Koreana Spring 1997 (English)

ONE OF THE VIEWS FROM OUR PRESTIGE CLASS JUST CLOSE YOUR EYES M

If your view in Prestige Class seems just a little more expansive than what you' re used to, it may be the full 50 inches of uninterrupted space you are stretching out in.

~AIR

Or, the fact you are seated in an area other airlines reserve for First Class passengers. It's just one more pleasant surprise you'll find on Korean Air, and one more reason you should fly with us.

BEYOND YOUR IMAGINATION

BEAUTY OF KOREA

T'ou Clay Figurines

Clay figurines are found around the world, but their look and symbolism are quite different in each culture. Perhaps this is because the figures are fashioned in the image of the people who make them.

In Korea, they are cale~ t'ou. Most extant examples are from the Shilla and Kaya kingdoms. They were used for incantatory purposes and were also objects of worship. Many were made in the form of voluptuous women for they were thought to represent prosperity and fertility. Male figures with exaggerated genitalia were not uncommon, however.

T'ou were also placed in graves as burial accessories.

Korea's t'ou vary widely -in shape and purpose.

Some resemble people, others animals, and some were modeled after houses, carts and other objects from everyday life. Many human figures have _flattened features. Some are portrayed in active poses.

The figure shown here was discovered in the Tomb of the Golden Bell, a tomb in the Shilla capital of Ky6ngju. The horse has a complete set of fittings, and the horseman is wearing the headgear of a warrior. The vessel is thought to have been used as a funerary vessel to serve the deceased in the next world. +

Vessel in the form of a mounted warrior; Shilla, 5th-6th century, height 23.5 em, length 29.4 em, National Museum of Korea

Cover: With the designation

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On the Trail of History

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Cultural Artifacts and Treasures

of 1997 as the "Year of Cuitural Heritage," KOREANA takes an in-depth look at Ko-

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rea's cultural assets, archaeo-

ROUND TABLE

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logical sites, preservation efforts, the universal value of

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Korean culture and more.

The picture shows a piece of

14 Enhancing National Pride

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by Shin Chan-kyoun

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pottery discovered at a dam construction site near Chinju,

Commemorating the Year of Cultural Heritage

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Ky6ngsangnam-do.

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s

KOREA'S CULTURAL HERITAGE

Suwon's City Wall Monument to Filial Piety

by Kim Dong-uk

Ch'angdokkung Unique Among Korean Palaces by]oo Nam-chull

28 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN KOREA

ŠThe Korea Foundation 1997 All rights reserved No part of this publication may he reproduced in any form without the prior permission of The Korea Foundation.

The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of the editors of KOREANA or The Korea Foundation.

KOREANA, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Information (Registration No. Ba-1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in French, Spanish, Japanese and Chinese.

Amsa-dong by Han Young-hee Chon-gok-ri by Bae Ki-dong Kamunsa by Cho You-je; n Songguk-ri by Shin Kwang-seop Yangdong-ri by Leem Hyo-taek Yong-un-ri by Chyoi Kun

44 Designation and 'Preservation of Cultural Properties

by Kim Chong-h yuk

48 Chun Hyung-pil: Guardian of Korean Relics

by Lee Heung-woo

54 Fragrance of Ink: Choson Literati Painting

by Kwon Yong-pil

Korea Foundation

Vol. l l , No. 1 Spring 1997

Korean Aesthetics Se .

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68 INTERVIEW

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83 CURRENTS

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by Lee Soon-yeol armonic Orchestra BOOK REVIEW

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ROUND TABLE

¡Commemorating the Year

During the past few years, a number of events have heightened popular interest in Korea's cultural assets. The controversia} dismantling of the National Museum, which was the former japanese colonial government building, and the debate over the proposed route for a high-speed train through Ky6ngju raised important questions about the place of cultural assets in modern society. At the same time, the registration of several Korean cultural assets on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's World Heritage List confi1med the universal value of Korea's traditional culture.

Korea's rapid development and the sometimes lax management of its cultural assets threaten to erase important vestiges of Korea's rich cultural heritage. In response to this threat and as part of an effort to stimulate public interest in cultural assets, the Korean government designated 1997 the "Year of Cultural Heritage." Thirty-two special events and programs have been planned.

On this occasion, KOREANA invited five specialists to discuss the significance of cultural assets in Korea today. They engaged in a lively discussion on the nature of Korea's cultural heritage, Koreans' distinct aesthetic consciousness, the universal value of Korean culture, archaeological investigations and preservation efforts, and suggestions for future directions in this field.- Ed.

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Choe Chung-ho, Professor of Journalism, Yonsei University ~hung

Yang-mo, Director, National Museum of Korea Han Young-woo, Professor of Korean History, Seoul National University Hwang Byung-ki, Professor of Classical Music, Ewha Womans University Paik Syeung-gil, Chairman, Korean Committee, International Council of Museums

4

Choe: Cultural assets are a historical indicator of a people's ability to create and preserve their own national culture.

Cultural creativity requires ability, and preservation requires effective management. If cultural creativity is a product of human skill, then cultural preservation is a result of national devotion. Our traditional cultural assets constitute the roots of the Korean people. Despite the many difficulties that we have faced during our nation's long history, the Korean people have always protected our cultural roots.

The government's designation of 1997 as the Year of Cultural Heritage is the result of a number of factors. It reflects a realization that we must be conscious of our cultural roots as cultural boundaries break¡ down around the world. It also reflects the government's goal of "globalizing" Korean culture, the perceived need to express our national consciousness, and a growing recognition of the threat to cultural assets posed by our sometimes reckless path to de elopment.

With this in mind, let us first consider what we mean by the terms "cultural legacy" (munhwa yusan) and "cultural asset" (munhwajae).

Han: We should broadeq_our understanding of the concepts. Cultural assets are not simply material things such as artifacts held in museums and other cultural relics; they must be linked to values. Lifestyle, thought, literature, art, science, religion, ethics and customs must all be included. Only by approaching culture from this broad perspective can we understand its full meaning.

Intangible cultural legacies have visible, that is tangible, implications. In my view, values and ways of thinking, themselves invisible, are important.

·of Cultural Heritage Choe: I agree. The Veritable Records of the Chos6n Dynasty (Chos6nwangjoshillok) are books. They are tangible in

in Seoul. These have all been selected

by UNESCO 's World Heritage Committee for inclusion on the committee's World Heritage List. Also worthy of note are the Divine Bell of Shilla's Great King S6ngd6k, often called the Emilie Bell, the original copy of Hunmin ch6ng-um, and the Gilt-Bronze Seated Maitreya Buddha from sixth or seventh century Shilla.

Han: Many books, such as· the

that sense, but they represent a cultural legacy in that they are the product of a long tradition of historical compilation. I believe we should include this intangible culture of values as well as nature in our discussion of culture today. Let us begin by discussing what each of us sees as Korea's most important cultural Veritable Records of the Chason legacies.

Dynasty, have been designated national Chung: First on my list would be the Korean alphabet, Hunmin ch6ng-um or treasures or treasures by the Korean gover:nment, but other rare books, maps han-gul. Han-gul is the fruit of many and records of great cultural value, both years of research by the Chos6n King to Korea and the world, remain unrecSejong (r. 1418-1450) and the scholars of ognized. Of the detailed records of the Chiphy6nj6n (Hall of Worthies). court activities and state policy known Sejong sought to create a writing system as uigwe, those pertaining to the reign for the common people, which expressed the Korean language without ~ of Choson's .:King S6njo (r. 1567-1608) are the oldest @Xtant example. These partic. using Chinese characters. It is a unique and extremely scientific phonological ular records deal with ancestral rites and ar found nowhere but Korea, not even system whose roots and liistory are clearly known. in China.

Korean maps are also of high quality Han: I believe the Veritable Records of the Chos6n Dynasty are an imQorand quite numerous. At present, the Veritable J?ecords of the Chos6n tant cultural legacy as well as a cultural Dynasty, th e Records of Daily asset. They are a cultural asset in thejr Reflection (Ils6ngnok), royal diaries use of type and paper, and a cultural from 1760 to 1910, and Records of the legacy in their representation of the 'Border Defense Council (Piby6nsadungspirit embodied in historical compilation. nok) have been designated national This spirit-a commitment to the recordThere are, however, some treasures. ing of history-is shared by people 2,500 volumes of uigwe housed in the around the world. In this sense, I believe that we have much to show Chos6n Royal Library, or Kyujanggak, which was established in 1776, and the other nations. of the Royal Secretariat (5LingDiary Choe: What other cultural legacies j6ng-w6n-ilgi), 3,047 volumes from 1624 can Korea boast ot? through 1894, which , while worthy, Chung: There are Pulguksa Temple have not been given national treasure and S6kkuram Buddhist Grotto, the woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana status.

Choe: In 't his Year of Cultural and their storage halls at Haeinsa Heritage we must recognize the dangers Temple, and Chongmyo, the royal facing our cultural heritage. Let's discuss ancestral shrine of the Chos6n Dynasty

this issue in more detail. What concerns do you have regarding the development and preservation of cultural assets?

Chung: My first concern is the level of public consciousness. Also I see a problem with our education system.

Our university entrance examination system focuses on Western standards of knowledge. When students and other groups visit the National Museum on field trips, they often climb on the statues and pagodas in the garden-valuable national treasures-and take photographs. Something must be done.

The general public's attitude toward traditional culture and our education system are two important problems.

Paik: Many countries face the same issues related to the development and conservation of their cultural legacies.

In developing nations such as Korea, the conflict between the preservation of cultural assets and their development has been particularly acute because of the rapid pace of national development.

In the. 1960s, Japan enacted legislation aimed at preserving ancient capitals, such as Nara, Kam akura and Kyoto.

These cities were protected by law, and 37 other areas, such as the villages that surround historic temples, were also selected for special preservation. · I'm not familiar with Korea's Cultural Property Law, but I assume that w e could carry out a similar program if the government had the will to do so. I believe that France has protected its cultural assets in many ways. The skylines of rural Europe have not changed in 30 years. But look at Korea. There are 20story apartment buildings in the middle of rice fields! Development is taking place in an extremely reckless manner.

It is a serious problem.

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Choe: Was Korea's cultural legacy well protected prior to Japan's colonialization of the peninsula? How has the "Korean tradition of culturaJ. conservation changed in the 20th century?

Han: Koreans had a tradition of protecting their cultural legacy. Of course, there were exceptions to the rule: for example, when a new dynasty was formed or when the basic belief system was changed as when the Chos6n Dynasty substituted Confucianism for Buddhism.

In my view, our concept of tradition and culture has deteriorated more since liberation from Japanese rule in 1945. In the latter half of the 20th century, we've been more concerned with filling our stomachs and leading the good life than with maintaining our cultural standards.

This utilitarian consciousness may be responsible for the neglect of our cultural assets. The positive aspects of the elite yangban culture almost completely disintegrated with the Korean War and the political and social turmoil of the postwar period. This and a number of social and political factors combined to shatter the tradition of preserving cultural assets.

Hwang: Wasn't the perception of Western culture's superiority also a problem?

Chung: During the Japanese colonial period, toadyism-a tendency to play up to the great powers-was increasingly evident. In fact, that attitude grew out of Korea's tributary relationship with China. And after liberation from Japanese rule, our education system promoted a kind of "globalization." The musicians and artists who remained committed to tradition despite these many difficulties must be treated as national treasures in my view.

Westernization played an important role in the disappearance of our traditional ways.

Han: If we had learned Western ways properly it would have been another matter, but we simply imitated what we saw on the surface, without understanding the underlying spirit. In

fact, many people in the West have a deep commitment to their traditional culture. I believe that the perception of Western superiority among intellectuals began with novelist Yi Kwang-su's Minjokkaejoron (On National Reformation,

an essay published in 1922), and people who had studied overseas. These intellectuals insisted that we do away with tradition. With the import of Japanese colonial and American culture, Korean culture was rejected. In the past, Koreans had always tempered outside influences with their basic foundation of Korean values and customs. There was a tradition of selective acceptance, a creative and independent reception of outside influences, but this was lost.

Choe: Wasn't the move toward this so-callâ‚Źd "enlightenment" led by the court and upper echelons of society?

Han: Well, that was true during the final¡ years of the Chos6n Dynasty after King Kojong proclaimed the establishment .of the Great Han Empire, but at that time, Western-style reforms wen~

Choe Chung-ho

still made on the basis of Korean tradition. Other reformers called for the introduction of Japanese civilization.

They were later part of the proJapanese camp.

Choe: Perhaps we need to put some time and space between ourselves and a traditional Korean object or idea before we can recognize its value as a cultural asset. For example, traditional wooden furniture and vessels-bowls, mortar stands, desks and chests-were rediscovered when people began living in apartments and needed something to decorate their living rooms. Somehow these traditional vessels work in rooms with a Western-style interior design.

What other cultural assets are hidden around us? How do we identify them and preserve them for future generations?

Paik: Last year the Ministry of Culture and Sports launched a campaign aimed at establishing a clear cultural identity. The campaign asked Koreans and non-Koreans to choose ten items

that visually represent Korea's unique cultural identity. Among the items chosen were kimch'i; the traditional costume, hanbok; and taekwondo. No doubt the hanbok was first ~ n the list.

In 1977, while visiting the former Soviet Union, I attended a dinner where a Korean woman was wearing a hanbok.

The Soviet hosts and other guests were so curious about i~ they kept asking the woman to take pictures with them. She never got a chance to eat her dinner!

We don't appreciate the hanbok because we see it every day, but it really appeals to non-Koreans.

Education is an important factor. In Europe, museums are tied into the school curriculum. Students learn more than history or theory. They experience the original. French cultural policy is remarkable. They publish braille guide books for the blind, so you can imagine the services they offer to the general public. In France and Japan, students are responsible for the cleaning and maintenance of historical land-

marks and parks in their neighborhood.

They feel a direct link to the cultural and natural assets around them. I believe we should take the Year of Cultural Heritage as an opportunity to establish similar links between school education and cultural assets. Children must be taught to appreciate cultural assets from an early age.

Choe: You're right. And adults need to be educated as well. When Koreans travel overseas, they are asked what makes their own culture special. I would like to turn to that question now.

What is uniquely Korean about our country's cultural legacy? Clearly all cultures are subject to foreign influences.

Chung: I would say that an affinity with nature-a desire to become one with nature-is the basic premise behind Korean culture. China is a large country, so it is only natural that the Chinese builEI a palace as enormous as the Forbidden City. That enormity is the essen!=e of the Chinese identity. It would be unnatural, however, to build

such a large palace in Seoul, which is surrounded by mountains. The Chason palace, Kyongbokkung, is perfectly suited to the surrounding natural environment. It is magnificent for its natural harmony with the surrounding mountains, not for its size. This is the essence of Korean culture.

Last year, a 17th-century blue-andwhite porcelain jar was sold for the record-breaking price of $7.65 million at Christie's. Only ten years ago, Korean ceramics would be auctioned alongside objects from China and Japan and were lucky to bring $5,000 or $10,000, but the prices have risen to over $7 million.

Choe: Is that a good thing?

Chung: There are two ways of looking at it. Chinese ceramics are sumptuous, brilliant in color and design. Often museum staff in China or Europe come to me and ask, with pity in the their eyes, "How can you stand to work with Korea n ceramics all your life?" The ceramics of China and Western Europe are so brilliant, so magnificent. These

ChungYang-mo

Some of the more than 80,000 woodblocks of theTripitaka Koreana stored in the Kyongp'anj6n at Haeinsa Temple.

people don't understand how we can call our simple white porcelain art. In that sense, the exorbitant price of ¡ Korean ceramics reflects .a positive trend. No one would pay these prices if they didn't recognize the value of these ceramics.

Some people wonder if the price hasn 't been bid up by competing Korean buyers, but that definitely is not true. For example, seven years ago someone bought a white porcelain jar decorated with a dragon motif for $90,000. At the time, no one could understand why anyone would pay $90,000 for a jar that went for a few thousand dollars a few years before.

But then a Japanese buyer paid $350,000 for a Korean piece. The price is going up because of competition, and it isn't just Koreans competing. The whole world is interested in Korean ceramics.

The $7.65 million jar was originally expected to go for about $2.5 million.

Clearly, people around the world are beginning to recognize the charm of Korea's simple, natural beauty. They are moving beyond the brilliance of Chinese culture. The Korean concept of beauty is marked by a respect for nature, functionality, a lack of artifice and simplicity. Naturally, it is difficult to understand at first.

Museums in the United States and elsewhere are now establishing permanent Korean exhibits. In the past, nonKoreans thought that East Asia meant China and Japan because the Japanese actively promoted their culture overseas and Chinese studies were so widespread, but now curators and the general public in the West realize that East Asia is not fully represented without a Korean section. There is a better understanding of Korea today. This is not the result of our efforts. These people came to this understanding themselves.

Hwang: In my view, education-for children and adults-is extremely important. Many Koreans, even the highly

educated, return from trips abroad where they see the vast riches and brilliant culture of other countries and ask themselves why Korean culture .is so insignificant. They don't realize that in traditional Korean society large-scale, flamboyant or complicated works of art were considered unsophisticated and shallow.

Size, brilliance and flamboyance are not the issue. Korean culture is remarkable for its compact modesty, its affinity for nature, its peacefulness, its Zen-like profundity and its spirituality. For example, take the Divine Bell of Shilla's King Songdok, which Director Chung mentioned earlier. Years ago, when I was a university student, there was a one-hour time difference between Korea and Japan, and each year the Buddhist temples in both countries rang in the New Year at the stroke of midnight. The bell-ringing was broadcast live, so the Japanese bells rang first, then an hqur later the Korean bells rang. At the time, I was struck by the differences in the sounds. Japan has experienced few invasions, so it has far more temple bells than Korea in the first place and many more fine bells. However, when the Divine Bell rang, I was amazed. It was head and shoulders above the rest.

Japanese bells are more elaborate and stronger, but the Divine Bell is unsurpassed in its beauty. My heart warms just thinking about it.

Paik: The Divine Bell of Shilla's King Songdok is not only remarkable for its sound; its design and ca.Sting technique are extraordinary. It is truly a masterpiece that took over 30 years to create.

Hwang: You're right. In terms of scale, nothing compares to the "underground army" found in the tomb of the Chinese emperor Shi Huang Di in Xian.

When I first saw the tomb in a photograph in a Korean newspaper, I was flabbergasted and swore that I had to see the terra cotta soldiers myself.

Finally, while on a tour in the The Divine Bell of King SOngdok which is commonly called the Emille Bell

Netherlands, I went to an exhibition of some of the figures. I expected to be overwhelmed, but the individual statues aren't so remarkable. It is the scale of the tomb itself that amazes.

The Buddha at S6kkuram Buddhist Grotto in Korea is small and plain in comparison to the magnificent figures found in the stone grottoes of India or China, yet in its peaceful beauty it is the epitome of Buddhist art. We shouldn't allow ourselves to be overwhelmed by the scale and magnificence of art and culture overseas. We should take pride in knowing that our cultural assets possess a profundity that surpasses all scale and color.

Paik: What about music? How does it compare?

Hwang: The same is true with music.

When Western musicians speak of East Asian music, they usually point out what makes East Asian music different from Western music, rather than taking a positive stance and specifying what it actually is. In some ways, this is only natural since all Europe is smaller than China, and East Asia is such a broad and varied area. However, in my professional experience, I would say that of all Asian music, Korean music is the most different from Western music.

However, since Korea is located between China and Japan whose cultures ,.are better known to the West, most non-Koreans believe that Korean music rriust be a mixture of Chinese and Japanese music. In fact, Chinese and Japanese music are quite similar. If the two were combined to represent East Asian music, one could argue that there are many similarities with western music. However, Korean music is completely different from Chinese or Japanese music and therefore the most dissimilar to Western music. This can be a plus and a minus. Recently there has been a world trend toward combining East Asian and Western music. Korean music is so different, however, that it is difficult to blend with Western music.

This could be seen as a shortcoming.

On the other hand, this means that 9.

Korean music is truly unique.

From a philosophical point of view, Korean music represents the quintes. sence of East Asian music. Jo give a specific example, take the kayagum.

Similar instruments are found throughout East Asia. The Chinese have the zheng and the Japanese the koto. It is interesting that this kind of zither is only found in Asia. It appears to have originated in China. Zheng that are nearly 4,000 years old have been discovered in China.

The History of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk sagi, a history compiled by the Confucian scholar Kim Pu-shik in 1146) says that the 12-string kayagum was modeled after the 13-string zheng on the orders of King Kashil of the Ka ya Kingdom in the sixth century. The 12 strings represent the 12 months.

According to the History of the Three Kingdoms, kayagi:'1m music was propagated throughout the Shilla Kingdom by the master musician and composer Uri:'1k. However, scholars have found kayagum being held by clay figurines (t'ou) predating the reign of the Shilla King Chinhung, a contemporary of King Kashil. This means the kayagum existed prior to the period discussed in the History of the Three Kingdoms.

You may ask how we can tell that the clay figurines are holding kayagi:'1m and not Chinese zheng or Japanese koto.

The kayagum is unique for its wing-like appendages at one end. This shape makes the kayagi:im uniquely Korean.

The kayagi:'1m is also different from the other zithers of East Asia because it alone is made of solid wood. It is also plucked with the thumb, index finger and middle finger of the right hand, instead of with the fingernails, as is the case with the zheng and koto. Also, because the ka yagum strings are extremely pliable, they produce a wider range of sounds.

Korean music is also different from the music of other East Asian countries in that it relies on compound triple meters. Duple meters are generally used in the music of the other East 10

Han Young-woo

Asian, countries. In this sense, Korean music is different from Western music and-East Asian music, and from the composer's point of view, it is extremely difficult to graft Korean music and Western music.

People often say Korean music is the embodiment of sadness and han , Koreans' ubiquitous sense of unfulfilled wishes and resentment. Of course, these feelings are important, but more important is a sense of rapture tinged with sadness and han. Korean music is the expression of life vibrant with this ecstasy. For example, people never say that the music of the ka yagum or k6mun-go is pretty. In fact, to say a performance is pretty would be an insult.

No one would ever say that p'ansori is pretty either. The p'ansori voice requires great skill and expresses the feelings of the common people. That is why a Korean would never say their own music is pretty or fresh. Rather, they would use the term "powerful."

The sound of the music has to ripen and achieve a certain depth. That's what we mean by "powerful." That is why Korean musical instruments produce so much "extra" sound, that is, vibrations and rattles. For example, the k6mun-go is plucked with a bamboo rod. The rod makes a resonating sound

as it hits the strings, much like a percussion instrument.

The essence of Korean music is that power. It is much like East Asian calligraphy. No one says it's pretty. They say it is powerful. To express the power of Korean music, you must combine two essential elements: the positive and negative forces of the yin and yang must be harmonized, just as we need a man and a woman to produce human life.

Take rhythm, for example. Koreans emphasize the combination of long and short sounds. Only in Korea is the word "rhythm" called "long-short" (changdan). That's because Koreans believe life comes from a combination of long and short. Korean music's triple meter combines the long and short to produce a vibrant sound.

Han: That is true of all Korean culture. It derives from the belief .in a cosmic triumvirate of heaven, earth and humanity, which were traditionally thought to form the basis for all creation.

True ecstasy is realized when all elements fit together. Koreans often say shin natta. Here shin is life energy, a state of ecstasy in which a human being unites with nature. This concept is fundamental to an understanding of Korean aesthetics. The moment that man truly becomes one with nature, he experiences ecstasy and the ultimate of beauty.

Th~re are different kinds of beautysensory beauty and rational beauty.

Novices¡ !ike sensory beauty, and in the short term, it is good. However, one grows tired of it after a while. On the other hand, rational beauty .lasts. It has continuity and gives permanent peace.

The Korean culture is a rational culture.

That rationality is evident in the lasting emotion and ecstasy realized in the union of the heavens, earth and humanity. If we understand this, we realize how different Korean culture is.

You've all given some excellent examples, pointing out Koreans' reactions to the Forbidden City or the great cathedrals of the West, such as St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. But just imagine. If you asked a group of Koreans if they

would rather live in the Forbidden City or in Seoul's Ch'angdokkung Palace, they would all say they prefer Ch'angdokkung. The Forbidden City is a remarkable sight, but a Korean would naturally choose Ch'angdokkung.

Choe: You've pointed out some elements which distinguish Korean culture.

Professor Hwang has given us some specific examples from the field of music. What about sculpture, architecture or ceramics? How do we express Korean beauty, as opposed to Western, Japanese or Chinese concepts of beauty in these fields?

Chung: That is a difficult but important question. As you all know, an appreciation of the natural, of nature untouched by human hands, is apparent throughout Korean culture. In the fine arts, I would liken this feeling to the wind or clouds. The gorgeous colors of autumn foliage don't happen by accident. They are the result of nature.

The "beauty of omission" expressed in Korean art is born of a long tradition.

However, it has been misinterpreted by Japanese scholars who have described the Korean aesthetic as a kind of careless spontaneity. The Japanese connoisseur of Korean art Yan~gi Muneyoshi and others asserted that Korean ceramics, while beautiful, originated in sadness. In fact, the beauty of Korean art is born of an extremely healthy and powerful life force.

Han: The distinction between sadness and happiness is so slight. After all, people cry when they are most happy.

