam Ch'on-u is as follows: 1) The lower section of the entrance forms a rectangle with one side measuring 12 tang ch'ok. This is called the "inner rectangle:' 2) The entire width of the facade, including the pair of guardian deities, is identical to the entire height of the columns and creates an "outer rectangle." As such, the composition of the facade forms two rectangles of different dimensions.

3) The height of the entrance arch is almost identical to the height of the main chamber from its floor to the niches at the base of the dome, and therefore coincides with the height of the main Buddha.

4) The chin of the main Buddha corresponds to the upper edge of the brackets on the octagonal columns, thereby emphasizing the Buddha's face.

5) The width of the main Buddha's shoulders is identical to the distance between the two columns.

A diagram showing that thediameterofthehalois themoduleforthe . composidon of the antechamber (top)anda diagram showing the composidon of the antechamber using the .f2 rectangle (bottom).

The beautiful proportions contained in nature were, from early times, extracted and transformed into various geometrical diagrams and then applied to the composition of art such as architecture, sculpture and painting Proportions were therefore explained through geometrical designs, and ultimately, geometry came to be inseparably related with art The composition of construction design is essentially determined by geometrical proportions.

These findings show that the composition of Sokkuram's facade was based on the basic 12-tang ch'ok unit as was the case with its vertical and horizontal planes. They also show that the size of the main Buddha determined the composition of Sokkuram's facade.

The dual rectangular composition of Sokkuram's facade is also manifested in the vertical planes of the" main chamber. The height from floor to ceiling equals two widths of the inside of the niches above the chamber to form a rectangle. Another noteworthy .feature is that the diameter of the nimbus of the main Buddha on the upper back wall equals one-fourth the height of the main chamber. In other words, the diameter of the nimbus was designed to equal one half of . the basic 12-tang ch'ok unit.

Gateway to Harmony What principle of proportions was applied both to the integration of vertical and horizontal planes in the main chamber, as revealed by Yoneda, and to the proportional relationship of the SOkkuram's facade and the relationship between the restored facade, and the main Buddha?

In my analysis, the vertical planes were designed to create two overlapping groups of 1:.[2 rectangles (the "gateway to harmony"). The 1:-./2 rectangle incorporates a square and a rectangle approximating .fO . It was designed so that only a portion of this rectangle overlaps in the center. In the overlapping portion are the face of the main Buddha and niches which house images of bodhisattvas. In its lower portionthe combination of two squares-are relief carvings of standing bodhisattvas and the Buddha's ten disciples. In the 57

upper portion of the overlapping section is the dome designed to rest on the point where two squares merge.

As such, .f2 rectangles were applied in various ways in the vertical planes of Sokkuram. The term "golden rectangle" refers to a form in which sections of equal proportions are endlessly repeated in accordance with the component principle unique to the .f2 rectangle. In a golden rectangle, the proportions of the long and short sides are created with "golden sections." The golden rectangle also incorporates countless shapes that are different and yet of equal proportions.

The "gateway to harmony" demonstrated in Sokkuram and the golden sections incorporate the countless repetition of like forms in like proportions.

The principles of natural beauty are manifested geometrically and mathematically in their forms. The magnificence of these pleasing proportions and their inherent philosophical and religious insights were applied to physical forms to create the Greek Parthenon and other works of art and architecture.

It must be noted that the mathematical relationship between the parts and the whole was applied in this shrine. The principle of the golden rectangle was applied in building the Greek Parthenon, whereas the principle of a gateway to harmony was applied to SOkkuram, a Buddhist shrine, during the Unified Shilla Kingdom.

In the Parthenon, the golden rectangle principle was applied to emphasize the structure's exterior beauty. In Sokkuram, the gateway to harmony principle was applied to emphasize the grotto's interior beauty. Nevertheless, the two share a principle of proportion which establishes an integral relationship between the parts and the whole.

Sokkuram consists of curved lines, whereas the Parthenon is characterized by straight lines (All components of Sokkuram's cross sections, including those of the dome, are curved, creating a three-dimensional curved surface.) so that a square or .f2 rectangle appears 58

only when the entire main chamber is dissected lengthwise. It appears that the differences between circles, rectangles, the .f2 rectangle (gateway to harmony) and .f3 rectangles were used in various ways. Among these, the gateway to harmony determined the longitudinal section of the main chamber as well as the height of the main Buddha, creating the principal element of Sokkuram's structure.

Commensurable Relationship Basic geometrical figures were applied to Sokkuram's facade and planes. In the vertical planes of the main chamber, the proportions of the gateway to harmony, or .f2 rectangles, were applied in numerous ways. Meticulous geome!ric design is evident not only in Sokkuram but also in the design of many temples dating back to the seventh to ninth century. Perfect composition and proportions were aesthetic elements inherent in almost every example of architecture from the late Three Kingdoms to the mid-Unified Shilla Kingdom period. The architecture of this period can be categorized as ideal classical. This theme is also found in the sculpture of this period. Another characteristic of this period is the profound interrelationship of ideology, religion, astronomy and geometry.

The classical styles of Korean architecture based on such perfect composition and proportions had no parallel in contemporary China, but they can be compared to those of India as theories of classical styles were already established in Hindu art at this time. They can also be compared to classical Greek architecture as the Greeks actively pursued research into the ideal characteristics of classical theories as an artistic phenomenon of universal theories. As is well-known, the importance of Greek and Roman art was not confined to Greece or the Italian peninsula. They assumed a decisive role in mandala art as well. Greek and Roman art also came into contact with China and thus may have had indirect links with

Korean architecture.

What is the significance of the perfect proportions intrinsic to classical styles? Proportions are inherent to all natural forms. The beautiful proportions contained in nature were, from early times, extracted and transformed into various geometrical diagrams and then applied to the composition of art such as architecture, sculpture and painting. Proportions were therefore explained through geometrical designs, and ultimately, geometry came to be inseparably related with art. The composition of construction design is essentially determined by geometrical proportions.

Geometry, which developed from astronomy in ancient times, is a study of the order of space through the dimensions of forms and their interrelationship. Geometry was reflected in ancient concepts of the universe and was also related to philosophy and religion. With the representation of the number of vibrations of a sound in proportion or ratio, the harmonic aspects of music could be explained through geometry and the rhythm of poetry could also be established. The geometric proportions elicited from natural phenomena (dharma in Buddhism) took on importance in other areas of human culture, including astronomy, philosophy, religion, the form ; tive arts and music. As such, geometry is the product of a concept of the universe and the world derived from observations of and thoughts about dynamic and ever-changing natural phenomena. As such, it is closely related to the fundamental aspects of human consciousness. Therefore, geometry becomes a discipline in which all hutnan cultural activities merge.

In Buddhism, a combination of various geometrical diagrams or mandala were created as the means of conveying profound Buddhist thought in Tantric Buddhism-an intensified form of Mahayana Buddhism. Images of the Buddha and bodhisattvas were placed

inside these geometrical forms, and the French mathematician Henri Poincare emphasized the intuition and imagination of the poet, arguing that no one can become a true scholar of geometry without being a poet first. Thus geometric proportions became the most important principle in the realization of _ancient ideals and the beauty of harmony.

Proportions signify balance which is the root of harmony. Balance can only be achieved when one quantity is proportional to another. The proportion maintained between the parts and the whole and also between the parts themselves leads to interrelationships.

As such, harmony refers to a valid relationship in which the parts affect the whole, and in such a relationship, a common unit can invariably be found.

Because of this basic unit, a commensurable relationship of homogeneity can be established, even though the dimensions may differ. Proportional harmony has been sacred since ancient times and thus came to influence religious concepts as well.

Natural science and art search for unity amidst variety. Religion is no different. Laws of proportions, seemingly bestowed by the gods, were applied in religious construction for this reason.

In short, religious principles and principles of proportions were identical.

This means that construction based on proportions transformed religious concepts into artistic forms. This is why one can feel religious sublimity and artistic beauty when entering such structures. Since the laws of proportions were elicited from natural phenomena and Buddhism was established by an exploration of natural phenomena, perhaps there is a common principle underlying the two.

The gateway to harmony applied in Sokkuram is literally the entrance to a Buddhist world of harmony. The laws of proportion, which have changed over time, reflect ceaseless human efforts in pursuit of harmony.

The symphony of majesty, sublimi-

"

A side view of the main SOkkuram Buddha

ty and beauty one feels in Sokkuram results not only from its structure or the principal statue of the Buddha, but also from a unique harmony of all the elements inherent in its structure.

Through this harmony, Sokkuram real-

izes the ultimate ideals of Buddhism using a language of formative art. In this way, art and religion mirror each other and at the same time establish a commensurable relationship without a subordinate aspect. +

The symphony of majesty, sublimity and beauty one feels in 56kkuram results not only from its structure or the principal statue of the Buddha, but also from a unique harmony of all the elements inherent in its structure.

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stones. The mountain's intrinsic beauty exudes the wonder of nature and the brilliant achievements of the Shilla Kingdom. Once one sets foot there it is hard to leave.

Kowisan, at 494 meters, is Namsan's tallest peak, but its main peak, synonymous with Namsan, is Kumosan (literally "Golden Turtle Mountain"), standing 468 meters in height The Namsan area measures 13 kilometers from east to west and 8 kilometers from north to south. This area is an outdoor museum comprising more than 40 valleys, 106 temples or temple ruins, 78 Buddhist statues or carvings and 61 pagodas scattered over the mountainous landscape.

Few regions boast such a concentration of Buddhist relics. The abundance of relics bespeaks the devotion of the Shilla people and their belief in the mystical powers of Namsan, their sacred mountain.

The legendary spring where Shilla's founder Pak Hyokkose was said to have hatched from a red egg is found at the foot of Namsan as is Ch'angnimsa, the site of Shilla's first palace.

P'osokchOng, an elaborate garden pavilion where the Shilla Kingdom came to a tragic end, also stands at the foot of the southern slope. Indeed, the history of the Shilla Kingdom seems to have opened and closed on the skirts of Namsan.

