Koreana Winter 1997 (English)

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BEAUTY OF KOREA

Pangjang

Sumun ch'imjang, an embroidered curtain, 19th century, 220 em x 142 em

In traditional Korea, when w inter's cold w inds arrived, thick curtains, or p angjang, were hung over the doors to block drafts of cold air. It is believed that such curtains were used for the first time during the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century). With time, the curtains fell into disuse, as the ondol hypocaust heating system became increasingly popular.

The most commonly used curtains were called

sumun ch 'imjang. These featured em broidered bats, sy m bols of happiness, and Chinese characters for long life and good fortune. They w ere often fiery red, the color of the south, and thus exuded a sense of warmth. Blue was used for accents, to neutralize the red. The pictured curtain has bats embroidered at the corners for happiness. The "double-happiness" character at the center was thought to bring joy to the family. +

KOREAN ART & CULTURE

Cover: Featured on the cover

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is a tea field in southern Korea. Korea has a long history

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of tea cultivation and tea drinking. This issue of KORE-

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Tea and Tea Culture

ANA focuses on Korea's tea culture including its philoso-

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phy, rituals and the material paraphernalia involved in the

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process of preparing and serv-

by Venerable Suk Yong-un

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ing tea.

4 History and Philosophy of Korean Tea Art

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s

12 Characteristics of Korean Tea Culture hy jung Young-sun

18 The Poetry of Tea hy Chung Min

22 Tea Ceremony and Implements hy Choi Ha-rim

ŠThe Kore;1Foundntion 1997 All rig/us reserved. No pnrr of this pu!JiiGI(ion mny be reproduced in any f orm without the prior permission of the Korea Foundation.

The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of the editors of KOREAN A or the Korea Foundation.

KOREAN A, reg istered as a quarterl y magazine with the Ministry of Information (Registration No. Ba-1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in French, Spanish, japanese and Chinese.

28 Teas and Their Medicinal Effects hy Yu Tae-jong

34 Korea's Contemporary Tea Culture hy Park Hee-jun

38 ON THE ROAD

A Journey to Posong hy Kim joo-young

44 FOCUS

Andong International Mask Dance Festival hy Koo Hee-sue

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History and Philosophy of

¡Korean Tea Art Venerable Suk Yong-un Chairman Choyee Cultural Foundation

axing and waning with social trends for more than two thousand years since the Old Choson period, tea has become deeply ingrained in Korean life, loved by people of all classes. Ancient Koreans considered tea to be sacred and offered it in religious rites to mountains and rivers as well as to ancestral spirits and their heavenly abode. The more important the rite, the more essential was the tea offering, which explains why to this day Koreans still perform ch'arye (the tea rite) to their ancestors on seasonal festival days.

The tea used during the Old Choson period (2333-194 B.C.) was Paeksan ch'a (white mountain tea) produced on Mt. Paektusan. It was made with the tender spring leaves of a tree of the azalea family native to the highlands of Paektusan and its vicinity. Local people still favor this tea, which was a special drink for the Tung-i who inhabited the area in earlier times.

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Tea seeds were brought from Tang China in the middle of the Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.-A.D. 668) and the green tea grown from them gradually replaced the native Paeksan ch'a.

Korean tea art as it is known today developed from this Chinese tea.

Historical Accounts Tea :was introduced first to the privileged classes such as royalty, aristocrats, warriors and high-ranking Buddhist monks. Royalty and aristocrats enjoyed tea in.. their palaces and homes and served it ' to esteemed guests. Tea and incense were favorite gift items for revered monks, who used the gifts as offerings to Buddha as well as for their own consumption. Hwarang, the young warriors of Shilla, often drank tea when they disciplined themselves while on pilgrimages to great mountains and rivers.

Tea was thus a tasteful gift, a means to discipline the mind and body and a good companion that promoted spiritu-

A celadon teacup with saucer (right); Ilchiam Hermitage at Taehiingsa Temple, home to a rich tea culture passed down from monk to monk (far right)

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Ancient Koreans considered tea to be sacred and offered it in religious rites to mountains and rivers as well as to ancestral spirits and their heavenly abode. The more important the rite, the more essential wils the tea offering, which explains why to this day Koreans still perform ch'arye (the tea rite) to their ancestors on seasonal festival days.

Korean tea art should be revived to pe1petuate the traditional way of life and as a way of appreciating ancient culture.

National traditions not only characterize a people but also instill pride in cultural heritage.

Buddhist monks drinking tea to clear their minds for meditation, a tradition that began long ago (above); Tasan Ch'odang, the house where scholar Chong Yag-yong, whose pen name was Tasan, and other tea enthusiasts met to drink tea and have scholarly discussions (right); the name plate bearing the words "Tasan Ch'odang"(Tea Mountain House) in Chinese characters (below)

a! communion between friends. The philosophy of tea art, or the "way of tea," was already developing during this period. The custom of offering tea for memorial services began after King Honan (r. 857-861) of Shilla sent a gift of tea and incense to Priest Such'ol's memorial service. Ch'ungdam, a monk and poet during the reign of King Kyongdok (r. 742-765), is known to have started the tradition of the

Buddhist tea rite by making regular offerings of tea to the Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future, on Samhwaryong Hill of Mt. Namsan in Kyongju. Tea was an essential substance for Yongnang, Sullang, Namnang and Ansang, four legendary Taoist votaries, who led a hermit's life at Hansongjong Pavilion in Kyongp'odae, Kangnung. There are also records that renowned ' Shilla scholars such as Sol

Ch'ong and Ch'oe Ch'i-won relied on tea to enliven their spirits.

The tea-drinking traditions of Koryo varied according to social class-royalty, aristocrat, 'Buddhist monk or commoner. Royalty developed an elaborate ritual for drinking tea. There was an office called Tabang (Tea Chamber) to facilitate the enjoyment of tea by the royal family and also to officiate over tea rites at important national events such as royal weddings, funerals, coronations and diplomatic receptions.

The tea ceremony in the court was extremely elaborate and decorous, a solemn affair accompanied

by music when it was the king or crown prince who was having the tea.

Pavilions and arbors were built in the palace for the purpose of holding tea parties and poetry readings for court officials. A ceremonial tea-drinking code thus developed in the court.

The aristocrats, patriarchs and officials in the capital and across the country had their own way of enjoying tea, which was leisurely and relaxed.

Fashioned by scholar-officials, the aristocratic way of drinking tea took the form of parties at scenic locations involving music, dance, poetry and even wine. The tradition of composing verses in praise of tea started during this period.

Buddhist monks made tea offerings to the Buddha three times a day, and for important rites, the king himself

took tea to make the offering. Tea was also offered during the memorial services to revered monks. After the rites, the monks themselves drank tea; they also drank tea while meditating to stay awake and keep their minds alert.

Visitors to temples were served tea instead of wine. Because the tea helped the monks meditate, their tea-drinking practice was called "sammae (samdhi, spiritual concentration) style." Villages called tach 'on, literally "tea village," sprang up near the temples to supply the great amount of tea the monks consumed.

Only the latest tea of the season, what was left after paying taxes in kind, went to the commoners, who used tea as medicine. Tea, when boiled with ..a piece of ginger or green onion, mad_e a good medicine for colds, fatigue and headaches.

The notoriously heavy tea tax, which was first levied during the Koryo period, generated a great many compJa:ints among the populace. In the Mt. Chirisan region, men and women of all ages risked wild beasts and frostbite to pick young tea leaves. on the mountain slopes still covered with patches of snow. Collecting tea from early spring to summer, farmers often missed the farming season. For these reasons, tea farming failed as a viable industry in Korea.

Tea lovers of Koryo had a predilection for ornate tea sets, a fact that stimulated the development of the celebrated Koryo celadon ceramics. Tea wares such as kumhwa ojan (dark tea cups with golden flowers) and pisaek sogu (small blue-green celadon cups) were much admired for their delicate beauty.

Monks often produced tea sets for their own use at temple workshops, the most representative of which were in Kapsa and Tonghaksa temples on Mt. Kyeryongsan. Cups made at these temples were imbued with the unfettered spirit of the void characteristic of Zen Buddhism.

The most popular tea during Koryo was noewonda (ball tea) and taeda

(leaf tea). Tea was a favorite gift item, and it was a custom to reciprocate such a gift with a poem. Some enthusiasts wrote dozens of tea poems.

The tea art of Koryo continued to thrive in the early Choson period until its cultural transmission was disrupted by the Japanese invasions in 1592 and 1597 and the Manchu invasion in 1636.

Tea was then neglected for almost 200 years until it was revived by ardent devotees such as Ch'o-ui (1786-1866), a monk who is often called Tasong, or the Saint of Tea, for his efforts to promote tea art in Korea; Chong Yag-yong (1762-1836), a great statesman, scholar and poet; and Kim Chong-hui (17861856), Chason's greatest calligrapher and epigraphist. However, Choson's tea tradition was again obliterated by Japan's cultural encroachment during its colonial rule (1910-1945).

After the rise of Choson in 1392, many Koryo officials retired to the countryside and mountains to lead a secluded life. They were followed by monks suffering from the new dynasty's policy to Suppress Buddhism in favor of Confucianism. The monks, many becoming self-appointed hermits of the mountains, developed their own tea tradition, which came to be known as "hermit tea art." In the meantime, the founding fathers of the new dynasty adopted tea drinking as a part of their official daily routine. According to the "bureaucratic tea art," officials met over tea every day to discuss government affairs. Auditors from the Office of the Inspector General had nighttime tea sessions when they investigated corrupt officials. There were special employees who served tea at such meetings, and their titles varied according to the rank of the officials they served. A eunuch served the king.

As tea had been scarce ever since the Japanese invasions, King Yongjo (r.

1724-1776) ordered that wine or boiled water be served in its place. From then on, wine was used instead of tea for offerings in most rituals, including ancestral rites.

Though waning, the tea tradition managed to survive in a limited way.

The court continued to observe a special tea ritual based on the. Kukcho oryeui (Five Rites of State), guidelines for conducting major state ceremonies compiled in 1474. Upper-class families held tea rites during coming-of-age, wedding, funeral and memorial ceremonies in the manner prescribed in Sarye p 'y6nnam (Handbook of Four Rites), and Buddhist monks held tea rites as established by the monks Sosan (1520-1604) and Paekp'a (1767-1852).

Tea art thus survived as ritual rather than as ordinary practice.

In the late Choson period, the monk Ch'o-ui wrote about all aspects of tea including its cultivation, production, preparation, ingestion and essential nature in his books Tongdasong (Ode to the Korean Tea) and Tashinj6n (Lives of the Tea Gods). Chong Yagyong, another tea lover whose pen name was Tasan (Tea Mountain), formed a cooperative called the Tea Lovers' Society with his followers when he was in exile in Chollanam-do province. One of the cooperative's objectives was to produce tea, and it kept working at this task long after Chong was released from exile and left

the area. Kim ChOng-hili, the calligrapher better known by his pen name Ch'usa, wrote many verses in praise of tea, bringing tea poems back into fashion.

The annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 all but obliterated the native tea art that had been showing signs of revival. To implant their own tea art in Korea , the Japanese colonial rulers added classes in Japanese-style tea ceremonies to the regular curriculum for Korean schoolgirls.

Korean tea art should be revived to perpetuate the traditional way of life and as a way of appreciating ancient

Tea art is often said to be the same as Zen, which is a special way of pursuing self-discipline.

Zen is a state of mind in which one is completely immersed in meditation, a perfect calmness. "'

To say that tea is Zen implies that the attainment of subtle elation through the profound appreciation of tea is much like the attainment of enlightenment through perfect immersion in Zen.

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culture. National traditions not only characterize a people but also instill pride in cultural heritage.

Spiritual Implications Philosophies of tea art were developed and refined by scholars and others who appreciated tea as a basic part of their daily life. They included Buddhist monks, Taoist hermits and Confucian scholars in public office or retired in remote areas of the countryside.

Each group established tea-drinking manners and decorum based on their own beliefs and philosophy. Monks

raised the spirit of tea art to the same level as their Zen philosophy, Confucians incorporated tea drinking with their ethics to develop distinct tea rites, and Taoists saw a spiritual potential in tea in keeping with their philosophy of harmony with nature.

Tea art is often said to be the same as Zen, which is a special way of pursuing self-discipline. The Buddhist term "Zen," originating from the Sanskrit dhyana and called son in Korean, refers to a meditative practice in which one seeks to bring the mind under control as a step in the process of attaining enlightenment. It is a state of mind in

which one is completely immersed in meditation, a perfect calmness. Zen is all around, everywhere in daily life, whether one is roaming, sitting, lying, speaking or in silence. In other words, everything is Zen when one is spiritually conscious.

To say that tea is Zen implies that the attainment of subtle elation through the profound appreciation of tea is much like the attainment of enlightenment through perfect immersion in Zen. An anecdote entitled "Have a cup of tea and leave" related by Zen master Zhaozhou (778-897) of Tang China might help explain this concept.

Tea plants are sensitive to climate; they require as much as 1,500 mm of rain annually, sunshine and shade, and rich, loamysoil,suchasthatfoundin the Pos6ng area (far left).

Clockwise from upper left: tea leaves; a tea field; a tea blossom

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Two seekers of truth sought out the great master at Guanyinyuan Monastery. One of them bowed and asked the master, "W hat is Bodhi?"

Zhaozhou replied with a question: "Have you ever been here?" When the visitor said no, Zhaozhou said, "Have a cup of tea and leave." The other visitor bowed and asked, "What made you 10

come from the West, Master?"

Zhaozhou bowed and asked, "Have you ever been he re?" The visitor answered, "Yes, I was here once," and Zhaozhou said, "Have a cup of tea and leave."

A monk overheard the conversation and, greatly mystified, asked Zhaozhou, "Master, why did you tell the man who

has never been here and the one who has been here the same thing?"

Zhaozhou replied, "Have a cup of tea and leave."

To the one who has been there, the one who has not been there, and the one who is in doubt, "Have a cup of tea" applies equally. It means: "There is no possible way of dealing with your question in words, but the Way is all around you and within you, for you to experience by direct perception." This anecdote signifies that the ways of tea and Zen are all the same.

This is just one example of teaching the Buddhist Way with tea; it indicates that enlightenment is not far away when Zen or tea is elevated to spiritual and physical equanimity, free of impurities and harshness. In Buddhist terminology, paramil (paramita in Sanskrit) refers to a world of perfection that can be reached when the mind becomes absolutely free from attachment to the material aspects of life. To appreciate tea and attain spiritual and physical equanimity is the same as arriving at paramita.

Ch'o-ui preached that all the routes to paramita are one and the same and thus that tea art and Zen are also the same. Ch'o-ui's philosophy greatly influenced the thought of Kim Chong-hui, and the great calligrapher wrote for the monk phrases such as myong son ("tea and meditation") and s6nt'ap tay6n ("meditation seat and steaming tea"), all indicating his concord that Zen and tea are the same. Kim also sent Ch'o-ui a two-line verse expressing the _?arne sentiment: "I sit here quietly, tea half drunk, flavor as the first. The mystery unfolds; the water flows and flowers bloom."

Tea art is also described as a refined way of life, which involves an ideal way of thinking and behavingthoughtfulness and elegance as opposed to vulgarity. The human desire to be recognized as an elegant, tasteful person knows no bounds.

People thus spend a fortune to beautify their homes and develop cultivated hobbies, all with the aim of achieving

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refinement.

The first human desire is to satiate one's physical hunger and the second ¡ the hunger for comfort and happiness.

People have thus devised myriad hobbies and pastimes, and tea art is among them. Tea art has both literally and figuratively brought much flavor to emotive life and has enormously expanded the spiritual sphere. In the meditative space created by a cup of tea, a person explores eternity, transcends time and space to attain self-perfection, becomes a free spirit in the universe, and achieves profound peace.

Not a breath of disturbance ever rises in this clear, peaceful mind induced by tea. A genuine tea lover seeks the truth, one's true self that is stranded amid the storms of human desires. This is why poets, calligraphers and painters travel to scenic regions and Buddhist monks opt to retreat to nature and meditate, befriending only

white clouds and green mountains.

Ancient Koreans had a predilection for a tasteful life. They built small pavilions in scenic locations, planted trees and flowers and refreshed themselves with tea or wine. Those who could afford it dug lotus ponds by their homes and planted gardens where flowers bloomed from spring through autumn. They built among these natural pleasures an elevated hall or pavilion to which they invited their good friends for parties of tea, wine, poetry and painting. They considered such an environment the true enjoyment of life, the best life could offer physically and spiritually. For them, tea art was an essential part of life and spirit.

Tea also has analogy with the¡ loyalty of Confucian scholars, which comes from the idea that the tea plant, an evergreen, defies wintry snows and winds in the same spirit a scholar upholds his ideals despite his hunger

and the temptation of worldly gain.

Tea is also likened to the chaste women of the Choson period because, much like a Choson woman who remained faithful to her husband throughout her life, a tea plant is never moved from where its seed is sprouted because it often perishes when transplanted.

It was thus a common practice to make tea offerings during a memorial service for a scholar. Women referred to a wedding as a "tea rite" because tea was offered during the ceremony.

After her wedding, a bride would introduce herself to her husband's ancestors at the family's ancestral shrine, at which time she made a tea offering as a token of an unspoken vow that, much like a tea plant that must forever remain rooted to one place, she would dedicate herself to her husband's family until she joined his ancestors in the family graveyard. +

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I Ch'o-iii (1786-1866), a monk who is often called the Saint of Tea for his efforts to promote tea art in Korea (left); a tea table at Ilchiam, the hermitage where Ch'o-iii spent some 40 years and Monk Y oyon is now carrying on the tea tradition 11

Characteristics of

¡Korean Tea Culture Jung Young-sun Director, Korea Tea Culture Research Center

n ancient times, humans considered tea to be an edible plant or medicine, but it gradually evolved into a beverage thanks to its merits-good taste, stimulating effect and easy preparation. Eventually, tea drinking developed into a cultural form.

"Tea culture" encompasses all the material paraphernalia involved in the process of preparing and serving teathe tea leaves, the water, the tea sets-as well as the various rituals that have developed along with this process. A

I

nation's established drinking habits do not change much; they are related to people's customs, national characteristics, aesthetics and values. But cultural practices undergo natural transformations as a result of influences from neighboring cultures, political circumstances, and economic and social phenomen<!,. Korea's age-old tea culture has undergone some minor changes but still retains its essentially Korean character .and philosophy. Because of its durability, this culture will continue to flourish in the future.

A woman offers tea to the Mountain Spirit at a shaman shrine.

12

Compared to those of other countries, Korea's tea rites are highly developed. These rites differ from ordinary tea ceremonies and can be categorized as dedication rites for various deities and rituals for offering tea to people.

The object of a dedication rite may be Buddha, an ancestral or family god, the god of a mountain, or even the silkworm god.

Tea is healthy, enjoyable and stimulating, all good qualities. That is why tea has long been offered to gods and guests alike to demonstrate the server's

respect and gladness. In the past, people believed that the stimulating effects of tea enabled mutual understanding between humans and gods, and the tea that was offered to a deity was drunk by those making the offering as a way to forge spiritual ties. In simple religious rites, tea was considered the most important form of offering as it was a means through which worshipers could convey their wishes.

The first historical record documenting the offering of tea to an ancestral god describes a rite in the year 661 in which a tea offering was made to the spirit of King Suro, the founder of the Kaya Kingdom (A.D. 42-562). Records from the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392) show that tea offerings were made in Buddhist temples to the spirits of revered monks.

During the Chos6n Dynasty ¡03921910), the royal family and the aristocracy used tea for simple rites; the "Day Tea Rite" was a common daytime ceremony, whereas the "Special Tea Rite" was reserved for specific occasions.

These terms are not ¡found in other countries. Toward the end of the Chos6n Dynasty, commoners joined the trend and used tea for ancestral rites, following the Chinese example based on Zhu Xi's text Formalities of Family.

At the lower right of this painting, Landscape with Figures (16th century, 91.1 em x 59.5 em), a young boy brews tea (above); (opposite, top to bottom) the traditional processing of tea involves stir-frying tea leaves, kneading them and finally air drying them.

"Tea culture'' encompasses all the material paraphernalia involved in the process of preparing and serving tea - the tea lea ves, the water, the tea sets- as well as the various rituals that have developed along with this process.

14

In Korea, from long ago, it has also been common to offer tea to the living.

Kings and members of the royal court drank tea with due formality during rites for native gods as well as in grand court ceremonies including _the New Year's Day audience and mediation sessions prior to the announcement of harsh punishment. Tea played an important role in rituals announcing the principal queen or the crown prince and in commemorating a prince's birthday. More recently , tea was offered with formality to a parent during his or her 60th birthday celebration.

Korea is blessed with good , fresh potable water, so tea has not been an absolute necessity as in China. Tea

became a refreshment for dispelling muddled thoughts and inducing selfdiscipline for those who studied and ¡ meditated; not only is tea a stimulant, but its taste depends on a careful, focused preparation. In other words, the preparing and drinking of tea was a means to find the Way for Confucians, Buddhists and Taoists.

Early records show that tea was drunk to help develop mental discipline. Sol Ch'ong (692-746), a Shilla scholar, wrote that tea and wine purify the mind. Ch'oe Ch'i-won (857-894), another Shilla official, said that tea was an appropriate gift for an old man who meditated as well as for a Taoist follower, adding that he could forget his worries whenever he was presented with tea.