Ultimately, happiness and sadness are similar types of emotion.

Choe: That is especially true of p'ansori. It is performed by a lone singer who must express both comedy and tragedy. In Western opera, the distinction between comedy and tragedy is clear.

Hwang: P'ansori is the only musical genre in the world in which a singer performs for hours on end to the accompaniment of a single drummer.

In the past, the West had similar genres- wandering minstrels and the epic

Hwang Byung-ki

poems of Homer-which originated in ora l literature. However, Korea's p'ansori is the only musical form of this type to survive. One singer and one drummer harmonize to create an effect greater than anything produced by a Western orchestra.

Choe: I believe that there are a number of basic concepts that help describe Korea's traditional culture and have a certain universal persuasiveness. As Professor Han has pointed out, the scale of many Chinese cultural legacies, such as the 13 tombs of the Ming monarchs near Beijing, the Forbidden City or the Great Wall, is so grand, it is almost superhuman, even inhuman. Korean ceramics, architecture, music, sculpture and other art forms exist on a human scale. I do not see the relationship between nature and humanity as a contest, but it is considered a confrontational relationship in the West. In that sense, I believe that Korean art and culture is truly humanistic.

Hwang: The art and culture of many countries is overwhelming. If you don't keep your wits about you, if you don't keep your defenses up, you can be overwhelmed. However, when a Korean encounters a Korean cultural asset, he or she wants to unite with it, to become one with the culture.

Ultimately, Korean culture brings a sense of peace.

Choe: In summary, the essence of Korean culture lies in a humane and peaceful beauty. As a result, Korean art can be seen as extremely practical, a rejection of the transcendental. It is lifeaffirming and down-to-earth. If we were to choose the most important determining factor, it would have to be the difficult geopolitical conditions facing the Korean people throughout their history. Koreans had to be life-affirming and practical to maintain their indigenous culture and survive in the face of the land power of the Chinese and the sea power of the Japanese.

More specifically, Korean culture and art shares little or nothing with other cultures. There is no concept of an "art of death," or Ars Moriendi, for example.

Japanese Kabuki theater and NG drama feature scenes of disembowelment and glorify death as art. In the West, the Salzburg Festival began with a play called jedermann, produced by Max Reinhart, which was based on the work of the Austrian poet Hugo von Hofmannsthal. The work was similar in content to the "Everyman" medieval morality plays in which a carousing Everyman is informed by Death of his imminent demise.

Throughout the world are examples of an "art of death": the Dance of Death, also called Danse Macabre, which developed in ¡medieval Europe, the totem dances of Native American cultures, and others. However, this genre does not exist in Korea. Koreans have always been interested in how we live, not how we die. I believe this is linked to Koreans' life-affirming culture. Ours is a culture of fundamental hope, of a desire for the fulfillment of earthly wants, needs and long life, and a tradition of fortune-telling in the shamanic tradition.

Han: I would like to add something.

There is no confrontation between life and death in Korean culture. We see life and death as one body, one process.

We don't often say someone died, chuknunda. We say he or she "returned," 11

,,

:

(torakasy6tta). This basically means floor of the tomb was earth. It was liter"returned to heaven." We are born in ally "ashes to ashes, dust to dust." heaven and return there in death.

Han: Traditionally, Koreans have Im Kwon-taek's recent film. adaptation referred to two kinds of "houses": of Yi Ch'ong-jun's autobiographical novel umt'aek, the "shadow house" or tomb Ch'ukche (Festival) is a good example of which we inhabit in death, and this phenomenon. In Korea, funerals are yangt'aek, the "sun house" or the house not sad affairs. They are festivals, celewhich we inhabit in life. I'm not a spebrations of life, because the Korean atticialist in this field, but I've noticed that the traditional thatched house is rectantude toward life and death is quite different from that of other cultures. All living gular with a rounded roof. Tombs, or umt'aek, are rounded and contain a recthings are linked to heaven. Therefore, Koreans have always believed that the tangular coffin. The dolmens of the ultimate beauty derives from a sense of Bronze Age also consist of a rectangular unity, of oneness with the heavens and base and a round top. These elements nature. In that sense, the shamanic tradiembody the spirit of the cosmic triumvirate of heaven, earth and humanition, or more specifically the shamanic ty. Iri traditional cosmology, the heaven belief in the unity of man and the heavens, is extremely important. It is difficult was a circle, the earth a square, and man to understand Korea without an underresided in between. This symbolism is standing of this basic concept. The legfound throughout Korean culture, as in round brass coins with square holes in end of Tan-gun, symbol of the Korean people and their culture, grows out of . the middle. The cosmic triumvirate is this belief. evident in numerous forms throughout Korean culture Hwang: Incidentally, the titles of most of Korea's court music refer to Choe: You've all offered many posilong life. For example, there were tive comments. What other aspects of Sujech'6n ("Long Life as Everlasting as Korean culture do we need to recognize and preserve? the Sky"), Suy6njangjegok ("Song of Long Life") and Changch'unbullojigok Chung: I believe that the purest ("Song of Eternal Life"). The life-sky expression of the Korean conception of simile was particularly evident in beauty is found in handicrafts and folk Sujech'6n. There was also a song entipaintings. tled Ch'6nny6n-manse ("Hail to In painting, Chinese influences, from Everlasting Life"). the Northern Song and the Zhe School Chung: Many royal tombs dating of the Ming Dynasty, were especially from the Chason Dynasty are not comstrong through the early Chason pletely sealed. That is to say, the coffin Dynasty. Truly "Korean" painting was simply laid in the earth. This began with the work of Chong Son reflects the long-held folk belief that (1676-1759), and later Kim Hong-do man returns to the earth in death. This (1760-?) and Shin Yun-bok (1758-?). practice remains common today.

There was a revival of learning in the During the Chason Dynasty, Confucian 18th century. However, Korean artisans funeral rites were conducted, but folk had already broken free of Chinese practices were followed. The coffin was influences. This is especially true of laid in a six-foot grave, then lime was our wooden furniture and vessels. spread over the area. The lime hardThey are unrivaled around the world. ened to form a hard cover, but the cofFor example, in Sallim ky6gje (Farm fin itself sat on the earth. The tomb of Management), the Shirhak scholar King Sejong's half-brother was covered Hong Man-son (1643-1715) argues that with a thick layer of stone, but when wooden vessels and furniture are best archaeologists opened the coffin, they left undecorated, but if they must be found nothing but brown dust, and the enhanced, a simple and refined decora12

tion is best. Engraving, paint and varnish mask the true wood grain.

Korean crafts may seem to be careless and spontaneous, but they reflect a true understanding of nature. They brim with a force achieved in harmony with nature. The wooden vessels and furniture of other cultures-for example China or Japan-are heavily engraved and painted. They are gorgeous and dignified, but quite different from Korea's.

Choe: Korean wooden vessels and furniture are remarkable for their use of the natural grain and their proportions.

Large or small, they are so solid and stable. Where does that come from?

Chung: Korean craftsmen were loyal to function. That is to say, their primary interest was practicality. Each vessel and piece of furniture is unique because it was made to fit the. owner's body, lifestyle, or the size of the house in which it was to be used. Traditional desks vary in size, for example, depending on the height of the user.

According to an architect I know, the proportions of Korean furniture are influenced by our lifestyle-that is, by the fact that Koreans have traditionally sat on the floor, rather than in chairs.

This also influenced the proportions of sliding doors.

Choe: I was struck by something when I was in Japan. I visited the Takamatsu Tomb and realized how ,backward Korea's excavation of cultural assets is by comparison. I heard that the late Kim Won-yang, former director of the National Museum and professor of arc haeology a t Seoul National University, once said that his handling of the excavation of the tomb of Paekche's King Munyong was the biggest mistake of his life. Is that true?

Chung: Yes. He said h e was so moved by the whole event and the press was fighting so hard for the story that an excavation that should have taken a year was finished off in a day.

Choe: Was that the case with the Tomb of the Heavenly Horse in Kyongju too?

Chung: No, that was handled better.

StilL the artifacts recovered in the excavation were not classified and stored as well as they should have been. Ideally, a large team of specialists should analyze and classify each artifact recovered at a dig: lacquerware with lacquerware, wooden vessels with wooden vessels.

Choe: The Japanese have reburied the Takamatsu Tomb, restoring it to its original condition in order to preserve its contents, and built an identical model which is open to the public. They hired about twenty painters to re-create the murals and sculptors to make replicas of the relics found inside the tomb. We have much to learn from the Japanese in this regard. Perhaps we should close by discussing how we can better excavate and preserve cultural assets.

Chung: Basically, preservation is important for relics that have already been unearthed, but I wonder if we wouldn't do best to leave underground cultural assets where they are.

Everyone wants to "develop" them.

Recently, I heard of the discovery of a Chason porcelain kiln site in Kwangjugun in Kyonggi-do province and went to have a look The discord between the development and preservation camps was palpable. Underground legacies, such as tombs and prehistoric dwelling sites, involve the interests of landowners and the surrounding community, so there are naturally many problems. Developers and the people who stand to profit from development must recognize the importance of the preservation of cultural assets. And we urgently need to cultivate specialists in the field of preservation. We have to help the public understand and recognize the problems of environmental pollution, the destruction of the environment and the disregard for life, which occur in the name of "development."

Choe: Under the new local autonomy system in -Korea, maybe provincial and municipal governm~ts can be given authority over regional development projects which benefit local citizens.

Paik Syeunggil

Hunmin chong-urn, the explication issued when King Sejong promulgated the Korean alphabet, han-gul, in 1446

Paik: I understand that the Japanese have enacted legislation which promotes commercial and cultural development through the preservation and development of regional cultural assets.

For example, a region's tangible and intangible cultural assets are designated by the local government and utilized with an eye to regional economic, commercial and cultural development.

Perhaps we should try this in Korea.

Choe: What do you think about Korea's system of intangible cultural assets?

Paik: Few nations have a system of designating intangible cultural assets.

Other nations have shown an interest in learning about the Korean example.

At an international meeting regarding the preservation of intangible cultural assets in October 1996, this problem was discussed. Korea does a good job designating intangible cultural assets, but there have been problems finding successors to carry on many of these skills. We need to develop a pool of specialists capable of carrying on these traditions. We must go beyond simple preservation. Perhaps we could develop a system by which these people were used in restoration projects. We need to take a more active stance in the designation of cultural assets and the propagation and preservation of traditional skills.

Choe: Yes, further effort is needed in the de:velopment and preservation of cultural assets. Today, we have considered the fundamental nature of Korea's cultural legacy, concepts of beauty and the development and preservation of Korea's cultural legacy. In 1997, as the government promotes the Year of Cultural Heritage, we must instill a better understanding of Korea's cultural heritage among Koreans as well as the international community. We also must work to protect cultural assets which have not yet been excavated, while at the same time considering the interests of the surrounding communities. There is much work ahead of us.

Thank you. + 13

Enhancing National Pride Shin Chan-kyoun Editorial Writer, The Segye Times

hikchi shimch 'e yoj61 (The Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters), which is commonly known as Chikchi shim kyong, is a book that was printed with movable metal type during the Koryo Kingdom (918392). Currently in the collection of the French National Library (Ia Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris), the book was put on display for the first time in Paris in 1972 as part of the celebration of the International Book Year. That same year, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) confirmed that Chikchi shimch 'e yoj61 is the world's first book printed with metal type. ¡ The last chapter states that the book was printed with metal type cast at Hungdoksa Temple on the outskirts of Ch'ongju in the year 1377, well before Johann Gutenberg (1394-1468) made his first metal type.

Twenty years after the acknowledgement by UNESCO, the Ch'ongju Early Printing Museum was opened on the site of Hungdoksa, where the book was printed. The museum's exhibits include a variety of relics that show the development of printing in Korea.

However, there is only a photographic reproduction of Chikchi shim kyong, with a note stating that the original is in France. This means that the rightful owner of the Chikchi shim kyong has to exhibit only a photocopy of the world-famous cultural relic lost to a foreign power, while France proudly displays another nation's precious publication as if it were its own.

At a UNESCO meeting some years ago, a representative from Nigeria

C

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made a heart-wrenching appeal to the big powers: "Our national relics are scattered all over Etirope. There are only photographs in our museums." In fact, most museums in Europe are filled with cultural relics taken from weaker and smaller nations. If those relics were to be returned to their rightful owners, the famous museums in Europe would lose large portions of their collections.

A French naval officer who joined the ¡ 1866 French invasion of Kanghwado Island wrote in his Acc-ount of the French Asiatic Squadron's Expedition to Kanghwado in 1866 that "there were books to be found in ~very house in Chason, no matter how destitute." The French sailors pillaged whatever books they could find. A bibliographical note on the French collection of ancient Korean documents and books pillaged I' from the Chason Dynasty's royal archives on Kanghwado reads "Documents Taken by the French Asiatic Squadron from Korea."

In 1993 when Seoul was negotiating with Paris over the introduction of France's TGV bullet train for a highspeed railway project, former French President Fran<;: ois Mitterand visited Korea and returned one of the 279 documepts taken out of Korea by French sailors. Mitterand hinted that the rest of the documents pillaged during the 1866 invasion would be returned to Korea if the TGV deal was accomplished. Four years have since passed, but there is no sign that the documents-will be returned.

Korean cultural relics are scattered all over the world. Most were either -stolen or illegally taken out of the

country. The number of Korean cultural relics outside Korea exceeds the number of cultural assets in the country that the Korean government has designated national treasures and treasures. The number of cultural relics stolen by the Japanese, who colonized Korea for 35 years, is particularly large.

Restoration of Cultural Identity Unfortunately, the designation of Korea's cultural assets began with the "Ordinance for Preserving Chason Treasures, Historical Sites, Renowned Scenic Sites and Natul'al Monuments" proclaimed during the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945). It was a system provisionally devised by the Japanese colonial government to deal with the gold crowns and numerous Koryo celadon wares they indiscriminately excavated from sites in Kyongju and Kaesong, both capitals of ancient kingdoms. At the time, Japan implemented the National Treasure Preservation Law that was used to overvalue its cultural assets and undervalue Korea's by designating them only as "treasures."

Even th ~ ir names were changed or distorted. These actions were part of Japan's cultural policy to make Korea's cultural heritage appear inferior to that of Japan and also to rationalize its colonial rule.

In recent years, the Office of Cultural Properties reevaluated the 503 cultural properties designated during Japanese colonial rule and readjusted their classification or restored their original names. The effort to restore the glory of the nation's cultural assets in preparation for the "Year of Cultural Heritage" has resulted in the demolition of the National Museum building, the

former headquarters of the Japanese colonial government which had long remained as a symbol of a humiliating period of Korean history. This effort is also aimed at "establishing a correct interpretation of Korea's cultural heritage." Among the cultural properties whose original names were belatedly restored is the depository of the wood printing blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana at Haeinsa Temple. Its name was changed from Kyongp'an-go, meaning a depository for woodblocks used for printing the Buddhist canon, to Kyongp'anjon which refers to a hall.

The former sounds as if the building were merely a warehouse. Suwonsong, a fortress encircling the old city of Suwon, was renamed Hwasongsong, restoring the original name of Suwon.

Korean cultural relics are scattered aJJ over the world.

Most were either stolen or illegaJJy taken out of the country. The number of Korean cultural relics outside Korea exceeds the number of cultural assets in the country that the government has designated national treasures and treasures.

Reevaluating the nation's cultural heritage is essential to reestablish the identity and esteem of Korea's cultural assets which were distorted by the Japanese colonial rulers. It is also meaningful in that it is another step to eradicate the legacy of Japanese colonial rule. A reevaluation of Korea's national heritage based on the Korean people's own values has long been needed to restore national pride.

The cultural properties whose titles were changed and whose classifications were readjusted include eight fortre sses such as Ulsan Haksong, which the Japanese army built during an invasion of Korea in 1592. The fortress site was downgraded from a historical site to a local cultural asset and the word woes6ng, meaning Japanese castle, was added to the title.

Relics displayed in a temporary exhibition center whiCh will serve as the National Museum until a new facility is constructed to replace the one recently demolished.

15

Namdaemun (South Gate; National Treasure No.1) was also changed to its original name, Sungnyemun.

However, some people l!rgue that there is no point in merely changing the title of a relic and some say that a relic more representative of Korea's cultural heritage should be given the designation "National Treasure No.1" as the gate was given the designation by the Japanese. However, the prevailing view is that the number does not truly reflect the intrinsic historical value and significance of the relic in question.

For instance, more valuable and important cultural relics could be discovered later, but the order of ranking could hardly be changed each time.

Reevaluation of cultural relics designated by the Japanese should also be expanded to indude intangible (human) cultural assets. A survey by the Japanese colonial government in 1940 counted a total of 505 village rituals being performed across the nation. The majority, however, were abolished as the Japanese branded them as superstitious acts. Given the fact that the word "superstition " (mishin) was not listed in the Korean language dictionary published by the Japanese before then, it appears that Japan intended to portray Korea's traditional religion as nothing more than superstition as one way to slowly annihilate Korea's traditional culture.

Therefore, the government should consider restoring the Kuksadang, a Chos6n Dynasty shrine for the tutelary deity of Seoul, which the Japanese relocated from Namsan to an obscure place. A nation's cultural heritage includes more than architecture and ancient paintings. It is also the spirit that links one generation to another throughout history.

Rejuvenation of National Spirit Cultural assets should be commonly preserved by all people. They are - valuable relics which constitute the roots of a people and their nation. In 16

the 21st century, during which cultural competition among nations is expected to intensify, the preservation of unique cultural legacies will become more important than the preservation of those that are universal. In this age of the global village, preserving cultural properties will become the only means by which a nation can preserve and maintain its national identity and spirit.

As this year has been designated the "Year of Cultural Heritage," a nationwide campaign to protect cultural properties is being carried out under the slogan "Cultural Heritage, the Spirit of the Nation: Let's Rediscover, Appreciate and Cultivate It." Three of Korea 's cultural monuments-the eighth century grotto shrine S6kkuram in Ky6ngju, the 13th century Tripitaka Korean a woodblocks and their repository at Haeinsa Temple and the 14th century Chongm yo royal ancestral shrinewere officially registered on UNESCO's World Heritage List in 1995.

This raised Korean people's interest in their cultural heritage, and thus the proclamation of the Year of Cultural Heritage in 1997 is opportune.

The Organizing Committee of the Year of Cultural Heritage announced a variety of plans in which the public can participate. However, protecting Korea 's cultural heritage is a national task that will not be completed with slogans or with one-time efforts. Korea's cultural assets have been subject to countless threats, including the threat of destruction caused by reckless development and neglect. People often think of expensive ceramics or ancient paintings being sold at international art markets when they hear the term "cultural asset," but the national spirit and soul are also embodied in broken roof tiles and other historical remains.

Thus far, Korea's national policies on the protection of cultural proper-

ties have been assigned a lower priority than economic development.

As a result, high-rise apartments now stand at the sites of ancient capitals around the country and many historical sites have been destroyed, leaving few traces of the nation 's past magnificence intact. Fortunately, a new high-speed railway connecting Seoul and Pusan will bypass Ky6ngju instead of passing through it as was originally planned. This is the only case in which the preservation of cultural properties has won in a fight against development since the establishment of the Republic of Korea. It is also fortunate that the Organizing Committee of the Year of Cultural Heritage has begun the task of revising the Ia ws to better protect the nation's cultural heritage.

Korea's intangible cultural heritage must be protected along with its tangible cultural assets. Village rituals and folk plays have been steadily disappearing with the breakdown of traditional society. F.olk customs and traditions which have long supported the collective life of villages are a part of our national history. The wisdom of our ancestors, if maintained and preserved, will pave the way toward a brighter future for contemporary Koreans.

The intangible cultural assets and customs_of North Korea must also be restor ed and preserved as well.

Intangible cultural rituals and customs now nonexistent in North Korea are just barely being preserved in the South by refugees from the North. They should be h a nded down to others and developed so they can be taught to North Koreans when the nation is unified.

Efforts to protect Korea's cultural heritage must continue unaba ted.

Korea's cultural heritage cannot be preserved in just one year. The entire nation must participate in the historic task of rejuvenating the national soul. +

KOREA'S CULTURAL HERITAGE

Suwonsing Fortress Each year, the World Heritage Committee of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural 01ganization (UNESCO) registers important cultural assets from around the world on its World Heritage List in an effort to preserve and maintain valuable cultural assets in the interest of all humanity. In December 1995, the committee selected three Korean cultural assets-Pulguksa Temple and its S6kkuram Buddhist Grotto, the woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana and their storage halls at Haeinsa Temple, and Chongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine of the Chason Dynasty. Articles in this section consider two more Korean cultural assets, Suwons6ng Fortress in Suwon and Ch'angd6kkung Palace in Seoul, which are now being considered by the World Heritage Committee for inclusion on its list. - Ed.

Ch'angdikkung Palace

17

deeply rooted in Korean life and has continued to be so to this day.

Suwons6ng is undoubtedly the most ¡ important historic relic related to filial piety. Suwons6ng refers t~ a walled city constructed toward the end of the 18th century. The building of a city surrounded by a 5.4-kilometer-long fortified wall was undertaken as an act of filial piety, though it was also motivated by politics.

In 1789 King Ch6ngjo (r. 1776-1800) moved the tomb of his father, Crown Prince Changhon (commonly known as Sado), to the west of Mt. Hwasan about 40 kilometers south of Seoul, from its original location on the outskirts of Seoul. Hwasan was reputed to be the most auspicious site for a tomb in all Korea. However, a small town called Suwon with a population of about 2,000 had been there for over 1,000 years.

The king ordered the town moved 5 kilometers to the north so he could relocate his father's grave there. The new tomb was built with such care and devotion that it was no less stately than that of a king.

The construction of the new city of Suwon was undertaken with a well-prepared plan and with generous support from the national treasury. The townspeople were promised various kinds of compensatory benefits and daily conveniences for having to relocate. About five years later when the work on the new Suwon was nearly completed, Ch6ngjo ordered construction of a fortified wall around it. Chong Yak-yong, a leading intellectual at the time, designed the wall, combining traditional fortification principles and modern building techniques. The wall was completed in 1796.

Ch6ngjo had two reasons for building Suwonsong: filial piety and the restoration of royal authority. Ch6ngjo succeeded his grandfather Y6ngjo to the throne because his father, Crown Prince Changh6n, died a tragic death, a victim of factional strife. At the urging of a political faction that feared the enthronement of the crown prince 20

Quintessence of Korean Architecture

SOjangdae, a pavilion at a point along the northeast section of the Suwonsong Fortress

would result in their downfall, Y6ngjo ordered his son, Changh6n, locked in a rice box where he starved to death.

After ascending the throne, Ch6ngjo endeavored to enforce monarchic authority, and thereby suppress factional strife and ensure good statecraft. One of the projects he launched to stabilize his power was the construction of a new city that would provide him with his own military and economic base.

Construction of a major city was bound to prompt objections from powerful factions fearful of a loss of political influence, but none could openly voice their objections because the project was ostensibly motivated by filial piety. In Chos6n society, filial piety was valued higher than any other virtues; objecting to a display of filial piety would have been a contradiction of social norms.

By moving his father's tomb to the most auspicious location, Ch6ngjo performed a filial act and also created a new city to serve as his own power base.

Chos6n society in the late 18th century when Suwons6ng was constructed was in a period of transition from a medieval feudalism to a modern state.

It was only natural that the political and social changes were reflected in the construction of the new city. The city gates, walls and buildings were the products of modern engineering and building techniques and a Korean sense of design which had developed over time.

The wall was built to conform to the contour of the land, a technique that had been developed in response to Korea's mountainous terrain.

Precision-cut granite pieces were fit together tightly utilizing a technique developed by artisans with much experience in stonework. As quality granite is plentiful in Korea, th.e artisans were highly skilled at turning the hard stone into outstanding works of art.

Using their experience and aesthetic sensibilities, the 18th century architects created the stone wall in a way that gave it utilitarian anâ&#x201A;Ź! artistic value.

Wood was the basic construction material at the time. Pine, ubiquitous in Korea's mountains, did not always make the best timber because of its uneven grain and knars. Nevertheless, Korean carpenters used these features of pine wood to create artistic wooden structures. This tradition is well represented in various wooden buildings in Suwons6ng, most conspicuously the royal villa and the Ch'ang-anmun and P'altalmun gates which led t.o the walled city. These great structures are simple ¡yet stately and inviting. Hwahongmun, a water gate for the stream that bisects the town, is also notable as it presents a trinity of the harmony of water, stone arches and wooden pavilion.

An abundant use of bricks is another feature that characterizes Suwonsong.

Brick, an entirely new building material at the time, was introduced to reduce the depletion of timber resources and to reduce construction costs. The brickwork was done to harmonize with and

complement the wood structures.

Suwonsong was a product of the long tradition of Korean architecture and an experimental spirit.

World Heritage Fortified walls have been built by people in many places in the world throughout history. Walled cities not unlike Suwonsong still abound in Europe and China; many of them are noted for their architectural beauty and historic value. What sets Suwonsong apart from other walled towns is the spirit of filial piety that was behind its construction. As societies today experience the disintegration of family values and declining social morals, many people are considering what filial piety has to offer as a counterweight to these problems. Korea is an exceptional case because filial piety is the underpinning of its family structure and society.