Leaving Mundane World Behind Climb into the ravines of Namsan and one can sense how powerful the mountain must have been in Shilla society. The hollow ring of Buddhist believers' wooden clappers, the low murmur of chanting monks, the heartfelt repetition of entreaties to the Buddha, the lingering peal of temple bells, reverberating temple drums, the whisper of the wind, the gurgle of a stream-a few moments in the forest transport the visitor beyond the mundane world.

Before climbing Namsan, however, one should first visit Ch'on-gwansa Temple not far from Kyongju National 62

Namsan was Shilla's sacred mountain. It was the Western Paradise of the Buddha, the place everyone hoped their ashes would be buried.

Above, from top to bottom: A headless sculpture of a seated Buddha, three royal tombs, one of which is the tomb of King Kyong-ae whose death marked the virtual end of the Shilla Kingdom, a stone marker at the spot where Pak Hyokkose, the founder of Shilla, is said to have hatched from an egg. An image of the Buddha carved on thesideofKiimosan (right).

Clockwise from above: Ch'ilburam, the "Seven Buddha Hermitage" on the eastern slope of Kilmosan;a carving of A valokitesvara (Kwanseilm posal), the Bodhisattva of Mercy; a Buddha triad to the south of P'o50kchong; and some rice fields in a valley viewed from Mt. Kilmosan

Namsan's beauty lies in its peaceful harmonization of nature and culture. An immortal outdoor museum, it endures the winds, rain, snow and time.

Museum downtown. Ch'on-gwangsa is named for a beautiful kisaeng entertainer whom the great Shilla general Kim Yu-shin (595-673) loved as a youth.

According to legend, Kim visited the young woman everyday after training until his mother learned of their relationship and forbade him from seeing her. Kim apologized for his indiscretion and promised never to go near Ch'ongwan's house again. Then one day as he rode home lost in thought, Kim found himself in front of her house. His horse had gone there out of habit. Ch'ongwan dashed out, thrilled to see her lover, but Kim drew his sword and killed his beloved horse, then turned and walked home. Ch'on-gwan cried for days and finally committed suicide.

Years later, still disturbed by the loss of his lover, General Kim ordered a temple built on the site of her home. The tale of General Kim and Ch'on-gwan tells of the general's resolve and filial piety as well as his undying love for the kisaeng Ch'on-gwan. These feelings were 64

shared by the Shilla people who overcame their own emotional conflicts inherent in such situations through their faith in Buddhism.

One of the most important Buddhist relics found on Namsan is the stonerelief Buddha triad of Ch 'ilburam, "Seven Buddha Hermitage." In the triad one can discern the profound spirit and compassion of the Shilla people. The Buddha's warm eyes, broad chest and shoulders, his sturdy build and the natural flow of his robe reflect the feelings and demeanor of the Shilla people. The compassion in the Buddha'-s face is particularly well expressed.

Ch'ilburam is located in Ponghwagol Ravine on the eastern slope of Kumosan. As one climbs deeper into the ravine, the pine trees seem taller and more densely packed. The path follows a steep flight of zigzagging stairs to the hermitage. Ch'ilburam was named for the seven Buddhist statues carved in stone there. All four sides of

one huge square boulder are carved, and behind this is the Buddha triad.

The figures' posture and sturdy build as well as the natural draping of their robes are thought to reflect the stature and tastes of the Shilla people.

A 10-minute hike up from this hermitage is another notable boulder. It offers a magnificent view of the surrounding area, but more importantly one finds a seated image of the Buddha carved deep in a niche in the boulder. Perched so high on the ridge, the Buddha appears to be riding a cloud, yet his expression suggests spiritual peace. In front of the stone niche is a flat rock which is thought to have been the foundation of a hermitage long ago. From here, Pulguksa Temple and Mt. T'ohamsan are visible, as are the streets and fields of Kyongju.

Although images of the Buddha are found throughout Namsan, this stone niche Buddha exudes a special feeling.

It has an especially benevolent and friendly expression, almost as if it was modeled after a woman from a respectable middle-c!ass Shilla family.

Unlike many of the other Buddhist images in Kyongju, this carving is somewhat less refined, yet it projects an unusual power and charm, evoking ¡ warm feelings aniong all in its presence. The fact that the Buddha seems ensconced in meditation within the small niche adds to its aura of tranquility and f~milarty.

The depiction of its closed eyes is representative of the older Buddha figures on the mountain.

During this early period, most Buddha figures had an innocent look, much like a child, or the benevolent gaze of an elderly grandmother. This was the form in which Buddhism was first introduced to the people of the Korean peninsula. The warmth of this Buddha's expression seems to have a universally calming effect. Local residents tell the story of a Japanese tourist who visited the Buddha on a moonlit night and ended up pitching his tent there and sleeping under its benevolent gaze.

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Roots of Shilla The site of the spring where the Shilla founder Pak Hy6kk6se is said to have been born is located on the western skirts of Namsan, not far from downtown Kyongju. Within a small pine grove, the site is marked by a small pavilion built to protect a stone monument. Alongside the pavilion is a stone lid which covers the opening to the spring. As is the case in many foundation myths, Pak Hy6kk6se is said to have been born from a heavenly egg.

The egg was discovered by a village leader who was walking past the spring. He noticed a white horse whinnying in the pine grove. When he drew closer to investigate, the horse disappeared into the sky, leaving behind a large red egg. The egg cracked open and out came a baby boy. The village leader took the baby home and raised him. As the child grew, it became apparent that he was extremely bright and precocious. And at the age of only 13 this child, Pak Hy6kk6se, became king.

The next stop on a tour of Namsan's historical sites is P'os6kch6ng Pavilion.

It too is located on the western skirts of the mountain. The pavilion is long gone now but the abalone-shaped stone channel which used to carry water around the garden is still there. The stone channel got its name from the Chinese characters for abalone. Shilla aristocrats came to this place for relaxation and entertainment. They held lavish parties at the pavilion, floating cups of wine on the clear water running through the channel Sometimes they held contests, seeing who could write a poem as the wine cups approached them.

This site was also the stage for the tragic finale of the Shilla Kingdom. In the late autumn of 927, King Kyong-ae, known for his love of drink and women, was enjoying the company of his queen and several court ladies at P'os6kch6ng when agents of the Later Paekche Kingdom stormed in, taking the king into custody and forcing him 66

to commit suicide. The women present were raped by the Paekche soldiers. In a matter of moments, P'os6kch0ng was stained with blood and terror.

The death of King Kyong-ae, the next to the last Shilla ruler, marked the virtual end of the kingdom. Thus people tend to remember P'os6kch6ng as a scene of debauchery which led to the demise of a brilliant civilization, but historical records indicate that this was not the case. King Munmu (r. 661-681) established a shrine honoring military heroes at the site, and Shilla's h warang military elite is said to have trained there. Today the water in a stream nearby gurgles quietly and birds nap in the forest. The natural surroundings are as beautiful as they were when Shilla thrived but the poetry and dance are long gone.

Perhaps this is why P'os6kch6ng is said to be ihe loneliest of Shilla's many relics.

Following the downfall of Shilla, the newly founded Kory6 Dynasty moved its capital to Kaesong in the north, and Kyongju was relegated to a country backwater. Kyongju never recovered its former glory, and during the Chason Dynasty which followed Kory6, Buddhism was suppressed, further undermining the culture of the former capital. Pagodas were knocked down, Buddhist statues destroyed and many temples were reduced to graveyards.

Stone Buddhas and a Legend Despite the tragedy at this site, P'os6kch6ng and its surrounding area exude a distinct warmth and familiarity.

The tumuli that dot the landscape integrate the region's rich history into the natural environment. So do the stone pagodas, statues and carvings scattered over the fields and mountains. Therein lies Namsan's unique charm.

The valley where P'os6kch6ng stands is home to 10 ancient temple sites. The most famous is Ch'angnimsa Temple, which stands on the site of Shilla's very first palace. All that remains of the temple today is a single stone stele bearing an engraved inscription by the most renowned Shilla calligrapher,

Kim Saeng (711-791).

To the south of P'os6kch6ng are three stone Buddhas. The spot appears to be the site of an ancient temple but nothing remains of any temple buildings. The Buddhas date back to the mid-seventh century. Their faces convey a certain naive innocence, rather than the benevolent gaze found on many later Buddha images. Stand before these friendly figures and all worries and heartache disappear in their gentle smiles. Perhaps the stone Buddhas are tangible symbols of the power of faith in the Buddha, the power to achieve a world of peace through religious belief. The three stone Buddhas are elaborately carved, both in front and back. The statues are distinguished by the three-dimensional depiction of their arms. Most stone Buddhas' arms are carved low against the body to prevent possible damage.

Among the many Buddhist images found in Kyongju, these have been afforded special attention, after the main Buddha of the Sokkuram Grotto of course, because 9f their exquisite carving.

The largest Buddha on Namsan is the rock cliff Buddha on Kumosan. It stands 8.6 meters high and 4 meters across and was carved into the cliff. It would be the largest Buddha on Namsan if its head, which has since broken off, is included in its dimensions. The Buddha is partic~ly striking because of the bold lines used to highlight its robes.

Several rocks have been placed at the foot of the Buddha to replace toes lost over the centuries. Their size alone suggests the dignified presence which this Buddha must have projected when his head was still intact. The Buddha's right hand is directed downward, the left toward the sky as if he is commanding the mountain peaks around him.

To the southwest of the rock cliff Buddha is Ch'onyongsa Temple. Aptly enough it is located at the end of Y6lban-gol, "Nirvana Ravine." Many strangely shaped boulders are found along the path to this temple. Each one

A headless Buddha sits atop a pagoda at the site of Yongjangsa Temple on the western slope of Mt. Namsan.

I

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has a name derived from a legend dating back to the Shilla era. According to the legend, a Shilla minister had a beautiful daughter who decided to devote her life to believing in the Buddha and relinquished her parents' love and the ardent proposals of many suitors. She left her home and set out for Yolbangol, exchanging her fine garments for tattered clothing at the ravine's entrance.

The woman's scent attracted wild beasts from the forest. She was frightened by their growling but continued to hike into the forest, her mind focused on reaching the Buddha land. She finally emerged from the ravine of wild beasts and climbed onto a ridge. There she met an elderly woman leaning on a walking stick The old woman guided her to Ch'onyongsa, the land of Nirvana in the sky, where the young woman became a dedicated helper of the Buddha.