The first person to elaborate a Korean tea philosophy was NeoConfucianist Yi Saek (1328-1396), a dedicated enthusiast who emphasized the tea ceremony as a self-disciplinary measure. He believed that achieving selfdiscipline began with preparing tea with one's own hands. In other words, the tea ceremony was a practical means for seeking Confucian enlightenment. Chang Ui-sun (1786-1866), whose pen name was Ch'o-ui, asserted that steeping tea facilitated studying the philosophy of the Middle Way, and the calligrapher Kim ChOng-hui (17861866) likened the preparing of tea to understanding the substance of the Way. From early on, Korean Buddhists recognized the tea ceremony as a form of meditation, as it was in China and Japan. The idea that the tea ceremony was a form of meditation was shared not only among Buddhist monks but also among Confucian scholars, who wrote that "a cup of tea is the beginning of Zen" and that "the taste of tea is the taste of Zen." Some said that tea was the Buddha, and according to various historical records, poetry and folk songs, tea drinking was thought to induce the enlightenment that led to becoming a Buddha, as can be seen in

the tea rite of the seventh-century Pochon Buddhist ceremony. The Chinese monk Zhaozhou's expression "Have some tea before you go" was often used to mean "drink tea and reach enlightenment on your own."

Monks considered regular tea ceremonies as a disciplinary measure to purify their minds.

Taoists believed that drinking tea led to the cultivation of the body and mind toward purification, meditation, and eventually enlightenment.

Preparing precious tea with loving care was the process by which to find the Way, and after drinking, one became free and in harmony with nature, unconcerned with material possessions or oneself. Yi Kyu-bo (1168-1241), a Koryo scholar, made the declaration that the tea ceremony and Taoism are one and the same.

It-was not only scholars and monks who considered tea drinking a means of achieving self-discipline. Commoners also believed that tea relieved loneliness and calmed one's heart, a great comfort in everyday life, which in turn led to finding the Truth.

Tea Culture and Literati From the time of the Shilla Kingdom to the Koryo and Chason Dynasties, tea was drunk by all classes of people: royalty, aristocrats, literati, monks, soldiers and commoners. However, the literati were the class that nurtured and developed the tea ceremony. In comparison, in Japan the tradition of the tea ceremony was centered around the warriors and in China, the aristocracy.

The flourishing tea culture of the literati peaked from the 12th century, the middle of the Koryo Dynasty, to the 15th century, the beginning of the Chason Dynasty, and again from the 18th century to the end of the Chason Dynasty. During Koryo, the major proponents of tea culture were the NeoConfucians, and at the end of Chason, the scholars of Shirhak (practical learning). The tea ceremony flourished among the literati scholars. They wrote 15 " â&#x20AC;˘ '

I

much poetry about tea; six scholars in particular left more than 70 poems on the subject-Yi Saek, So Ko-jong, Kim Shi-sup, Chong Yag-yong, Shin-wi and Hong Hyon-ju. There are probably more Korean poems about tea than Chinese ones.

This trend has been passed on, and today tea drinkers can be found among scholars, artists and social leaders who study not only the methods of tea preparation but also the classical tea literature of their ancestors.

From long ago, government officials considered tea drinking an important ritual. In particular, those employed in the judiciary branch of government considered tea drinking to be part of their work; they believed that drinking tea with formality enabled them to engage in official business without pret udice.

<.

A stone stove on which Shilla hwarang warriors used to brew tea while on pilgrimages, 8th century, length 74 em (above); a pot for heating water for tea, Koryo Dynasty, diameter 13 em, height 6 em (below); a folk painting of two tea tables, Choson Dynasty (right)

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During the Koryo and ¡ Choson Dynasties, the Office of the Inspector General held regular tea ceremonies. In the early years of Choson, every government office in Seoul held tea ceremonies, and a special pavilion was reserved for this activity; sometimes the tea ceremony itself was the object of official business. During meetings held to decide on executions and banishments, Koryo kings drank tea with formality, and government officials ceremoniously followed the king's example before reaching a final decision.

Government officials considered the tea ceremony important because it was influenced by Confucian philosophy.

They drank tea regularly in an effort to promote fairness and honesty,¡and Korea boasts many government officials whose fair and wise administrative practices were at least partly attrib-

utable to their adherence to the Confucian principles underlying the tea ceremony.

During the Shilla and Koryo periods, there were teahouses throughout the countryside where government officials could stop and drink tea during official journeys. Koryo government officials drank tea frequently in "tea offices" in the capital.

During the Koryo Dynasty, there was a government office called the Tabang, or Tea Chamber, that supervised tea rites in the court and royal quarters for foreign guests and for various official functions. At least a hundred officials and soldiers of various rank were assigned to the Tabang to transport water pots, portable stoves, tea sets and tea when the king or the crown prince left the palace to attend a function.

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Development of Tea Sets Although Korean tea sets were influenced by Chinese models, they show ¡ native characteristics as weJI. Because tea rites were highly developed, tea sets used for ancestral rites or for functions requiring protocol were designed with unique Korean features. From early on, tea sets for use outdoors were also developed. Tea was offered to Buddhist images, the heavenly god and the dragon god in the mountains and fields, and scholars made tea near rivers and ponds as well as deep in the mountains. The literati more than aristocrats and commoners appreciated the tea ceremony as an art form, so aesthetic standards were high, reflecting the scholars' artistic sensitivity and philosophy.

A tea table holds the paraphernalia necessary for preparing tea. According to an account by Xu Jing, a Chinese envoy to Kory6, Koreans used a red tea table on which various tea implements were laid out and over which a red silk cloth was placed. During the Chason Dynasty, a large tea table was placed in the men's quarters or just outside under the eaves, judging from folk paintings de picting tea preparation scenes.

These days a larger table is used so that it can also hold fruits and sweets.

Because water is handled on the table, a tablecloth is laid down first. Today's table coverings are red following the Kory6 tradition; the color red is believed to ward off bad spirits.

Four Taoist hermits of pre-sixth century Shilla (Y6ngnang, Sulnang, Namnang and Ansang) used a stone stove called s6kchijo to make tea and offer it to the heavenly god at Ky6ngpodae and Hansoj6ng. The s6kchijo is a unique Korean innovation: It is a small boulder that comprises a water tank and a separate space with a vent that serves as the stove.

Ch'ungdam (d. 765), a warrior monk, made and offered tea to Buddha on Mt. Natnsan in Ky6ngju with tea impleme nts he carried in a willow box.

Other monks used different equipment.

As tea sets for rites, large bowls or teacups with high stems were frequently used in Korea. The Chinese character for tea was engraved on these vessels so that they would be treated with more care than ordinary dishes.

It was common to see designs inlaid in white, such as cranes and clouds, inside the teacups. This was because Koreans preferred clear tea instead of milky tea, and they could appreciate the submerged designs while sipping.

During the Chos6n Dynasty, powdered leaf tea was steeped in a large bowl with the aid of a brush, or boiled tea was filtered through a hemp cloth into this large bowl before being poured into individual cups.

Dur.ing the Kory6 Dynasty, a teaspoon with many variously shaped rings was used to create foam when making powdered leaf tea. A bamboo stick was used to crush the leaves, and a bamboo brush invented in the 17th century was used to stir powdered leaf tea.

Today, Korean tea sets tend to emphasize practicality and the tactile texture of the vessels.

After all, the Korean tea ceremony is characterized by attention to detail and the creation of a natural ambience. The person preparing the tea takes the attitude of a Confucian student in the attempt to bring out the tea's original character. Both the host and the guest are deliberate in their motions; they behave naturally, humanly and rationally. This creates a Taoist environment in which tea, the tea maker and the guest all become o ne with nature.

When making tea, tea is the focus; when drinking tea, the drinker is the focus; and after drinking tea, one's mental state is the focus.

Korea's tea culture-unique, elegant and based on profound philosophycreates an environment of generosity and decorum. Because such an environment is conducive to rational thought, the culture of tea can contribute not only to Korean but to world culture. +

The steps in preparing and serving tea (top to bottom): While the water for brewing the tea is heating, the cover is removed from the tea table. The boiled water is poured into a bowl to cool. Tea is placed in the teapot, and the cooled water (about 70 degrees centigrade) is poured into the teapot. When the tea has steeped, it is served in individual cups.

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¡ "'

.The _Poetry of Tea Chung Min Professor of Korean Literature Hanyang University

itting quietly, drinking tea; the aroma wafts past my nostrils. I savor a sip, swallow it gently down. The master calligrapher-poet Kim Ch6ng-hui (1786-1856) sings of the profundity of the tea experience:

S

I sit here quietly, tea half drunk, flavor as the first.

The mystery unfolds: waters flow, flowers burst.

To Korea's forefathers, tea was life's fragrance. A man's life might be a litany of bitterness, but if he had the amplitude of heart to drink tea, he could forget life's bitter taste. Tea was a friend that past generations kept close at hand.

It was a precious commodity: without it a monk could not practice asceticism, a scholar could not pore over his books day after day. Tea brightened awareness, slaked thirst; it brought feelings of peace to the heart. With tea, an encounter with a friend assumed even more subtlety. If you look at old Korean

paintings, whether of a gathering of literati at a poetry contest or simply a gathering of ordinary men with a taste for the sublime, invariably there is a boy in one corner brewing tea.

Drinking tea was a familiar part of everyday life.

Yi Mok (1471-1498) in his "Ode to Tea" celebrates the effects of tea: drinking one bowl is like pouring icy water over dried-up viscera; two bowls bring lucidity to the mind, you feel you will become an Immortal; three bowls waken you from sickness, banishing pain; four bowls elicit feelings of wellbeing and dissipate worries and anger; five bowls send the sex devil packing, ghosts within go blind and deaf; six bowls send you floating up to heaven; and after seven bowls and half of the eighth, a fair breeze ruffles the s)eeve of your coat, and you feel as if you are cavorting among the Immortals.

Here are some illustrations of the poetr~ spirit of Korean forefathers when they drank tea:

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North, south, the mountain is sliced by slivers of tracks; raindrops, heavy with pine pollen, fall dizzily down.

The hermit draws water a""nd returns to his straw hut; soon a ribbon of blue smoke dyes the white clouds.

The above poem, "The Monk's House," was written at the end of the Kory6 Dynasty by Yi Sung-in (13491392). The tracks lining the mountainside are covered by rain-soaked pine pollen.

The monk draws water in the valley and goes back into the woods. Soon, puffs of blue smoke rise in the air and mingle with the white clouds: The monk is brewing tea with the fresh water he just drew from the well. What are his thoughts as he brews the tea? The Chos6n monk S6nsu (1543-1614) tells us:

Nt i'.~ 1

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I sit alone, deep in the mountains: Worldly affairs are of no import.