Suwonsong, which was recently redesignated Hwasongsong, its original name, thus has a unique value in that it is an embodiment of filial piety as well as a wm:k of beauty reflecting Korean aesthetic tastes.

Fortunately, much of the original 18th century construction remains and Suwonsong has been designated Historic Site No. 3. Moreover, the Exemplar of the Construction of Hwas6ngs6ng (Hwas6ngs6ngy6k Lligwe), a detailed record of the construction of the fortress, provides a key to understanding this outstanding architectural monument.

Suwon has now grown into a large city with a population of 800,000. Yet, the old town at the center of the city remains intact, with the city expanding into its suburbs and to newly developing areas in the east. Although the old town with its wall has been well preserved, the old town must he made more comfortable for its inhabitants while preserving the beauty of its historic relic. This is a task for the government and for all Koreans. As long as Koreans preserve it, Suwonsong's future is bright. +

Among the outstanding features of Suwons6ng are (from top to bottom): Hwahongmun, a water gate for the stream that bisects the town; a beacon station for sending fire and smoke signals; and a secret gate.

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orean palaces served the dual function of royal residence and the seat of government from which the king ruled the country. Of the five palaces built during the Chason period (13 9 2-1910 )- K y 6 ng b o k kung, Ch'angd6kkung, Ch'anggy6nggung, Ky6nghuigung and Ky6ng-ungung (also known as T6ksugung)Ch'angd6kkung is the one that best fulfilled that dual role. It served as the

.Ch'angdikkung K Unique Among Korean Palaces

Joo Nam-chull Professor of Architecture Korea University

22

main palace for about 300 years after Kyongbokkung, the original main palace, was reduced to ashes during the :Japanese invasions in the !at ~ 16th century. Ch'angdokkung is unique among Korean palaces, because it ~as originally constructed as a detached palace.

Since it was not to serve as the main palace, its architects were not bound by the strict rules of symmetry that governed the construction of a main palace, and thus they were able to work with

greater freedom, employing a profound Korean sense of order and aestheticism.

The palace, which is located in Waryong-dong, Chongno-gu, Seoul, has been designated Historic Site No. 122. It was built in 1405 as a second palace for King T'aejong (r. 1400-1418), third monarch of the Choson Dynasty, after he moved the capital back to Hanyang (Seoul) from Songdo in 1404. (King T'aejo, the dynasty's founder, made Hanyang the capital of his kingdom in

A Korean palace served the dual function of royal residence and the seat of government from which the king ruled the country.

Of the five palaces built during the Chason period, Ch 'angdokkung is the one that best fulfilled that role.

The buildings of Ch'angdokkung were constructed in conformity with the natural lay of the land and arranged in a

layout marked by "asymmetrical balance," a characterizing feature of Korean traditional architecture from the Three Kingdoms period. through the Chason period.

InjOngjOn (left), the throne hall of Ch'angdokkung, and the royal throne it houses (above) 23

j

1394, but five years later his successor, ChOngjong, relocated the capita l to Songdo, capital of the previous Koryo ¡ Dynasty.) Along with Kyon.,gbokkung, Ch'angdokkung was destroyed by fire during the 1592-1598 Japanese invasions, but it was rebuilt in 1607-1610. Most of the facilities except for the throne hall, Inj6ngj6n, were burnt down again in the 1623 coup d'etat through which King Injo (r. 1623-1649) came to the throne. The palace was rebuilt in 1647 but was damaged by fires on several occasions up until Japan altered the palatial plan and removed many of its buildings in 1908.

Architectural Plan

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A spacious garden was built behind Ch'angdokkung, connecting the palace with Ch'anggyonggung, and the two palaces began to be referred to coiiectively as Tonggwol, East Palace. The buildings of Ch'angdokkung were constructed in conformity with the natural lay of the land and arranged in a layout marked by "asymmetrical balance." In fact, asymmetrical balance is a characterizing feature of Korean traditional architecture from the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th centu ry) through the Choson period as evidenced by Anhakkung Palace of Koguryo (38 B.C.-A.D. 668), Manwoltae Palace of Koryo (918-1392) and even in part of Kyongbokkung Pa lace.

However, the central area of Kyongbokkung, comprising the Ktmj6ngj6n, Saj6ngj6n , Kangny6ngj6n and Kyot'aejon halls, is symmetricaiiy balanced whereas all the major and auxi liar y buildings of Ch'angdokkung are asymmetrically balanced.

To th e north of the main gate of Ch 'angdokk ung, Tonhwamun, is the Ktllnch'on-gyo, a bridge spanning the Kl'11nch6n Stream that flow s f rom north to south. A principal feature of palace architecture is a bridge located between the entrance to the palace complex and the palace proper. Across the bridge is Chinsonmun Gate with corridors on each side. Both the gate 24

and the corridors were destroyed by the Japanese colonial government but restored recently. Chinsonmun faces Sukchangmun Gate across the courtyard, but before reaching it, one turns to the north to go through Injongmun Gate which opens to the courtyard of the throne hall, Inj6ngj6n. Long corridors stretch from each side of Injongmun surrounding Inj6ngj6n and its courtyard.

An elevated stone path bisects the stone-covered courtyard from the gate to Injongjon. This is the royal walkway used only by the king. It ends in the north at the foot of the high terrace on which the hall sits. To each side of the walkway are stone markers, each bearing the rank of a court official; markers for civ~ I officials are on the east side of the walkway and markers for military officials on the west.

Injongjon Iniongjon is National Treasure No. 225. The original building constructed during T'aejong's reign was burned down during the Japanese invasions. It was reconstructed in 1609 and, though it escaped the conflagration at the time of the 1623 coup d'etat, it was destroyed by fire in 1803. The prese nt building, which is 5 kan (a traditional unit of measure referring to the space between two columns) wide and 4 kan deep, was built in 1804 in th e multicluster bracket style. It stands on a tall threestep terrace constructed with rectangular stones. The columns are round and stand on dressed foot stones. The building ap pears to be two stories when viewed from outside, but it is actually a one-story' building with a very high ceiling. The floor was originally covered with square tiles but it is now wood.

The interior was modernized during the reign of King Sunjong (r. 1907-1910) with the addition of Western-style curta ins and electric lights and fixtures.

The throne is at the center of the hall, slightly toward the back with a screen painting of the sun, moon and five mountains behind it. An ornately

crafted canopy, with a pair of phoenixes painted at the center, hangs from the coffered ceiling above the throne. At the edge of the ceiling, three tiers of bracket anns protrude toward the outside and four tiers toward the inside.

The bracket arms on top of the columns curve sharply upward, but the ends projecting inside the building are carved in cloud patterns in harmony with the ornate props for the cross beams.

There are doors fitted into door sills at the center of the front and back of the building. Ornately latticed windows fitted into m6rCim, low wood panels at the bottom, form the walls. The upper part of the building has latticed windows all around. The roof has double eaves and its ridge and hips are plastered. The ridge has a decorative end tile shaped like an eagle head at each end and the hips have dragon-head tiles on them and are further decorated with chapsang, an assortment of mystic animal figurines. The ridge is also decOJ¡ated with five pear-flower seals, an addition made by Japanese architects during the colonial period.

Sonjongjon Beyond the corridors to the northwest of Injongjon is Sonjongjon, the king's residence, Treasure No. 814. The 3-kan,wide, 3-kan-deep building has a hipped-and-gabled roof and round columns and stands on a foundation of rectangular stones. The eaves of the roof, which are double, are bracketed in the multicluster style. The ridge of the roof is not plastered but is adorned with end tiles and dragon-head tiles.

Tall columns at the center of the interior support the high ceiling which is coffered above a large girder. The floor is carpeted, one of the Japanese renovations, but it was orginally tiled. There is a wa ll between two thin columns at the center of the building a little toward the back to accommodate a th rone , simp ler than th e one in Injongjon, with a sun, moon and five mountains folding screen behind it and

a canopy above it. The doors are at the center kan, and the rest of the building is surrounded by latticed windows on tall m6rum.

S6nj6ngj6n Hall was surrounded by corridors and there were many halls in its vicinity, but they were all demolished during the Japanese colonial period. To the northeast of S6nj6ngj6n are the Huij6ngdang and Taejoj6n halls, oriented toward the southwest in keeping with the lay of the land. According to the Tonggwolto (East Palace Map), a painting done between 1824 and 1827, there was an overpass-like corridor that connected Huij6ngdang to the door at the center of the corridor in front of Taejoj6n, which was located on a higher elevation. Also, the back part of Taejoj6n seems to have been constructed like an elevated pavilion, much different from its present one-story appearance.

Taejojon Taejoj6n, Treasure No. 816, was the queen's residence. Constructed in 1405, it too was reduced to ashes during the 1592 Japanese invasion. It was reconstructed during the reign of Kwanghaegun (r. 1608-1623), but it was burned down again during the coup d'etat in 1623. King Injo had it rebuilt in 1647, but it was destroyed by a fire in 1833. It was rebuilt the next year. When a mysterious fire destroyed the building in 1917, a great many buildings and halls in Ky6ngbokkung were dismantled to use the timber to restore Taejoj6n and other structures in its surrounding area, but only a small portion of the wood was actually used for that purpose. The restoration was quite different from the original as is clearly discernible when it is compared with the East Palace Map. Taejoj6n stands on a tall stone terrace and is completely surrounded by a corridor. It is approached through a lofty gate built at the center of the front corridor and a royal walkway leads hom the gate to the building. There is a large iron pot for water at each corner of the terrace. The water was rather symbolic;

SOnjongjOn, the king's residence in Ch'angdokkung (top); chapsang, mystic animal protectors on the roof of HiiijOngdang (middle); the Yongyongdang House in the back garden of the palace where the king could experience life as an ordinary aristocrat (bottom) 25

the fire demon would look into the pot and be scared away by its own terrifying image reflected in the water.

The building, 9-kan wide and 4-kan deep, has a spacious 3-kan-wi de wooden floor at the center and ondol (heated floor) rooms on the sides. The outside columns are square, the inside ones round. The eaves are bracketed in a double-wing bracket style with clusters of bracket arms on only the top of the columns and with blocks of floral design on the tie beams supporting the superstructure. Of special note are the octagonal capitals on top of the tall columns inside the hall and the colorful tanch'6ng painting on the girders, architrave beams, ridge beams and coffered ceiling. The columns are plain red.

The floor is covered with wood but, as in Inj6ngj6n, this was a change made by the Japanese colonial government, as are the curtain boxes above the windows. On the upper part of the east

and west walls of the hall are paintings of flower and bird motifs done by Kim Dn-ho (pen name Idang, 1892-1979) when he was 28. The roof is hipped and gabled and has double eaves. As is typical of royal bed chambers, the roof does not have a ridge beam. The hips are plastered and adorned with dragonhead tiles and chapsang figures.

A long corridor stretched from behind Taejoj6n to Ky6nghun-gak and a beautiful back garden with stone steps and flower terraces. Handsome chimneys of black bricks adorned with decorative patterns of red bricks stand bn the terraces.

Southeast of the Taejoj6n area was a royal dispensary for administering to the court, and south of Huij6ngdang was the crown prince's palace, Tonggung. To the east of these buildings were numerous buildings and corridors, which were demolished by the Japanese colonial government, except

A terraced garden in Naks6njae, a house for widowed queens 26

Naks6njae, Sunghwaru and a few other buildings. In all, on ly 13 buildings remained in Ch'angd6kkung at the end of Japanese colonial rule.

The Garden The garden of Ch'angd6kkung unfolds to the east of the dispensary.

Spread over 110 acres between Ch'angd6kkung and Ch'anggy6nggung, it was simply called Back Garden or Forbidden Garden, the latter indicating that it belonged to the king. The Japanese colonialists began calling it Piwon, or Secret Garden, the name by which it is still known to most Koreans.

Judging from an entry in the Annals of King T'aejong which says that "Haeonj6ng Pavilion was built to the northeast of Ch'angd6kkung in the sixth year of T'aejong's reign," the garden is believed to have already been in the making by that time. It was expanded to the border of the national Confucian

"'

academy, Songgyun-gwan, in 1463. Like the rest of the palace, the garden was destroyed by fire during the 1592 Japanese invasion and was reconstructed during the reign of Kwanghaegun.

A comment in the Annals of Chos6n notes that the garden was landscaped with "rare plants and rocks with little pavilions and arbors built among garden flowers and stones for the king's excursion. Its luxury and sophistication are unprecedented." In 1636, King Injo built a number of pavilions in the garden including Ch'onguijong, and sank a well in front of one to make a waterfall.

The inscription on the nearby rock, "Ongnyuch'on Stream," is in Injo's calligraphy. Succeeding kings built other pavilions and in 1777, King Chongjo had a royal library, Kyujanggak, built in the lower part of Chuhapnu Pavilion.

The garden can be divided into four areas. The first is the valley beyond the first hill, and it has a number of buildings including Puyongjong, Chuhapnu, Yonghwadang, Sohyanggak, Hl'iiujong, Chewolkwangp'unggwan and Sajongbigak. To the north of Puyongjong is a square pond with a round islet at the center, so built to symbolize the yinyang belief that "heaven is round and earth is square."

The circular islet also represents Mt. Fangchang, one of the legendary mountains of the Taoist ideal world. The landscaping thus combines Buddhist, Taoist and yin-yang philosophies ingrained in the Korean psyche since the Three Kingdoms period.

The second area is the garden's second valley where the Uiohon and Uidugak halls, Aeryonji Pond, Aeryonjong Pavilion and Yon-gyongdang House are clustered. The pond is especially notable because all three kinds of watering techniques used in traditional Korean gardens were employed: saturation of the soil, an overflowing effect and a waterfall effect.

The third area is the valley containing Kwallamjong Pavilion with a lotus pond, Chondokchong Pavilion with a lotus pond, SL'mgjaejong Pavilion and

Puyongjong Pavilion (above) seen from Chuhapnu Pavilion and Chuhapnu (below) seen from PuyongjOng with a circular islet representing Mt. Fangchang, a legendary mountain of the Taoist ideal world

P'yomusa. The fourth area is the fourth valley crisscrossed by the Ongnyuch'on Stream arid dotted by Ch'wihanjong, Soyojong, Ch'on-gl'Iijong and T'aegukchong pavilions and a royal well. More pavilions are cradled in the valleys and hills beyond these. They include Ch'ongshimjong, Ping-okchi and NL'mghojong.

The garden was landsca ped only where it was absolutely necessary, keeping the low hills and valleys and the flat land spreading in front of them

the way they were. Mostly deciduous ti'ees that respond to the distinctive changes of the four seasons of Korea were planted here. The trees were left to grow naturally on their own, with no cutting or twisting into artificial shapes as is commonly done in Japanese gardens. Among gardens of China, Korea and Japan, Korean traditional gardens best represent what Chinese landscaper Chicheng wrote in 1631: "Made by humans but the same as made by god." + 27

.ARCHAEOLOGICAL

~&JCDo1Wf2

Prehistoric D-w-elling Site Han Young-hee Curator for Archaeology National Museum of Korea

ogether with a dwelling site at Sop'ohang in Unggi, Hamgyongbuk-do, North Korea , Amsadong by the Han River in Seoul is one of the most notable prehistoric dwelling sites from Korea's Neolithic Age. It was discovered in 1925 after a great flood swept the area revealing the neolithic layer that had been hidden underground for nearly 6,000 years. An archaeological team from Kyongsong (Keijo) University, which is now Seoul National University, retrieved several truckloads of shards of comb-pattern pottery while conducting surface studies and simple test excavations. After World War II, the site con-

Comb-patterned jar, height 40.5 em

Restored pit dwellings at the Am sa-dong prehistoric dwelling site 30

tinued to be at the center of the attention of early Korean archaeologists such as Prof. Kim W on-yong and Kim Chong-hak, but a full-fledged excavation was beyond the means and ability of Korean archaeologists at the time.

Excavations of the Amsa-dong site began in 1967 only after a great quantity of pottery shards were discovered there in the process of constructing a high school baseball field. A consolidated university team led by Seoul National University conducted a partial excavation on the site, but due to their inexperience, they could not locate the shoulder line of a pit dwelling, a common type of neolithic dwelling. The project was closed with no other results than a superficial study of a hearth encircled by stones at the bottom of a pit and the recovery of some artifacts around the site.

Studies on the neolithic culture of the Korean peninsula are being undertaken separately by South and North Korean scholars, with the participation of japanese scholars who have turned to

Korea to search for the roots of their own culture. In North Korea, archaeologists led by To Yu-ho and Han Hung-su, ¡two of the small number of Korean archaeologists trained in Europe, have studied such representative neolithic sites as the shell mounds at Kungsan in Onch'6n, P'y6ng-annam-do; Kunt'an-ri, P'y6ngyang; Chit'ap-ri, Pongsang, Hwanghae-do; and Nongp'o-ri and S6p'ohang near Ch'6ngjin, Hamgy6ngbuk-do. Their studies show a division of Korean neolithic culture into the northwest tradition of pointed-bottom, comb-pattern pottery and the northeast tradition of flat-bottom, comb-pattern pottery.

At the news of the academic

as net-sinkers, hooks and harpoons; hunting tools such as arrowheads and spears; and daily utensils such as grinding pestles, grinding stones, hammers, grindstones and knives. Carbonated acorns found on the floor of the dwellings indicate that neolithic people made food with various nuts.

The style of the pit dwellings, the shapes and decorative patterns of the earthenware and the types of tools and their assemblage are similar to those found in the Kungsan shell mound and at the Chit'ap-ri and Kumt'an-ri sites in North Korea, suggesting that the neolithic culture by the Han River and the one in northwestern Korea

@[h(f}iaBÂŽ~ p-a leolithic Site Bae Ki-dong Associate Professor of Archaeology Hanyang University

as there an Acheulian-type hand-axe in East Asia? This was a question paleolithic archaeologists around the world asked for a long time.

The Acheulian hand-axe, so called because it was first found in St. Acheul in France, was made with a smooth flint stone. Because some of the stones are shaped like a water drop (ficron type), there are some scholars who consider such axes to be sculptural works expressing aesthetic sensibilities.

Paleolithic sites have been found in East Asia since the search for the origin of humankind began in the late 19th century, but no hand-axe, that handsome stone tool found in Europe. This led Prof. Hallam L. Movius to conclude in . the 1940s that East Asians used only a chopping tool, different from the the Ch6n-gok-ri site contradicted Movius' hypothesis. The Ch6n-gok-ri site is

located in the middle of rolling hills nearly encircled by the Hant'an River that flows along the rift valley of Ch'ugary6ng. On a hill at the west tip of the site overlooking the river is a grove of poplar trees, and a small museum aqd a monument to the late Prof.

Kim Won-yong, who led the first excavation of the Ch6n-gok-ri site, stand below the grove.

Ch6n-gok-ri is about an hour's drive from Seoul on a highway ..stretching alongside the Ky6ngwons6n railroad ti¡ack and across the Hant'an River.

About 300,000 to 600,000 years ago, lava flows from Mt. Orisan in the P'y6nggang area to the northeast of the rift valley of Ch'ugary6ng filled the riverbeds of the Hant'an and Imjin rivers in the area. Later on, the river's force cut through the basalt to the present level leaving a tributary with hanging sediment. Erosion occurred along the chrystalline face of the lava that was formed as the lava cooled and hardened. The 31

vertical cliffs of basalt columns along th e Hant'an and Imjin riv ers are th e result of such natural processes. The area has been famed for its spectacular cliffs since ancient times and was even the subject of a painting by Chong Son 0 676-1759), a great painter of th e Choson period also known by his pen name, Kyomjae.

Paleolithic artifacts have been found in the sedim entary layer of clay and sand deposited on th e surface of th e basalt. In the early stages of excavation, which began in 1979, brightl y shining stone artifacts were visible everyw here in the reddish clay. Nearly all of the paleolithic specialists in Korea took part

in the first several excavations. They cut pits diagonally across the center of Locality 2 of the poplar grove to look at the composition of th e site. By 1995, more than 10 excavations were made in the area. A great deal of information was gleaned, yet a great many mysteries of that period remain unsolved.

Virtuall y nothing is kn ow n about th e peo ple of Ch6 n-gok-ri which is believed to he one of the oldest paleolithic sites in Korea. Since it is believed that Hom o erect us ex isted in Zhoukoudian near Beijing not far from the Korean peninsula about 500,000 years ago, and that Homo sapiens, modern human's ancestor, lived in Liaodong

Ch6ngok-ri is the site of the first discovery of'the Acheulian hand-axe in Ezst Asia. Ch6ngok-ri is valuable not only because of the hand-axe but because it is the oldest and largest Stone Age site in Korea and one of the most important historic sites for studying the development of stone tools in East Asia.

An archaeological dig conducted at Chon-gok-ri [also spelled Chongokni] from 1994 to 1995 (above); a hand-axe excavated at Chon-gok-ri (right); a hand-axe from Tanzania, Africa (upper right); a profile of the flu vial deposit at Chon-gok-ri (far right) 32

about 300,000 years ago, one can safely ass um e th at an ancient species of hum ans, most probably Hom o sapiens, lived in the Korean peninsula at about the same time. They must have wandered up and dow n the riverbeds of th e Hant'an and Imjin ri ver va lleys, which hy then had become spacious fields. They made stone tools, gathered food by the river and hunted animals that h_appened to come to the river to drink . The co urs e of th e ri ve rs changed slow ly, forming new patches of land and leav ing ox-horn-shaped pools behind. The early humans used large pebbles ca rried dOW J!Stream hy fl ooding to make tools and worked

discovery of the first Acheulian handaxe in East Asia.

Chon-gok-ri is valuable not only because of the hand-axe but because it is the oldest and largest Stone Age site in Korea and one of the most important historic sites for studying the development of stone tools in East Asia. The government has designated the area of about 200 acres a historic site for its protection. Someday this barren expanse of land may be turned into a historic park with its paleolithic environment restored to allow people to travel back to the past. What is more, excavation

projects need to continue to find answers to the yet unsolved questions, with the artifacts retrieved through such excavations added to the collection of the park museum.

The building housing the museum was an excavation office converted to house artifacts from here as well as artifacts from other sites for comparison.

The museum holds the Ch6n-gok-ri Paleolithic Cultural Festival every year on Children's Day, May 5, to promote public understanding and preservation of the site. This year's festival will be the fifth annual event. +

together to move large rocks for various domestic uses. With time, the riverbed became so deeply eroded that clay carried by the flowing water would not pile up on the surface of the riverbed. However, the layer of sedimentary deposits on the surface of the land was relatively unaffected by erosion and thus remains today.

No fossils of living organisms have been found by the excavation thus far.

However, stone tools were found in abundance in the reddish clay and the sandy layer underneath. Although less elaborate than those found in Europe and Africa, the Chon-gok-ri hand-axes are no doubt Acheulian in their basic form . Most of the world's paleontologists are now familiar with the name, Chon-gok-ri Acheulian hand-axe.

Paleolithic archaeologists from such countries as the United States, Japan, Russia , China and France have visited the site because of their interest in the 33

.GS.runfiw~

Telllple Site

Cho You-jeon Director National Folk Museum

pair of magnificent stone pagodas have faced each other from the east and west sides of the Kamunsa Temple site since the temple was built in the late seventh century. The site has been thoroughly excavated and the relics well maintained. Located at the East Sea entrance to what was once the kingdom of Shilla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), the site is full of history, some of it based on myths, related to the founding of the temple.

Ancient records show that Munmuwang (r. 661-681), the Shilla king who unified the Korean peninsula by defeating the Paekche (18 B.C-A.D. 660) and Kogury6 (38 B.C-A.D. 668) kingdoms, was closely involved with the founding of the temple. Even though he unified the three kingdoms, the king could not keep away Japanese marauders. As a last resort, he decided to build a temple to pray to Buddha for the protection of

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11EH31: Kamilnsa Temple represents two great Korean values, loyalty and filial piety: King Munmu-wang's loyalty to his country and King Shinmun-wang's filial devotion to his father.

A diagram of the Kamiinsa site (top); the foundation of the main sanctum which had a narrow passage leading to the sea (above); the three-story twin pagodas of Kamiinsa (right) 34

his country but died before its completion. He left his son instructions to cremate his body and bury his ashes in the East Sea so that he could become a sea dragon to protect his country. The temple was completed by his son Shinmunwang (r. 681-692) in 682 and was named Kaml'msa, Temple of Gratitude.

The original dimensions of the temple were revealed through an extensive excavation carried out in 1979 and 1980 following a preliminary one in 1959.

The excavation in 1959 was done because of the rapid deterioration of the site, which suffered from its proximity to a village built within the temple compound. Excavations were made in the yards of private houses and vacant lots in the village in an effort to determine the size of the temple. In 1979, interest in King Munmuwang was revived as Taewa.ng-am, a rocky islet off the nearby shore, was discovered to be his undersea tomb; a pavilion named Igy6ndae had bee n built on the shore as a point from which his followers could look for the dragon he was believed to have become. Prompted by public pressure for all relics related to Munmu-wang to be researched and restored, a thorough excavation of the site of the temple was planned and the village was relocated in 1979.

The excavat ion thus cond uct ed revealed a great deal of information hitherto unknown about the temple.