At the entrance to Yolban-gol is a large flat stone. This is where the young woman changed her clothing,

leaving the material world behind.

Along the path through the ravine are numerous boulders-Cat Rock, Fox Rock, Wild Boar Rock, Bear Rock-all so named for the wild beasts that harassed the devout young woman as she climbed the mountain. This legend and the names of the boulders and ravine reflect the Shilla people's faith in Buddhism and their rich imagination.

Literary Roots Yongjangsa Temple stands at the end of a long ravine on the western slope of Namsan. It is home to a threestory stone pagoda, a stone Buddha and a rock cliff Buddha. The pagoda is perched on a peak and is visible from a considerable distance. Viewed from the valley below it seems to pierce the sky. The pagoda is typical of Shilla pagodas. What makes this site special is that the renowned Choson scholar and poet Kim Shi-si:ip (1435-1493) once stayed here for some time. When Kim was 21, the boy-king Tanjong was

deposed by his uncle Sejo who then took the throne. Discouraged by the kingdom's moral deprevation, Kim shaved his head and became a wandering monk He spent his longest stay at Yongjangsa. It was here that he wrote New Stories from Golden Turtle MounJain (Kumo Shinhwa), a crystal-

lization of his thought and years of studies and the first Korean novel written in Classical Chinese. Yongjangsa operated for 800 years, from the Shilla period through the Choson I)ynasty. It is all but gone now, although shards of roof tiles and pottery are plentiful at the site.

Namsan's beauty lies in its peaceful harmony of nature and culture. An immortal outdoor museum, it endures the winds, rain, snow and time.

Throughout history, Namsan has preserved the beauty and spirit of a lost civilization. Perhaps this is the secret behind the feeling of mystery and discovery one experiences with each visit to Namsan. + 67

KOREAN ARTIFACTS ABROAD

One Man's Dream

Koi-yO Art Museu1n Kim Kwang-on Professor of Folklore Inha University

here were several antique shops to the south of the Keihan Sanjo station in Kyo to, Japan. Chong Cho-mun had to walk past these shops often, and whenever he did, his heart always skipped a beat at the sight of a white porcelain jar displayed in the window of a shop called Yanagi He wanted to go in and ask the shopkeeper, ''What kind of jar is that?'' But he always stopped short of entering the shop, believing it to be far too expensive for the owner of a pachinko (slot machine) parlor. .Then one day, he worked up the courage to open the door to the shop. ''How much is that jar in the window?''

"It's 500,000 yen."

This was an astronomical sum in 1955, enough to cause Chong's heart to drop.

"Why is it so expensive?'' he asked.

"Well, have you ever seen a more beautiful piece of Yi Dynasty white porcelain?'' the young shopkeeper asked softly.

"Yi Dynasty?" ChOng knew little more than that the Yi Dynasty and the Chason Dynasty were the same.

"Yes," replied the shopkeeper, "it's more than 300 years old."

Several days later, ChOng went back to the shop and arranged to buy the pot by paying monthly installments. It took him over a year to pay for it He was 37

T

KoryoArtMuseum

years old at the time. This was the first step in the founding of the Koryo Art Museum.

Although there are more than a thousand art museums in Japan, the Koryo Art Museum is the only one dedicated to relics from Korea. Even more impressive perhaps is that all of its approximately 1,700 pieces were collected in Japan.

Chong Cho-mun (1918-1989) was born in Umang-ri, Yech'on-gun, Kyongsangbuk-do province, Korea. His family was rather well-off, his grandfather having been dispatched to Tokyo in 1898 fol-

lowing his success in the kwago, the government examination for appointment to public office. ChOng's grandfather learned medal manufacturing skills there and worked for the medal manufacturing department. However, the family fortune began to decline when ChOng's father went to Shanghai in 1918 to participate in the national independence movement against Japan. He returned to Korea but later emigrated to Kyoto with his wife, eldest son Kwimun (then 8), and Cho-mun (then 6).

He bought a weaving machine and tried to make a living by weaving cloth but it was impossible to get much work done because detectives and police officers came almost every day to pester him about his previous anti-Japanese activities. Cho-mun himself went to work for a textile shop which provided room and board. His mother died, exhausted from overwork, in 1936. The following year, as Japan was preparing for war,¡ the government banned the production of traditional dyed clothes, designating them luxury items. This put an end to the family's bu~ines and forced the family to scatter and look for other work ChOng went to Osaka with his grandmother and younger siblings and worked as a stevedore, and his father returned to Korea with a concubine and their three sons.

After he saved some money, ChOng

.

Chong Cho-mun grieved over his nation's split and nursed an ardent desire to establish a "unified art museum" that would not recognize the division of the Korean peninsula.

Museum is the result of that desire.

68

The Kory6 Art

returned to Kyoto and opened a casino with 50 slot machines, the first of its kind in Kyoto. Due to his extraordinary business insight and skills, his business prospered and he was made the first chairman of an association of Korean entertainers in Kyoto and actively participated in many social activities.

Chong never returned to Korea.

Although he had been born in the South, his heart belonged to the North.

He grieved over his nation's split and nursed an ardent desire to establish a "unified art museum" that would not recognize the division of the Korean peninsula. The Koryo (Korai) Art Museum is the result of that desire.

ChOng chose the name 'Koryo" for his museum because Koryo was the first unified kingdom in Korea. Ironically, North Koreans gave him and his museum the cold shoulder.

Art collectors are well known for going to extraordinary lengths to collect items of interest to them, but ChOng's passion was extraordinary. His fervor was such that he had to see a relic even

when he had no money to buy it.

Upon seeing a relic, he was not satisfied till he touched it If the relic was worthy enough, he would become almost mad with longing to have it, stopping at nothing to obtain it. Such an intense passion did not originate from a simple desire for art objects, but from a tenacious desire to recover all objects of Korean origin held by Japanese.

Masaaki Ueda, a Kyoto University professor who was one of Chong's ardent supporters, said, "Not only was his determination to collect Korean art pieces taken by Japanese during their colonial rule overwhelming, but his tenacity to recover all that.were in Japan was truly admirable. Each of the art pieces he collected was purchased with his blood, sweat and tears."

A ChosiJn Dyansty white porcelain jar with dragon and cloud decoration (above) and a display of Korean art objects (below) in theKoryoArtMuseum

Korean Influence onJapanese Culture After establishing the Chason Cultural Company in 1969, Chong founded a quarterly entitled Korean Culture in japan. The magazine, the 50th and last issue of which was pub-

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lished in June 1981, was extremely influential as the following excerpt from an article carried in the Kyoto Shimbun, a Japanese daily, eloquently demonstrates.

"This magazine characterized by its focus on the value of Korean arts and culture cast such a great influence that one would think that Japan would be nothing had it not been for the people and culture of ancient Chason. No other magazine has caused a greater shock to Japan's highly prejudiced historians.. .."

The magazine's editor-in-chief was Kim Tal-su, a renowned historian of Korean descent living in Japan. He devoted himself to revealing Korea's influence on Japan's history and culture.

He helped publicize that Koreans who migrated to Japan in the third century B.C. founded a nation in Japan and their culture greatly influenced the development of Japanese culture. One outcome of his efforts was the changing of the term kikajin, "naturalized citizen" or "denizen," used by Japanese historians to refer to Koreans who became naturalized Japanese citizens to terajin, "migrant from across the sea," a term that has come to be used in school textbooks as well ChOng originally planned to print between 50 and 100 copies of the first issue of his magazine, but he received so many requests that he printed 2,000 issues and then 5,000 copies of the second issue. These figures alone show how much interest the magazine generated.

In 1972, ChOng, his brother and Kim Tal-su organized a group tour to see relics related to Korea scattered all over Japan to give readers a firsthand look at what they had been reading about in the magazine. Interest in the tour was so great that more than 500 people applied to participate and about 300 of them had to be turned away. Kim Talsu and Professor Ueda led the first tour of a region near Asuka. Twenty-nine other tours followed.

A special feature of the magazine was a discussion of a certain topic by 70

An inlaid celadon goblet, Koryo Dynasty

four or five experts, the entire contents of which were carried in the magazine.

This generated a great deal of interest not only from scholars of Japanese history but also from lay readers. The roundtable discussion was one of the reasons the magazine became so popular and had a circulation of 5,000. A collection of the discussions was eventually published in a book entitled Ancient japan and Chason which was followed by four more similar books. Important articles printed in the magazine were also published in a book called japanese

Culture and Korea.

Many Japanese assisted ChOng Chomun from the beginning of the publication of the magazine to the establishment of the art museum. One of them was an author named Ryotaro Shiba.

ChOng and Shiba lived in the same neighborhood and at first they merely exchanged greetings during their morning walks in a nearby park.

Reminiscing about ChOng, Shiba said: "One day, ChOng asked for my help in founding a magazine. He said, 'I am now fifty years old. I have saved some money and want to use it for something

meaningful' I thought that any magazine published by an old man running a pachinko parlor and a restaurant would not last longer than three issues, but I agreed anyway, thinking it could be fun."

The following is part of a memorial address by Kyoichi Arimitsu, director of the Koryo Art Museum, delivered at Shiba's funeral in February 1996: "Mr. Shiba and Mr. ChOng, the founder and first chairman of the board of directors of the Koryo Art Museum, were such close friends that they would have gladly given up their lives for each other.

From the beginning of the museum, Mr. Shiba played an important role and helped Mr. ChOng publish Korean Culture in japan. A number of talented new writers, historians and archaeologists were captivated by Mr. ChOng and cooperated from the beginniqg 'with wholehearted passion' as Mr. Shiba once said. Mr. Shiba participated in twelve of the fifty round-table discussions organized by the magazine. And four of these were in the first ten issues. This indicates the depth of .Mr. Shiba's passion and devotion to the magazine. Perhaps the discussions were his idea in the first place. . . . Mr. Shiba was the one person who completely understood Mr. ChOng Cho-mun, and he did not hesitate to offer his advice for the establishment and management of the Koryo Art " ...."