Gate closed, I pass the days in learning emptiness. . I examine my life; I have no material goods: just a bowl of fresh tea and a book of scriptures.

The monk lives deep in the mountains; he sits alone, he has nothing under his charge. His door closed, he only ruminates on the transience of human life. He looks back on the course of his life and sees that he has nothing material to show for it. His only friends are a bowl of freshly brewed tea and an old copy of the scriptures.

The Kory6 monk Hyegun (13201376) paints a vivid picture of a frugal life spent with tea:

It's never been possible to fabricate nature: Why do I look for enlightenment outside?

All I know for truth is that there is no action in the heart: Thirsty, I brew tea; tired, I take a nap.

"Tea and Zen," written by the famous calligrapher Kim Chong-hiii (far upper left); a

tea set with a tea scoop (far lower left); Napping, Yi Chae-gwan, Choson Dynasty, early 19th century,122cm x56cm (above) 19

Nature's original principle cannot be contrived. Enlightenment is to be found within; continuing to seek it in the outer world will .not achieve results. This realization brings to the heart a se~ of quietude. Thus, when thirsty, the poet makes himself a pot of tea; when tired, he takes a nap. And that's when life becomes transparent: Enlightenment is found in the thirsty heart drinking tea, in the tired heart taking a restful nap.

Noise and flamboyance have no part in the tea drinker's life. Rather, his day-today existence, free from desire, flows over with personal contentment.

The monk Hyejang (1772-1811) expresses this contentment admirably:

I climb to the top of the hill and pluck some tea leaves; I let the water in and irrigate the flower patch.

I turn my head: Today's sun already is low on the mountain.

Wind-bells echo from a distant hermitage; crows roost in an old tree.

Oh joy' Such ease, such pleasure, such beauty!

Early in the morning, the poet climbs to the top of the mountain and picks new tea leaves; he uses a bamboo pipeline to water his flowers. Before he knows it, the sun is declining; the day is over. The wind-bells call him home to his empty hermitage; the crows have gathered in an old tree to sleep. At the end of the day's labors, the old monk straightens his back, looks upon the setting sun and cannot restrain a cry of joy.

The ease, the pleasure and the beauty of life are the reasons for his joy. His string bag is full of newly plucked tea shoots.

Chason Shirhak scholar Chong Yag-

Playing the Komun-go, Yi Kyong-yun, Choson Dynasty, 15th eentury,31-1 em x 24-B em (above); Writing a Poem, Yi Chae-gwan,

Choson Dynasty, early 19tli eentury,37 em x 59 em (far upper right) 20

yong (1762-1836) wrote a letter to Hyejang asking for more tea; he notes in the letter that he covets the tea because it acts as a medicine for his heart's ailments. Brewing tea alone in the moonlight or sharing it with his monk friend, he finds alleviation from the conflicts of the heart that arise from living in the world. When a guest arrives, he serves tea; only after the third bowl does the conversation begin. Until that moment, not a word is exchanged between master and guest: The silence that obtains while the tea is brewing and the three bowls are being drunk must surely approach the realm of rapture.

In "Visiting Monk 6m," the Kory6 scholar Yi Kyu-bo (1168-1241) sings of the elegance of a conversation shared over tea:

An anecdote for every bowl.

Gradually we approach the mystery.

The joy is limpid, plain.

Does one have to be tipsy to be drunk?

The master keeps pouring the tea.

After three bowls, the conversation takes off in a new direction. With every bowl the exchange deepens. Those who think that this level of profundity can

only be reached by intoxication are to be pitied.

While tea is the friend of conversation, it is also an effective medicine. So K6-j6ng (1420-1488) sings of the efficacy of tea in "Brewing Tea While Sick":

This year I am debilitated by sickness, racked by thirst.

My only joy is the odd bowl of tea.

In the clear dawn I draw tingling cold spring wate1; I brew at my leisure the golden ''Dewdrop Leaf' in a stoneware pot.

Tossing and turning, the poet is awake at dawn, his lips as dry as cardboard. He goes out into the fresh, bracing dawn air and draws cold water from the well. Slowly he brews golden tea as he sits in front of his stoneware pot. The aroma of the tea wafts through the clear dawn air. Sick though he is, he feels lighter; he forgets his ailment. He also sings:

No need to discuss aroma, colo1; taste; drink it; you11 find your mind becomes bright.

The haziness of the mind clears up

with the tea: It's just a good experience, no need to discuss aroma and taste.

The exotic pomegranate aflame on the green branch is reflected on the white curtain with the passing afternoon sun.

The brazier bums itself out, the tea bubbles; a perfect time for the hermit to unroll a painting Spring day: The flowers of the pomegrana>te have blossomed into balls of flame. The white curtain is drawn in the room; the afternoon sun slowly passes across the curtain in a blaze of red reflections. Smoke coils up from the brazier; the teapot sings beside it- as the tea brews. The master unrolls a painting and succumbs to gentle appreciation. Time is suspended in the moment. This poem, titled "Tano Day Gathering," is by the Shirhak scholar Yi Tok-mu (1741-1793).

To drink tea is to relish life's flavor.

Shadowy faces appear in the wisps of tea vapor: Koreans from centuries past knew how to ease their tension with a calming bowl of tea. Thus they controlled the pace of life's steep climb and palliated the self, which is so easily neglected. + 21 .. â&#x20AC;˘ '

.Tea Ceremony and ChoiHa-rim Columnist, The Ch onnam Jlho

he history of tea in Korea is closely entwined with the development of Buddhism.

Tea was first brought to Korea

by Buddhist monks who had studied in Tang China; the ensu ing popularity of tea was also due to their influence.

According to ancient documents, tea

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was first introduced to Korea's royal court during the reign of King Ky6ngd6k (r. 742-765) of the Shill a Kingdom. At the time, unusual events were being reported throughout the country, so the king offered special rites to the three gods of five mountains-Kumgangsan, Myohyangsan, Chirisan, Paektusan and Samgaksan.

But the odd phenomena did not cease, and the king ordered his men to find a wise man who could solve the mystery. The courtiers found a candidate, but when the king asked him a few questions, he decided the man was not suitable and sent him away.

At that instant, a monk wearing coarse clothing and carrying a worn-

Implements out sack was walking along the road heading south. The king welcomed the monk graciously and asked him his n a m e. The monk a nsw ere d , "Ch 'ungdam." The king then asked, "Are you the scholar who wrote Ch'an-

kip'arangga (Ode to Hwarang Knight Kip'a)?" The monk answered that he was. The king then asked where he

was going. The mo nk sa id, "On the third day of the third month, and the ninth day of the ninth month, I go to Samhwary6ng Hill of Mt. Namsan to perform rituals for the Maitreya. I'm on my way back from serving tea to the Maitreya." The king was very happy to hear this, and asked if he could also have a cup. The monk poured the tea

carefully. The fragrance of the tea was subtle, and it warmed the inside of the king's mouth.

From then on, tea was a fixture in the Shilla court. It is said that ¡even the design of tea utensils was greatly influenced by Tang China. It is documented th a t in the third year of King Hungd6k 's reign, envoy Taery 6m

A tea bowl with an inscription referring to tea, excavated from Anapchi Pond in Kyongju, UnifiedShilla (668-935) 23

Celadon pitcher used in Buddhist rituals, Koryo Dynasty, 11th-12th century, height 32.7cm

brought back tea bowls from Tang China. According to the Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms), what was considered "tea" in those days was a blend of green and red tea imported from China, known as ch6nch'a. In the W 6rillok, another record on the Shilla Kingdom, tea is transcribed as ch6mch 'a. Ch6nch'a refers to thin tea leaves, and ch6mch'a to ground tea leaves, or thin leaves that have been ground into a powder.

There are other legends about tea.

One story has it that Princess H6 Hwang·ok and her older brother Po·ok of Ayutthaya (Thailand) reached the Ka ya Kingdom (42-562) after crossing the seas in a boat filled with gold, silver and other treasures, and a tea plant.

However, this legend may be more myth than fact. The reason that tea plants grow densely in southern Korea is probably due to monks from the Kangjin·Y6ng·am area of Ch6llanam· do, who went to Tang China to study, rather than to Princess Hwang-ok.

Another probable factor is the Ch6lla climate, which is conducive to tea growing.

In any case, it appears that in the Shilla Kingdom during the fifth and sixth centuries, teapots, bowls and related implements were widely used. The gradual increase in the number of references, to tea in the W 6rillok indicates that implements for grinding tea leaves existed, and it is highly likely that filters were also in use. There may have been more tea-related implements from that period, but it is difficult to say as some may have fallen out of use over time. But judging from the sizeable production of ceramic ware finished with lead and other kinds of glaze from the Unified Shilla period, it seems that tea bowls-if not teapotswere widespread.

Tea Implements of Koryo Dynasty

From the Three Kingdoms period through the Unified Shilla era tea flourished, but it was not until the Kory6 Dynasty that the culture of tea reached its peak.

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From the Three Kingdoms period through the Unified Shilla era tea flourished, but it was not until the Kory6 Dynasty that the culture of tea reached

its peak In the Koryo Dynasty, the balance of power shifted from the Kolp'um (bone-rank) class to the Hojok ¡ (local gentry) class, but in teyms of culture, the new elite based on Buddhism formed a powerful dynasty of its own.

Thus, the ideology, culture and rituals of Buddhism spread rapidly to all parts of the country. During this period, the size of Buddhist temples surpassed that of the royal court and their properties of paddies and plots of farmland were hard to be accounted for. Records show that the temples attracted hundreds of thousands of worshippers in spring and fall to perform rituals for a good harvest. In spring, people would light lanterns and wish for good fortune, and in autumn, the king would lead a ritual to celebrate the harvest. Hundreds of thousands of lanterns were lit and hung in rows.

The tradition of drin king tea also caught on quickly. Teahouses sprang up along roads, and powerful clans established tea pavilions within their households. As common families were setting up teahouses, th e temp les picked up the trend with even more ent husiasm. Placed on altars before images of the Buddha were the highestquality teapots, or at least tea bowls, filled with tea made from newly harvested leaves. One of the finest examples of such tea implements is part of the permanent collection of a museum in Boston-a silver-plated tea set dating from the 12th century. On top of the teapot is a two-layered lotus blossom crowned by a phoenix. The handle is a thin, delicate ring of silver decorated with a bamboo tree motif. The craftsmanship is similar to that used for the renowned kingfisher blue porcelain with inlay of that time.

The beauty of tea sets peaked in the 12th century. If the teapots and tea bowls of the 11th century were thick and dull, with an emphasis on utility rather than on aesthetics, then in the 12th century tea sets were much more refined and delicate, appearing in a wider variety of shapes. There was also

A contemporary of his, the great poet Yi Chae-hyon, wrote:

Swprised at the knocking on the doo1; I turned to see The delivery of tea, more valuable than jade.