Basically, there are two styles of temple layout: the flat-land style, preva lent during the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th ce ntury ), and the mountainside style, prevalent during the Koryo period (918-1392). Though Kamunsa was neither a flat-land temple nor a mountainside one, the layout of its facilities was of the flat-land style w ith the middle ga te, pagodas, main sanctum and lecture hall standing one after another from south to north and surrounded by corridors starting from the middle gate. The area surrounded by the corridors was the center of the temple.

The middle gate to the center of the temple was reached by a tall stairway reminiscent of the stone Ch'ong-un-gyo and Paegun-gyo steps that lead to the Chahamun Gate of Pulguksa Temple.

Since Kamunsa is older than Pulguksa, the latter's steps are believed to have been inspired by the steps of Kam Cmsa.

The foundation of the main sanctum was constructed in a manner very dif-

ferent from that of other temples. It had a special area constructed under the columns of the building that was connected to a narrow passage on the east.

It is thought to be a symbolic structure by which the spirit of the dragon king cou ld come to the temple and rest.

The three-story twin pagodas of Kam Cmsa are representative of the stone pagoda sty le perfected in the early Unified Shilla period. Each had a sarira container enshrined inside the body stone. The bronze sarira casket from the west pagoda is adorned with images of Lokapala, Buddhist guardians

of the cardinal directions, and figures playing musical instruments and making offerings to Buddha. A crystal sarira bottle was found inside the casket.

The discovery was the first of its kind by an archaeologica l team after the establishment of the Republic of Korea.

The pagodas, built with many pieces of tufa stones fitted together, are each 145 meters tall.

Kamunsa Temple represents two great Korean values, loyalty and filial piety: King Munmu-wang's loyalty to his country and King Shinmun-wang's filial devotion to his father. +

~ÂŽfio[ Prehistoric Site Shin Kwang-seop Director Pu y6 National Museum

ongguk-ri Prehistoric Site, designated Historic Site No. 249 , dates from Korea's Bronze Age (ca. 1000-300 B.C.). Located in Songguk-ri, Ch 'och'on -myon , Puyo-gun, Ch'ungch'ongnam-do, the site came to the attention of archaeologists in 1974 when a stone cist, or coffin, containing a Liaoning-type bronze dagger was discovered. Seven archaeo logica l e x cavations of the site revealed 33 Bronze Age dwelling sites, wood palisades, moats and jar coffins, a ll va lu able finds in that they shed light on life during the Bronze Age. In 1975, some 200 acres of land around the site were designated for farm development , prompting the National Museum of Korea to carry out an extensive excavation of the area from 1975 through 1978. The team uncovered the sites of 19 circular and rectangular dwellings and 4 jar coffins in a 4-kilometer-square area, the largest Bronze Age settlement discovered in South Korea up till then. Excavations conducted by the National Museum of

Korea from 1985 to 1987 and by the Kongju National Muset1m from 1992 to 1993 uncovered 22 dwelling sites, 4 burial sites and a palisade.

The dwe lling sites of the subterranean pit type are of two shapes, circu lar and rectangular. The circu lar ones are .relatively small, 3.4 to 5 meters in diam eter, with an ova l pit about 1 meter across at the center flanked by two post 'holes and rows of post holes down th.e long sides. Because of the unusual center pit and post holes, this kind of dwelling is called the ~ ¡song uk­ ri type." Dwellings of this type have been found in the western part of Japan as we ll as on the island of Kyushu. The rectangular dwellings are larger th;;tn the circular ones but not as deep. The burned remains of girders and beams suggest that the dwellings had hipped roofs.

Post holes for a palisade, the oldest ever found in Korea, and a ditch were found around the cluster of dwelling sites. Traces of grading and other landscaping were also found.

35

The Bronze Age stone cist found at the site in 1974 was the first of its kind discovered in Korea. It is 195 centimeters long north to south, 84 centimeters wide at the north, 78 centimeters wide at the south, and 81 centimeters high. It is built with flat stones which have traces of dressing. A Liaoning-style bronze dagger, a polished stone dagger, stone arrowheads, tubular jades, ornamental beads and other artifacts were found inside the cist. The find was of great interest because it was the first time a Liaoning-style bronze dagger, the prototype of the Korean bronze dagger, and a polished stone dagger had been found together in Korea.

"

Carbonated rice grains were found on the floors of the dwelling sites, evidence that rice farming existed as far back as the Bronze Age.

Carbonated rice grains (upper left); a stone axe, chisels and crescent-shaped knives (upper right); a Liaoning-type bronze dagger, bronze chisels, stone arrowheads, comma-shaped and tubular pieces of jade, and a stone dagger (middle); Songguk-ri-type plain coarse pottery (right) 36

The floor of Dwelling Site No. 54-5 at Songguk-ri(left); spindle whorls and stone chisels

The jar coffins were found on low hills near the dwelling sites. Three of the four that were excavated were of the same basic form, the "Songguk-ri type" plain earthenware jar with a perforated bottom. They were buried in a vertical pit that consisted of a small pit, in which the jar was placed, dug in the bottom of a larger pit which was dug in the bottom of yet a larger pit topped with a coverstone and then earth.

The dwelling sites yielded pottery and stone artifacts. Many of the pots have flared mouths and slightly bulging bodies that narrow toward the bottom.

Pottery of th is kind has come to be know n as the "Songguk-ri type." The stone artifacts include triangular stone knives, grooved stone adzes, small polished stone daggers designed to fit into wood handles and a schist mold for a fan-shaped bronze axe. Ca rbonated rice grains were found on the floors of th e dwelling sites, evidence th at rice farming ex isted as far back as the Bronze Age. The Songguk-ri site is now considered the standard Bronze Age dwelling site of Korea's southern region; similar types of dwellings and Songguk-ri type pottery have been found in areas south of central Korea such as at the Song-amdong site in Kwangju, and three sites in Ch'ungch'o ngnam-do: at Haemi in Sosan, Kwa nch'a ng-ri in Poryo ng and Hansong-ri in S6ch'6 n. +

ITruwfBcilÂŽo~ Ka ya Turn uli Leem Hyo-taek Pro fessor of Archaeology Director, Dongeui Uni versity Museum

ome aspects of the history and culture of Kaya, a confederation of city-states established about two milleni a ago nea r th e mouth of th e Na ktong Ri ver, have been revealed through a series of exca vati o ns made sin ce th e 1970s.

However, as these archaeological studies were either incomplete or concentrated on limited areas, more extensive excavations and resea rch have been called for. In this respect, the recent excavation of a cemetery of pit burials in Yangdong-ri is significant because it has prov ided va lu abl e inform at ion abo ut th e history and cultur e of Kuyaguk and Pon-Kaya, two Kaya polities that once stood along the lower reaches of the Naktong.

The cemetery is located about 4 kilometers to the south west of dow ntown Kimh ae on a rolling hill (90 meters above sea level) behind Kagok village and beside th e Na mhae Ex pressway.

At first, th e site, 24 acres of land in Yangdong-ri, Chuch'on-myon, Kimhae,

Kyongsangnam-do, did not appear to be of any historic value except for a scattering of pottery shards from damaged tombs.

Neve rth eless, an excava tion was und erta ken beca use Kimhae Co un ty had designated part of the area as the site for a new rice mill. Once the surface layer was removed, the excavation crew found a cluster of relics. As valuable artifacts kept coming to light, the fir st excava ti on co ntinued for 22 months and, because of the importance of the findings, two more excavations have been undertaken.

The excavations, under the supervision of ex pert s from Do nge ui University's museum from November 1990 through February 1996, covered an area of about 13,200 square meters (3.2 acres). A total of 562 burial sites including wood coffin tombs, outer coffin tombs, vertica l stone chamber tombs and jar coffins were uncovered. From them, a total of 4,952 artifacts including 1,925 pieces of pottery, 2,889 meta l 37

The excavation of a Kaya cemetery in Kimhae's Yangdong-ri

objects, 45 bronze objects, 69 ornaments and 24 miscellaneous objects were recovered. The artifacts are believed to date from the late second century B.C. to the fifth century A.D., while the burials appear to have been made from the first century through the fifth century, judging from the various burial styles and changes.

Studies revealed that the tombs in Yangdong-ri were of six different styles representing almost all of the known Kaya tomb styles. The findings helped clarify the development of the Kaya burial system, from wood coffin tombs to outer coffin tombs to vertical stone chamber tombs.

Judging from the wood coffin tombs, Kaya's history is believed to date back to as early as the first century B.C., instead of the early first century A.D. as

most historians have postulated. The discovery of large outer coffin tombs, 5 meters or larger, which provides a key to understanding the development of Kaya, pushes their origin back to the late second century A.D. rather than the end of the third century A.D. as was previously thought. The decisive clue was Outer Coffin Tomb No. 162, which is the oldest large-scale oute r coffin tomb of Kaya ever found. It contained as many as 10 bronze mirrors, the most ever found in a Korean tomb. In addition to this find , a number of large tombs believed to have been made for chieftains in the late second century A.D. and the third century A.D. were uncovered, making it possible to discuss when sdch tombs were made and for whom. Depending on the outcome of such discussions, these tombs could be

classified as "Kaya Tombs of the Emergent Stage (or Early Age)." In six tombs, the interior of the burial chamber was scorched, a. special burial style believed to have been influenced by a style practiced in the northern parts of the peninsula.

The artifacts from the Yangdong-ri tombs provide a comprehensive view of the changes and development of Kay ~ s culture by period and information about many missing lin ks in the study of Kaya history. The information gleaned from the pottery, iron, bronze and ornamental pieces and other materials suggests that the current history and chrono logy of Kaya should be revised. It also indicates that Kaya was a comparatively advanced society that had contacts with other kingdoms and cultures of the period.

The artifacts from the Yangdong-ri tombs provide a comprehensive view of the changes and development of Kaya culture by period and information about many missing links in the study of Kaya history.

The information gleaned from the pottery, iron, bronze and ornamental pieces and other materials suggests that the current history and chronology of Kaya should be revised. It also indicates that Kaya was a comparatively advanced society that had contact with other kingdoms and cultures of the period.

38

Among the major artifacts excavated are such ironcraft as various weapons, helmets, armor, horse trappings and farming tools, which indic ate the dynamism of Kaya society afthat time.

A sword with a round pommel and a spear with an iron grip from Outer Coffin Tomb No. 235 (dating back to the third century A.D.) and iron objects of deviant shapes with whorling patterns and swords from Outer Coffin Tomb No. 212 (the late second century A.D.) and Outer Coffin Tomb No. 313 (the third century A.D.) are the first, the oldest or the largest of their kind excavated in Korea. The whorling patterns are believed to have been a symbol of Kaya, possibly belonging to a king or a shaman officiant of rites.

The bronze artifacts include objects that represent the last stage of the native bronze tradition as well as unusual ritual vessels, daily utensils and ornaments probably imported from other cultures. By further studying the functions, sources and dates of the objects, archaeologists can now find clues about Kaya's contact and trade with other countries as well as its social structure and international standing. Of special note are the bronze mirror and bronze dagger retrieved from Tomb No. 427. The bronze mirror is of what is called "imitation mirror" or 'Japanese mirror" and the bronze dagger is a deviant Korean dagger. Both were the first discoveries of such objects in Korea. Viewed from the perspective of the development of Korean bronze ritual vessels, they illustrate the changes made in the early Kaya period to the ritual bronze vessels of Korea represented by bronze mirrors with fine, linear designs and knobs on the back and slender (Korean type) daggers. These discoveries suggest that Kaya was the first society to manufacture and trade bronze ritua l vessels on a large scale.

Accordingly, the imitation (or Japanese) mirrors and deviant slender (Korean type) daggers that continue to be excavated both in Korea and Japan should be reclassified as Kaya-, Kimhae- or

Yangdong-ri-type bronze mirrors and bronze daggers.

Most of the ornaments are of various shapes and made of beads. The most notable of them are the chest and neck ornaments from Outer Coffin Tombs No. 270 and 322, which are rated as the best of all Kaya ornaments discovered in size and exquisiteness.

The Yandong-ri tumuli are important because they provide substantive information abolit the development of Kaya's culture by period and enable

archaeo logists to develop advanced theories about the nature and course of Kaya's national and social development. They suggest that Kuyaguk and Pon-Kaya, centered around Kimhae on the downstream reaches of the Naktong River, were Korea's first maritime states involved in trading activities. Kaya's maritime prosperity, alluded to in an entry on the iron trade in the Tung-i chuan (Account of the Eastern B.arbarians) in the Chinese source Sankuo-chi (History of the Three Kingdoms), is now supported by the abundance of iron artifacts excavated from the Yangdong-ri site. The period from the late second century through the fourth century, in paFticular, was the acme of "Kaya iron." It was also during this period that maritime trading thrived.

Assuming that Kaya's mastery in the production of iron, the most important natural resource at the time, was the major factor in its becoming a great maritime kingdom, the devaluation of Kaya iron and the decline in demand for its products must have contributed greatly to Kaya's downfall. Kaya began to show signs of waning at the turn of the fifth century A.D. and the pressure of the newly emerging Shilla and Paekche kingdoms hastened its demise, which came in 562. +

A copper pot with an inscription excavated from TombNo.322(top); TombNo. .:B5(above)

39

.ITÂŽffifBaffiffiarro Celadori Kiln Site ChyoiKun Curator Haegang Ceramic Museum

he remains of kilns that produced celadon ceramics during the Koryo period (918-1392) have been found at over 300 locations in Korea. The kilns in Kangjin, Chollanam-do, and Puan, Chollabuk-do, are the most notable because they produced ceramic works with blue-green color that was considered the finest of all the Koryo celadon hues. In Kangjin, archaeologists found about 200 kilns dating back to the late Unified Shilla period (mid-9th century),

Yong-un-ri Kiln Site No.lO

40

when celadon began to be produced in Korea, to the end of the Koryo period (late 14th century), right before celadon was replaced by the punch '6ng of the early Choson period (1392-1910). The objects discovered at this site provide insight into the entire life cycle of Koryo celadon from its inception to maturation, culmination and decline. At these kilns the making of celadon was developed into an art that involved the mixing of clay, the shaping of the objects, decorating and glazing.

The kiln sites in Kangjin were first discovered in 1913 and a survey was conducted the following year by a Japanese staff member of the Conservatory of the Yi Royal Family named Yasuhiko Sueso. Two other Japanese archaeologists, Manzo Nakao and Ken Nomura, identified over 100 sites in 1925 and 1928 and made a map of the area showing the kiln sites. The area was designated Historic Site No. 107 in 1939. After the end of World War II, studies of the sites were conducted from 1959 on by Choi Sun-u, Chung Yang-mo and other ceramic historians at the National Museum of Korea. Based on their studies, an area of 146 acres encompassing over 100 kiln sites was designated Historic Site No. 68 in 1963.

Teams fom the National Museum excavated 12th-century kilns in Sadangri, Taegu-myon, Kangjin-gun beginning in 1964, and lOth- and 11th-century kilns

~

in Yong-un-ri, Taegu-myon from 1980.

In 1991, Choi Kun and his colleagues at the Haegang Ceramic Museum made a detailed survey of the sites in Kangjin and prepared a distribution rriap of the 188 kiln sites known at that time. This article focuses on the excavation of Kiln Sites Nos. 9 and 10 in Yong-un-ri which was carried out for three years beginning in 1980.

Kiln Sites Nos. 9 and 10 were located in an area which was to be submerged after the construction of the Tangjon reservoir. Kiln Site No.9, located to the southeast of the reservoir, was of great importance because it yielded bowls with a Tang Chinese style wide-ring foot, indicating it was a major kiln for early celadon production. Kiln Site No. 10, located on a flat area on the opposite side of the reservoir, was presumed to have succeeded the No. 9 kiln because of the celadons it produced with a wide-ring foot prevalent in the closing stage of the style, plain celadons of clear, almost blue-green glaze, embossed or engraved celadons and celadons with primitive inlaying.

Site No. 9 was built on a sloping piece of land and was full of granite pieces and used sagger pieces mixed with shards of yellow-green and light bluegray celadons. During the test digging around the site, relics were found in layers as deep as 1.5 meters. Because it was determined that the relic-containing layer would be above the reservoir's highest water level, the excavation was closed after the relic collection was completed because other sites, which were to be flooded, had to be surveyed within a limited time. Although a full-fledged excavation of Kiln Site No. 9 was not carried out, the survey of the deposit layer alone was of great importance.

Prior to the survey, it had been difficult to determine the relationship between Korean celadon and Chinese celadon because the wide-ring foot style, a feature of early celadon, was different in detail from thaf of China, but a foot style identical with that of Chinese celadon was found in the

An aerial view of Yong-un-ri showing various kiln sites (top); the No.10-1 kiln viewed from the north facing south (middle); the fireplace of the No.10-1 kiln (above) 41

The floor of the No. 10-4 kiln viewed from the north facing south

42

lower layer of the deposit, lending support to the suspicion that Kore a n celadon was directly influenced by Chinese celadon of the late Tang period (mid-8th-mid-9th century).

Site No. 10 was an oval-shaped flat by a little stream where elderly villagers remembered there being mounds of relics that looked like large tombs until the area w as gradually levelled and turne d into farmland. Thus it was thought that if any kiln sites existed, they must have been greatly damaged.

However, the excavation was a surprise from the beginning; a kiln floor covered with sand baked at a high temperature was found with walls on both sides.

The ceiling, still intact, emerged when the excavators removed deposits along the floor and the walls. A cross section of the ceiling revealed that it was built of clay into which pieces of used saggers had been wedged, a technique effective in constructing an arched ceiling. The presence of used saggers also indicates the existence of kilns of an earlier date. Excavators outlined a large area where they expected the firebox to be and removed deposits from the area. They soon came to a spacious, fan-shaped work area on a granite platform and the mouth of the firebox made with used saggers.

Excavations carried out until 1996 uncovered more than a dozen celadon and porcelain kilns, but none of them was with a complete firebox and ceiling. The kiln was built with sagger pieces and clay on a 12-degree incline on a deposit of used saggers and celadon shards. Archaeologists believe that the lowest part comprising the firing chamber and the work area was originally half underground, the floor of the mid-part of the kiln was level with the surface of the ground, and the high¡ est part including the chimney was elevated above the ground with deposits.

Of course, the chimney and the part of the kiln which had been above ground could not be found because all the structures above ground were completely destroyed.

I

I,

I

What remains of the kiln today is a section 8.4 meters long. The floor is 1.2 meters wide, the walls 0.3 meters thick and the firebox 1.05 meters tall. There are chamber doors at interva ls of 1.3 meters on one wall and 0.08-meter-wide holes directly across from them in the opposite wall. The chamber doors would have been bricked up before each firing and opened by removing the bricks when the pottery was ready to be removed from the kiln after the firing and cooling. The little holes across from the entrances were peepholes for monitoring the combustion inside the kiln. These features are not much different from traditional kilns used today except that the floor of this one slopes whereas the kilns used nowadays are stepped.

The kiln was given the number 10-1.

Two kilns in its vicinity were also excavated: Kiln No. 10-2, with upside down saggers on its floor, and Kiln No. 10-3.

However, their condition was not as good as Kiln No. 10-l's, having only part of their lower structures intact. Most of the celadons retrieved from them were

An archaeologist injecting a preservative into a portion of Kiln Site No.l0-1

exquisite pieces of blue-green color with embossed or engraved patterns displaying outstanding technique. Some pieces with inlaid or reverse-inlaid patterns of simple design executed with unrefined technique were also recovered, indicating that the kilns were active for about a hundred years from the 11th century to the early 12th century.

The three kilns were the greatest

archaeological finds in the field of pottery since World War II. Nevertheless, moving them was inevitable because the area was soon to be flooded. Kiln 10-1 is now on display in the garden of the Kwangju National Museum and Kiln 10-2 is in storage awaiting the 1997 opening of the Kangjin Celadon Museum where it will be permanently displayed. +

A side view of the earthen layers of a kiln 43

Designation and Preservation of

Cultural Properties Kim Chong-hyuk Director of Tangible Cultural Properties Office of Cultural Properties

ultural properties are the products of tangible and intangible cultural activities of a nation or people that are worth preserving for future generations.

Korea enacted its Cultural Properties Protection Law in 1962 with the purpose of preserving the nation's cultural properties in various forms and thus contributing to the promotion of its cultural heritage and enhancement of its cultural standing in the world.

The law mainly addresses cultural properties designated by the central government or by local governments. It prohibits the unauthorized excavation of cultural properties buried underground or in seabeds or enclosed in structures. It also protects movable cultural assets over 50 years old that are considered cultural properties by prohibiting them from being taken outside of the country. The Office of Cultural Properties of the Ministry of Culture and Sports and the cultural properties departments of local governments are in charge of enforcing the law and protecting the nation's cultural properties.

C

Categorizing Cultural Properties The Cu ltural Properties Protection Law provides four categories of cultural properties: "tangible cultural property," "intangible cultural property," "monument" and "folklore object."

The tangible cu ltural property category includes buildings, ancient documents, paintings, sculptures, arts and crafts, and archeological data of great historical and academic value, whereas the intangible cultural property catego44

ry includes the products of cu ltura l activities with historical and artistic value such as plays, music, dance and craft skills. The monument category includes historic sites and scenic sites including ancient tombs, sacred grounds and the stratum containing cultural relics of remarkable artistic and ornamental value, as well as animals, plants, minerals and caves of great academic value. Included in the folklore object category are samples of clothes, utensils and houses necessary for understanding the traditional lifestyle of the Korean people.

Of the cu ltural properties included among the four categories, those designated by the central government, or by the Ministry of Culture and Sports, are further classified into seven categories: "national treasure," "treasure," "historic site," "renowned scenic site," "natural monument," "important folklore object" and "important intangible cultural asset."

The cultura l properties designated by local governments, or by mayors and governors, are classified as "tangible cultural property," "intangible cultura l asset," "monument" and "folklore object."

Mayors and governors designate and protect "cultural property data" as well.

As of December 1996, a total of 7,057 cultural properties were listed under the Cultural Properties Protection Law. Of these, the central government designated a total of 2,541: 287 national treasures, 1,239 treasures, 388 historic sites, 13 renowned scenic sites, 286 natural monuments, 228 important folklore objects and 100 important intangible cultural assets. Provincial and city governments

are responsible for 3,093 cultural properties and assets: 1,606 tangible cultural properties, 178 intangible cultural assets, 1,043 monuments and 266 folklore objects. In addition, they designated 1,423 items of cultural property data.

This article focuses on Korea's most important cultural properties designated by the central government.

Tangible Cultural Properties Important tangible cultural properties are first classified as "treasures," and of these, the ones deemed to be of great value and to represent rare contributions to human civilization are then designated "national treasures." These national treasures are, therefore, Korea's most valuable cultural assets. National treasures and treasures can be further classified as either stationary or movable.

Th,ere are 631 stationary cultural properties made of either wood or stone. ¡wooden cultural properties include- a number of Buddhist temple and royal palace buildings, 19 of which have been designated national treasures and 116 as treasures. The rest are pavili¡ons, fortresses, government offices, Confucian shrines or academies, lecture halls and other structures.

Among them is National Treasure No. 1 Sungnyemun (known more commonly as Namdaemun, or South Gate) in Seoul, which was built in 1398 and once served as the main entrance to the capital city. Bright lights were recently installed around the gate to illuminate it at night. Kungnakj6n Hall of Pongj6ngsa Temple in Andong, Korea's old-

1

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est wooden structure dating back to the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392), is National Treasure No.15.

- The majority of the 63 national treasures and 433 treasures made of stone are Buddhist pagodas, tombstones and sculptures including small stupas, lamps, and images carved on rocks. The brick pagoda at the Punhwangsa Temple site in Kyongju is National Treasure No. 30.

It was built in A.D. 634 during the Shilla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935). National Treasure No. 9 is a five-story stone pagoda at Chongnimsa Temple in Puy6, which was built in the seventh century during the Paekche Kingdom (18 B.C.A.D. 660).

One of the nation's most important stone monuments is National Treasure No. 3, a boundary marker on Mt. Pukhansan north of Seoul, which was erected to mark the inspection tour by Shilla King ChinhUng (r. 540-576) of the new frontiers, an event undertaken to celebrate his kingdom's territorial expansion. The majority of stone cultural properties are related to Buddhism except for a few such as Ch6ms6ngdae, National Treasure No. 31, the oldest astronomical observatory in the Orient.

The movable cultural properties include 205 national treasures: 94 artifacts, 51 ancient documents, 40 sculptures, 14 paintings and 6 scientific devices. This category also has 690 treasures: 339 ancient documents, 152 artifacts, 83 sculptures, 68 paintings and 48 scientific devices.

The artifacts include Kory6 celadon and white porcelain of the Choson Dynasty as well as metal objects such as a gold crown recovered from the Kl'1mgwanch'ong tomb in Kyongju (National Treasure No. 87), a symbol of the Shilla royalty. One of the most outstanding of the many ancient documents is Hunmin chong-Lim (National Treasure No. 70), the explication issued when King Sejong promulgated the Korean alphabet, han-gLil, in 1446. The woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana (National Treasure No. 32) preserved at Haeinsa Temple were added to the

Most of the nation 5 cultural properties are concentrated around the capitals of the ancient kingdoms such as K y6ngju, Kongju, Puy6 and Seoul

National Treasure No-1, Sungnyemun in Seoul (t?p); musicians performing cherye-ak, the musical accompanilnent for the Confucian rites performed at Chongmyo, the ancestral shrine of the Chos6n Dynasty (above)

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO) World Heritage List in 1995.