Museum Professor Ueda also deserves recognition for the cooperation and assistance he provided. He had this to say about how he came to meet the Chong brothers and Kim Tal-su: "Before we met, they knew about me through my book, Denizens which was published in 1%5.

One day that summer they came to lecture I was giving at Ritsumeikan University but I did not know they were there until much later. I guess they had come to my lecture to see what kind of person I was ... ."

ChOng Cho-mun planned his magazine carefully and searched diligently for collaborators. Ueda contributed articles regularly to the magazine from 1%9, and

a

he also played a vital role in the founding of the Koryo Art Museum.

Some of the other Japanese who .greatly assisted in the publication of Korean Culture in ]aprm were Tatsusaburo Haysh~ Takashi Umehara, Mitsusada Inoue, Seicho Matsumoto, Koichi Mori, Teiji Kadowaki, Kyoichi Arimitsu, Yasushi Inoue and Encho Tamura. They were all authorities in their fields of specialty.

During a 30.year period beginning in 1955, ChOng collected a total of 1,680 Korean relics in Japan. When the time finally carne for him to realize his dream of building an art museum, Chong first established a foundation and went through the legal procedures of donating his entire collection to the foundation.

He searched far and wide to buy an appropriate site for the museum but the

A punch'ong flask with floral design, Choson Dynasty (above); stone relics in the garden of the Koryo Art Museum (below)

price of land was exorbitantly expensive.

Cheaper sites were inconveniently located. Finally, he decided to raze his house in the northern prefecture of Kyoto and build the museum in its place. The three-story Koryo Art Museum (with one underground level), a 450-squaremeter steel and concrete structure, opened on October 25, 1988.

The museum is not only the realization of the personal dream of an individual, ChOng Cho-mun, but also a reflection of the unrequited grief of Koreans living in Japan who long for their motherland which is divided.

The year after the museum opened, ¡ an affiliated research institute was established. The institute is engaged in a variety of activities and, as of May 1996, it has presented 58 lectures on Korean culture. +

The Kory6 Art Museum is not only the realization of the personal dream of an individual, Chong Chomun, but also a reflection of the unrequited grief of Koreans living in japan who long for their motherland which is divided.

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KOREAN ARTISTS ABROAD

. The Paintings of

Nikolai Sergeevich Shin Choi Tae-man Art Critic

he painful wailing of people clad in traditional Korean clothing, the shadows of overwhelming tragedy and grief, the devastation and sadness of people uprooted from their homeland and forced to bear the burden of history: these are all vividly illustrated in a Baroque style with contrasting dark and bright colors. The paintings of Shin Sun-nam depict a part of Korea's gloomy past not many Koreans have experienced, but should know about.

These paintings are all the more significant because they were inspired by Shin's own painful experiences.

Shin, a third-generation KoreanRussian artist, currently lives in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, and goes by the name Nikolai Sergeevich Shin. Prior to traveling to Uzbekistan to meet Shin, what little I knew about Central Asia was limited to a few romantic stories and fantasies about the Silk Road that once served as the crossroads of Eastern and Western cultures.

Originating from the icefield on top of the Pamir Plateau and flowing through Afghanistan and Central Asia to the Aral Sea, the Amu Darya River, which the ancient Greeks called the Oxus, joins a tributary of the Narin River that originates from the Tien Shan Mountains in the east at Syrdarya. To the north is a vast extension of the Kyzylkum Desert, underneath which flows abundant subterranean water. This explains the rise of prosperous oasis cities such as Heeba, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent

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Shin Sun-nam

The paintings of Shin Sun-nam depict a part of Korea's gloomy past not many Koreans have experienced, but should know about.

These paintings are all the more significant because they were inspired

by Shin's own painful experiences.

which are at the heart of Uzbekistan in the central part of Central Asia.

Uzbekistan was established in 1924 when, inspired by the Russian Revolution, the Uzbeks of the three Hans-Bukhara, Heeba and Kokant Han, all colonial states of feudal Russia-set up a Soviet-style government. Before the establishment of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the region was the site of ceaseless battles and raids staged to gain control of the gateway connecting the East and the West.

The struggles date back to about 400 B.C. when the armies.of Alexander the Great, who had conquered the Persian Empire, reached as far as the oasis city of Bukhara. The rise of the prosperous Sasanian Persian Dynasty in Iran contributed to the propagation of Islam in the Central Asian region. In 1219, Genghis Khan of Mongolia took control of the region by destroying the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara.

In 1370, Timur, a descendant of Genghis Khan, built an empire which stretched from Moscow to Delhi, India.

Regrettably, the brilliant culture that developed and flourished in the region under the rule of Urug-Beg, the grandson of Timur, was destroyed as a result of power struggles among tribes over the territory, and the Timur Empire slowly perished. In the end, the territory, which was divided among the three Han nations, was integrated into the Russian Empire.

In Chinese history, the region often referred to as Xiyu, "Western Boundary," is the Xinjiang region in

western China which was inhabited by the Uigurs. The term may also be expanded to include all Central Asian ~ountries including Persia, Asia Minor and Syria as well as the Middle East.

Early in the late Han period, China had its first encounter with Western civilization when Han Wudi dispatched General Zhang Qian to the Western Boundary to suppress the Huns.

Although the military expedition failed, it opened the Silk Road. Xuan Jiang, a Buddhist monk of the Tang period and the author of the journal of the Travel to the West of Great Tang, is said to have returned home by way of the rugged Hindu Kush Mountains, Pamir Plateau and Central Asia, bringing with him Buddhist scriptures and statues from India.

As for Korea, its encounters with the cultures of Central Asia were rather minor except for a few.

During the reign of King Ky6ngd6k (r.

745-762) of the Shilla Kingdom, a Buddhist priest named Hyech'o wrote in his book titled Record of a journey to the Five Indian Kingdoms that he had travelled to India by sea and then continued his journey to Bukhara and Samarkand, then returned to Changan, the capital of Tang China, in 727.

Another example is an expedition made by General Ko Son-ji, a descendant of the Koguryo Kingdom who was naturalized to Tang China. In the year 747, commanding a 10,000-man army, Ko crossed the Pamir Plateau and subdued 72 tribal states along the Western Boundary, which had allied with the Saracen Empire against Tang.

Three years later, he was sent on a second expedition to conquer Tashkent. It is recorded that during the Unified Shilla period (668-935), many western (Arab) merchants sailed to Chonghaejin, a garrison built

by General Chang Po-go near Wan do, Chollanam -do, and later on other Korean ports during the time of the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392) when trade by sea prospered. However, Central Asia remained relatively unkown terri-

Requiem,1986-1990,partofapaintingwhichmeasures300x4400cm(above);Shin (front row, far left), his sons (second row, first & second from right) and other members ofan artists' association 73

A Song, 1988,300 x 800 em

Although they are a minority, the Koreans in Uzbekistan have overcome their sorrow and are now proud citizens of Uzbekistan. Nevertheless, few people can imagine the hardships these Koreans had to face, leaving behind what little they had in Primorsky Kray and once again settling in a foreign land.

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tory to most Koreans.

What prompted Korea to establish a meaningful and inseparable relationship with Central Asia was Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin's forced relocation of Koreans living in Primorsky Kray of Siberia's Maritime Province to Central Asia in the late 1930s on suspicion that they were collaborating with the Japanese. At that time, approximately 300,000 Koreans were put on freight trains against their will and sent to Central Asia, a journey that took several days and nights. As they had to cross the frozen Siberia in uninsulated trains, many children and old people died from cold and starvation.

But those who survived the journey did not succumb to the adverse environment and conditions of Central Asia. With the tenacity and vitality of the Korean people, they suc~ed in cultivating the barren land.

Although they are a minority, the Koreans in Uzbekistan have overcome their sorrow and are now proud citizens of Uzbekistan. Nevertheless, few people can imagine the hardships these Koreans had to face, leaving behind what little they had in Primorsky Kray and once again settling in a foreign land. As of 1991, when the Soviet Union was dismantled and Uzbekistan gained its independence, the majority of the Uzbekistan popula tion was Uzbeks and Russians with minorities of Tartars, Kazaks, Kaghiks, Karacalpaks and a variety of other groups, including 0.9 percent of whom call themselves Koryo-in, or literally, "Koryo people." Belonging to neither North or South Korea, they call themselves Kareiski, a Russian term reflecting the tragedy and sorrow of their divided homeland.

Little was known in South Korea about these ethnic Koreans before the establishment of formal diplomatic relations between Seoul and Tashkent.

But with the opening of diplomatic ties came information about these people and naturally about the artists among them.

Requiem V, 1984-1987,200 x 1200 em

From Requiem to A Song Shin was born in Dalnevostok in Primorsky Kra y, a town near Nahodka, in 1928. His father passed away when he was four years old and his mother remarried the year after. Shin's widowed grandmother raised him and his two sisters. In 1937, the family was forced to emigrate to Central Asia under Stalin's deportation policy. His family lived in Kazakstan for a while and then moved to Uzbekistan in 1940. They have been living in Tashkent ever since.

Because of his grandmother's traditional Korean belief that males must receive an education, Shin was sent to school despite the family's dire financial situation. He graduated from the P. P. Bankov School of Art in Tashkent, and went on to continue his studies at the A.N. Ostrovsky Institute of Art. Shin first gained public recognition for his art when he won the

grand prize at the International Youth Festival in Moscow in 1957. That same year, he received the second prize in the Republican Festival of Young Artists of Uzbekistan. Shin also received the Honored Art Worker award presented by the Uzbek government in 1978.

Shin, taciturn and thoughtful, is considered one of the best artists in Uzbekistan. He has become wellknown in Western nations since holding a solo exhibition in Moscow in 1990 and another in Tashkent the next year. Despite a scanty monthly salary of US$50, he has taught art at his alma mater, the P. P. Bankov School of Art, since 1955.

His series on the migration of the Korean people, which he started painting in the late 1980s, has attracted much interest from the foreign community in Tashkent. As a result, Shin received support from the Central

Asian-American Enterprise Fund through the good offices of Anthony Shephard and Associates in Tashkent.