Its clean fragrance-is it because it was harvested before Hanshik?

Its soft light, like frost in the midst of the woods; Its murmw; like water boiling in a stone pot, evoking the wind-rusted pine; The tea cup emitting a web of flowers.

Transition to Early Choson Dynasty

Top to bottom: celadon bowl with inlaid design of clouds and cranes, Koryo Dynasty;punch'ong bowl with stamped decoration filled with white slip; punch'ong glazed stoneware with underglaze iron decoration

a change in decorative motifs.

Chrysa nthem um patterns originating from China vanished whereas the lotus blossom, peony, grape, bamboo, cloud and crane became popular; these designs eventually formed the basis of Korea's aesthetics as well.

Tea was so much a part of the culture that there was scarcely a poem written in that period that did not mention it. Toward the end of the Koryo Dynasty, the scholar Yi Yon-jong wrote:

In Yongnam I was the guest at an old temple In the bamboo grove on the edge of Yongsan and Pongsan.

Hollo wed the monk who plucked Tea leaves shaped like a bird's beak.

As the Koryo Dynasty began to fade, the co rr espo nding ris e of punch 'ong ware, or pottery with white slip and grayish-green glaze, may be seen as a step backward in the development of Korean ceramic wares. But the tea sets of the time-simple, free of ornamentation, informal and generously proportioned-are said to surpass Koryo celadon and the white porcelain of the Choson Dynasty.

Art historians often compare a white porcelain vase to the oldest daughter-in-law, whereas they liken a punch'ong tea set to the ruddy face of a farmer. Certainly, the spirit behind making punch'ong-which strips away art ifice¡ to approach the esse nce of nature..:...is similar to the farm er's work ethic. The Japa nese prize punch'ong over celadon an d white _porcelain.

What Koreans dismiss as symmetrical or clouded in color, the Japanese consider a marvel of simplicity. In the historical novel Taiyabo there is a scene in which Hideoyoshi Toyotomi receives a punch'ong tea set as a gift from merchants. As Hideoyoshi strokes the tea set with the palm of his hand, he sighs and says, "Choson is a strange country." It was his understated way of expressing his admiration for the beauty of the Korean tea set.

The punch 'ong ware that the 25

Japanese envied so much began to be produced during the transition period as Yi Song-gye took power and founded the Chos6n Dynasty. But. the government office that oversaw the production of cerami<:s was closed down, and the artisans were dispersed throughout the country. As a result, technical mastery over the shape and color of ceramics fell into decline, but thereafter the manufacture of ceramics . entered another stage of development.

This new phase was based on the Koryo celadon tradition, but it was different as well, just as it was distinct from the white porcelain of the Choson Dynasty that was to follow.

This new kind of punch'6ng was collected by provincial temples and by the wealthy class who lived outside of the major urban areas. The new punch'6ng became a status symbol of this class. At first, the punch'6ng ware from the Changhung region was known for its simple pattern of inlaid flowers, but as time passed the bowls

grew wider and the patterns grew more sophisticated in design.

Toward the end of King Sejong's reign (1418-1450) and into King Tanjong's reign (1452-1455), a new kind of ceramic developed. The 6nyanginsu pumyong bowl and the t6kry6ng pumyong bowl were different from those of the early Chos6n period in that the shapes became harder, the surface of the east, west and south sides was decorated with a chrysanthemum pattern, and the surface of the north side was inlaid with characters. The samga-insu pum yang bowl that came into use during the reign of King Sejo (1455-1468) was characterized by a tall stand on which the bowl was perched.

A chrysanthemum motif decorated the bottom part of the stand and the bowl, and the top part was decorated with inlaid flowers in a geometric design. In all, it was a sophisticated piece of art.

The National Museum's collection boasts :one of the finest examples of punjanginun, punch 'o ng dipped in

green glaze. Its color may be plain, but its form combines strength with grace; a true marvel of harmony. This type of glaze-dipped punch'6ng ware was mostly produced in the Cholla region.

The process involves dipping a dark brown piece halfway into white slip before pulling it out to achieve a natural swirling effect. The technique produces a rather modern look, which may explain why it is still widely used today.

There are other types of punch'ong ware as well, including the ch'6lhwamun and the kwiyalmun (referring to a technique in which the clay is stroked with a kwiyal brush, leaving brush marks). The former uses grayish clay mixed with iron powder, over which white slip is applied and which is then skillfully decorated with black or charcoal gray pieces of iron ¡in the shape of willows, birds, fish, peonies or lightning. In kwiyalmun punch'ong, white clay is applied with a kwiyal brush over the gray clay surface. The

Celadon tea cup and saucer used when making tea offerings to the Buddha during a Buddhist rite, Koryo Dynasty, early 12th century (right); white porcelain tea kettle, Chos6n Dynasty, 19th century (far upper right)

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designs created by the brush strokes simulate energy, speed and power.

¡ Tea Culture in Choson Dyna~t The Chason Dynasty heralded the end of punch'ong ware. After the reigns of King Sejong (r. 1418-1450) and Songjong (r. 1469-1494), the form and function of cups and bowls began to change, reflecting a new austerity among the ruling class, who now demanded practical pieces without ornamentation. White became the color of choice among the newly ascending gentry class and the proportions of ceramic pieces became stronger and sturdier. During this period, all remnants of Buddhism were excised or banned from society, including the tea ceremony.

By the mid-Choson period, the tea ceremony had become a thing of the past, as the following anecdote illustrates. When Commander Yang Hao of Ming China arrived in Korea with his troops during the Japanese invasion, he told King Sonja (r. 1567-1608) that he had discovered a variety of tea native to Namwon. "There are premium tea plants in Namwon. If you were to sell the tea in Liaodong, you could get a silver coin for every ten pounds of tea.

Altogether, that would be enough silver to buy ten thousand horses." King Sonja replied, "We do not have a teadrinking custom in our country," and said that what grew in Namwon was only for the lower classes. Yang-ho insisted that the tea in Namwon was of high quality and said, "If you drink that tea, it will relax your stress and clear your mind." But King Sonja, whose guiding principles were based on NeoConfucianism, could not accept anything that had been so inextricably linked to Buddhism as tea.

Even though the practice of drinking tea died out among the ruling and upper classes, it lived on in secret in the mountains and forests, where Buddhist monks continued to drink tea made from leaves they carefully harvested and dried. They had tea with

Even though the practice of drinking tea died out among the ruling and upper classes, it lived on in secret in the mountains and forests, where Buddhist monks continued to drink tea made from leaves they carefully harvested and dried. every meal. The first time that Shirhak scholar ChOng Yag-yong drank tea was when he met the Zen master Hyejang at the Paengnyonsa Temple on the slope of Mt. W olch'ul-san. So affected was he by the taste of tea, ChOng was said to have asked the priest, "If I return to the temple, would you kindly offer me tea?" Priest Ch'o-ui had a similar encounter with the famed calligrapher Kim Chong-hUi. Ch'o-ui wrote Ode to Korean Tea and the Collection of Conversations on Tea, which precipitated the reemergence of tea culture in Korea.

In discussing tea implements, one must mention that a complete tea service encompasses more than a teapot and bowls. There are containers to hold dry tea. The shape and design of these containers changed considerably over the ages. Special attention was paid to the lids, because they had to protect the tea from air and moisture.

Not only was there a pot for the steeped tea, but there was also a sepa-

rate pot in which the water for the tea was boiled. There were many varieties of water pots, but the most cherished were made of silver, which effectively retained the temperature of the water so that it neither heated nor cooled too quickly. When the water cooled to the pro ~ r temperature, it was transferred to another jar with a spout. The inside of one "15th-century punch'ong jar is decorated with Chinese characters and willow decorations, signifying the joy of the cavity being filled by.tea.

There are several other tea-related implements apart from these, usually made of wood. The bamboo tashi is used to scoop tea from its storage container into the teapot. The tea table is also important, as it was used to carry a complete set of utensils. It is said that the tea table, along with the writing table and the small dining table, provide the most beautiful examples of Korea's woodcraft tradition. Their simplicity belies their graceful lines and proportions. + 27

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Teas and Their

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Yu Tae-jong Professor of Food Science, Keon yang Universit y

um a n s, the most co mpl ex creatures on Earth, are unlike o th e r animals in that th ey have a vast mental capacity.

How ever, humans cannot live by bread alone, so they seek out luxury and refinement, two representative examples being wine and tea. Unlike wine, however, tea (ch 'a ) contributes to a hea lth y lifestyle. Koreans have made tea from various ingredients that are found in the natural environment.

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Nokch'a

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N ok ch 'a, or green tea, is good for relieving stress and calming the nerves.

Of the three major kinds of nok ch'aleaf tea, powdered tea and ball tea-leaf tea h as beco m e th e m a in stay .

According to ancient records, green tea sharpens the brain, brightens the eyes, quenches the thirst and counters the effects of poison. Green tea contains ca techin (tannin ), flavonols, caffeine, vitamin s, min erals and chl o roph yll.

Regular tea drinking offers an opportunity to relieve stress and stimulate the nerves as well as to appreciate unique

Nokch'a

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flavors. Recently, green tea has been discovered to have anticancerous properties.

Green tea sh o uld be stee p e d in boiled water, not boiled in water. The a mount of te a d e p e nd s o n the drinker's preference, but normally 2 grams of tea are sufficient for 200 milliliters of water per serving. The ideal water temperature is 80 degrees centigrade, and the tea should be steeped in a pot with a lid for two to three minutes. The most famo us Korean green tea is chaks61 ch 'a, or "sparrow's tongue tea," named aft e r th e sh ap e o f the newly sprouted leaves.

Kamipch'a K amip ch 'a is made w ith tender per-

simmon leaves ga th e re d in Ma y.

Persimmon leaves are rich in cellulose, protein, chlorophyll, vitamins and minerals; they have 20 times more vitamin C than lemon and also contain potassium and calcium. Vit amin C works together with polyphenol and chlorophyll to prevent high blood pressure.

The tender persimmon leaves are de-

¡ Medicinal Effects 9

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veined and then steamed for a few minutes. The steamed leaves are shredded, dried in the shade and stored in a well-sealed container. To make tea, about 3 grams of dried le ~ves are steeped in 800 milliliters of boiled water for 5 minutes. Because persimmon leaf tea does not have a strong flavor, most drinkers add a few drops of apricot wine or a piece of citron.

hemokinesis. To make tea, about 20 grams of dried arrowroot are boiled in 1 liter of water, with honey added to taste. This tea is also considered good for shoulder and arm pains and for hangovers.

Saenggang ch 'a

Insamch'a

The botanical name of ginseng

(insam) is Panax ginseng, panax meaning "panacea." Ginseng is grown in japan, China, America and the Himalayas as well as in Korea, but Korean ginseng is considered the best for medicinal and health purposes.