A majority of sculptures designated as cultural properties are Buddhist images, including a gilt-bronze statue of

a seated Maitreya Buddha (National Treasure No. 83) presently displayed at the National Museum and the giltbronze statue of a standing Avalokitsevara Bodhisattva (National Treasure No. 128) featuring intricate cloth patterns.

Among the paintings designated cultural properties is a Kory6 portrait of Hoehan (National Treasure No. 111), and Complete View of Mt. Kumgangsan (Diamond Mountain) (National Treasure No. 217), a landscape painting by the renowned landscapist Chong Son. There is also the Chosadang Wall Painting at Pusok-sa Temple (National Treasure No. 46), a rare Buddhist painting from the Kory6 period.

Included among the nation's scientific devices designated cultural properties are Chach'ongnu (National Treasure No. 229), a water clock regarded as one of the most significant scientific inventions of the Choson era, and the "Comprehensive Map of Choson" (National Treasure No. 248), one of Korea's earliest detailed maps.

Monuments Monuments are classified into "historic monuments" and "natural monuments."

Historic monuments of outstanding historic value are designated "historic sites."

There are a total of 388 historic sites: 80 fortresses, 70 royal tombs, 44 ancient tombs, 2? Buddhist temple sites, 25 kiln sites, 19 altars and shrines, 18 buildings, 10 prehistoric dwelling sites and 9 royal palaces.

Historically the target of numerous foreign invasions, Koreans built many fortresses to repel invaders. A number of them including Namhansansong and Pukhansansong, which were built during the Choson period, remain today.

There are also many royal palaces and tombs built during the 600-year history of the Choson Dynasty in and around Seoul. Ancient tombs located in the former capitals of the Shilla, Paekche and Kaya kingdoms have been designated historic sites as well.

45

The Chon-gok-ri Paleolithic Site at Yonch'on, Kyonggi-do (Historic Site No. 268) is an important key tQ understand. ing Korea's paleolithic era, while the Amsa-dong Prehistoric Dw.elling Site (Historic Site No. 267) in eastern Seoul offers clues to life during the neolithic era.

Among the natural monuments, the more important scenic sites are designated "renowned scenic sites," while significant wildlife, plants, minerals and caves are classified as "natural monuments."

There are 286 natural monuments: 61 kinds of animals, 21 kinds of fowl, 9 kinds of mammals, 4 kinds of fish, 2 kinds of insects, 25 breeding grounds, habitats and migratory sites, 13 caves, 10 minerals and 197 plants. The plants include 128 huge old trees, 29 forests, 14 rare species and 26 natural habitats. Five large areas including Mt. Hallasan (No. 182) and Mt. Soraksan (No. 171) have been designated "natural protection areas."

Seven large areas have been designated "renowned scenic sites" and six have been designated "historic and renowned scenic sites." Pulguksa Temple and its Sokkuram Buddhist Grotto, which were added to UNESCO's World Heritage List in 1995, are protected as historic and renowned scenic sites.

Folklore Objects There are 228 "important folklore objects": 135 houses, 55 items of clothing and accessories, 20 religious artifacts, 15 household tools and 3 folk villages. The houses have tiled or thatched roofs and reveal clues about the lives of ancient Koreans. As for folk villages, the scenic Hahoe Village in Andong is a traditional yangban (aristocrat) village which dates back to the 16th century. The family seat of the Son and Yi clans, Yangdong Village in Wolsong, near Kyongju, is also representative of yangban villages of the Chason period and has many well-preserved ancient buildings. Songi:ip Folk Village in Chejudo is representative of the island's unique form of fortified village which began to be built from the 46

15th century to ward off Japanese invaders.

Intangible Cultural Assets Intangible cultural assets are traditional arts and craft skills of high artistic and academic value that have been passed down for generations. By giving them recognition, the government has encouraged their preservation. Since im plementing an intangible cultural asset system in 1962, the government has designated and preserved a number of traditional arts and craft skills that are a significant part of Korea's cultural heritage.

An art or skill is designated an important intangible cultural asset only when there is a person who can pass it on to others. There are 100 important intangible cultural assets. The arts category includes 17 types of music, 7 types of dance, 14 plays, 23 forms of folk entertainment and rituals, and 1 martial art.

The technical category includes 36 crafts and 2_types of food.

The ritual music performed at Chongm yo, the ancestral shrine of the Chason Dynasty, was selected as the first important intangible cultural asset in 1964. Pyolsandae nori of Yangju,

Namsadang nori, Kat-il, p'ansori, T'ongyong Ogwangdae and Kosong Ogwangdae are among the dramas, music, dance, artifacts and folk entertainments that have been designated important intangible cultural assets Chason Dynasty court cuisine (No. 38), traditional liquor brewing (No. 86) and t'aekkyon (No. 76), a traditional Korean martial art, have also been classified as important intangible cultural assets.

A total of 173 people and 51 groups have been designated "human cultural assets," possessors of certain artistic or crafts skills. In addition, 285 people have been designated apprentices to ensure that the treasured skills are passed on to others.

Unique Characteristics Because of its close proximity to China, Korea was strongly influenced

by Chinese culture and also embraced

cultural elements from northern countries, including Manchuria, in the process of developing its own culture. Korean culture was then introduced across the sea to Japan, greatly influencing the culture of that country. The unique characteristics of Korean cultural properties may be summarized as follows.

The Korean people used to perform sacrificial rites to the heavens, mountains and rivers as part of their indigenous religion. Animism and a respect for nature were elements of early Korean culture. Koreans, therefore, have always liked to build houses in front of mountains or behind rivers and fields as a way to live in harmony with the natural topography. When Koreans plant gardens, they respect the geographical aspects of mountains and refrain from trimming tree branches.

They also avoid making fountains which go against the flow of water.

Even when making ceramics, Koreans preferred unrefined forms. Similarly, wooden vessels or furniture were traditionally made in accordance with the shape and grain of¡ the wood being used, and fortresses, cities, royal palaces and villages were constructed in accordance with the lay of the land. Korean culture has placed great importance on natural aesthetics.

Second, many of the nation's cultural prope;ties are Buddhist relics, fortresses, royal tombs and relics excavated from them. Cultural properties of substantial size were created by the ruling class of each kingdom or dynasty. Few relics belonging to common people have been found; the daily utensils and ornaments remaining today were mainly excavated from graves.

Third, most of Korea's cultural properties are comparatively small, but they are of outstanding quality.

Fourth, most of the nation's cultural properties are concentrated around the capitals of the ancient kingdoms such as Kyongju, Kongju, Puyo and Seoul.

Fifth, Buddhist temples figure prominently among the cultural relics of the Shilla, Paekche and Koryo kingdoms

because the rulers of these kingdoms encouraged Buddhism as the state religion. A number of royal palaces, fortress walls and tombs of t,Pese periods still remain. Most of the Chason era cultural properties are palace buildings and fortresses. Because of the relatively short durability of wood, there are no existing wooden structures of the Shilla and Paekche periods; the majority of cultural properties dating from the two periods are made of stone. In contrast, most of the important cultural properties built during the Chason Dynasty are made of wood.

Global Efforts for Preservation Cultural properties reflect the history and culture of a nation and its people. From a historical perspective, they are a precious cultural legacy which need to be protected by the entire world to help people chart the progress of civilization. Throughout history, many countries have tried to protect their heritage by passing laws and encouraging preservation efforts.

The need for international cooperation to protect cultural properties, an effort led by UNESCO, in particular, has been recognized by countries all over the world, while efforts to protect cultural assets have been launched by various international organizations and discussed at many international conferences.

Korea is eager to participate in these efforts and to publicize its own cultural heritage. Since 1968, South Korea has joined the International Center for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), the World Heritage Committee and the Intergovernmental Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Country of Origin or Its Restitution in Case of Illicit Appropriation (CLTPRO), all affiliated with UNESCO. A Korean representative served on the ICCROM board of directors from 1979 to 1986 and as vice chair of the 12th conference in 1983.

Korea joined the Convention on the

Protection of W arid Culture and Natural Heritage, adopted in 1972. At the 19th plenary session of the W arid Heritage Committee in December 1995, Korea succeeded in getting three of its cultural properties-Pulguksa Temple, and its Sokkuram Buddhist Grotto, the woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana and their storage halls at Haeinsa Temple, and Chongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine of the Chason Dynasty-added to the W arid Heritage List. The government is now seeking to have Ch'angdokkung Palace and the Suwon city wall placed on the list. The list is part of an international program under which unique and irreplaceable cultural assets located in countries that are signatories to the W arid Heritage Agreement are recognized for their univer~al value and registered in an effort to ensure their preservation and maintenance in the interest of all humanity. Currently, 505 cultural assets in 107. countries are on the World Heritage List.

In February 1983, Korea acceded to the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illegal Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, which was adopted at the 16th UNESCO conference in 1970. Korea was elected to serve on the CLTPRO committee for a four-year term in 1989 and again in 1993.

Through the committee function, Korea is participating in international activities directed at returning illicitly appropriated cultural properties to their countries of origin. This work is particularly helpful to Korea's efforts to collect information and rata about Korean relics abroad and its long-term goal of gaining the return of Korean relics that were illegally taken out of the country. In 1981, Korea also joined the International Institute for the Unification of Private Laws (UNIDROIT), a research institute affiliated with the United Nations, which adopted an acco rd to supplement the 1970 UNESCO convention on the return of illegally obtained relics.

An international conference on the

development of means to preserve intangible cultural assets was held in Seoul in October 1996. Cultural policymakers from 14 countries including Germany, Britain, China and Thailand participated, and they praised measures implemented by Korea and a few other countries as effective means to protect intangible cultural assets. The conference was highly significant in that it provided the impetus for UNESCO to adopt a resolution at its 142th executive committee meeting to recommend the propagation of an international preservation system for intangible cultural assets. The conference also provided Korea with the opportunity to assume a leading role in international efforts to preserve cultural assets.

Continuous and aggressive protection and management measures are necessary to maintain and preserve the value of cultural properties and assets in their original forms. Left to nature, a cultural asset would soon lose its original form or disappear altogether over time due to the natural aging and weathering process.

However, the greatest ¡danger to cutural properties is not the forces of nature but human neglect or vandalism, illegal or unsupervised excavations and their removal from their country of origin.

Preservation measures differ according to the type and condition of a cultural asset.â&#x20AC;˘ Generally, buildings and historical relics are maintained and repaired whereas movable cultural assets are preserved in museums or other facilities. As for intangible cultural assets, human cultural assets train others to acquire their skills.

Although the physical preservation of a cultural property is important, it is just as essential to devote consistent efforts to indirect protective measures, including activities directed at raising public awareness and concern for cultural assets, rewarding people who report the discovery of buried relics, punishing people who damage cultural assets and providing education for people responsible for the management of cultural properties. + 47

Chun Hyung-pil Guardian of Korean Relics Lee Heung-woo Poet

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Chun Hyung-pil collected invaluable national assets with a keen eye and a Jove for his country's cultural heritage.

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Cultural assets are an expression of a people's wisdom and artistic sensibilities, and they illuminate the long path of mankind's history. With a keen eye and a love for his country's cultural heritage, Kansong Ch un Hyung-pil collected invaluable national assets and held them dear to his heart. In 1936, he opened Puktanjang and built Poh wagak in S6ngbuk-dong, northeastern Seou l, paving the way for the Center for the Study of Korean Arts and the Kansong Art Museum. He also founded the Tongs6ng School Foundation, thereby injecting vitality into the Pos6ng Middle School. He was born on july 29, 1906, at 104 Chongno 4-ga, Seoul, and sadly passed away in the Pear Knoll Library at the same address on january 26, 1962.

In commemoration of the 90th anniversary of his birth, we respectfully erect a statue of the Teacher.

Oh, the invaluable cultural assets, his

far and deep intentions shine forever.

Oh, the in valuable cultural assets, worthy lights shine widely on the hearts of the people ... his is the inscription by Lee Heung-woo on the statue of Chun Hyung-pil, better known by his pen name, Kansong, in front of the Kansong Art Museum, which was unveiled on November 2, 1996. The Korean government chose Chun Hyung-pil as the cultural figure of the month in November 1996. A special exhibition was held to commemorate the 90th anniversary of his birth and the statue was unveiled as part of the celebration.

Chun was the second son of Chun Yong-gi, an official in the Privy Council.

The ancestral seat of the family was Chongson in Kangwon-do province.

The old house where Chun was born

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A relief (far left) and a photograph of Chun Hyung-pil (above), the founder oftht:KansongArtMuseum (below)

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on Pear Knoll had a floor space of approximately 320 square meters.

Chun's acquaintances referred to his ¡ huge residen ce as Ihyon-sook (Pear Knoll Library). â&#x20AC;˘ The house was built by Chun's greatgrandfather, who controlled Tongdaemun Market. Chun's great-grandfather had two so ns , and his grandfather became even more prosp erous. His older brother died young, and his elder uncle did not have a son, so all the wealth of the two families was inherited by Chun. It was a huge inheritance amounting to ten thousand s6k of rice a year. (A sok is a bag of rice containing approximately 5.12 bushels; the term "ten thousand sok" was used to describe what at that time would have been a millionaire, today a billionaire.)

Chun graduated from 6ili-dong Elementary School (tod ay's Hyoje Elementar y School) in 1921, from Hwimun High School in 1926, and from Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan, in 1930.

Discerning Eyes of Artists While he was a student at Hwimun High School (1921-1926), Ch un was a sports fan a nd the captain of the school's baseba ll team. He also developed an interest in collecting cultural relics at that time. He collected books, buying old books and Chinese texts as well as new books whenever he spotted something interesting.

His high-school art teacher was Ko Hl1i-dong (pen name: Ch'un-gok; 18861965), who was the first Korean artist to major in Western painting which he studied at Tokyo Art School in Japan in 1908. Ko changed his focus to Oriental art from about the middle of the 1920s.

He was one of a new breed of intellectuals who combined a strong desire to resist Japanese colonial rule and a deep understanding and affection for traditional Korean culture.

Ko recognized Ch1.m's academic ability and artistic talents and sensibilities early on and nurtured his interest in Korean cultural assets. Even after he 50

A 1928 photograph of Chun when he was attending college (above); celadon water dropper, 12th century, height Scm, National Treasure No. 74 (below)

went off to Waseda University, Chun visited Ko Hl.'Ii-dong when he came home during vacations, and throughout his life h e respec ted him as a true teacher.

Another person who influ e nce d Chun's attitude toward cultural assets was 0 Se-ch'ang (pen name: Wich'ang).

0 Se-ch'ang was active as an independence fighter and journalist, but he was

also a leading collector of the period as well as an appraiser and calligrapher. In addition, he was a pioneering art historian who published the first Who's Who of the Korean arts, Kiiny6ks6hwajing, a compilation of more than 1,100 calligraphers and artists throughout history, and Kiiny6kinsu, a compilation of 950 calligraphic painters, their personal histories and 3,700 of their seals.

One day in 1928, Chun went with his teacher, Ko Hui-dong, to visit 0 Sech'ang, then a 65-year-old master. The meeting helped Chun shape the future of the collection, preservation and protection of Korean cultural assets.

In February 1929, Chun's father died, and the 24-year-old college student became a wealthy landowner, taking on the responsibility of head of his family.

Chun 's trem end o us wealth, Ko Huidong's guidance and 0 Se-ch'ang's keen eye for quality converged to begin the difficult and important task of protecting. the cultural assets of the colonized country. Chun also had a different sort of wealth: a love of the old, a spirit of romanticism and a mature sense of elega nce. These qualities drove him to em bark on what would become a patriotic mission.

In 1932, 0 Se-ch'ang introduced Yi Sun-hwang to Chun; 0 had trained Yi as an honest middleman in transactions invol ing antique books and paintings.

Yi took charge of collecting antique books and paintings for Chun. Chun's collection evolved into the beginnings of a significant archives. With this purpose in mind, he bought t\1e Hannam Bookstore, an antique bookstore in Kwanhun-dong, and pla ced Yi Sunhwang in charge of it. The Hannam Bookstore became a center for collecting books and art works.

The Kansong Art Museum 's collection includes two albums of paintings

by Chong Son (pen nam e: Kyomjae; 1676-1759): Kyonam m y6ngst'ingch '6p (Picturesque Scenes of the Southwest), co ll ecte d in 1931, a nd H aeak ch 6nshin ch '6p (Landscapes of Sea and Mountains). The latter, which includes

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Bathing in the Valley, a painting by Shin Yun-bok, National Treasure No.135

the famous painting Complete View of Diamond Mountain, was found accidently by Chang Hyong-su, an antique dealer, when he dropped by the home of Song Pyong-jun, a prominent proJapanese co ll ector. He noticed the album and saved it as it was about to be added to the fire. Chang took it to Yi Sun-hwang at the Hannam Bookstore, and Yi introduced him to Chun.

Describing his first impression of Chun, Chang said: "He was very gentle and warm as I had heard. He smiled a lot, and although he was younger than me by several years, I was drawn to him from the beginning because he appeared so dignified."

Active Collector In 1934, Chun purchased about 33,000

square meters of forest land in Songbuk-ri, Koyang-gun , Kyonggi-do (today's Songbuk-dong area in Seoul) and opened Puktanjang, a facility for preserving and studying the collection he had accumulated.

He opened a mounting shop in one of the buildings so that a masterpiece, such as a painting by Kim Ch6ng-h(h (pen name:' Ch'usa), cou ld be mounted and placed in a specia ll y crafted paulownia box for safe keeping. On the boxes of the important pieces were descriptions written by 0 Se-ch'ang.

One such piece was the a lbum Hyewon ch6nshinch'6p (Genre Painting Album of Hyewon) , now Natio n a l Treasure No.135.

In 1935, Chun obtained a maeby6ng (plum vase) with a design of one thou-

sand cranes at what was then an exorbitantly bigh price for such an object, 20,000 yen, from a Japanese collector.

(The exchange rate at the time was about 1.2Japanese yen to the US. dollar.)

This is now National Treasure No. 68, Celadon Maebyong with Inlaid Cloud and Crane Design. The vase was the highest quality celadon porcelain excavated in Kaesong up to that time.

Chun was gentle and flexible, but also determined and decisive so that he single-mindedly finished his work despite whatever difficulties presented themselves once he believed that doing so was the right thing. This characteristic helped him as he collected art works.

In November 1936, after an intense negotiation with Yamanaka Shokai, a world-famous Japanese dealer, he sue51

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(From lef!)Tongguk chong-un, published soon after the han-giil alphabet was promulgated; An Sang kiimbo, music fo!" the sixstring zither written by An Sang in 1572; Hunmin chong-urn, an explication of the Korean alphabet

ceeded in purchasing a blue and white porcelain bottle with an orchid, chrysanthemum, grass and insect pattern in underglazed iron and copper oxide at the exceptionally low price of 15,000 yen. It was first designated as Treasure No. 241, but was elevated to a national treasure in November 1996 by the Cultural Properties Committee.

In about 1935, Chun bought from Cho Po-guk for 5,000 yen Ch'okchandogw6n, a large painting (58 em by 818 em) by Shim Sa-jong (pen name: Hyonjae; 1707-1769) depicting the rough road to Sichuan province in China. He sent it to Kyoto, Japan, for repairs and mounting, which cost another 6,000 yen.

In February 1937, Chun went to Tokyo to buy the vast collection of Sir John Gadsby, a lawyer who had collected superior Korean celadons when he lived in Japan. Many of the objects in the collection have since been designated national treasures and treasures.

Gadsby sold his collection when he left Japan.

In 1938, Pohwagak, the first private gallery in Korea, was built on the grounds of Puktanjang. It now houses 52

the Kansong Art Museum. "Pohwa" means "preserving brilliant works"; "po" means both "preserving" and "precious things." The purpose for which Pohwagak was built is evident from the inscription on the cornerstone composed by 0 Se-ch'ang. It says in part: "The old cultural assets of the Chason period, which Chun collected and preserved in Pohwagak and which will remain forever in history, should be researched and studied, should be valued by the world, and should be preserved forever by generations to come." A residential building was constructed on the grounds, and Chun's family lived there until the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. After returning to Seoul in 1953, the family lived in the old house at Chongno 4-ga (Pear Knoll Library), because the army was stationed on the property.

After the construction of Pohwagak, Chun collected not only calligraphy and paintings but also other important cultural assets. These include National Treasure No. 70, the original Hunmin ch6ng-ilm (The Correct Sounds for the Instruction of the People), an explication

of the Korean alphabet, now known as

han-gLil, promulgated in 1446; National Treasure No. 71, volume six of Tongguk ch6ng-un (Dictionary of Proper Korean Pronunciation [of ( hinese Characters]),

published soon after the han-gul alphabet was promulgated; Treasure No. 283, An Sang kLimbo (Manuscripts for K6mun -go), music for the six-string

zither written by An Sang in 1572; as well as Buddhist sculptures, stone pagodas and stone lanterns.

"In Praise of Kansong Chun Hyungpil's Bronze Statue" written by Pak Chong-hwa, a prominent novelist, in 1975 says of Chun that he is "the guardian spirit of national culture and an example in the field of edi.Jcation." The .statue stands on the grounds of Posong Middle and High School in Seoul.

Chun bought the Posong school in June 1940. He paid 150,000 yen for the financially troubled Kogye School Foundation and then established the Tongsong School Foundation, investing 600,000 yen into the school. (He donated 3,000 sok worth of farmland in Yonbaek, Hwanghae-do province, as an endowment for the school.) Eventually, the school became a success.

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The important relics in the Kansong Collection managed to survive the turbulent times following liberation from Japanese colonial rule in 194\ and the Korean War (1950-1953), including the North Korean army's scheme to take the collection to the North and a fire in Pusan where many of the relics had been taken for safe keeping .

Nevertheless, a vast number of calligraphic works, paintings, books and documents left behind in Seoul were lost. Chun continued to collect and preserve objects of value, although nationwide land reform after the war diminished his wealth. In particular, he collected books and documents for research purposes.

Until he died in 1962, Chun never

Chun was the guardian spirit of national culture and a leader in the field of education.

Celadon vase with inlaid decoration, mid-12th century, height 42 em, National Treasure No. 68

Kansong

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The tremendous collection of the Kansong Art Museum includes 11 national treasures: No. 65, a celadon incense burner with a unicorn-shaped lid; No. 66, a celadon kundika with an inlaid pattern of a pond and mandarin ducks; No. 68, a celadon vase with an inlaid pattern of clouds and cranes; No. 70, the Hunmin chongLim (The Correct Sounds for the Instruction of the People); No. 71, thirty pages of the Tongguk ch6ng-iin (Dictionary of Proper Korean Pronunciation); No. 72, a gilt-bronze Buddha trinity with an inscription dated kyemi (1403); No. 73, a shrine with a gilt-bronze Buddha trinity; No. 74, a celadon water dropper in the shape of a duck; No. 135, thirty pages of the Hyewon ch6nshinch'6p (Genre Painting Album of Hyewon); No. 149, Tongnae s6nsaeng kyoj6ng puksasangj61; and No. 270, a celadon water dropper in the shape of a monkey.

The collection also includes 11 treasures: No. 238, a white porcelain incense burner from Sung China, with a lid in the shape of a mountain; No. 241, a blue-and-white porcelain bottle with an orchid, chrysanthemum, grass

held any public position except as the principal of Pos6ng Middle School for a year during the confusion after liberation, and memberships in the Historic Relic Preservation Board in 1947 and the Cultural Assets Preservation Committee (1954-1962). During Japanese rule, he did not take a Japanese name, although the Japanese demanded all Koreans do so.

Chun was posthumously awarded the Cultural Merit Medal on August 15, 1962 and the Order of Cultural Merit on November 13, 1964, by the Korean government.

Chun's unfinished work was taken up by his sons, Sung-woo and Youngwoo. They arranged and catalogued the vast collection beginning in 1965, opened the Center for the Study of Korean Arts in 1966, and stage an exhibition every spring and autumn. They also publish a series of catalogues; as of November 1996, they had published 51 volumes. +

Collection

and insect pattern in underglaze iron and copper oxide; No. 283, the An Sang kiimbo (Manuscripts for K6mungo); No. 284, a gilt-bronze standing Buddha; No. 285, a giltbronze standing Bodhisattva; No. 286, a celadon vase with an inlaid design of grape and child; No. 287, a punch'6ng bottle with a scraffito design of plants and flowers; No. 348, a punch'6ng ware bowl with a peony pattern; No. 349, an inlaid celadon case and smaller cosmetic cases with chrysanthemum and peony patterns; No. 579, an octagonal stone stupa from Koesan; and No. 580, a five-story stone pagoda from Mun-gy6ng.

There are four objects which have been designated cultural assets by the city of Seoul: No. 28, a three-story stone pagoda; No. 29, an octagonal stone stupa; No. 30, a standing stone Maitreya Buddha; and No. 31, a stone Vairocana Buddha. In addition to these, there are numerous masterpieces that have yet to be designated, including paintings by Kim Ch6ng-hui, ChOng Son, Kim Hongdo and Chang Sung-6p, as well as celadons and white porcelains.