This support enabled him to hold a large retrospective solo exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in Uzbekistan in 1995.

Since _his first exhibition in 1991, Shin has dreamed of holding an exhibition in his motherland. He contacted several South Korean organizations with offices in the region. Finally, in 1995, Shin attracted the attention of the Embassy of South Korea in Uzbekistan with his retrospective exhibition, paving the way for him to realize his dream. In April this year, Lim Young-bang, the curator of the National Museum of Contemporary Art in Seoul, and a delegation, of which I was a member, visited Shin to discuss the details for an exhibition of his works in Korea. My first impression of Shin was that of a typical old, 75

head-strong Korean man. His pride was evident even in the few words he spoke. The integrity and stubbornness developed during his lifetime as an artist showed through in his appearance and manner. Stressing that he has never received money for his paintings, Shin showed all the qualities of the Korean literati of old who valued their integrity above all else and adamantly adhered to their principles.

Having spent his entire life outside Korea, Shin knows almost no Korean language. Nevertheless, Shin is a Korean at heart, which must be why his works evoke great emotion in Korean viewers. My prejudiced belief that Shin's works would show the influence of the socialist realism school promoted by the former Soviet government proved to be groundless.

Some of Shin's early works I saw at his studio, in fact, did show excellent skill in realistic rendering. But he had chosen his own ideographic language, which was a departure from the classical socialist realism style. He has a profound knowledge of art history, and his works transcend the boundaries of classical realism, impressionism, cubism, constructivism, and surrealism. I was indeed surprised to find so many books on art filling the bookshelves of Shin's library when I visited his home. As if to testify to his extensive know ledge of Western art, Shin has done some paintings in the style of Renaissance masters Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.

From an art critic's point of view, Shin's art may be divided into three periods, the first being the exultation of life. During this period, Shin painted the positive aspects of life and an optimistic world view. Representative of works in this period is a painting of Shin and his wife holding a wedding ceremony against a background of bright pink apricot blossoms.

Other works from this period include paintings of happy moments shared with his wife and of a suburban 76

town called Sukok which Shin described as a heaven on earth.

Despite the sorrows and difficulties Shin must have experienced, the paintings from this period are imbued with an optimistic and positive view of the world. For example, the fairy tale-like illustration of the abundant and happy lives of people in the community, titled Sukok, shows how the world of humans is integrally linked to nature itself.

The paintings in the Requiem series are representative of his second period, and are perhaps Shin's most representative works. With dramatic compositions and somber colors and tones, the series depicts painful episodes in the history of the Koreans who were driven from the Far East Maritime Province to Central Asia.

The Requiem series provides a broad view of the history of the Korean migrants. The paintings are dedicated to those who died during the process of settling in the barren land, and include scenes of people mourning the death of their children or parents who died from disease and starvation.

For example, Requiem V, painted during the period from 1984 to 1987, shows mothers holding their dead children; their expressions are reminiscent of the symbolic expressions seen in mural paintings made during the Mexican revolution in the 1920s.

It is also reminiscent of paintings by Picasso in the 1950s.

Nevertheless, the series of paintings are unique to Shin Sun-nam. The red banners alluding to an elegy, the headpiece made of hempcloth and the momners' clothes always depicted in the series are typical of traditional Korean funerals. The white emblems and mourning clothes contrast sharply with the features of the parents crying out in the darkness, creating a mood that is comparable to the passion expressed in works of art from the Baroque period. Shin started focusing on the subject of Korean migrants in the 1960s, but his most

representative painting dealing with their suffering, desperation, mourning and pain is a 1980 work, Mother and Daughter. The piece portrays a mother lost in deep sorrow as she lights a candle for her deceased daughter.

The painting is mostly black and red with some white highlighting. It is Shin's tribute to the Koreans as well as a commemoration of their suffering.

The religious symbols and connotations in Shin's paintings show the influence of his father who was Buddhist and his mother who was Christian. However, a large part of what Shin paints comes from his memory of everyday Korean customs passed down by word of mouth. The masterpiece of Shin's Requiem series is a piece entitled Requiem, which consists of 22 2-meter-long c_anvases put together to form a 44-meter-long painting. The depiction of the figures is more typical of stained glass works or murals. The painting's tone is not as somber and tragic as some of his other works which. have more complex compositions and more realistic rendering. Whatever the style, the mood dominating all of his works is the inevitable sorrow of humans facing death. But the virtue of this painting lies not in the weakness and modesty of human beings who experience" pain and frustration before death , .but in the fact that those Korean settlers, overcoming extreme adversities, succeeded in cultivating rice in that barren land, and obtained Uzbek citizenship to exercise their legitimate rights, and that those people exult in their life with a positive and optimistic outlook despite their painful experiences.

Shin's paintings since 1990 do not contain religious symbols or subjects with gruesome expressions. They are more abstract and use brighter, more lively colors. These works constitute a third period. Among them is a 52meter-long painting titled A Song, a name which reflects a transition. This

piece features a king, a poet and a maiden. The composition is more graphic and abstract than his previous works. Instead of pathetic figures, the can vas is filled with ide ographic images dating far back in Uzbek history and symbolizing the acceptance of life. So even an abstract painting of fans titled Animated Fans may be described as an illustration of a very

passive and accepting attitude toward life depicting the spirit of the deceased going to another world.

The abstract style of his works since 1990 shows the influence of the absolutism of the avant-garde Russian style.

Shin now possesses a maturity that comes with age. As his sons and daughters-in-law are all professional artists and

even his granddaughter is an aspiring artist, perhaps he is trying to be a good role model.

When Shin's lifetime works are introduced to the Korean public at the National Museum of Contemporary Art in Seoul, art lovers here will see paintings created out of a passion rooted in the history of the suffering and survival of Koreans in Central Asia. +

Sukok Medallions, 1987,170 x 240 em

The religious symbols and connotations in Shin's paintings show the influence of his father who was Buddhist and his mother who was Christian.

However, a large part of what Shin paints comes from his memory of everyday Korean customs passed down by word of mouth.

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I

I

DISCOVERING KOREA

Korean Ginseng NamKi-yeul Chief, Division of Ginseng Pharmacology Korea Ginseng and Tobacco Research Institute

veryone wants to lead a long, healthy life free of disease and pain. Ginseng, insam in Korean, has long been used in Oriental medicine as a tonic or an emergency remedy for sustaining the life of a critically ill person. It has also been sought after for its mysterious powers to rejuvenate, extend one's youth and lengthen one's life. For these reasons, ginseng was often used as tribute, playing a role in politics and economics of Korea, China and Japan.

It is not known exactly when ginseng began to be used for medicinal purposes. However, ginseng is mentioned in the ]ijiuzhang, a children's reader compiled by the historian Shiyou in the Early Han period, and there is a detailed mention of ginseng in Shennong bencao-chien, written about 100 B.C, China's oldest extant pharmacopoeia. Moreover, of the 113 prescriptions contained in China's oldest clinical text, the Shanghan zabinglun, which was written by Zhang Zhong-jing during the Late Han period (AD. 196-219) and is still used today, 21 of them call for ginseng.

According to the sixth century Chinese work Mingyi-bielu, a medical book authored by Tao Hong-jing of Liang and the Shennong bencao-chien, there were three major areas where ginseng grew naturally: the Taixing Mountains, east of what is now Shanxi province, the Changbai Mountains that stretch south of Jilin province and east of Liaoning province, and Paektu Mountain range that stretches south to cover a sizable part of the Korean

~

E

78

Ginseng has long been used in Oriental medicine as a tonic or an emergency remedy for sustaining the life of a critically ill person.

It has also been sought after for its mysterious po~ers

to rejuvenate,

extend one's youth and lengthen one's life.

peninsula.

In Korea, wild ginseng was used for medicinal purposes after its effectiveness was proven by empirical experiments as early as the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century). It is recorded in the Mingyi-bielu that wild ginseng was sent to China by Paekche in 513 and by Koguryo several times from 435 to 546.

Historically, the areas where ginseng grew were either under unified dynasties, which prospered and declined successively, or in strong tribal countries.

According to the Chajing (The Book of Teas), written by Lu Y.u of China's Tang Dynasty in 758-760, the best quality ginseng came from Shangdang, the average quality from Paekche and Shilla and the lowest quality from KoryO. However, it is recorded in the Bencao gangmu, an encyclopedia of herbs published in 1590

by Li Shizhen during Ming China, that the cultivation of ginseng in Shangdang had declined and its production in the Taixing Mountains and Manchuria had almost come to an end, forcing the Ming Dynasty to depend on ginseng from Paekche, Shilla and KoryO. As for the quality, Paekche ginseng was highly esteemed, followed by that of KoryO. Paekche ginseng was described as slender, yet firm and white, whereas Koryo ginseng was larger, but soft and not as good.

At that time, Koryo referred to the Liaodong region in southern Manchuria, the major area for Chinese ginseng, and Paekche comprised what is now the Kyonggi-do and Ch'ungch'ong-do provinces, Korea's main ginseng belt In

I I

I '

sum, the superiority of Korean ginseng is well documented in historical sources.

¡What Is Korean Ginseng?

Botanically, ginseng is a plant belonging to the panax genus of the Arali aceae family whose roots are used for medicinal purposes. Etymologically, panax is derived from the Greek pan, meaning all, and axos, meaning cure.

Several plants belong to this family, but there are basically three species that are cultivated for economic reasons and traded as products in the ginseng market: panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, which is distributed and cultivated in Northeast Asia including Korea and China; American ginseng, panax quinquefolium Linne, which grows in the United States and Canada; and Tenchi (or Sanghi) ginseng, panax notoginseng (Burk) F. H. Chen. The American and Tenchi ginseng are not of the same species as Korean ginseng, and when ginseng is mentioned, it generally means panax ginseng C. A. Meyer.

Accordingly, the ginseng which is mentioned in old Chinese medical books and has been used for medicinal purposes for more than 2,000 years and is now recognized as one of the most important traditional medicines, is none other than Korean ginseng. Historically, Koryo began to be known to the outside world because of Koryo ginseng, and for this reason the country became known in the West as Korea, and the ginseng raised and produced in Korea subsequently became known as Korean ginseng.