Ginseng contains more than 20 kinds of saponin, which, it is believed, determine the root's medicinal effects. From antiquity, ginseng has been highly valued in the East as a hematinic and a cordial. Ginseng has been scientifically proven to relieve stress, fatigue, depression, cardiac insufficiency, hardening of the arteries, anemia and ulcers, to prevent dry skin, and to give luster to the skin. To make tea, insam ch'a, 10 grams of ginseng and 5 Chinese jujubes are boiled in 1liter of water, and honey or sugar is added for sweetness.

Ch'ikch'a

Saenggang, or ginger, is effective for increasing appetite and the absorption of nutrients as well as for improving the taste of herbal tonics. Ginger strengthens the stomach, alleviates queasiness, and helps stop coughs and hiccups. It also kills germs and calms motion sickness. Because of its spicy flavor, warm ginger tea has a soothing effect, which is why it is good for colds. To make tea , ginger is first washed, skinned and sliced into thin pieces ¡about 0.1 millimeters thick. It is then boiled in water, about 10 grams per liter of water. Another method is to preserve thinly sliced ginger in honey or sugar, put a spoonful or two of the preserved ginger in a cup and then pour hot water over it.

Ch'ik ch 'a, or arrowroot tea, is widely known for preventing and curing colds. Arrowroot contains the spasmalleviating components called daidzein and isoflavonoide. This root is known to have pharmacological properties that alleviate fever, expand the coronary arteries and increase cerebral

Kugich'a The red wolfberry (kugi) belongs to the eggplant family. It is rich in carotene, a source of vitamins A, B1 and B2, and also contains sitosterol, 30

linolic acid and betaine. It stimulates the secretion of growth hormones, disintegrates accumulated cholesterol, dissolves liver fat and lowers the blood sugar level. In addition, kugi is believed

Insamch'a

ly. The meaning of ky6lmy6ng is "brightening eyes"; the seeds have been ingested for centuries in the belief that they are good for the liver and kidneys. They contain anthraquinone, which has been proven effective in promoting urination, lowering blood pressure, strengthening the stomach and curing constipation. To make tea, ky6lmy6ngja seeds are stir-fried and then boiled in water, 20 grams of seeds per liter.

Mogwach'a

to relieve stress, constipation, high blood pressure and diabetes as well as what herbalists describe as "cold disease." To make kugi ch'a, 20 grams of dried berries are boiled in 400 milliliters of water, with honey added to taste.

Ky6lmy6ngja ch'a Kyolmyongja ch'a is made from the shiny dark brown seeds of a plant belonging to the Cassia nomame fami-

Mogwa ch'a, quince tea, is popular in late autumn and winter. Ripe quince is sliced into thin pieces about 5 millimeters thick and placed in a glass jar, alternating a layer of fruit with a layer of sugar or honey. This tea, whose flavor and fragrance are loved by many, helps those who have trouble walking because of a weak back or legs as well as those who suffer from neuralgia or lumbago. It is also known to be effective in easing muscle spasms. Quince aids digestion, quenches the thirst that follows diarrhea, strengthens the lungs and calms the stomach.

Yujach'a

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Yuja, or citron, is grown in the

southern provinces of Ch6llanam-do and Ky6ngsangnam-do. Because it has a strong sour and bitter taste, citron is sliced and layered with honey or sugar to make a preserve. For tea, a spoonful 31

or two of the preserve is placed in a cup and boiling water is added. Yuja ch'a is effective for colds and exhaustion; it alleviates cold symptoms by inducing swe-ating and lowering body temperature. In addition, it increases the appetite and eases the discomfort of hangovers.

effective for facilitating metabolism.

Omija is sometimes made into a fruit punch in summer. A flavorful tea can be made by boiling 10 grams of omija with 2 chestnuts and 2 Chinese jujubes or by simmering the omija with ginseng. Honey or sugar is added before drinking. The tea is known to activate enzymes inside the body and to increase appetite.

Kyep'ich'a

Kyep 'i, the bark of the cinnamon tree, which belongs to the Lauraceae family, is chewy and sweet; when

Omijach'a

Omija ch 'a literally means "tea of five tastes"- sweet, sour, bitter, salty and spicy. Omija is a red fruit belonging to the Maximowiczia chinensis family. It has a sour taste because of the malic and tartaric acids it contains, and is

chewed, it causes numbness of the tongue. Because of its essential oils, cinnamon is effective for strengthening the stomach, lowering body temperature and soothing pain. It also soothes nervousness, balances metabolism and facilitates blood circulation.

Koreans have a long history of brewing herbal teas that promote good health.

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Kyep'i ch 'a, cinnamon tea, stimulates

the stomach membrane to secrete gastric juices, thus promoting the stomach's absorption rate, resulting in an increased appetite. It also eases stomach spasms. To make tea, 2 to 3 grams of washed cinnamon bark is boiled in a half liter of wate r and then simmered for 20 minutes. The liquid is then strained through a sieve and drunk with sugar or honey and a sprinkle of pine nuts or thin slices of jujube.

Taech 'u ch'a, a tea made from Chinese jujubes, is good for dissipating "nervous energy. Jujubes ~ve been known since long ago to be effective in slowing down the aging process; jujube tea is known also as a tonic and a cordial. To make it, jujubes are first boiled in water (about 30 fruits to 1.8 liters of water) over low heat until one-third of the water has boiled off, and then the cooked fruit is removed and strained through a sieve to sepa-

rate out the seeds and skin. The strained fruit is then added back to the boiled water along with some additional water and brought back to a boil.

Before drinking, honey or sugar is added.

Yulmuch'a

Yulmu, "Job's tears," is an annual shrub belonging to the rice family.

Because its fruit resembles rice and has a similar taste, it is often eaten as food.

Yulmu has a high carbohydrate con-

tent and also contains protein and essential amino acids; it is popularly eaten to enhance stamina. Yulmu juice is said to promote menstrual flow and urination as well as to strengthen the stomach. Recently, it has been reported that yulmu is anticancerous. It is known to be effective against fatigue, constipation and neuralgia. To make yulmu ch'a, about 20 grams of stir-fried yulm u grains are boiled in a half liter of water and simmered for about 30 minutes; the tea is filtered before drinking. +

Taech'uch'a 33

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Korea's Colâ&#x20AC;˘te111porary

¡r ea Culture Park Hee-jun Repre5entative, Fragrance Seekers

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he Korean government has designated 1997 the Year of Cultural Heritage. This action is part of a larger effort to increase understanding about Korean culture by each year focusing on a certain facet of the nation's indigenous culture. Previous years have been dedicated to drama, dance, classical music and other arts.

Traditional Korean tea culture received prominent notice in May 1997 when Ch'o-ui (1786-1866), a Buddhist monk who is widely touted as that era's principal cultivator of tea culture, was designated as the "Cultural Figure of the Month." Such one-time events are hardly sufficient to change the nation 's perceptions about tea, but thanks to this and a variety of other commemorative occasions, there are signs that Koreans have begun to reassess tea culture as a precious part of their cultural heritage. Although tea and tea ceremonies have long played a major role in Korean culture, they have failed to receive the attention they deserve. Fortunately, the fragrance of traditional Korean tea is now spreading across the country to become again a part of the daily lives of Koreans, transcending class, age and religion.

Korea's tea culture has been saved from the brink of extinction, to which it had been pushed by the increasing consumption of coffee and other Western beverages during the nation's tumultuous modernization. The change has been so extensive that tea, or ch a in Korean, is no longer offered during ch 'arye, a Confucian ritual to pay

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homage to ancestors on certain traditional holidays, having been replaced by wine long ago. The efforts of Buddhist monks and other individuals devoted to preserving the roots of the nation's spiritual culture have been fundamental to the prolongation of traditional, tea culture. These efforts finally resulted in the establishment of the Korean Association of Tea Drinkers in the 1970s. The association familiarized

Although tea has long played a major role in Korean culture, it has failed to receive the attention it deserves.

Fortuna,tely, thefragrance of traditional Korean tea is now spreading across the country to become again a part of the

daily lives of Koreans, tran scending class, age and religion.

the general public with the hitherto rarely used word ch 'a -in, meaning a person who drinks tea, encouraging many studies of past ch'a-in and their lives and how tea drinkers should conduct their lives in the future.

Korea's contemporary tea culture, which was spurred on through a retrospection of past tea-drinking customs, is becoming increasingly rich and diverse.

Tea has now become a health supplement. It is also being used to facilitate th e achievement of inner peace through the pursuit of an orderly life.

By learning more about traditional tea culture, Koreans are now revisiting the nation's past, discovering the centuriesold fragrances and ritu als that were forgotten in the process of rapid economic development.

This resurgence has been initiated primarily by a growing number of tea assoGiations, which emphasize the significance of trad itio nal tea culture.

They: include the Korean Association of Tea Drink ers, the Korean Tea Culture Associat ion, th e Pusan Association of Tea Drinkers and the Tongdasong Cultural Institute. Other institutes such as Yejiwon and Yem y6 ngw6 n tr y to take a more diverse approach to traditional culture through studies integrating tea drinking

and daily etiquette. Still other organizations across the country are contributing toward making tea a viable part of everyday life. Among them , the National Federation of University Tea Drinkers, a 20-year-old club of teadrinking students, and Ch'a Sarang, a group of new-generation tea drinkers introdu cing traditional tea culture through the Internet, are emerging as an influential force.

Korea's tea-drinking population is steadily grow ing, as is evidenced by the increase in the nation's tea production to 900 tons in 1996 (up from only one ton annually during the 1970s) and by the large amount of tea that is being imported. A magazine especially devoted to tea has been 'in publication for over a decade, and academic seminars on tea are proliferating; all of this activity testifies to the renaissa nce of Korea's traditional tea culture.

Mecca of Tea Culture Tea culture is often referred to as a composite art. Koreans' lifestyle-clothing, food and habitation-is an integral part of tea culture. Drinking different kinds of tea demands appropriate changes in the environment, from the teapots and cups to tearooms, furniture, paintings and flow ers. Various

Th e designation of Ch ¡o -ui, a monk w idely to uted a..,. th e prin cipal cultivator of Korea :'i tea art, as th e "Cultural Figure of th e Month .. for May 199il, indicates that tea art has finall y heg un to he appreciated as a valuable cultural tradition.

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Korea's contemporary tea cui. ture is becoming increasingly rich and diverse. Tea has now become a health supplement.

It is also being used to facili tate the achievement of inner peace through the pursuit of an orderly life.

aesthetic changes accompany the act of drinking tea.