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.Fragrance of Ink: Chos6n Kwon Yong-pil Professor of ArchaeologyI Art History Korea University

n exhibition of ancient Korean paintings is currently traveling the United States with the latest show presented at the University of Oregon. The exhibition, entitled "Fragrance of Ink," features 121 works by Choson Dyansty (1392-1910) scholar-painters from the collection of the Korea University Museum in Seoul. Jointly organized by Korea University's Korean Studies Center and the University of Oregon Museum of Art with cooperation from the University of Chicago's David and Alfred Smart Museum of Art, the exhibition has been quite successful since it opened at Columbia University 's Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Art Gallery (from August 14 to September 21) last

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Unlike their Chinese contemporaries who distanced themselves from the predominant style of professional painters, ¡ Jforean scholar-painters of the 16th century enthusiastically - followed the Zhe manner characterized by bold ink washes, vigorous brush work, and compositions featuring silhouetted rocks or cliffs.

Exhibition at the David and Alfred Smart Museum of Art, the University of Chicago

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year. It then traveled to the University of Chicago's David and Alfred Smart Museum of Art (October 10 to December 8) and the University of Oregon Museum of Art (january 10 to March 9), and will continue its tour at the University of California's Fowler Museum of Cultural History (April 6 to June 8), and the Berkeley Art Museum (july 23 to September 23).

The traveling exhibition is significant for three reasons. First, it is the first overseas exhibition of Korean art ever held exclusively with artifacts from the collection of a single university museum. An art event of such a scale and standard would not have been possible without genuine understanding and cooperation from the

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nation's cultural community and the sponsoring museums. The Korea University Museum, which opened in 1934 as Korea's first university museum, has a collection of some 100,000 artifacts including many paintings of high quality. Some of these paintings have been shown in exhibitions organized by the National Museum of Korea on specific themes, but they have never been displayed in an exclusive event before.

Second, the exhibition deserves attention for its contribution to the development of Korean studies in the United States. Little progress can be expected from Korean studies programs in foreign countries unless Korea gives foreign scholars and students access to its literature and other materials, both tangible and intangible.

Art exhibitions can be effective for introducing Korea's historical and cultural traditions and stimulating interest in Korean studies. In this context, the review of the exhibition in the New Yo1k Times makes a salient point: "The dynamic swing between tradition and innovation that characterized the Korean art of the Chason Dynasty is ver y much alive in contemporary Korean art. In recent years, increasing numbers of young Korean artists have shown in New York, and this season promises a bumper crop. 'Fragrance of Ink,' beautiful in itself, is a good chance to find out where they're coming from."

Third, an art exhibition can. have greater academic meaning when it focuses on a specific theme. The present exhibition is intended to illumi-

Viewing a Waterfall, an album leaf by Yi Kyong-yun (1545-1611)

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Immortal Playing the Saenghwang under a Pine Tree by Kim Hong-do (1745-ca. 1806)

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nate the unique tradition of Korean painting as distinguished from Chinese painting by taking a closer look at paintings by scholar-artists of the Choson period. "Scholar painting," or "literati painting," refers to a particular style of painting by scholars who took up painting as a leisure activity for spiritual cultivation. In China the long tradition of literati painting began during the Northern Song era (960-1127) and it was refined by the famous Ming master Dong Qichang (1555-1636), who had a profound influence on all later Chinese painting. Literati painting, according to Dong, belongs to the southern school and has to have "literary fragrance and bookish ambience."

Compared to Chinese literati painting, the painting of Korean scholars, or s6nbi, tends to be more inclusive in style and theme. Korean scholarpainters, who often had little attachment to the worldly success guaranteed by positions in the bureaucracy, showed considerable freedom in their artistic pursuits as well. They employed the car efree style of Chinese literati painting as well as the sophisticated technique of professional painters of the celebrated Zhe school. At the same time, however, they continued to seek their cultural and intellectual identity by exploring the "real landscape" of their homeland and expressing an innate sense of humor. Professional artists of China's Zhe school, named after the coastal province of Zhejiang which _had a long artistic tradition and from which many Chinese court painters of the early Ming came, had a profound influence on Korean painting. Unlike their Chinese contemporaries who distanced themselves from the predominant style of professional painters, Korean scholar-painters of the 16th century enthusiastically followed the Zhe manner characterized by bold ink washes, vigorous brushwork and compositions featuring silhouetted rocks or cliffs.

Kim Che (1509-1584) and Yi Kyong-yun

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A part of Ch'ongp'unggye (Cool Breezes Valley) by Chong Son (1676-1759) "\

(1545-1611) led this trend and Yi's album leaves shown in the present exhibition, including one featuring a recluse scholar, well displays his predilection for strong "axe strokes" and the restrained contrasting of black and white. A bold use of ink created a tradition among Korean scholar-artists, which survived in such later works as Fantastic Rocks

by Min Yong-ik (1860-1914).

A brief look at the evolution of Choson painting through its interchange with Chinese painting w ill be helpful in defining the nature of the art of Choson scholars. The adoption of Confucianism as the state doctrine by the ruling elite of Choson had an

The adoption of Confucianism as the state doctrine by the ruling elite of Chason had an overwhelming effect on painting, and from the early years of the dynasty, ink paintings of bamboo flourished as a popular genre symbolizing Confucian virtues, particularly the uprightness of character sustained through difficult times.

overwhelming effect on painters, and from the early years of the dynasty, ink paintings of bamboo flourished as a popular genre symbolizing Confucian virtues, particularly the uprightness of character sustained through difficult times. The Choson bamboo paintings are characterized by diagonal compositions and straight leaves standing for the uncompromising spirit of the scholar, as represented by the works of Yu Tok-chang (1696-1774), Im Hui-ji (1765-?) and Shin Wi (1769-1845) shown in the present exhibition.

In the 18th century, an intellectual and cultural revival in Korea led to new d~velopmnts in painting as well.

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Fantastic Rocks by Min Yong-ik (1860-1914) ·

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The first of these purely Korean developments was the appearance of chingy6ng sansu or "real landscape" pioneered by Chong Son (1676-1759), who was born into a family with a scholarly tradition and traveled extensively across the country to study scenes of Korean la ndscapes. Particularly, his repeated visits to Kumgangsan, Diamond Mountain, beginning in 1711 yielded a number of paintings of scenic areas around the mountains. His work inspired other painters such as Ho P'il (1709-1768), Yi Yun-yong (171417S9) and Kim Hong-do (1745-ca. 1806), who also produced outstanding depictions of the mountain. At the same time, Chong enjoyed painting Mt. Inwangsan in Seoul. One of his monumental works, Chongp'unggye (Cool Breeze Valley), depicts a valley in Inwangsan in summer. It shows his energetic brush techniques involving repetition and overlaying of strokes to obtain dense texture.

Among other scholar-painters who distinguished themselves during this era of cultural renaissance in Korea were Shim Sa-jong (1707-1769), Kang Sehwang (1713-1791) and Yi In-sang (17101760). Shim Sa-jong, a pupil of Chong Son , studied Ming paintings a nd enjoyed depicting scholars in the romantic surroundings of a wild landscape by using his uniquely large "axe strokes" combined with light colors.

Kang Se-hwang, also from a literati family , became the greatest connoisseur and critic of painting of his tim e.

His paintings are firmly rooted in the literati painting tradition of Ming China, but they also display purely Korean stylistic and topographical characteristics. A similar process of the "Koreanization" of Chinese literati painting is detected in the works of Chong Suyong 0743-1831), Hong Tae-yon (17491816) and Yi Pang-un (1761-?). However, the work of Kim Chong-hui (17861856), the paramount figure in the literary scene of the late Chason Dynasty, was inspired by his contacts with Chinese scholars and calligraphers. His

style was carried on by his students, Cho Hui-ryong (1797-1859), Ho Yu (1808-1892) and Yi Ha-ling (1820-1898).

Also noteworthy is that .a handful of professional painters from the middle class such as Kim Hong-do, Ch'oe Puk and Cho Chong-gyu attained prominence in the style of the Chinese southern school. As was presented in an exhibition at the National Museum of Korea in ¡1995 commemorating the 200th anniversary of his birth, Kim Hong-do achieved excellence in poetry, painting and calligraphy, firmly

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establishing himself in the history of Korean art At the same time, his genre pictures of scenes from Korean daily life, refreshingly distinct from those of China, represented a flourishing area of Korean painting in the 18th century.

Folk paintings by anonymous artists, drawing themes from Korean native religious beliefs and legends, also held an important place in the everyday lives of people. The humorous pictures of tigers, rabbits and mountain gods symbolized wishes for happiness

and longevity. These folk motifs are also found on potteries, attesting to the enormous popularity they enjoyed among the public.

From time to time, humor found its way into the world of Confucian scholars otherwise dominated by rigid moral principles. Interesting examples are Yi Kyong-yun's Scholar Dipping His Feet, portraying an old scholar enjoying a cool stream, and Kim Shik's Buffalo, featuring a funny-looking buffalo. In the same vein, Shim Sa-jOng depicted a mouse nibbling a carrot in his Insects and Grass. +

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A Choson porcelain jar with a humorous painting of a tiger 59

Korean Aesthetics Seen in an Exhibit of

¡Early¡ChasOn Dynasty Chung Hyung-min Professor of Art History Seoul National University

orea underwent revolutionary changes in its political, econom. ic and social systems as the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392) was superseded by the Chason Dynasty (1392-1910). The age of Buddhism, the national religion of Unified Shilla (668-935) and Koryo, ended with the new dynasty's adoption of Neo-Confucianism as its governing ideal and social philosophy. Confucian principles of governance guided the sovereign ruler, and the Hall of Worthies (Chiphyonjon) was established to assign scholars to work on statutes and institutions for the new polity.

Within the first 100 years of the establishment of the dynasty, han-gill, the Korean alphabet, was invented during the reign of King Sejong (r. 14181450), and the administrative structure and the functions of the government were defined with the promulgation of a statutory code during the reign of King Songjong (r. 1469-1494). As a result of dynamic diplomacy, cultural exchanges were actively undertaken between Korea and Ming China. An independent spirit, an understanding of other cultures and progressive ideals formed the foundation of the nation's governing philosophy. It was a time

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when creative developments were achieved in all cultural fields including literature, fine arts and music.

The Ho-Am Art Museum in Seoul recently hosted an exhibition of 202 works of art from the early Chason period selected from collections in Korea and overseas. The two-monthlong exhibition which closed in early February consisted of 88 paintings, calligraphic works and books, 57 ceramics, 19 mother-of-pearl inlaid lacquerware, 18 metal objects and 20 Buddhist images, paintings and sutra, all produced during the first 200 years of the Chason Dynasty. There were royal seals, official documents, tallies and weights, which provide insight into the national administrative structure, and letters and verses imbued with foreign influences written by literati, which provide a glimpse into the upper class culture. Buddhist publications with Korean annotations or translated into Korean are examples of the nation's enlightenment policy of elevating the cultural consciousness of the populace.

The exhibition offered an opportunity to view works of art that reflect the cultural and social developments at a major tuming point in Korean history.

Most of the paintings are by artists who were active before the 1592

The Chinese landscape style adopted by An Ky6n and his contemporaries at the beginning of the new dynasty was gradually developed into a Korean style by the painters of the following generation.

Pictured on the opposite page are Landscape by literati painter Yang P'aeng-son (1488-1545) (left) and A Boy Pulling a Donkey by Kim Che (1524-1593), Treasure No. 783 (right) 60

Japanese Invasion. The centerpiece of the display is Dream journey to the Peach Blossom Land (Mongyu towanda), painted in 1447 by An Kyon , which is from the collection of Tenri University in Japan. Not only is this the only extant painting of the early Chason period that has the date and artist clearly specified, it also has 21 laudatory verses attached to it, all written by well-known Confucian scholars in the entourage of Prince Anp'yong, a powerful patron of the arts. The verses are especially valuable for the study of literary, art and calligraphic history.

Aside from its historical value, the painting, which graphically balances the traditional concept of the Oriental utopia with the realistic landscape, is a masterpiece by the leading professional artist of the time. It is generally interpreted that the right half of the landscape with a couple of houses surrounded by soaring cliffs and rocky formatio_ns represents the ideal world of the Taoist Immortals and the left half represents the real world.

However, the secular world outside the Peach Garden is evocative of the world of the Taoist Immortals with mountain peaks rising up in the mist like cumulus clouds and peach trees in bloom dotting the scene, whereas the world of the Taoist Immortals in the right half is depicted with the familiarness of the real world. This is a visualization of a dream world where ideals and reality, time and space transmute freely.

The cloud-head strokes employed in the depiction of the rocks show the influence of the style of Kuo Hsi (ca. 1000-1090) of Ming China. The

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controlled use of calligraphic strokes, sophisticated application of broad brush strokes and refined representa. tion of the theme are indicators of the stature of Korean painting in the international art world led by Chinese painting at that time.

Early Choson painting was apparently dominated by Chinese literary themes as seen in the paintings entitled Peach Blossom Land, Eight Scenes of Four Seasons, Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsing, Red Cliff and Searching for Plum Blossoms. Records show that

these themes were already popular in the Koryo period but to what extent is not known because there is no extant example.

Judging from Koryo Buddhist paintings, it can be construed that such secular paintings might have

-<.

62

been similar to the paintings of Sung and Yuan China. The Chinese landscape style adopted by An Kyon and his contemporaries at the beginning of the new dynasty was gradually developed into a Korean style by the painters of the following generation.

Landscape by literati painter Yang P'aeng-son (1488-1545) anticipated a Korean style that was soon to emerge by employing quick, repetitive strokes to highlight the outline and surface of the mountains rather than the popular spilled-ink technique of broad brush touches to effect volume. Typical of the Kuo Hsi style, which is characterized by off-center composing, objects are clustered on one side of the canvas.

Mountain peaks floating in mist are dynamically rendered with vivid calli-

graphic strokes. A gathering of literati on a hill in the middle of the painting exudes an ambience that would better suit the world of the Taoist Immortals while p av ilions and houses in the lower part of the painting remind the viewer it is quite near the real world.

Here, the Land of Immortals is not the world of the imagination but the world of everyday life. Because of the close association of the ideal world and the life of the here and now, the painting is realistic even though it is based on the Chinese landscape style that depicted ideal landscapes.

The same trait is found in animal paintings such as Puppies by Yi Am (1499-1545). The painting exudes a sense of the here and now not so much because of the realistic depiction

of the animals but because of the depiction of the atmosphere which inspires empathy in the viewer. The tableau of a black dog with watchful eyes guarding its young, a white pup playfully burrowing the ground beside it and another white pup fast asleep in the spring sun emanates peacefulness.

Yi Am developed a technique of reapplying ink on the already ink-saturated surface so that it is not absorbed but dries to form a thin film on the surface.

The technique is believed to have been adopted in later years by Japanese painters who named it darashigomi.

That the Japanese artists were influenced by the sensuous, decorative technique rather than the subjective rendering of the theme Yi visualized signifies much about the cultural dif-

Following the establishment of the Confucian state, much importance was given to the painter's function as a visual historian, and a great many documentary paintings on ceremonial occasions such as gatherings of scholars and palace events began to be produced.

ferences between Korea and Japan.

One of the functions of the fine arts is to satisfy the human desii¡e for ornamentation, and Yi was able to deliver the invisible elements without neglecting ornamentation. This, it may be said, is an aesthetic ingrained in all Korean art.

Following the establishment of the Confucian state, much importance was given to the painter's function as a visual historian, and a great many documentary paintings on ceremonial occasions such as gatherings of scholars and palace events began to be produced. One of the best examples is the King's Banquet Given to the Successful Candidates of the Government Service Examination, painted in 1580 by an anonymous painter. Dealing with a

DreamJourney to the Peach Blossom Land painted in 1447 by An Kyon 63

The tendency to use expressive brush strokes and render objects abstractly became even more pronounced toward the mid-Chos6n period.

This development was the natural outcome of the stagnation of cultural exchanges resulting from the many wars that beset the country in the 17th century.

King's Banquet Given to the Successful Candidates of the Government Examination painted in 1580 by an

anonymous painter

ceremonial theme that requires accurate documentation, the artist lightens up the otherwise tedious, monotonous painting of repetitive description by introducing several deviant characters who seem to be blissfully unconscious of the event. Because of their dynamic presence, the solemn, ceremonial atmosphere is all the more convincingly delivered.

The "Koreanization" of the contemporary Chinese style became more obvious in the late 16th century as exemplified by A Boy Pulling a Donkey by Kim Che (1524-1593). The influence of the Zhe school of Ming China is visible in the axe-strokes made with the wide side of the brush used to depict the surface of the steep rocks in the middle of the painting and the compositional placement of a pine tree stretching diagonally across the paint-

ing. The distant mountains in the background which are rendered with uninhibited touches of bold omission are sometimes compared to the late Zhe school, but the transformation of objects to almost abstract forms is an element clearly differentiating it from the landscape style of Ming painters.

The focus of the painting is in fact the taut psychological situation between the boy and the obstinate animal, not the sketchily depicted landscape.

The tendency to use expressive brush strokes and render objects abstractly became even more pronounced toward the mid-Choson period. This development was the natural outcome of the stagnation of cultural exchanges resulting from the many wars that beset the country in the 17th century. Paintings of the 16th and 17th century should be reevaluated in a perspective different from the Koreanization of themes developed in the late Chason period in the field of realistic landscape and genre painting.

Koreanization of Ar-t Forms The drastic changes that occurred in ceramics in the late 16th century were anticipated in the decorative patterns of the early Choson pottery. The mainstream pottery of the early Choson period consisted of white porcelain and pun qh '6ng. Compared to the Koryo period, the use of white porcelain became more widespread with the beginning of the Choson Dynasty. Both white porcelain and punch'ong wares were used in the royal hq_uses at first but white porcelain gradually gained favor over punch'ong. Compared to the bluish white porcelain of a later date, the white porcelain of the time was differentiated by a warm, milky white.

Pottery produced specifically for use in the royal court includes blue-and-white wares with decorative designs painted with cobalt. The designs are more like paintings and evince the skilled touch of court painters rather than potters.

The porcelain made for royal court use are of a quality comparable to Ming 64

Dynasty blue-and-white pottery of the same period and indicate that Korean potters were abreast of developments in other countries at the time. â&#x20AC;˘ One white porcelain bottle with an underglaze iron-painted rope design is particularly eye-catching. The idea of having the bottle look as if it were bound with a brown rope is original and humorous, presenting a lighter side of Korean aesthetics.

Viewers who appreciate punch'ong are almost always intrigued by their modern appearance, which makes it hard to believe they were produced in the 15th or 16th century. The composition and style of the decorative designs seem to anticipate the international art trends of 500 years later. Abstractionism, which was to be widely admired only in the 20th century, was possible in the creative ambience of the free-spirited early Choson period. Another characteristic of Korean pottery of the time is that the clay body is visible even after the work is completed. Much as the ink and brush strokes are exposed in a painting, the clay and manufacturing techniques can be clearly seen in the completed pottery.

That the viewer can feel the touch and life of the potter and the scent of the clay in a completed work signifies that the artist is in harmony with nature's generative process through an empathetic response to his material.

Punch'ong involves the greatest variety of decorative techniques including inlaying, sgraffito, engraving, iron-painting and slip application. Slip might be applied to a pottery with swift brush strokes or by dipping it into the slip Stamping patterns on the vessels, devised to meet the ever increasing demand for punch'ong by the populace, opened a new possibility for expression. It is believed that the Koreanization of art forms appeared in pottery earlier than in painting because pottery, due to its utilitarian nature, commanded a wider consumer popularity and was by nature easily influenced by native traditions. Its free-spirited variation and liveliness are in tune with the folk painting that became

Punch'ong botde with incised design, 15th century, height 25.6 em (top); punch'ong flask with incised linear design, 15th century, height 23.5 em (bottom) 65

--......:_____

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I

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l -Blue-and-white porcelain jar with plum, bird and bamboo design, 15th century, height16.5 cm,NationalTreasureNo.170(top); whiteporcelain bottle with underglaze iron painted design, 15th-16th century, height31.4 em, Treasure No.1060 66

prevalent in the 19th century.

Though Buddhism lost much of its political clout with the establishment of the Chason Dynasty, it continued to be a popular means for people to supplicate for happiness in this life and the next. The abundance of Buddhist images, paintings and sutras produced during the time is indicative of the favor the religion enjoyed with the royal family despite the adoption of Neo-Confucianism as its social and political ideal. Nevertheless, Buddhist sculpture, which was already on the decline from the early Koryo period, never recovered its old glory in the Chason period. As exemplified by the Buddhist triad composed of Buddha, Chijang posal (Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva) and Miruk posal (Maitreya Bodhisattva), Buddhist images were iconographically quite proper but lacked the exquisite balance between dynamism and quiescence expressed in the images dating from the earlier Three Kingdoms and Unified Shilla periods. However, Buddhist paintings and sutras of the early Chason period ¡are luminous with the afterglow of the resplendent painting tradition of Koryo.

The same can be said of the motherof-pearl inlaid lacquerware which the early Chason artisans created with techniques inherited from their masterful Koryo predecessors. The lacquer box inlaid with mother-of-pearl chrysanthemum and arabesque, from a private collection In Japan, is densely covered with chrysanthemums on the front and arabesque scrolls on the side in the Koryo style, suggesting that it dates back to the early period when artisans still faithfully copied the style of the previous era. Toward the 16th century, a mother-of-pearl pattern typical of Chason emerged with enlarged arabesque and small, crowded circular patterns. Another notable development was a crackled pattern unique to Chason lacquerware, which was made with a number of mother-of-pearl pieces fit together to form a shape as in a lacquer box inlaid with mother-of-

pearl peony and arabesque from the collection of the Tokyo National Museum. The lacquer clothing box inlaid with mother-of-pearl grapes is an example of a trend that developed in the 17th century to fill the blank space with designs in an effort to elevate the craft to a fine art.

During the early Choson period, differences in the arts and crafts for use by the royal court and common people became increasingly pronounced.

These differences first appeared in pottery and spread to other fields of art.

Korean art in the first 100 years of the Choson Dynasty was influenced by the artistic heritage of Koryo and Ming art.

Painting as an avocation became so popular among scholars that literati painting developed into a major genre. It became a characteristic of Korean artists to attempt to evoke a sense of reality through an empathetic representation of the depicted objects, be they human figures, animals or a landscape. The unconventional restructuring of forms was made possible through the expansion of free imagination and an intuitive approach.

The exhibition of art works of the first 200 years of Choson provided a new perspective on Korean arts, which have often been viewed as heavily influenced by Chinese art. The works demonstrate that they are imbued with I

Korean characteristics as strongly as in the realistic landscapes and genre paintings that prevailed in the late Choson period. Confirmation of the possibility that a favorable cultural climate can

spontaneously nurture regional characteristics at any time is a refreshing stimulant for the contemporary Korean art community which is Striving to define its identity. + Lacquered case with mother-ofpearl inlay, 16th century, height 11.5 em (top); a Buddhist triad from a sarira reliquary found inside a pagoda at Sujongsa Temple, 1493, height 13.8 em

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67

!.

Huh Dong-hwa and His Museum of Needlework Kim Young-uk Associate Editor, Koreana

'I

n trad~ionl Korea? society, embrOidery was as 1mportant an artistic genre as calligraphy and other crafts. You could call it a composite art form, combining characteristics of painting and handicrafts."

So explains Huh Dong-hwa, art collector and director of Sajon-ga, formerly the Museum of Korean Embroidery, Korea's only private museum devoted to embroidery, folding screens and articles used in daily life. Huh has spent half his life collecting articles reflecting the lives of traditional Korean women.

Sajon-ga is located in a five-story building in Nonhyon-dong, southern Seoul. The museum occupies the fourth floor; Huh and his wife live on the fifth floor. When I first visited the museum , Huh was giving a tour to some Japanese tourists, in fluent Japanese. The group consisted of ordinary housewives in their forties and fifties who had fallen in love with Korean embroidery and wrapping clothes at an exhibition in Japan. The women were so impressed with what they saw that they made a special trip to Seoul to see Huh's museum. They listened intently as Huh explained the background of each item on display.

The museum is a festival of color and shapes, from the translucent patchwork ramie wrapping cloths and screens embroidered with the ten longevity symbols to delicate thread cases made of colored paper. It was no surprise that the guest book is filled with names from around the world.

68

Huh Dong-hwa

In traditional society, embroidery was the most important decorative element of Korean clothing. It added Juster and vitality to traditional clothing. In fact, it was important throughout Korean life- in bedding, thread and chopstick cases, folding

scren:,~

p icture

frames and wrapping cloths.

Many visitors exclaim at the dedication and artistic intuition of the traditional Korean woman. All of this might have been lost had it not been for the efforts of this amazing man.

"I think I was destined to collect embroidery," Huh says. "My pen name is Sajon: 'sa' for 'silk' and 'jon' for 'paddy.'

I'm from Hwanghae-do province in North Korea, and my pen name reflects a youthful desire to live like the country people. Now, however, I can't help thinking it was fate: 'silk field.' That is how I've spent my life. I renamed the museum Sajon-ga for that reason."