Korean red ginseng, which is produced by the government-controlled Ginseng and Tobacco Corporation, is particularly well known. Only carefully selected six-year-old roots which meet the quality standards established by the Korean government are put on the market or processed into medical products.

Korean red ginseng is more dense compared to red ginseng from China and Japan and of a superior quality. It also has a unique odor that is easily recognized by foreign merchants who deal

Fresh ginseng roots

with Korean ginseng.

Korean red ginseng has been sought after for its superior quality and medicinal efficacy from ages ago. It thus commands a premium price in Hong Kong and Taiwan, the main ginseng markets in the world. Because of its exceptional reputation, there are even red ginseng "forgers." ' How did Korean ginseng come to have these characteristics? In herbal medicine, where an herb is cultivated is considered highly important because the area's climate and soil affect the plant's quality. It is generally understood that Korean ginseng's superior quality derives from Korea's highly developed cultivation methods and unique red ginseng processing expertise

as well as the country's climate and soil which are ideal for ginseng.

Ginseng Cultivation When did ginseng cultivation begin in Korea? Before the advent of cultivation, ginseng mainly meant ginseng growing in the wild. Wild ginseng, or sansam, mountain ginseng, was considered to be an important political and economical commodity as far back as the Three Kingdoms period, but as the demand for it increased, its reserves were nearly exhausted. In order to meet the demand, people began to grow it. In the beginning, wild ginseng seeds or young shoots were cultivated in the mountains, but later a method using artificial shade was developed and 79

is still used today. Some people presume that the cultivation of ginseng in Korea began over 1,000 years ago, but historical records indicate that full-scale ginseng cultivation began¡ during the reign of King SOnja (r. 1567-1608) of the Chason Dynasty because the demand for ginseng could not be met with the gathering of wild ginseng. In 1728, Korean wild ginseng and seeds as well as cultivation methods were introduced to Japan.

In botanical terms, ginseng is very different physiologically from other plants and its cultivation is quite complicated. Ginseng prefers shade, so it must be protected from the sun. Because it grows in the shade, its photosynthetic ratio is lower than that of other outdoor plants and as a result the roots do not grow deeply in the ground. An average six-year-old root weighs about 90 grams.

The ginseng root is quite fragile and, unlike other plants, does not show a differentiation between its root cap and root hairs. Ginseng is rather frail and its ability to absorb nutrients is very limit-

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ed. It cannot be treated with concentrated chemical fertilizer. Since the growth and development of ginseng roots depend on the soil and topography, it is very important to select the right soil and manage it well for ginseng cultivation. It is almost impossible to cultivate ginseng in the same soil for at least ten years after a ginseng harvest.

In Korea, seeds are planted in a nursery and allowed to grow into young plants. Once they have grown to a certain size, only the best are selected and transplanted to the field, where they will be left to grow for an extended period. Because of the soil management skills and transplantation method, Korean ginseng has a unique shape compared with ginseng produced in other countries-it is shaped like a human body.

Medicinal Effects In the Shennong bencao-chien, a classical Chinese medical text written 2,000 years ago, ginseng is said "to protect all organs, calm down the mind, soothe the

spirit, stop the symptom of easy frigh~ prevent infestation by wicked spirits, clear the eyes and open the heart wider, and if taken for a long time, the body will be lighter and longevity can be achieved:' Korean ginseng is the most important medicinal supplement recommended for a deficiency of ki (or qi in Chinese), or weak constitution. Ki refers to a vital internal energy that regulates the functioning of internal organs and a person's energy level A ki deficiency can cause a lack of energy and poor health in general Thus, Korean ginseng has been prescribed in numerous medical books in China and Korea for improving strength, overcoming exhaustion and strengthening the digestive, neurological, metabolic and circulatory systems. It was either used alone or in combination ; when with other herbal ingredt~ used in combination, ginseng has been often used as the key component to enhance the efficacy of the other ingredients.

Although Korean ginseng has been

treasured in the East since ancient times, it became known to the West after World War II. In the early 1%0s, studies on the medical efficacy of Korean ginseng began in earnest, especia1ly chemical analyses of ginseng's primary medical component, saponin. In the early 1970s, the chemical structure of ginseng saponin was first revealed, and now more than 30 components of saponin have been found. Saponin in ginseng attracts attention because its chemical structure is different from those of saponins of other plants. Ginseng saponin is differentiated as "ginsenosides," meaning glycoside contained only in ginseng.

Saponin is believed to contribute to the reduction of fatigue, the promotion of cell production and enhanced mental and physical efficiency and the reduction of the blood sugar level In addition to saponin, ginseng contains various other active components such as polysaccharides, protein, peptides, polyacetylene compounds, phenolic compounds and alkaloids.

Clinical research suggests that ginseng can help the human body adapt to a harmful environment, recover quickly from fatigue, improve human athletic capability and increase endurance. Moreover, it appears effective in protecting the body from environmental stress such as heat and cold, and slowing the decline of imm unization.

This indicates that ginseng increases the body's resistance to physical, chemical and biological stress, thus strengthening the body's resistance to illness and boosting its powers of recovery. In other words, it functions to maintain homeostasis. In particular, ginseng is believed to be more effective for an unhealthy person than a healthy one.

According to the pharmacological findings being revealed by modern scientific research, ginseng has an anti-carcinogenic effect on cancer and increases the effect of cancer drugs. Ginseng also enhances immunity by activating "killer cells" that destroy infected or cancerous cells in the body and by encour-

aging the production of inteferon.

Depending on the dosage and the individual, ginseng affects the central nervous system in different ways, either stimulating or depressing it. In addition, it has been revealed that ginseng has neurological effects that help promote cerebral functions, improving learning ability, and improving memory and general intellectual ability. Finally, ginseng also acts to expand veins and arteries and improve blood circulation, thereby alleviating circulatory problems and countering the hardening of the arteries. Ginseng has other diverse effects for regulating blood pressure, improving diabetes and symptoms of menopause, and deterring stress-related ulcers.

As scientific research confirms the medical benefits of ginseng, its value for the enhancing of health, long limited to the East, is being recognized in the West.

Thus, Korean ginseng is now widely accepted in many countries across the world for medical purposes and as a health supplement. +

GÂĽ'sengplants(left);a womangatheringfruitfromginseng plants(above)

The ginseng which is mentioned in old Chinese medical books and has been used for medicinal purposes for more than 2,000 years and is now recognized as one of the most important traditional medicines is none other than Korean ginseng.

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CURRENTS

Pusan International Ydm Festival Chang Suk-young Film Critic

orea recently hosted its first full-scale international film festival. From September 13 to 21, the first Pusan International Film Festival (PIFF) was held in Pusan, the nation's second largest city and its southernmost port, where Korea's first film production company was established after motion pictures were introduced to the country in 1919.

According to the organizers, the festival was aimed at promoting the development of the film industry in Korea and Asia at large and to bring the public and filmmakers closer together. The organizers' efforts apparently paid off; throughout the festival movie theaters in the Namp'o-dong district, the main venue, were always filled to capacity.

Three major features distinguished the PIFF from other film festivals: First, it was noncompetitive; second, it focused on films produced in Asia, especially Northeast Asia; and third, it promoted Korean films and filmmakers. A total of 173 films from 31 countries were shown in seven categories: A Win dow on Asian Cinema, World Cinema, Korean Panorama, New Currents, Wide Angle, Special Programs, and Korean Retrospective.

A Window on Asian Cinema featured films produced in the last two years by Asian directors that remarkably convey Asian sentiments or meet world-class standards of movie making.

World Cinema included non-Asian movies produced last year which won major international film a wards, acknowledged masterpieces and the

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major works of the world's leading directors. Korean Panorama showcased a selection of Korean movies made during 1996 which have been recognized for their commercial or artistic qualities, while New Currents presented the first films of Asia's new and emerging directors to show the dynamic future of Asian cinema. Wide Angle featured short films, documentaries and animation to show the infinite range and potential of film, and Special Programs presented select works for domestic and foreign guests visiting Pusan.

Korean Retrospective offered a chance to evaluate the works of deceased filmmakers, specific film trends and movies made during the 1980s and 1990s that ushered in new trends in Korean cinema.

Other events included open discussions with audience participation and seminars and symposiums participated in by Asian directors. The seminars were conducted with such themes as "Retrospective, Current Status and Despair of Korean Independent Films;' "Making Low-Budget Independent Films in Asia" and "Conglomerates' Advance into Film Industry and Its Prospects."

The festival opened with a special showing of Secrets and Lies by director Mike Leigh. This film, which won the Golden Palm Award at Cannes, was shown on a large, outdoor screen 33 meters wide and 18.5 meters high (about six stories high) installed at the Pusan Yachting Center. The screen was brought from Locarno, Switzerland, expressly for the festivaL

Other films that drew the largest audiences included . . . And Moon Dances directed by Garin Nugroho (1995, Indonesia), Temptress Moon by Chen Kaige which sharply portrayed life in China (1996, China), Sleeping Man

by Kohei Oguri (1996, Japan) which featured Korea's leading actor Ahn Song-ki, The 8th Day by Jaco Van Dormael (1996, France), Ishii Sogo's August in the Water which c~used quite a sensation in Japan (1995, Japan), Theo Angelopoulos's Ulysses Gaze set against the backdrop of the Balkan civil war (1995, Italy, France, and Greece) and Zhang Yuan's Behind the Forbidden City, a story- about homosexual love in Beijing (19%, China).

In the Korean Panorama catregory, Broken Branches directed by Park Jaeho (19%), The Day a Pig Fell into the Well by Hong Sang-soo (19%), Farewell My Darling by Park Chul-soo (19%), A Hot Roof by Lee Min-yong (19%) and A Single Spark by Park Kwang-su (1995) re¡ceived much attention and praise.

The New Currents category, which focused on the future of Asian cinema, offered works by new directors including White Balloon directed by ]afar Panahi (1995, Iran), Ah-Chung by Chang Tso-chi (1996, Taiwan), In Expectation

by Zhang Ming (1996, China), Three Friends by Yim Soon-rye (19%, Korea) and Time Lasts by Kim Eung-soo (19%, Korea).