This is especially apparent in Insadong, where Korea's traditional culture is relatively well-preserved. Insa-dong, a neighborhood in downtown Seoul, is dotted with shops selling antique paintings and other artifacts as well as with art galleries displaying contemporary art. There are traditional Korean restaurants, tearooms and shops selling tea and tea-related products. The number of stores selling traditional Korean clothing has also been surging recently, so that one can encounter Korea's tradi-

tiona! aesthetics in a variety of cultural genres in Insa-dong. The traditional tea shops, in particular, add vitality to the neighborhood.

There are now more than seven shops in Insa-dong specializing in tea and tea implements, whereas there was only one in the 1970s. There are also about 30 tearooms where one can enjoy traditional Korean tea. The number of such tearooms is steadily increasing.

Tawon, located within the compound of the Kyong-in Art Museum, is the oldest tearoom in Insa-dong.

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Visitors can experience Korea's past inside the art museum , which is housed in a traditional tile-roof struc. ture with an attached garde.n. Another notable tearoom in the area is Tagyong Hyangshil; this establishment offers all types of traditional Korean tea and is the only place that is exclusively reserved for enjoying tea. Yetch'atchip is an exotic tearoom whose interior features birds flying about and streams of water. Ch'odang, whose owner personally brews tea for his customers, and Aragaya, exhibiting textiles dyed by the owner with natural dyes, are

unique tearooms that reveal their owners' personalities. Surprisingly, the majority of the customers at these establishments are in their 20s and 30s.

The bud of traditional tea culture that resprouted 20 years ago has grown firmer roots and is now blossoming anew.

Korea's tea culture has contributed to cooling off the excessive consumerism that became markedly more pronounced with the nation's economic growth. The tea culture has been accepted as a cultural phenomenon involving the learning and sensibilities

characteristic of an older way of life.

Many colleges adopted courses in tea etiquette a decade ago, and the subject is being taught in kindergarten and primary and secondary school. The number of institutes run by tea-promoting ¡ associations is also increasing.

It should be noted that this trend is being taken beyond the mere basics of brewing and drinking tea. An increasing number of people are examining the theory of tea culture by making their own tea, studying the paraphernalia used by tea drinkers of past eras and immersing themselves in classical tea cu lture. Th is has resulted in a movement toward offering tea instead of wine during ancestral rites, another aspect of the nation's tea culture that had been lost.

People devoted to restoring the lost tea cultures of Korea's past ages are publicizing their efforts in order to reverse the deterioration of Korean culture that began during Japanese colonial rule and continued during the subsequent period of economic development. They are also conducting chronological research into the clothing, vessels and other paraphernalia related to the tea cultures of the past, adding ideological depth and history to the simple act of enjoying tea.

As the ongoing revival movement seeks to merge the inner depth of Korea's tea culture with the external breath of other aspects of traditional culture: the tranquility and generosity of the ancient Korean who created Koryo celadon and Choson white porcelain could perhaps be rejuvenated In the modern Korean. This restored spirit of altruism and creativity might then spread outward, peacefully and delightfully embracing the world just as a cup of tea cleanses the mind and body. + The mecca of traditional tea, Insa-dong (far lower left) has many quaint teahouses such as Tagyong Hyangshil (upper left) and Yetch 'atchip (left).

37

S6p'y6nje is elaborate and powerful, beginning softly and ending in a lingering echo of heartfelt emotion, whereas Tongp'y6nje, the Eastern school, starts in a reserved, dignified manner and ends rath er ab ruptly. Both sty les express the lives of the hardworking common people in traditional society and probably served as a means of relieving the melancholy and hardships of everyday life. P'ansori was clearly the music of the common people, and the stone spirit posts of Haep'y6ng-ri are the physical em bodiment of that tradition.

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When our party visited Haep'y6ngri to see the spirit posts, the photographer traveling with us was frustrated by the weeds and branches obscuring the view, out it was not long before a handful of passing villagers brought their tools and cleared the weeds and branches away without a word.

The hills around Taewonsa Temple in Pos6ng's Mund6k-my6n have long been famous for their tea. Even today, some 2.5 acres of tea are still grown amid th e oak, ald er and bamboo groves. Tea is also grown in the village of Tangch'on in Pongnae-my6n and in

th e area around ChCmggwangsa Temple in P6lgyo, the site oJ the old Chawonsa Temple in Pos6ng Township, and on the skirts of Mt. Kwisan in TCmgnyang-my6n. Pos6ng Tawon, a tea farm that produces 90 percent of Korea's green tea, is located in Pongsan-ri, just south of Pos6ng Township. There, the hills are blanketed with the rich foliage of tea plants.

Native to Southeast Asia, the tea plant, Camellia sinensis, is a shrub-like evergreen related to the fl owering camellia. Tea plants are extremely sensitive to climate. They require as much

Clockwise from left: A tea field in Posong; a traditional tea factory; the Posong Tea Princess, 1997; the manager of the tea factory giving_a tea processing demonstration

as 1,500 millimeters of rain annually.

Pos6ng's annual rainfall generally falls short of this mark, but the convergence of inland and oceanic climates seems to agree with the plants. Pos6ng gets hot, humid weather in summer. The mornings are often overcast with fog from the nearby sea, and the mountain ravines offer shade in the hottest hours of the day. Shade trees, such as the alder and oak around Taewonsa Temple, are sometimes planted in and around tea fields to protect the plants from too much sun, to inhibit weed growth and to enrich the soil with fall-

en leaves and twigs.

Tea plants require rich, loamy soil.

Their roots are three times as long as their branches, making transplanting difficult. For this reason, tea seeds were once given to newlywed couples as gifts symbolizing fidelity in marriage.

Tea is picked by hand. Only the smallest, youngest leaves are used. The three main typ es of tea produced today are black fermented tea, semifermented oolong tea, and unfermented green tea. Pos6ng produces only green tea.

The history of Korean tea reflects

th e country 's economic and social development. The 1970s saw a growing desire for material possessions, but in the 1980s and 1990s Koreans have searched more for ways to quench their spiritual thirst. Some scholars believe that Westerners invented beer and soft drinks because of a shortage of potable water and that the Chinese developed a tea-drinking culture because their water was heavy with loess.

Beverages such as coffee, cocoa and tea have long been drunk for their stimulant value. All energize the central 41

nervous system as well as offer a pleasant taste and aroma. Green tea is said to control hypertension, reduce hard¡ening of the arteries and restrict the increase of blood cholestero l. It contains polyphenol, a powerful antioxidant; these compounds protect the body from the activity of harmful free radicals that contribute to age-related conditions. The tannin in tea draws impurities, such as heavy metals, out of the body. Many people have found green tea to be effective in relieving headaches. A combination of ground tea seeds and lily bulbs is said to relieve asthma, chronic coughing and colds. Adding green tea to soju, Korea's

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strong grain liquor, is thought to reduce the alcohol's effect and prevent hangovers.

In 1939, the Korean tea industry was devastated by bad weather, and the Japanese colonial tea merchants who had frequented Posong's tea fields stopped coming to buy. The tea fields were left unattended for many years as Koreans fell under the spell of imported beverages such as coffee and carbonated soft drinks. As the country modernized, the "way of tea," or tea ceremony, the gentle art of relaxed tea brewing and silent meditation, fell by the wayside.

During the Kory6 Dynasty (9181392), tea drinking was a popular pastime among the royals and aristocracy.

Many Buddhist temples operated tea communities, which sent tea to court as tribute. The tea culture also contributed to the development of Koryo's magnificent celadon pottery.

Buddhism declined under the Confucian Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) and with it tea drinking waned.

However, the custom remained strong among Buddhist monks. Toward the end of the Choson Dynasty, tea was closely linked to Zen Buddhism. The Buddhist master Ch'o-ui (1786-1866), from the southern Cholla region, was influential in the resurrection of the "way of tea." The Confucian literati Chong Yag-yong (1762-1836) and Kim Ch6ng-hui (1786-1856) came to admire tea through their close association with Ch'o-ui.

Chong, a renowned scholar of Shirhak (practical learning), was banished to Haenam, west of Posong, for 18 long ye ars. During that time, he claimed his only solace was tea drinking and the company of Ch'o-ui. Chong lived in a small thatch cottage built on a hill in eastern Haenam. This structure, Tasan Ch'odang, was replaced by a tileroofed structure in 1958 by Chong's descendants. Although the cottage now lacks the rustic flavor that Chong and his friends cherished, it does hint at the atmosphere in which these gentlemen

enjoyed their tea and conversation-the stream that provided water for their tea still runs behind the building. Ilchiam Hermitage at Taehungsa Temple in Haenam, where Ch'o-ui spent some 40 years, is still home to a rich tea culture passed down from monk to monk In the general population, however, the tea culture declined drastically after World War II. Only in the 1980s did Koreans seem to rediscover the psychological wherewithal to appreciate the value of tea and the benefits it offers. Koreans have come to understand the negative effects of artificially flavored beverages and coffee. Green tea is now recognized for its medicinal

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uses, both psychological and physical.

Today the tea fields in Pos6ng cover some 600 hectares and produce ¡ approximately 70 tons of .tea leaves each year. Tea growers have rung up their share of red jnk over the years, but recently demand has exceeded supply. Since 1985, the county has sponsored Korea's only tea festival each May when the plant is harvested.

A rite honoring the Tea God launches the festival; this is followed by tea picking and processing demonstrations, an exhibition of tea pots and cups, the selection of a "Tea Princess," and tea ceremonies.

Pos6ng is home to six tea processing plants. The jobs generated by these facilities and by tea fields themselves have provided valuable opportunities for Pos6ng's younger generation, reversing the modern flight of young people to the cities, in this county at least.

In addition to its tea-producing tra- . dition, Pos6ng boasts some breathtaking coastal scenery. Yulp'o, a seaside village on the road leading west to Changht'mg, typifies the traditional Korean fishing community. Small wooden fishing boats bob in the harbor. If one orders raw fish from a local restaurant, the proprietor is likely to step outside and select a fish straight from a fisherman's net.

Not only is the fish fresh but the side dishes are numerous and varied, a special feature of Ch6lla cuisine. Top it off with a pot of soju spiked with green tea, and you have the perfect meal.

After a delicious meal and a few glasses of soju, we gazed out over Pos6ng Bay at the Kohung Peninsula and decided there was no need to rush home. The liquor was strong but the tea helped it go down smoothly. Our meal was all the more pleasant for the courteous proprietor, who treated us in the elegant style of the old way of tea.

Good food, good people, and the sea stretching before us. We had no reason to hurry back to Seoul. +

Stone spirit posts at the approach to Haep'yong-ri (left). From top: Taewonsa Temple near Posong and Taehiingsa Temple in Haenam where tea grows naturally; a companionable atmosphere shared by people at Yejiwon, an institute in Pos6ng that strives to integrate tea drinking and daily etiquette.