Huh's interest in traditional art began in the early 1960s. At first he collected ceramics and other highpriced objects, but it was not easy. He recounts: "At the time, most collectors wer ~ interested in antiques- calligraphy and ceramics which brought high prices. ¡I started out collecting ceramics but they were so expensive, I couldn't afford anything but broken pots which went for one-tenth the original price. I decided I had to collect something that ¡no one else was interested in, and that was embroidery. The colors are beautiful, and I loved it immediately. Also, most embroidery and household items are linked to the lives of women, so it was a great way to share a hobby with my wife."

In traditional society, embroidery was the most important decorative element of Korean clothing. It added luster and vitality to traditional clothing. In fact , it was important throughout

Korean life-in bedding, thread and chopstick cases, folding screens, picture frames and wrapping cloths. . At first, Huh collected embroidery and everyday items because it ¡was relatively easy. No one else was interested in them because they had little investment value. Also, the collecting of embroidery and items from the everyday lives of traditional women was something he could share with his wife, dentist Park Young-sook. Park had long been interested in the crafts made by women in traditional society and spent many hours making dental molds of plaster or wax with ¡the skill and dedication of a sculptor.

From the early 1960s, the couple began roaming the country, amassing a vast collection of embroidered objects and accessories. Among the items they collected are a 13th-14th century embroidered folding screen depicting the four seasons (Treasure No. 635), an 18th century embroidered surplice, Chasu kasa (Treasure No. 654), and a wrapping cloth with an em broidered dragon

design used by a queen, Ojoryong wangbibo (Folklore Object No. 43). For more than 30 years, Huh and his wife have collected some! 3,000 items, including many screens, examples of Buddhist embroidery, wrapping cloths and accessories used by women from the Chos6n Dynasty (1392-1910).

Embroidered articles were quite common only a few decades ago, but they began disappearing before their artistic value was recognized. Thanks to the efforts of Huh and Park, a valuable part of Korea's cultural heritage has been preserved.

"Few people were interested in this field, so embroidered articles were relatively inexpensive," Huh says. "It was a simple matter of supply and demand.

Over time my greatest concern was that these articles were being discovered by non-Kqreans who recognized their value._and beauty before we Koreans did. If we weren't careful, we would lose an important cultural legacy. That's when I started advising those around me to collect embroidery and other

handicrafts."

Few took Huh's advice, however.

There was no money in it so most people did not give embroidery a second glance. Huh had taken up embroidery collecting as a hobby, but he soon felt a sense of mission, and not without reason. He notes, "Korean embroidery differs from that of the West in its realism, its decorative motifs, brilliant colors and careful composition. The more one looks at these things, the more you are captivated by their beauty."

Korean embroidery is closely linked to the development of weaving and dying techniques and the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars believe that embroidery as a craft spread through Korea with the introduction of Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century).

Others suggest that Asian-style embroidery came to Korea from Persia, through India and China, about the time of the Kory6 Dynasty's King Kojong in the first half of the 13th century.

Whatever its origin, embroidery was

Sajon-ga, am useum of Korean needlework

69

widely used by the Kory6 Dynasty in pieces honoring the Buddha.

In the Chos6n period, with the development of court culture, embroidery flourished. Embroidery was increasingly used to decorate the king's robes, wedding garments, and later the garments worn by court officials. Later its use spread to common people.

The imperial robe (konnyongpo) worn by the king was decorated at the shoulders and chest with round insignia embroidered with dragons in gold thread. The robes of court officials were decorated at the chest and back only with insignia embroidered with cranes or tigers. The queen and princes also wore lavishly embroidered gowns.

The use of embroidery spread to common people in the mid-Chos6n Dynasty when embroidery as it is known today became firmly established in Korean society.

¡ ~

Wooden geese wrapped with a pojagi 70

Screens and Pojagi For many years, Huh focused his collecting on embroidered screens used to divide rooms and block drafts or for decoration. It was not until the early 1970s that he came upon a beautiful embroidered wrapping cloth in Kangwon-do province that he began collecting the pojagi wrapping cloths for which he is known today. At the time, no one thought pojagi were worth collecting. They were easy to come by, but many people thought Huh quite strange for his interest in the often worn and dirty cloths. Word spread of Huh's peculiar hobby, and it was not long before antique dealers around the country were contacting him about wrapping cloths and other embroidered objects. His collection of wrapping cloths is now over 1,000, most collected on countless trips around the Korean peninsula.

"People can't believe I've collected more than 1,000 wrapping cloths, but it doesn't surprise me in the least. When you consider the scope and breadth of our cultural legacy, it's nothing at all," he stresses.

One of the most amazing items in Huh's collection is a 130-year-old record of dowries, which he came upon quite by accident. In it are recorded the many items that a Chos6n bride was expected to bring to her new husband's home upon marriage. The list of items prepared by one woman included not only the standard garments and fabrics but also a long list of more than 60 pojagi wrapping cloths: pojagi to wrap the gifts to be given to in-laws, pojagi to cover tables of food, pojagi to wrap the nuptial quilts, pojagi to wrap clothing, and more. An additional 12 pojagi were included "just in case."

Altogether 500 clothing items are

An embroidered pojagi

included in this dowry record. One pojagi wrapping cloth was used to wrap 10 clothing items, so there were 50 clothing wrapping cloths and 72 used for other purposes, making a total of 122.

Add to this several dozen pojagi not specified on this list, and one can assume that these dowries included some 200 pojagi each. If so, Huh's rich and varied collection of pojagi would only supply the needs of five brides!

Huh gave up a successful business to devote himself to his embroidery and pojagi collection, and over the years he has collected as many stories as artifacts.

Huh tells of one encounter with an old woman more than 20 years ago: "I'd heard a rumor of an elderly woman who was looking for someone to take an embroidered screen that had been in her family for generations. It was a folding screen depicting 100 boys, each playing a different folk game. It dated back to the Chason Dynasty and was a fine exam pie of handicrafts meant to promote fertility and the birth of many sons. The screen was in mint condition. The woman came from a distinguished family. One of her ancestors had been governor of P'yongyang.

She lost her husband in the Korean War and came to South Korea, with only this screen to remind her of her old life.

Her life had been hard, raising a son alone, and now her only daughter-inlaw disliked this old screen because it was old-fashioned and so brightly colored. The old woman was afraid her daughter-in-law might destroy the screen, and after meeting me, she asked me to take care of it for her. She cried when she gave it to me."

Things have changed since then.

Koreans are beginning to recognize the value of their traditional culture. Just a

A patchwork pojagi

Embroidered articles were quite common only a few decades ago, but they began disappearing before their artistic value was recognized. Thanks to the efforts of Huh and Park, a valuable part of Korea's cultural heritage has been preserved.

71

A panel from an embroidered screen depicting the four seasons (top); a detail of an embroidered panel (middle); a panel from an embroidered flower screen (bottom) 72

decade or two ago, many Koreans thought antiques such as the elderly woman's screen were worthless junk.

Once an antique dealer who knew of Huh's work called him about another elderly woman. She too had an old folding screen which she had received from the royal palace where she had once served as a court lady. When Huh went to investigate further, he found the screen had been sold to a passing trash collector for pennies.

"The screen was so large, it stretched across two rooms," Huh says. "The woman only had two rooms in her home, so the screen was a great inconvenience. She just gave it away. This is another example of some people's lack of understanding and appreciation of traditiQnal culture. It would be nice if these .pieces could be well preserved, but in many cases their value is ignored and they are handed over to nonKorean collectors who take them out of the country. That really bothers me."

The beautiful pojagi, which resemble abstract paintings, might have been lost completely if it had not been for Huh. Thanks to him, they are preserved as a valuable cultural legacy.

The pojagi predate th e Choson Dynasty. They were used throughout Korean life: to wrap things, as covers, and as carriers. Pojagi are divided into two basic categories according to the user: wrapping cloths used at court (k ungbo) and those used by the common people (minbo). These in turn are divided into numerous categories by structure, design and use: double-layer ky6ppo, single-layer hotpo, quilted cloths stuffed with cotton wadding to protect breakables, embroidered wrapping cloths, wrappers made of oil paper, patchwork wrapping cloths, large wrapping cloths used to carry and store bedding, wrapping cloths to carry and store clothing, table covers or sangbo, and bridal wrapping cloths (yemulbo).

The patchwork wrapping cloths vividly reflect the frugality, meticulousness and creativity of women during

the Choson Dynasty. These women would collect scraps of fabric left over from garments and other sewing projects and combine them to create works of art: There were few outlets for the talents or interests of women in Choson's strict Confucian patriarchy. In these wrapping cloths we discover the creative energy and tenacity of the Choson woman. The dreams and hopes, the frustrations and pain of these women converge in the pojagi.

One cannot help but marvel at the artistic skill and sensitivity embodied in them.

"Each nation has its own unique cultural legacy," Huh says. "I'm sure someone would have recognized and begun collecting Korea's embroidery if I hadn't. Wrapping cloths are a different story, however. Whenever he has a chance, the former Minister of. Culture, Lee 0-ryoung, introduces me as the man who rescued the Korean wrapping cloth from extinction. He is very generous in his praise."

The patchwork wrapping cloths are particularly beautiful to the modern observer for their color and composition. The bold use of monochrome in ramie wrapping cloths and the Mondrian-like geometric shapes of silk table covers are as familiar and fulfilling as any modern artwork.

The first exhiBition of Huh's collection was held at the National Museum in Seoul-in 1978. Entitled "Five-Hundred Years ¡ of Traditional Korean Embroidery," the exhibition was the first in a long line of po~lar exhibitions: in Seoul on the occasion of the 1988 Olympic Games, at the Keramion Museum in Frechen, Germany in 1983, at Oxford University, at New York's IBM Gallery, at the Japan Folk Crafts Museum in Tokyo, and most recently in a touring show of Japan entitled "An Exhibition of Embroidery and Wrapping Cloths of the Choson Period."

More than one million visitors flocked to the pojagi exhibition held at the 1993 Taejon Expo. The response to pojagi and traditional embroidery among non~

! "

Koreans has been remarkable. Many are reminded of Mondrian or Klee when they see the pojagi, and the embroidery leaves many more speechless.

Huh is always busy with these exhibitions at home and abroad.

Unfortunately, because his museum is so small and is privately run, he is forced to do all the preparations himself.

The museum is always in debt. There is never enough money to cover conservation and restoration expenses.

Recently, he began producing and marketing silkscreen prints, postcards, tea cups and other gift 'items modeled after patterns found in the pojagi collection, but that does not bring in much capital.

Huh and his wife also collect old "ironing" stones used in traditional society. Women once used wooden mallets to beat ramie, bleached hemp cloth and cotton smooth on long rectangular stones. The rhythmic sound of the ironing stone echoes through the psyche of the Korean people. Huh and his wife have collected more than 600 ironing stones.

When Huh finds an object to procure for his collections, he does not rest until he owns it. Nevertheless, late last year he and his wife decided to donate their collection of ironing stones to the National Museum, which is now expanding its collection in preparation for the opening of a new museum at the beginning of the next century. Huh has donated numerous folkcraft items to the National Folk Museum and other public museums over the years. Huh and his wife do not plan to donate anything from their pojagi collection in the near future, however, because pojagi require special care. In fact, they are now searching for a successor who would carry on the tradition with the same dedication and meticulousness they have shown.

Huh amazed the Korean art community last year, which was designated the Year of Art by the Korean government, by holding an exhibition of collages and installations which he has created from

useless scraps and odds and ends from his col~tin.

Old farming tools and household goods were transformed through his imagination and artistic touch into works of beautiful harmony that would not have been possible without his wit and rich imagination.

Huh is even busier nowadays in his capacity as chairman of the Korean Association of Private Museums at a time when the National Assembly is considering the revision of legislation regulating museums. He rediscovered the Korean concept of beauty and traditional culture, and he continues to work to protect it for future generations. +

An embroidered Buddhist painting (above); a sculpture Huh made from old farm tools (below); Huh and his wife, Park Young-sook (bottom)

73

ON THE ROAD

~m®Wl

@lkOOWl ~W®l Kim Kwang-on Professor of Folklore Inha University 74

angdong Village in W olsong is located about 40 1L(l6 kilometers) northeast of Kyongju, · toward P'ohang. It is in Kangdong-m yon , W olsong-gun, Kyongsangbuk-do province. The Allakch'on Stream, which flows from north to south, and the Hyongsan River, which flows from south to north, merge at the southern edge of the village before flowing into the East (Japan) Sea. ACross the river is a railway and an expressway, beyond which lies the An-gang Plains, Yangdong's granary for 500 years.

A long time ago, ships brought goods

Y

The history of Yangdong manifests itself in the number of cultural assets in the village, both designated and those yet to be designated. There are three treasures, nine important folklore objects, one provincial tangible cultural asset and one natural monument. All the treasures and important folklore objects are individual houses, detached buildings and pavilions. Only }fahoe Village has more designated buildings than Y angdong.

Yan gdong is nestled between the ridges and valleys of Mt SOlch'angsan and M t. SOn gjubong and is barely visibl e from the road.

and seafood up the Hyongsan from the East Sea, hut one cannot find any trace of such activity today.

Although Yangdong is located near the railway, roads, river and plains, it is nestled between the ridges and valleys of the 95-meter-high Mt. Solch'angsan in the north west and the 109-meter-high Mt. Songjubong in the southeast. For this reason, the tiny village is barely visible from the road. Furthermore, the southern edge of the village, w hich borders the Hyongsan River, is a cliff, and thus the village has no place to expand.

The first member of the Son clan to

settle in the village was Son So (14331484), the second son of Son Sa-song, w ho was a fourth generation descendent of the fot;nder of the Son fa mily from Wolsong. Son So was the son-in-law of Yu Pok-ha, a junior fourth-rank official in the military who belonged to the Yu family from P'ungdok. Son moved to the village w hen he inherited the Yu estate. Before the Son family came to Yangdong, the Yu family lived there and before them, during the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392), a first-rank government official by the name of 0 left his property to his son-in-law, of the Chang family, also a

first-rank government official. In this way, family property was handed down to sons-in-law. Yi Pon, the son-in-law of Son So, had a son named Yi 6n-j6k (14911553), and thanks to him the clout of the Yi famil y fro m Yogang grew. As a result, conflicts between the Son family and tfie Yi family have continued for hundreds of years. This gave rise to the saying that Yangdong was a village of maternal descendants, and the saying that there are five different towns inside the village for the fi ve families of 0, Chang, Yu, Son and Yi. Among them, the Yu fa mily line died out, so the Son family performs memorial rites for their maternal ancestors.

Son So was a civil servant in the early Chason Dynasty (1392-1910). He entered the civil service by passing the military examinations in 1459, and his first post was a junior ninth-rank position in the Diplo matic Corresponde nce Burea u.

La te r h e beca m e th e m agistrate of Songju and Andong, and the honorary title of Kyech'ongun (Prince of Kye75

ch'on) was conferred on him. He was upright and conscientious, taking care of the people as if they were his own chil¡dren, and was looked upon as a model loca l government official. ¡ During a severe drought in Songju, none of the villagers suffered, thanks to his careful administration. When he was scheduled to be transferred, the people sent a petition to the king asking that Son be allowed to stay on longer, which the king granted. He was also a filial son.

Throughout his career, he accepted positions in Songju, Chinju and Andong, far from the plum positions in the capital, because he wanted to take care of his parents who lived in Kyongju. The king himself was said to be impressed by his filial piety. His portrait, kept in his principal descendant's house, has been designated as Kyongsangbuk-do Provincial Cultural Asset No. 15.

The house built by Son So is currently occupied by Son Tong-man, the principal descendant of Son from Wolsong.

It has been designated Important Folklore Object No. 23. When Son So was looking for a good site to build a

house, a geomancer accompanying him pointed at the current site, saying, "Outstanding people are born from rough land. This spot will produce three great people."

The prediction proved about 70 percent true. The first great man was Son So's second son, Chung-don (1464-1529), who passed the sama examinations for junior officials in 1482 and the higher civil service examinations in 1489. He was the magistrate of Yangsan and Sangju, and then the Minister of Public Works and the Minister of Personnel before he assumed the post of secondrank official in the Crown Prince Tutorial Office. Later he served as the First Royal Secretary and Censor General. In addition, he worked as governor of Kyongsang-do, ChOlla-do and Hamgyong-do provinces, became the Seventh State Councillor, and, during the reign of King Chungjong, received the honorary title of "Clean Official."

The second great person was Yi 6nj6k (1491-1553), whose mother was Son's younger sister who married Yi Pon from Yogang. Yi 6n-j6k was a celebrat-

The sarangch'ae or men's quarters of the principal residence of the Y ogang Yi family 76

ed Neo-Confucian scholar in the middle of the Choson Dynasty, who was known as "the high peak in both scholarship and practice of Taoism during the Choson Dynasty." He passed the civil service examinations at the age of 24 and became a magistrate in Miryang and then a junior third-rank official in the Office of the Censor General. He held the positions of Minister of Personnel, Minister of Rites and Minister of Punishments before he became the Fourth State Councillor on the State Council. He died at the age of 63 in Kanggye, where he had been banished.

He is remembered not so much as a high government official but as a pioneering scholar who established NeoConfucianism and clarified its direction and characteristics. He is remembered because he achieved academic excellence, not by learning from a tea.cher but through his own study, and also because he practiced what he believed.

Yi 6n-j6k's greatness and his academic achievement became a huge burden on the Son family. They believed that they had lost one of their J:hree great men to

the Yi family. From then on, when a married daughter came to the Son family's principal house to give birth, they kept the tradition of making her give birth in a neighbor's house. Th~y are still waiting for the third great man.

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Two Dominant Families Because of Yi 6n-jok's success, the Yi family from Yogang also began to develop a comparable reputation and gain influence, which led to numerous disputes, big and small, between the two families. Although they shared the same blood, people during the Choson period did not consider their daughters' children to be their own. The dispute began when the Son family asserted that Yi's academic foundation was laid by Son Chung-don, his maternal uncle, because Yi's father had died when he was only ten and afterward he had been educated by his maternal uncle, moving with him as he moved to take up various government positions. The Yi family dismissed this. The jealousy and conflicts concerning the number of people who advanced to the capital and about good grave sites were tremendous, and even today the two families compete with each other over their children's education.

In 1971, I visited the village to recommend old houses for designation as cultural assets. I went to the principal Son house without giving it much thought, and sent someone to invite the Yi family to discuss my research, but no one came.

My research was conducted with the assistance of only the Son family, and as a result several houses were designated as important folklore objects. I later learned that the Yi family did not want to come and see me in the Son's guest room. They might have felt it was more important to maintain their pride than to have their houses designated cultural assets for permanent preservation. Years later, the houses belonging to the Yi fam) ily were also designated as cultural assets.

According to a census taken in 1819, the village had 91 houses, a number which increased a bit as time went on.

In 1973, the number had reached 165, but in 1979, it had decreased to 151, and has been decreasing regularly since then. In terms of the make-up of the village, there were 28 Sons and 88 Yis in 1973, compared to 16 and 80 in 1979; the number of people of other families stood at 55.

The number of the Son family is smaller in Yangdong, but if the members of the family living nearby in Kangdong- myon and the Kyongju area are included, the Son family is the larger of the two.

The large houses in the village all belong to principal and branch households of the Son and Yi families. In particular, the Yi family, which branched out many times, built a pavilion for each branch and named the branch after the pavilion. For example, the principal family line is called the Much'omdang branch, the second son 's line the Yangjoljong branch, the third son's line the Solch'onjong branch, the fourth son's line the Sujoldang branch, and the fifth son's line the Owijong branch. It goes without saying that being the principal family and having a pavilion showed their yangban status and indicated, along with other status symbols, which was superior and which inferior in comparison with one another. Other clan symbols included the building for rites at the grave site, the pavilion for stone stele, the clan genealogy, the collection of works and old documents as well as paddies and other fields reserved for use in memorial services. In this village, a family's power and reputation is judged by where the house is situated. The big houses of the Son and Yi family are located on the ridge; the principal families have the higher and larger plots and the branch' families the lower plots. One can guess the ranking of a certain family by the way their house is situated.

As previously mentioned, when Son So was choosing a house site, the geomancer picked out the current place on the ridge of Munjangbong peak, saying that a great man would not be born on fertile land. It was fortunate that great men were born in the house, but the problem of getting water was a big chal-

lenge from the beginning because the house was situated on a slope where no water was available. During the days when the family could afford many servants, a couple of water carriers carried water all day from the bottom of the valley, but more recently no one is willing to do the work even for money.

The Son family has dug many meters to bury a pump, but to no avail. The water deficiency was solved only toward the end of the 1970s, when electricity came to the village and a small water-supply system was installed.

Abundant Cultural Assets The history of Yangdong manifests itself in the number of cultural assets, both designated and those yet to be designated. There are three treasures, nine important folklore objects, one provincial tangible cultural asset-and one natural monument. All the treasures and important folklore objects are individual houses, detached buildings and pavilions.

Only Hahoe Village has more designated buildings than Yangdong.

The treasures are the detached house Much'omdang (No. 411) of the principal Yi family; Hyangdan, the principal Yi family residence (No. 412), and Kwangajong Pavilion owned by the Son family (No. 442). The important folklore objects are Son Tong-man's house (No. 23); Son Yong-ho's house (No. 73); Yi Won-bong's house (No. 74); Yi Won-yang's house (No. 75); Yi Tonggi's hous-e (No. 76); Yi Hui-tae's house (No. 77); Suunjong Pavilion owned by the Son family (No. 80); Shimsujong Pavilion owned by the Hyangdan bt'anch (No. 81); Allakjong, the schoolhouse owned by the Son clan (No. 82); and Kanghakdang, the schoolhouse owned by the Yi clan (No. 83).

In addition, there are 15 houses that are more than 200 years old. The layout of the village house is in the shape of a square, which is the typical layout of an upper-class house in Kyongsang-do province. The upper right half of the square is the women's quarters, and the lower left half the men's quarters, which 77

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includes the middle gate. The square is ideal for making the most of limited space in narrow valleys or on ridges. 路 The homes are influenced by the mentality of the scholars who placed importance on virtue and purity rather than material wealth.

In front of the house are the servants quarters in a straight line. Around an upper-class house were tiny thatchedroof houses for married servants. These houses were called karapjip and their occupants were looked down upon as karapkot. The karapjip were built close to the wall of the main house because their proximity made it easy for the master to give orders to the servants and keep an eye on them, and they also served to protect the master's house.

The servants went to the master's house early in the morning and worked there until late in the evening, taking their meals there. All upper-class families had slave-servants during the Chason Dynasty, although they were referred to differently depending on the region.

In the southwest region, they were called hojijip, in Hwanghae-do province yutjip, and in Pyong-an-do province

magarijip.

There are only four houses with ancestral shrines in their compounds, but the size and the degree of elaboration are tremendous. In the case of the principal line of the Son family, there was a separate wall around the shrine and a three-kan (a traditional unit of measure referring to the space between columns) gate in front of a six-kan shrine. (This building has been demolished.) In front of the shrine is a flower bed with beautiful flowers and plants.

In a corner of the courtyard stands a magnificent Chinese juniper tree (Kyongsangbuk-do Natural Monument No.8), which is said to have been planted when the building was constructed.

In this house, the shrine takes up more than half of the whole compound.

Because the women's quarters and men's quarters are simple but solid without any elaborate decoration, the shrine appears to be the main structure, rather 78

than an annex to the living quarters. It is hard to find another example that shows more concretely the Confucian virtue of honoring one's ancestors.

Another characteristic of the upperclass residences in this village is the difference between the main room occupied by the mother-in-law and the smaller back room occupied by the daughter-in-law. The main room next to the kitchen is at least two-kan, but the back room is usually one-kan.

Furthermore, the floor of the daughterin-law's room is covered with thatch, and the ceiling is not papered, leaving the rafters showing.

These differences stem from the Confucian teaching that "the elder should come first." Although in other areas the men's quarters have differences between the father's large room and the son's smaller room, it is hard to find such a big difference between the mother-in-law's room and the daughter-in-law's room as in this village. By this aspect alone, one can see that Yangdong was strict in its adherence to Confucian traditions.

However, when the daughter-in-law gives birth and learns how to manage the household, the mother-in-law hands over the management of the household to the daughter-in-law and even changes rooms. The retiring mother-inlaw moves to the back room, and the daughter-in-law occupies the mother-inlaw's room. This custom is described in the Andong region as "the back room has the wardrobe of the main room removed." It is unique compared with almost all regions excluding Kyongsangdo, where the management of the household is not handed over and the rooms are not changed. In the central region, the daughter-in-law does not move into the main room for thi路ee years after her mother-in-law's death in the belief that the soul of the dead person remains there for that period. The difference between the two rooms in the Kyongsang provinces reflects this region's adherence to the ideal practice of respecting elders.

The villagers in Yangdong were strict

in observing the Confucian practice of maintaining a distinction between men and women. The arrangement according to which women lived in the inner quarters and men in the outer quarters with a wall surrounding the inner quarters to prevent outsider's from seeing in was the same as in other regions, but the practice was observed more strictly here. In 1972, when I interviewed a woman who was over 70, she told me that she had not known what her husband looked like for about a year after she got married. Her husband had many brothers of similar age, and whenever she glimpsed a man through the middle gate, she was curious if he was her husband. She had never seen her husband before the wedding, and even after the ceremony, her husband came to her in the middle of the night, at the elders' direction, and. stayed briefly before he disappeared like the wind. For this reason, she could not tell him apart from the others. That woman had been confined in the inner quarters all her life; she said that she could not go into a crowded place because it made her feel dizzy. She would not dream of visiting Pulguksa Temple or even the markets.