Four specially invited films by independent U.S. filmmakers also received much attention. Todd Solondz's Welcome to the Doll House (1995),

CURRENTS which was chosen the best picture at the Sundance Film Festi.val, James Mangold's Heavy (1994), Han Salwen's Denise Calls Up (1995), and Jim Jarmusch's Dead Man were like a breath of a fresh air to the audiences accustomed to Hollywood-style movies.

The Wide Angle category featured documentaries and independent films that offered their own interpretation of Asia and its unique sentiments.

Homeless directed by Zhang Kee-chul (1996, Korea), The River of Reconciliation by Korean-Japanese director Kim Duk-chul (1996, Japan), and Bari Zogon by Fumiki Watanabe (1996 ,Japan) were some of the best As for animation, the Japanese

entries were among the best Katsuhiro Otomo's Memories, Mamoru Oshii's Ghost in the Shell and Roysuke Takahashi's The Silent Service were especially popular. With their incorporation of Asian values and attention to detail, Japan's animated features were closer to Korean sensibilities than Disney movies and gave the alarm to Korean filmmakers in this genre.

Noncompetitive Event Being a noncompetitive film festival, the PIFF focused on presenting both the debut works of Asian directors and internationally recognized feature movies. By showcasing Asian movies that are strong in artistic appeal, the

organizers hoped to make the festival a window to each country's political, economic and social character. To continue this valuable function, the film festival's organizers should make it a regular event.

In the New Currents category which featured 13 works from 8 Asian countries, China's Zhang Ming was chosen as Asia's best new director for his film In Expectation and Korea's Yirn Soon-rye was presented the NETPAC (Network for Promotion of Asian Cinema) award for his film Three Friends. Grants of US$10,000 were presented to Zhang and Yirn to help finance their next films.

In the Wide Angle category, there were 23 programs featuring 81 short

A scene from Mike Leigh'sSecrets and Lies

Three major features distinguished the PIFF from other film festivals: First, it was noncompetitive; second, it focused on films produced in Asia, especially Northeast Asia; and third, it promoted Korean films and filmmakers.

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CURRENTS

Clockwise from above: Ah Chang, (Taiwan), an entry in the New Currents category; Sleeping Man, (Japan), an entry in the category of A Window on Asian Cinema; Time Lasts, (Korea), an entry in the New Currents category; and filmmakers at a symposium

films, animated features, and documentaries. Of the 13 works from 13 countries presented in the international section, Russian director Andrei Sheleznjakov's Arrival of the Train (35mm, 9 minutes, 20 seconds, 1995) won the !)est short feature award. In the Korean competition, which fea-

By showcasing Asian movies that are strong in artistic appeal, the organizers hoped to make the festival a window to each country's political, economic and social character.

To continue this valuable function, the film festival's organizers should make it a regular event.

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tured 10 works, the award for best short film went to Jun Soo-il for Echoing in My Being (35mm, 40 minutes, 1996). Each winner received a cash award of US$10,000.

At the closing ceremony, the PIFF Organizing Committee presented Ancha Flubacher Rhim, a Korean-Swiss, Tony Rayns and a few other people with special commemorative awards for their efforts to promote Asian cinema.

What made the PIFF a success was the enthusiastic response of the audiences, comprising not only the residents of Pusan but film enthusiasts from all over the country, who patiently waited in line and literally packed the theaters.

They were rewarded with hours of fine movies.

To ensure the longevity of the PIFF, the organizing committee is advised to publish a white paper objectively detailing every aspect of this year's event to use as a guide for preparing next year's event Constructive criticism is essential to ensure the continued growth of the PIFF. This year's opening film should have been something that clearly experessed the character of the festival, which is quite different from other international festivals such as that of Cannes.

Identifying new cinema artists is one of the aims <?f the PIFF, but Stage Door, . . .

And Moon Dances, The Arsonist, Its a Long Way to the Sea, Oakeri, The journey, Sons, Nostalgia for Countryland, Mee Pok Man, April 19th, Ghost in the Shell, Memories, Hey Man, What You Want!?, The Mushroom Paradise and The Sex Warriors and the Samurai had already been presented at

the 1996 Hong Kong International Film Festival. The films in the competitive programs were mostly short features.

More attention should have been given to longer works.

In addition, because the festival lacked a specific theme related to Pusan

CURRENTS

or for that matter Korea, it sometimes · seemed like a public relations. campaign without a clear message. One reason for the PIFF's lack of focus could be the lack of professional publicists with experience in international film festivals.

The quality of Asian short films left much to be desired; even workshop pieces were presented. Dowsing, MPMilitary Police & Military Prisoner and Suicide Party had all won awards in other film festivals, and were thus nothing new. It was also sad to see many Asian filmmakers copying Hollywood's commercialism and sensationalism while boasting about Asian cinema's unique and noncommercial traits.

A film festival can only be judged successful when all the participantsdirectors, actors, film festival staffers, jury members, theater owners and audiences-gain pleasure from it Because it was Korea's first attempt to hold an international film festival, there were mishaps due to inexperience, commercialism, and restrictions from the Public Performance Ethics Committee.

However, the PIFF was generally deemed a success.

Although Koreans accounted for most of the audiences, there were some films that had no Korean subtitles.

Furthermore, because many of the movies had already been bought by Korean distributors, the PIFF practically became an advertising arena for them.

On the other hand, little effort was made to promote and arrange the export of Korean films, not even the ones presented in the festival Nonetheless, the future of the PIFF looks bright. On October 4, the Constitutional Court ruled that the longstanding practice of prior screening (or censorship) of films by the state-run Public Performance Ethics Committee was unconstitutional, a ruling that will contribute to reinvigorating Korea's film industry. The operation of the festival

itself will improve with more experience and the PIFF Organizing Committee has said that it will prepare detailed rules regarding the presentation of movies imported by distributors.

One of the major accomplishments of the first PIFF was the introduction of films that were different from Hollywood-style movies. Films from Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore and Japan, art films from Europe that were not well known in Korea, and documentaries from India and Taiwan that were almost unknown in Korea were presented, offering audiences new and exciting alternatives to

Hollywood productions. Korean documentarie-s and short films that were until now almost ignored by Korean moviegoers were also introduced through the festival. ·The PIFF, organized to confirm the identity and promote further understanding of Asian movies, also succeeded in drawing a large audience. · The total number of spectators was close to 200,000, exceeding the original expectation of 150,000. And because the audiences were mostly young, the PIFF has secured a base for future festivals.

The young people of Pusan have 85

CURRENTS

always had a keen interest in movies, but they have had fewer_ chances for meeting filmmakers than moviegoers in Seoul. The enthusiasm of Pusan's young citizens was one of the key factors in the PIFFs success.

In preparing and staging the PIFF, the organizers repeatedly stressed its noncommercial nature. Still, there

were many areas in which commercialism was plain to see, and about 70 percent of the movies introduced at the PIFF were not first showings.

A new venture, such as the PIFF, is apt to invite criticism and disappointment at its beginning. The Cannes, Venice, Berlin and other leading international film festivals were also criti-

cized at first for being too commercial.

Korean filmmakers and the entire film community hope to see the PIFF mature into an independent event, protected from any unwarranted political or economic influences so that it can fulfill its original objective of pro.moting Asian films and camaraderie among filmmakers. +

NEW PUBLICATION

Korean Cultural Heritage Vohune D: Thought (I Religion, Z69 pages, 301oOo won (US$40)

Following the acclaim that Volume I, Fine Arts, in the Korean Cultural Heritage series received, the Korea Foundation has published Volume II, Thought and Religion.

Compiled from articles featured in KOREANA from 1987 through 1994, this hard cover volume focuses on one of the most intriguing aspects of Korean culture-its philosophical and religious heritage.

This volume is divided into eight sections. The introduction discusses the spiritual realm of the Korean people and the origins of Korean religion. In the next section, loyalty and filial piety, two of the most significant tenets of Confucian society, are brought into clear focus for Western audiences.

Separate sections deal with Buddhism and Confucianism.

Contributors consider the influence of Buddhism on Korea's history, philosophy, art, music, dance and literature. What distinguishes Korean Buddhism from that of other cultures? What are the goals and practices of Korean Buddhists, and what is Buddhism's role in modern society?

Confucianism's influence on Korean culture, especially in regard to educa-

86

tion and political theory, is discussed along with Confucian rites, preserved more faithfully in Korea than in any other country.

Of special interest to readers abroad will be the sections on Korea's indigenous religious traditions. These include the rich communal heritage of village rites and the role of shamanism in Korean culture.

Although the ritual significance of Korea's village rites has been diluted in modern times, they remain potent reflections of the Korean people's tra-

ditional reverence for the power of nature.

The roots of Korean shamanism are buried deep in Korea's ancient myths, but the religion lives on in the arts, religion and spiritual consciousness of modern Koreans. Efforts are being made to preset ve the rich traditions of shamanism, its dance, music and art, all of which have played an important role in the development of Korean culture.

Finally, several articles focus on the issue of religion in modern times.

Traditional thought systems, such as Confucianism and Buddhism, remain strong in the face of the widespread popularity of Catholicism and Protestantism, relatively new imports to Korea. Yet the story of modern religion and philosophy echoes the turmoil and hardships of Korea's modern history.

In addition to the superb photographs that complement the articles, this volume contains a glossary of important terms and phrases, a pronunciation guide, authors' introductions, an index, a world chronological table, a listing of Korea's royal lineages and maps.

(Suzanna Samstag)

JOURNEYS IN KO,REAN LITERATURE

L·ee Mun-ku 8 "'

0 ·

With a firm grasp of reality and in a style of his own, Lee Mun-ku writes about the harsh, uprooted life of people who leave their hometowns to live in urban areas and abo'!t life i:n farming villages wasting away in the shadow of industrialization.

87

Lee Mun-ku The Last Poet of a Farming Village Yujong-ho Yun Tong-ju Professor of English Literature Yonsei University

orea's industrialization, which began in the mid-1960s, led Eric Hobsbawm, a leftist historian, to write in his history of the 20th century, The Age of Extremes, that South Korea is "as spectacular an industrial success story as any in history." At the end of the 1950s, according to Hobsbawm, 80 percent of Korea's labor force worked in agriculture, which accounted for three-quarters of the country gross national product (GNP).