The distinction between men and women still exists. When I visited Son Tong-man's house, I discovered that the husba,nd and wife, who lived by themselves in the big house because all their children路 had been married off, still lived in sepa1'ate quarters.

OksanSowon ..

Oksan Sowon (a private Confucian academy that also functioned as a shrine during the Chason period) is located in Oksan-ri, An-gang-up, Kyongju, Kyongsangbuk-do. It was erected in 1574 by Kyongju magistrate Yi Che-min and Confucian scholars in the region to commemorate Yi 6n-jok's virtue and scholarship. It has been designated Cultural Site No. 154.

It began as a shrine but was promoted to sowon in 1574 when King Sonjo gave it a royal signboard with the

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inscription, "Oksan" Gade Mountain). It was one of the 47 s6won that survived the nationwide abolition of s6won under the Prince Regent Tae"o/on-gun's rule toward the end of the Chos6n Dynasty. In the compound are various buildings: the shrine, Kuindang (lecture hall), Amsujae (west dormitory), Mingujae (east dormitory), Muby6nnu (a two-story building just inside the main gate, the first story of which is a threespan gate), Y6ngnakmun gate, Shindobigak (pavilion for stone stele), Ky6nggak (library), P'an-gak (scripture storage building), Chegishil (storage for memorial service utensils), 6s6gak (archives), P'osa, Ch6ngdaemun (main gate), Sangdang, Ch'einmun (gate to the shrine) and Seshimmun and Kamsaengmun gates. Among these, the lecture hall Kuindang has been used for all kinds of events and Confucian meetings as well as for discussions among scholars.

Every year such an event is held in the second month and the eighth month.

More than 1,000 books are kept here, including Hoejae s6nsaeng munjip (Teacher Hoejae's Complete Works) and other valuable documents and books.

A collection of the essays of Yi 6n-j6k is Treasure No. 586, the complete nine volumes of Kim Pu-shik's Samguk sagi (History of- the Three Kingdoms) is Treasure No. 525, the oldest extant list of the successful candidates in the classics licentiate examination is Treasure No. 524, and the two-volume Haedong

Oksan Sowon, a Confucian academy dedicated to Yi On-jok, one of the great Confucian scholars of the Chos6n period (top); Tongnakdang, which is across from the s6won, is the mens quarters of the Yi OnjOk residence (above). It is surrounded by a wall that has an openiug to provide a view of the scenic surroundiugs (below).

my6ngj6k (Calligraphy Book of Korea)

is Treasure No. 526.

Also, the building called Tongnakdang, across from the s6won, has been designated Treasure No. 413. This is the men's quarters of the Yi 6n-j6k residence. It is a typical men's quarters of a yangban family from the middle of the Chos6n Dynasty. A one-story structure with eaves on the four corners, the house is four-kan wide and two-kan deep. It has an ondol (heated floor) room to the west, which is one-kan wide and two-kan deep, and a wooden floored room to the east, which is threekan wide and two deep. The east room

has angular pillars in the middle of the floor like a typical ondol room, indicating that it must have been an ondol room in the beginning. One eye-catch-

ing feature is an opening with grids on the wall facing the valley which allows a view of the flowing water and the surrounding scenery. + 79

DISCOVERING KOREA

-WILD

PLANTS OF KOREA Kim Tae-jeong Director, Korean Wildlife Institute

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here are about 4,500 species of plants , native to Korea.

Approximately 30 percent of them are trees and the remaining 70 percent are herbs. The herbs, often called "wild grasses," have been an important source of food and medicine since ancient times.

Traditionally, they were considered so important that a man's family tested a potential bride on her knowledge of herbs before agreeing to a marriage.

Even today, in early spring, the young sprouts of herbs are widely collected as food and also for medicinal purposes.

These wild grasses are most noticeable during the changes in the seasons when their colors make the mountains and rivers a beautiful tapestry.

In Korea, it is somewhat misleading to call March spring. Snow still remains in the mountains and fields and lurks in the biting winds. Poksuch'o (amur adogis; Adonis amurensis), is the first herb to send its flowers up through the snow. It is called poksuch'o "plant of prosperity and long life," because of the tenacity that enables its shoots to break through the snow and ice. It is also called wonilch'o, "first grass of the day," ch 'ukkumchonh wa, "Ia teral pot

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marigold" as it resembles a pot marigold from the side, pingnyanghwa, "ice flow,er," s6lly6nhwa, "snow lotus flower," and 6rumsae kkot, "ice melting flower" because it blossoms when snow is still on the ground. As the last name indicates, this plant, with its roots that give off heat, is hearty enough to break through ice. It is popular because it blooms so early and its uL'"J~ have beautiful shapes. It is most used to decorate the January page calendars. On Mt. Hallasan on Korea's southernmost island of Chejudo, it begins to bloom as early as January. It begins to blossom in March on mountains in the central region and in June on Mt. Paektusan in North Korea.

Although the plant contains a poisonous suqstance, ancient records show that its roots were used in folk remedies to treat boils. It was also used to relieve pain, .strengthen the heart and promote urination.

When poksuch'o begin to bloom, several other plants also begin to push slender sprouts up through the frozen ground. They include yonbokch'o (adoxeceae; Adoxa moschatelli-na), norugui (hepatica; Hepatica Asiatica), pyonsanbaram kkot (Eranthis pinnatifi-

Poksuch'o (Adonis amurensis), a perennial of the Ranunculaceae family, grows on mountains across Korea.

Its yellow flowers blossom from january to june.

da) and n6dobaram kkot (Eranthis stellata). The yonbok-ch'o is so named because the small plant comes up between the roots of the poksuch'o.

The norugui is used as an ingredient in herbal medicines. Pyonsanbaram kkot and nodobaram kkot are very small plants approximately 5 centimeters tall.

Poch'unhwa (cymbidium; Cymbidium virescens) is a small plant which blos-

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soms at about the same time as the aforementioned plants. It is popular among plant collectors and is often used in homes as an ornamental plant because its blade-like leaves stay green all winter. A member of the orchid family , it is commonly known as ch 'unran, "spring orchid," ch 'oran, "grass orchid," iwolran, "February orchid" and sanran, "mountain orchid." It is one of the most widely known and beloved plants in Korea, and is indigenous to southern Chejudo and the coastal and mountainous areas of the nation's central region. The plant grows in large numbers in thick forests in Koch'ang, Yonggw ang and Hamp'yong on th e . west coast and along the south coast. It once covered the mountains in these areas, b,u_f these days it is difficult to find one due to indiscriminate picking.

The orchid is coveted by many people because it is green ' year-round, has shapely leaves, blooms early and its flowers h?ve a rich fragrance. Poch'unhwa is a popular subject of drawing among ink painters. Although it is often collected for ornamental .purposes, in the p<\St its roots were used in folk medicinlii' ~o stop bleeding and promote urinal"ron as well as for skin tj;Oubles and insect bites, and its stalks were sometimes used for food. A new species of poch'unhwa with deep purple petals and "'lks w as discovered along t,he south coast last March.

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Hanran (Cybidium kanran), a native of Chejudo, is another popular orchid, especially among orchid lovers. It is used for the same medicin<!l purposes as poch'un-hwa.

People commonly think that the first flowers to bloom in spring are the ones that grow in sunny, lowlying areas. But just the opposite can happen in nature. About the time poksuch'o begin to blossom, more snow piles up and the temperature drops in the forests near mountain peaks. In spite of such adverse conditions, plants of the lily and Korean bayberry families blossom with large, beautiful flowers.

The most representative of the wild plants are 6lleji (Erythronium

japonicum), chung-tlimunlt (Gagea lutea) and nadogaegamch'ae (Loydia tlifora) of the lily family; a nd Hangyery6ngp'ul (Leontice microrhyncha) and samjigu y6pch 'o (borren wort; Epimedium Koreanum) of the mejanamu (bayberry; Berbe!¡idaceae) family.

6 lleji, which is also called sanudu, 6llegi and pidannam ul, grows in forests high

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in the mountains where the soil is rich and fertile. It blooms first in K6jedo, Kyongsangnam-do, and KC11nsan, Chollanam-do, and then moves northward along the high mountain peaks of inland areas. As it is rich in starch, it used to be collected to make starch for cooking and laundry purposes, mainly for starching men's shirt co llars and girls' school uniforms. It is also rich in nutrients, which makes it a good food for boars, bears and other mountain animals just coming out of their winter hibernation. Its edibility is an obstacle to its proliferation. 6lleji only grows in fertile soil, sinking its roots deep into the ground. In the summer, its seeds drop into th e soil and b eg in the process of germination. When its flowers fade in the southern coastal areas about the end of March, 6lleji in the northern r eg ions start to blossom beginning on Mt. Chirisan and then on Tokyusan , Sobaeksan, T'aebaeksan, Taegwally6ng, Odaesan, Soraksan and 82

Poch'unhwa

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Olleji

Modemip'ul

Halmikkot

Han-gyeryongp'ul

KCungangsan. It is a popular food item in spring because of its light taste, and it is often used in fo lk medicine as a stomach tonic.

Han-gyery6ngp'ul, which blossoms at high altitudes about the same time as 6lleji, is also called moktanch'o, "peony grass," megamja, "mountain potato" and pukLimyanggwak. It is nam ed Hangyery6ngp'ul because it was first discovered at Han-gyerong Pass on Mt. S6raksan. This plant also grows on T'aebaeksan, Hambaeksan, Kuryongryong and H yangnobong. It blossoms earlier than other herbs and, though it bears fruit, it is not used for medicinal purposes.

Halmikkot (Pulsatilla cernua), which sprouts in early spring and is covered with white hair, is a flower that most Koreans are familiar with because of its role in a folktale concerning a -girl with an extremely strong sense of filial piety.

It used to be common ly found in mountains and fields in springtime, but nowadays it is difficult to find.

Although it is poisonous in its natural state, the roots are used in herbal tonics as a painkiller, an anti-inflammatory agent, a stomach tonic and an astrigent.

Halmikkot is also used to treat dysentery and malarial fever, to relieve labor pains and neuralgia and to stop diarrhea.

Its other nam es are paekdu-ong, "old man-.. with white hair," beca use the wings of its white seeds n:isemble the white ~air of an old man when they ripen, and nogoch 'o, "distressed old plant," because its flowers resemble an old woman with a bent back About the time the poksuch'o, poch'unhwa, 6lleji and Han-gyery6ngp'ul begin to lose thei r flowers and their fruit begins to form , the modemip'ul (Megaleranthis saniculifolia) blooms, its flowers evoking thoughts of an elegant and shy woman of the kind who might live in a mountain temple. It is found only in a few places and is protected as a rare plant. When it begins to blossom, Koreans know that it is truly spring, and the country's mountains and fields gradually become greener. +

CURRENTS

The Asia Philharmonic Orchestra Lee Soon-yeol Music Critic

ringing together a group of outstanding musicians does not mean that they will become an outstanding orchestra. The musicians must work together, ultimately achieving a shared passion and harmony. It is not simply a matter of blending their talents; it requires the development of a harmonious relationship between the conductor and the musicians.

It was precisely for this reason that I approached the first Seoul performance of the Asia Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Chung Myung-whun with both hope and apprehension. The orchestra simply had not been together very long.

However, their debut performances at the main concert hall of the Seoul Arts Center on January 29 and 30 were enthusiastically received. My fears were unfounded.

After the waves of applause that greeted the finale, Brahms' First Symphony in C Minor, died down, the conductor addressed the audience:

joy, 0 wondrous spalk divine Daughter of Elysium Drunk with fire we now enter Your heavenly and holy shrine.

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I am always happy when I perform in Korea, but today I'm particularly happy. Although this orchestra brought together musicians from across Asia with only a week to practice, it has provided us with an opportunity to become closer and understand each other better.

Conflicts and controversies rage around the world, but I find myself thinking, if only we could unite in harmony like this music, there would be no problems.

Your magic powers unite again What custom sternly separated All men shall be brothers Where your gentle wings spread wide.

ChungMyung-whun

The orchestra burst through barriers to produce a fluent musical flow.

They pierced through the darkness with a torrent of light, and in the final movement, Chung distinguished himself with a powerful sense of liberation.

Barriers between countries and people can be transcended through music.

Certainly that was one of the reasons these recent concerts were so welcome.

Breaking down barriers between people through the power and charm of music, uniting as we raise our voices in a song of joy-these are the hopes ' s Ninth and the laments of Be~thovn Symphony. In fact, these feelings were not exclusive to Beethoven's work.

Fran t;:ois Couperin's Les Nations and Les Gouts reunis also reveal a desire to respect the unique character of each ethnic group while achieving a final denouement of musical and social harmony and unity.

By its very nature, the orchestra is a grand harmonization of instruments producing different sounds, and when it is composed of musicians from different nations, that harmony is all the more meaningful. This must have been one of Chung Myung-whun 's motivations when he founded the Asia Philharmonic Orchestra.

The orchestra was born when Chung was invited to conduct the inaugural concert of the Tokyo International Forum. He suggested that the orchestra be composed of musicians from across Asia, and the sponsors enthusiastically agreed. Thus, Chung's enduring dream was realized, although 83

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CURRENTS

a relatively large proportion of Japanese musicians were hired because the orchestra was formed in Tokyo. At present, the orchestra consists of 68 Japanese musicians, 15 Koreans and a few from other Asian nations. A more diverse distribution of nationalities should be sought over time.

Japanese orchestras are known for the fine talent of individual musicians

and the excellent balance between string and wind instruments. On the other hand, they often lack passion and feeling. I expected these factors to be reflected in the orchestra since Japanese musicians form its largest national block, but Chung smashed my preconceptions in an instant.

He conjured up the image of flowing water in Brahms' First Symphony

in C Minor. The orchestra burst through barriers to produce a fluent musical flow. They pierced through the darkness with a torrent of light, and in the final movement, Chung distinguished himself with a powerful sense of liberation. There was a great reconciliation of the rhythms of the earth and water, the intensity of fire and a mysterious ethereal air. +

BOOK REVIEW

An Introduction to

Classical Korean Literature Kim Kichung â&#x20AC;˘ M. E. Sharpe, Inc, 1996 â&#x20AC;˘ 231 pages Prof. Kim Kichung's An Introduction to Classical Korean Literature: From Hyangga to P'ansori is the fruit of a ten-

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year study of classical Korean literature by an English literature specialist. "Not knowing classical Korean literature," he says in the preface, "I felt excluded from the soil in which I ought to have rooted my intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual being." The book is a record of an exile's belated love affair with the classical literature of his native land. As such the book is a success; the approach is non-specialist and the language is simple and fluent. The author emerges as an urbane literary man talking in a comfortable style about a literature he loves. Few Korean scholars write books like this and it is a pity.

The general reader will find this an amiable, if not erudite, introduction to classical Korean literature.

The essays offer the author's reflections on h yangga of the Shilla period, lyric songs of Kory6 Kayo and shijo; give an introduction to those giant source books of all things Korean, the Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) and the Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms); dis-

cuss the writings of Chos6n Dynasty women, ranging across the great palace 84

diaries, poems by women from yangban (aristocrat) families, and shijo by kisaeng (professional entertainers); review Chason Dynasty fiction , notably Hong Kiltong jon and Kuunmong, and discuss Shirhak literature, p'ansori and the transition to the modern tradition.

The best part of the book is contained in the reflections on the palace diaries, the treatment of Chos6n

Dynasty fiction, and the discussion of the transition to modernity. This last chapter is particularly entertaining.

With regard to Chason Dynasty fiction, however, the reader who does not share Prof. Kim's social-realist stance may have problems y,rith some of his conclusions, in particular his summary dismissal of Kuunmong, which most commentators regard as the finest work of Chos6n fiction. The weakest part of the book is the shijo chapter.

This chapter reflects none of the recent research on kagok-ch 'ang and shijoch'ang" which has revolutionized critical thinking .on the subject. The hyangga chapter is a bit skimpy, discussing only a few poems. The Koryo songs chapter, however, offers a much fuller discussion and should be of great Interest to the general reader.

Overall, this is a lively, entertaining book. And if the translations in general do not live up to the author's claims that the originals are incomparable, exquisite and stunning, he may be forgiven for his enthusiasm. The truth is that there are no stunning translations available of hyangga and the Koryo songs. Perhaps "some mute inglorious" translator may one day rally to the cause.

(Kevin O'Rourke)

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JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

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Kim oo-young

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The most conspicuous element of Kim joo-young's literary works is the aimlessness of the characters, or their "nomadism" as he calls it. Kim's compassion for the poor and powerless subjected to various forms of physical and emotional repression is manifest in his novellas and short stories.

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Kim Joo-young's Literature: Dfifting and Loving KimJoo-yeon Literary Critic

often places great importance on how a character's social position and profession shape the character's ideological point of view. However, even in popular Korean fiction, it is not common for characters in different works to consistently hover at the edges of society the way they do in Kim's works. The alienation of his characters from mainstream society is a major theme running through Kim's stories. ' ~ stories Another characteristic of Kim is a blatant eroticism which can be at times heartrending. The following scenes from two of .his stories illustrate this quite well.

im ]oo-young's anthology In

K

Search of a Bird (Saerul ch'ajas6), published in 1987, is a

good sam piing of his works spanning more than two decades back. The volume contains 14 short stories and novellas including The Inn (Kaekju), one of Kim's most significant novellas. All the stories share certain elements which form the essence of Kim's literary world. The most conspicuous element is the aimlessness of the characters, or their "nomadism" as he calls it. Kim's compassion for the poor and powerless subjected to various forms of physical and emotional repression, which is elaborated in his longer works of the 1990s including Hwach '6 k (The Butchers) and Yaj6ng (The Grass Roots), is also manifest in his novellas and short stories. The same is true with the characters appearing in "In Search of a Bird."

Servant Hwang in "Period of Dormancy" (Hyumyon-gi), the orphans at a day nursery in "Model Fostering" (Mobom sayuk), the peddler in "The Apprentice Thief" (Toduk kyonsup), the ragman in "Our Sweet Home" (Chi:Jlgoun uri chip), the butcher's wife in "T he Knife of a Butcher" (Ch 'onchungi:1i k'al), the orphaned refugee girl in "Ripening Mountain Berry" (Iknun sanmoru), the illiterate country woman in "Winter Birds" (Kyoul sae), the two generations of widows in The Roar of Thunder (Ch '6ndung sari), the swindlers in "Account of a Trip to Oech'on Market" (Oech'onjang kihaeng), and the ped86

Kim's characters, in variably from farming areas, are hovering at the edges of society.

dler's son' in "Evening Primrose" (Talmaji kkot) are all such characters. They are invariably from farming areas and are hovering at the edges of society. This is an element not commonly seen in Korean novels. A novel is bound to deal with universal emotions such as frustration, isolation and despair. In most cases, a character's social class or profession is not the defining aspect of the character, although popular literature

Still, this is much better than the shack we used to live in at the top of Taebang-dong. I don't have to worry any more about pieces of roofing blowing away when Siberian winds rush at us, and there's no more of those ward office bastards with bands on their arms arrogantly blustering about evacuation orders, city planning and such ...

It's enough to drive one ¡up the wall, stark raving mad ...

Only a thick-headed bear cub wouldn't have been irritated by the nightly carryings-on by people old enough to know better, with me-a young child as innocent as an angellying right beside them. Anyhow, after that incident, Mother would always say, "Let's see if this brat is really asleep or not," before they'd begin their nightly exercise. She would poke a finger right up to my

I

I,

I

' -"

eyeball and twirl it around and around.

(The Apprentice Thief, page 70) ... Even though the room was smelly, we stretched our legs out straight and pulled the blanket right up to our heads. As soon as they would lie down, Father would pull down Mother's underpants, and even when one of Mother's buttocks touched my shoulders, I would mumble something like a child usually does in deep sleep so as not to disturb their night activities.

(Our Sweet Home, page 97) Similar scenes appear in all Kim 's works. The scenes in which poor, powerless people make love usually have a sordid, humorous or even desperate touch about them, but the most impressive are the humorous ones. Eroticism, when it becomes the main focus in a literary work, involves a great variety of things. In extreme cases, eroticism verges on pornography. At its best, it can be understood as a desperate effort to save humanity. Varying degrees of eroticism exist between these two extremes. Where does Kim's brand of eroticism fit into this spectrum? Kim's eroticism seems to be related to a confirmation of sympathy for other people.

Compassion, a deep sympathy for the suffering of others, is a primitive literary element. Compassion is a form of love that allows one to share the pains of others without becoming possessive.

The compassion inherent in Kim 's eroticism is discreetly manifested in two directions. First, his characters embrace each other for comfort and relief from their circumstances. Despite their social alienation, the characters created by Kim do not serve as ideological mouthpieces armed with political agendas.

But this is not to say that they are resigned to their fate and do not complain. In many cases, their rage and anger are relieved through sex.

Second, sex in Kim's works has a cu ltural connotation that transcends a 87

primitive form of play, having nothing to do with one's social position or wealth. Sex is not simply a play for the -sake of entertainment, but is an attempt to achieve something larger, which ultimately destroys its entertaining aspects.

The blatant eroticism portrayed in The Inn and The Grass Roots is related to this in some ways.

This can be understood from the following excerpt from "Evening Primrose." In this story, the main character learns that a young girl whose face he slashed with a knife in anger as a child grew into a woman of misfortune.

While looking for her, he recalls his father, who peddled pickled shrimp, and remembers that he had been angry at the girl for contemptuously calling him the son of a peddler. Although several decades had passed, the incident remained clear in his mind. The following scene takes place when he returns to an inn where he once spent a night during his search for her.

"What brings you here again?"

The woman who had been doing her laundry in the yard turned around in surprise and opened her arms wide like a lobster.

I went into the room and flicked my hand at her.

"Go get me something to drink" Taking the money I held out to her, the woman laughed and said in a low voice, "I knew you would come back I never before lost a man I singled out."

She was already reading my eyes filled with hot lust.

(Evening Primrose, page 275)

This is the prelude to a love scene between the woman proprietor of the inn and the man. But what motivates them to have sex? It is clear at least that it is not simply for the sake of sex itself. The man is portrayed as already having been "singled out" by the woman. Being singled out, first of all, signifies that the woman has chosen him as her sexual partner. But further 88

analysis of this phrase reveals a hint of power. If there is a person singling out someone and another person being singled out, the former does this arbitrarily whereas the latter lacks choice and a free will. Nonetheless, the two soon engage in sex. From the viewpoint of the man, the issue is associated with something much more essential in nature. The man had once spent a night at the inn and in the same room

"Searching for Ch'orwon"author Kim ]oo¡young in front of a rusted-out train that once went from Ch'orwon to North Korea

with the woman, but he did not have sex with her that time. After confirming that his past wounds were still a reality, he returns to her, filled with lust.

Where do'es this lust come from? It is not an innocent lusting, for it is driven by aggression, and therefore, is not pure. This show of power and aggression is the secret to Kim 's eroticism, which hides behind his warm compassion for others.

That many of Kim's stories deal with the joys and sorrows of alienated people in most casual ways is evidence of his respect for classic realism. Eroticism

is one of the key elements in the daily joys and sorrows of the characters, and at the same time, a literary maneuver to find relief from repressive shackles.

But Kim does not rely on eroticism alone. Many other techniques and motifs are found in his work. For example, the motifs of leaving and returning and of drifting are important keys that open other doors of Kim's li'terary world. It is useless to analyze the reasons behind the wanderings of his characters from a single perspective.

"In Search of a Bird" and "Searching for Ch'6rw6n", two works in his series on the theme of "searching," pose an important question: What does he search for?

In the two stories, the object of the searching is something that is "nonexistent." The main character in "In Search of a Bird" looks for a bird, a game he used to enjoy as a child with his older sister. The memory of that game overlaps with an incident which occurs when he goes on a sight-seeing trip to a Buddhist temple. He arrives at the designated meeting place¡ late and wanders around looking for the other members of his group. He finally locates them, but in the process he sees the bird he had sought as a child. However, the bird can no longer fly and is transformed into a pine cone when it perches on Jl tree branch. This symbolizes the uselessness of all those who wander aimlessly: The transformation and symbolism is continued in "Searching for Ch'6rw6n. The story's plot is simple: The main character goes in s~arch of a place called Ch'6rw6n, but he fails to find it. The implication of this story is that what one identifies with a name is quite different from the reality; humans wander aimlessly guided or driven by names and the lure of concepts and even literature embraces those names.

In most cases, they are beautiful dreams and ideals, but simply turn out to be empty ideological concepts and the dreams of humans. Kim's stories present the philosophical view of those already aware of this emptiness. +

NEWS FROM THE KOREA FOUNDATION

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KOREA FOCUS A BIMONTHLY ON CURRENT KOREAN AFFAIRS In addition to KOREANA, The Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of globalization KOREA FOCUS offers a comprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korea's current affairs. ' In this bimonthly, you will find timely KOREA essays and commentaries on Korea's FOCUS politics, economy, society and culture, opinions on world affairs, and a chronology of recent events in Korea.

Published in English and Japanese, its articles come from leading publications in Korea, including major daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals.

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