However, by the late 1980s, only 10 percent of its gross domestic product (GDP) was derived from agriculture, and Korea had emerged as the world's eighth largest economy, not counting communist countries.

In the process of such rapid industrialization, Korea has undergone dynamic social changes and the standard of living has improved dramatically. At the same time, urbanization has led to a labor shortage in rural communities as an increasing number of young people have left their native villages to look for better work opportunities in cities. The rural situation has become such that male farmers say they have a hard time finding spouses. Indeed industrialization has sucked the life out of agricultural villages in Korea.

Although Korea's industrialization is a brilliant success story, many people believe that the cost involved has been too high. Many writers and poets have responded in their own ways to the negative influences brought about by the industrialization process. Among them, Lee Mun-ku is one of the best known.

With a firm grasp of reality and in a style of his own, he writes about the harsh,

K

88

uprooted life of people who leave their hometowns to live in urban areas and about life in farming villages wasting away in the shadow of industrialization Lee Mun-ku began his literary career by publishing short stories about uneducated, unskilled people who give up farming to eke out a precarious living by other means. His early short stories were published in two collections, This World of War and Sea Wall, which were soon followed by Dream of Lasting Regrets, a novel about people who relocate grave sites for a living. This novel was highly acclaimed because of its unique subject matter and realistic descriptions. Other notable works included Kwanch 'on Miscellany, a series of autobiographical essays based on his hometown, and Our Village and Why the Bird Cries, both of which deal with the wasting away of Korea's farming communities. His most recent works include Maewoltang, Kim Shi-sup, a historical novel about an uncompromising intellectual of the CMson Dynasty (1392-1910), and two collections of short stories, The Next Voice and Tale of Master Yu. Lee's stories always reveal the dark shadows of Korea's brilliant industrial success story and are intensely realistic.

Yet, compared with his contemporaries who lean toward realism, Lee's tone is less somber and histrionic; his style is based on satirical oral traditions and he employs ordinary everyday language and dialect to enrich the treatment of his subject A firsthand understanding of a particular subject is essential if it is to be portrayed vividly, and, without a doubt, Lee has a profound understanding of his sub-

ject matter, the rural village, which manifests his intense feelings about the decline of his hometown Lee's vivid realism and empathetic compassion also explain why he is an exceptional writer of children's poems. Unfortunately, his children's poems have not received the attention they deserve because critics tend to view literature for children and that for adults as mutually exclusive genres. His children's book, Mischievous Boy Sanbok, contains more than one hundred poems, all of them savory works characterized by a smart economy of words and a sophisticated use of language. Although there are some exceptions, the poe111s in general are based on life in rural villages, singing about farming chores, village scenes and children's feelings. They present very faithful depictions of rural scenes.

Over the mountain There must be lots of asteroids For they fell Severa) every night Over the mountain There must be a sea For the Silvery River* . flowed down all summer â&#x20AC;˘ The Milky Way

This beautiful children's poem, "Over the Mountain," is one of the most memorable written in Korean, but it is also a poem that can be appreciated by anyone in any part of the world. Of course poems, especially those which emphasize special features of a language and employ word play, are often difficult to translate. But the images in the poem

spark the imagination. Whether it is called a children's poem or just a poem, I believe it is truly a masterpiece.

Mother lives in the field From morning Father lives in the rice paddy Until evening The baby plays outside Until night falls In the long, long day in midsummer The house is empty The swallow, the co-residn~ Watches the house instead In this poem, "Midsummer;' a family busy on their farm in a rural village is portrayed in a simple, yet characteristic

way. The parallelism and rhythm of the lines are outstanding. Although he uses no descriptive words, Lee depicts the essence of this busy time. An ordinary farming scene comes to life as if painted by the a~thor, a quality that is also apparent in the following poem, ''Poplar Tree:'

The poplar living On the levee of the rice field The wealth it has gathered for twenty years Is one swallow nest The leaves that used to glitter Are all gone somewhere.

In the long, long winter There is only empty sky Lee's poems about the rural landscape are successful because they are based on his childhood experiences in his native village. Striking a harmonious chord with 89

shoes and the fingers as rough as oak appropriate language, the poems create a twigs reminded me of silk cloth prototypical hometown. They develop woven with affection, thread by very naturally, and there is no a trace of thread, and the pine-cone sized bun at the artificiality that is so often found in the back of her head with an askew mediocre children's poems. ¡ Every one wooden hairpiece reminded me of of Lee's poems is neat, dear, simple and cotton fuzz picked up by the spindle pithy. The rhythm, which is all imporof a spinning wheel. Are her teeth tant in children's poems, is lively. that yellow because she has eaten lots In Lee's poems, the rural village we of soy bean paste soup? remember as being a world of poverty, is depicted as a world filled with wonder The metaphors in this passage from and,harmoriy. There is no hint of pover"White Clothes" ~ orne directly from ty or despair in the pastoral scenes he agrarian life. The metaphors and dialect creates. And they contain no moral must sound strange to young urban lessons or messages alluding to hatred or resentment One can sense the hand of a caring adult trying to shelter the child reader from the discontent and turbulence one must face so many times in the real world In his poems, the farming ¡ village is depicted before industrialization and the desertion of farmers as a friendly place, despite its widespread poverty, and is brought back to life as the quintessential hometown in the heart of the Korean reader.

Language of Real Life I have discussed Lee Mun-ku, the poet, when I should be talking about Lee Mun-ku, the novelist, because his poetic quality is apparent in all his writing, even his novels. It is not the subject matter that is important in his works; rather it is the language, the diction and the style in which the subject matter is dealt with.

The language reads as if it were infused with the vibrance of the spoken language of real life. Part of what makes a novel seem real is the speech and dialect of the characters. The words and dialect Lee uses in his works come from the actual language spoken by the farmers he grew up with.

The old woman seemed to go without even rubber shoes, except in the middle of winter. The top of her feet were like the back of a toad, and her hands were immensely big like a spatula for fodder. Her smell reminded me of my own grandmother. The bare feet that don't need even rubber 90

readers who are only familiar with standard Korean. The oft-heard criticism that Lee's writings are difficult to read might be related to the artificial separation between the language that young people are taught in school and the language that is used in real life. Through Lee Mun-ku's ,novels, one becomes aware that by alienating young people from the language of real life, the standardization of Korean has brought about a uniformity in not only the way young people think and express themselves but also their sentiments as well. Langauage is no longer colorful and expressive. It has become so dull that is is difficult to express delicate emotions.

Indeed, Lee Mun-ku's use of regional

dialects stands in stark contrast to the standardized language promoted by the educational establishment His writing is imbued with the little things that make life colorfuL He creates an ambience that is faithful to life at the grassroots. As one reads Lee's sentences aloud, one can hear the way Koreans used to talk and write not so long ago. Reading and writing are important in linguistics and literature, but they are preceded by speaking and listening. Lee's writing style grew out of a fundamental quest for speaking, telling stories and listening. His use of living language to depict the deterioration of rural communities resulting from the government-led industrialization is a sharp criticism of the unnatural standardization of language.

I have discussed many aspects of Lee Mun-ku's stylistic characteristics and their meaning, because I believe that delineating the characteristics that distinguish the writer from his contemporaries is crucial to understanding him. I would like to emphasize once more that his stories set in farming villages tell most vividly of the physical, emotional and social desolation of farming villages, while his stories depicting the poor are almost photographic in their faithfulness to the life of people who left their native homes to live in urban areas.

The collapse of old agricultural communities brought about heartless, selfish divisions and the loss of a sense of belongi~, and his novels repeatedly remind the reader of the adverse influences of the industrialization. In his works, farming villages are not depicted in simple, one-dimensional¡ terms. In Kwanch 'on Miscellany, perhaps Lee's most representative work, traditional life is poetically portrayed through the disappearance of a .law-abiding, dignified, albeit old-fashioned, character.

"The Sunset Over My Hometown," translated for this issue of KOREANA, is a psalm dedicated to rural life that describes what happened to the farming village. Free of sentimentality and nostalgia, it is indicative of Lee Mun-ku's realistic style. +

NEWS FROM THE KOREA FOUNDATION

Support for Korean Studies Programs Abroad

The Korea Foundation Fellowship Programs FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN STUDIFS

The Korea Foundation offers financial assistance to universities, research institutes and libraries abroad in their efforts to promote the study and understanding of subjects related to Korea. Projects submitted for consideration must be in the fields of the humanities, social sciences or arts and within the categories listed below: 1) Establishment and expansion of Korea-related courses and faculty positions, 2) Fellowships for graduate students or research grants for faculty members, and 3) Library acquisition and cataloging.

Applications must be submitted to The Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by October 15 of the same year.

For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

International Cooperation Department I The Korea Foundation

FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN LANGUAGE TRAINING

C.P.O. Box 2147 Seoul. Korea

The Korea Foundation offers grants for Korean language training to graduate students, scholars and other qualified professionals overseas who wish to learn the Korean language at a Korean university language institute for a period of six to twelve months.

Each successful applicant wHl be assigned to a Korean language course at a major Korean university and will be provided with tuition and a monthly allowance during the grant period.

Applicants should complete and submit The Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Language Training application form to The Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 15 of the same year.

For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

Tel. 82-2-753-3464.

Fox. 82-2-757-2047.2049

KOREA FOCUS A BIMONTHLY ON CURRENT KOREAN AFFAIRS

In addition to KOREANA, The Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of globalization KOREA FOCUS offers a comprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korea's current affairs. In this bimonthly, you will find timely essays and commentaries on Korea's politics, economy; society and culture, opinions on world affairs, and a chronology of recent events in Korea.

Published in English and Japanese, ._... __ ......__ its articles come from leading publications in Korea, including major 1¡=== daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals. ':"-.v~

¡----

International Cooperation Department II The Korea Foundation C.P.O. Box 2147 Seoul. Korea Tel, 82-2-753-6465 Fox, 82-2-757-2047,2049

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