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Andong ]nternational

Mask Dance Festival KooHee-sue Drama Critic

ecause several important commemorative days, including National Foundation Day and Han-gUl Day, fall in the month of October, the government has, designated October the "month of culture." Each October, drama, dance, music and various other cultural festivals are held in Seoul, while provincial cities hold their own regional festivals.

Since the introduction of a fullfledged local autonomy system in 1995, the number of provincial festivals highlighting distinct regional cultures has grown noticeably. This year, the An.dong International Mask Dance Festival, organized under the auspices of Andong, a city in Kyongsangbuk-do province, and the neighboring Hahoe Village, newly joined the parade of October cultural celebrations. The festival, which was held from October 1 to October 5, was staged at Hahoe Village and a housing development site on the banks of the Naktonggang River.

Various types of regional mask dance performances, such as the

t'alch'um, sandaenori, ogwangdae, yaru and kamy6n-guk, have been handed down to modern times. Thirteen of these dances have been designated important intangible cultural assets.

Although Korea is a small country scarred by national division, Koreans have managed to preserve and pass on all the most important legacies of the mask dance tradition. A strong contingent ef mask dance performers originally from North Korea is active in the South, :making possible the preservation of northern Korean dance forms.

All mask dance performances and performers designated cultural assets come under systematic government protection. Holders of important skills are provided with a stipend and students who aim to become successors to these "human cultural assets" are provided scholarships. Several times a year, special performances by these mask dance performers and groups are arranged by the government.

However, it cannot be said that traditional mask dances are part of mod-

There is no doubt that mask dance is one of Korea s important cultural assets that has kept alive the pulse of tradition. It is an art that combines the music dance and song of different regions, and through it, ancient form s of entertainment, historical values and folklore are passed on.

A lion mask used in the Pukch'ong Lion~ Dance, a mask dance traditionally performed on the first full moon day of the year 44

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Above, from left: The "Malttugi ch'um" of the Kangnyong Mask Dance; Kosong ogwangdae; Pongsan Mask Dance; below: The "Yangban ch'um "of the Kosong ogwangdae

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ern Korean life. There are few good opportunities for performers to demonstrate their art and thus few opportunities for enthusiasts to see good mask dance performances. Even for enthusiasts, information on performances is. hard to come by and performance conditions are often not the best. Needless to say, people with no special interest in mask dance have almost no opportunity to experience a performance.

There is no doubt that mask dance is one of Korea's important cultural

assets that has kept alive the pulse of tradition. It is an art that combines the music, dance and song of different regions, and through it, ancient' forms of entertainment, historical values and folklore are passed on.

The Andong International Mask Dance Festival was inaugurated with the purpose of bringjng together the rich traditions and historical values of Korean mask dance and showing them to the world. The Andong-Hahoe area is well suited to play host to such a festival: Hahoe is the home of the famous

Hahoe pyolshin kut, a combination of shaman ritual and mask dance, and a set of ancient Hahoe pyolshin kut ¡ masks has also been designated a national treasure. The Andong region also boasts beautiful natural scenery featuring mountains and rivers; around the city there are many old s6won, shrines to renowned scholars or statesmen that also functioned as private Confucian educational facilities during the Choson Dynasty.

The village of Hahoe is famous as a beautifully preserved traditional Choson village featuring many old tileroofed houses where the old way of life remains intact. As such, the area is a famous tourist attraction with all the qualities needed to make a cultural festival work It was with all these factors in mind that the Andong International Mask Dance Festival was inaugurated. The original idea as well as the planning and preparation for the event came . from Kang Jun-hyuk, the reputed arts promoter who created the Ch'unch'on Puppet Festival, which has been held successfully in each of the past nine years. Staged in cooperation with the local government authorities and citizens of the region, the Andong festival embodied the wishes and desires of all the many people who worked together to make the festival a reality.

The festival brought togc;ther 13 mask dance troupes (406 performers) designated intangible cultural assets, one undesignated group (26 performers) and seven university troupes (159 performers) that effectively brought together the best of Korea's mask dance community. There were also three foreign groups (26 people) from North America, Africa and Central Asia as well as three special troupes (89 performers) that staged celebration performances.

Altogether 50 mask dance performances were staged during the festival.

Add ed attractions included a mask exhibition, a mask dance workshop, an exhibition of spirit posts, and stalls sell-

From top: Tum en Ekh, a traditional music and dance troupe from Mongolia pe~ forming a dance imbued with Buddhist teachings and legends; the Black Mountain Singers, a Native American troupe from the U.S. state of Arizona; Africa Mbonda from the Congo; a performance of traditional Mongolian music

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ing local products. According to the organizers, the festival attracted 320,000 Koreans and 3,800 foreign visitors, enough to call the event a success and ensure its future.

Success aside, the festival had its weak points and difficult moments.

Th e mere fact that it showed the potential for future development is cause enough for applause. Nonetheless, because the festival is so worthy of

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A scene from the 1997 International Mask Dance Festival in Andong (top); Sonyu chulbul nori (Fire Line Game), part of the festival's opening program (above)

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notice, the weak points must also be addressed.

The festival opened in th e afternoon of October 1 with an opening ceremony and celebration. It closed on October 5 in the evening with a performance of the Hahoe pyolshin kut and a mask burning ceremony. In the five days in between there was a stream of performances of representative mask dances such as th e Pukch'ong Lion's

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bance fe~l-h.a

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Dance, the Songp'a sandaenori, the Kangnung tanojae, the Pongsan Mask Dance, the Yangju pyolsandaenori and theTongyong ogwangdae. Each team participating in the festival had ¡from two to four chances to perform. The performances were held at tw o outdoor circular arenas surrounded by seats terracing upward. Although it

was October, the sun was hot, making viewing conditions a little uncomfortable for the visitors, old and young alike, who had come from near and far to watch the performances.

The only time that such a variety of mask dance performances can be seen is when the nationally designated groups hold one of their regular performances in Seoul. For the residents of the Andong region, the festival was a rare event indeed, and for the performers it was a chance to reach out to a new audience. I noticed a broad range of enthusiastic fans-those with cameras slung around their necks, foreign tourists and scholars.

But many spectators were disappointed that performances were limited to one hour each. It was regrettable that the performances did not last several hours and continue long into the night, as they would have done according to custom.

Although most of the dances performed are of the type that are always enthralling to watch, it was sad to see that man y of th e o1d ma sters had passed away or were in such poor health they could not take part in the festival, and their absence certainly was missed. The troupes in which seasoned masters participated performed at a higher, more polished level than the other troupes, which, though full of youthful energy, lacked the spirit and style of traditional Korean dance. The troupe that performed th e Pongsan Mask Dance featured old masters Yun Ok and Yang So-un, and it was good to see th em working with and lead ing their young successors. It was obvious that the performers in the troupe that performed the Yangju pyolsandaenori, th ough young, had had very solid training, and they received noticeably greater applause for it.

In between such professional performances, student groups showed off their energetic, th ough unp olished, skills. Mask dance in college circles reached its peak in the 1970s when it was a very powerful force on campus-

es, but since then its influence has been declining. Most of the student groups betray ed a lack of strong technical ¡ training. They had passion .but somehow their performances seemed lacking in sincerity. It is hoped that their participation in the festival will breathe new vigor into their work.

The three foreign troupes that participated were the Black Mountain Singers, a group of Native Americans from the U.S. state of Arizona; the Tum en Ekh, a traditional music and dance troupe from Mongolia; and the Africa Mbonda from the Congo. Such foreign representation was perhaps too limited to justify calling the event an interna tional festival; neverth e less, there was a troupe from each of the major continents of North Am e ri ca, Africa and Asia.

Native American trib es boas t a great variety o f mask dances. The Bla ck Mountain Singers includ e d young performers ra ng ing in age from 6 to 16; their show was a medley of masked dance done to the accompanim ent of tribal drums. The repertoire was similar to what would have appeared in a traditional Indian powwow. Unfortunately, the young performers did not connect well with the audience, perhaps because they were a little uncomfortable performing in a strange land.

The Mongolian troupe Tumen Ekh, whose nam e m ea ns "Passing Race Horse," introduced their art in a performance of tsam, a mixture of song and dance imbued with Buddhist scripture and legend. The show , accompanied by a narrative explanation, provided a rare opportunity for Koreans to witness the customs of the Mongolians, close neighbors who are yet strangers.

The most popular of the three fo reign troupes was Africa Mbonda, whose name means "Drums of Africa."

Three drummers and three dancers took turns performing; they were tireless in their effo rts to entertain the audience. Th ese p e rfor mer s, who arrived a da y late due to the irregulari-

ty of flights out of their country, which has been torn by civil war, seemed to forget the trouble at home and lose themselves in their art. Their enthusiasm continued to infect th e crowd after their allotted one-hour show, as they danced outside the performance area with members of the audience.

Africa Mbonda was invited to Korea through the good offices of a Korean businessm an in th e Congo, and this was their first overseas performance.

The troupe, made up of accomplished dancers from many different African tribes, connected well w ith the audience.

Apart from mask dance troupes, the festival featured concerts by the Seoul Wind En sem bl e, Kim Duk :soo's Samuloori Hanullim percussion troupe and p'ansori master An Suk-s6n. These performances added to the richness of the festival.

One of the secondary events was a mask dance workshop. With the help of students, the four troupes performing th e Kos6ng ogwangdae, Hahoe py6lshin kut, Pukch'6 ng Lion's Dance and Songp'a sa ndaenori led 12 workshop sessio ns for the general public.

Both the teachers and the participants threw themselves into their work and staged feverish performances.

Other events included an international exhibition of masks at the Hahoe Mask Muse um featuring 300 Ko rean and 400 foreign masks, and a spirit post exhibition at Moksokwon displaying 150 spirit posts. Visitors to Hahoe during the festival had much to see and do.

There is a Korean saying, "Don't get drunk o'n the first cup of w in e." In other words, don't try to do everything at once. The Andong festival was like a first cup of wine, but th e results were nevertheless promising. For the next festival to bring to fruitio n the hopes that this festival raised, a more thorough preparation must be made, and, above all else, the true meaning of th e festival must be borne closely in mind. +

The village of Hahoe is famous as a beautifully preserved traditional Chason village featuring many old tile-roofed houses where the old way of life remains intact. As such, the area is a famous tourist attraction with all the qualities needed to make a cultural festival work.

Some 300 Korean and 400 foreign masks were displayed in the Interna tional Mask Exhibition held at the Hahoe Mask Museum in Andong in conjunction with the 1997 Andong International Mask Dance Festival (top and above).

49

.. .. ~

rassMa er

YiPong-ju Lee Hyoung-kwon Director, Cu ltural Heritage Research Institute

l¡ I

here is a saying that even if a virg in behind th e 12th ga te migh t change, brasswa re is lo ng las ting. As th e sa ying suggests, Koreans have loved to use brassware from ancient times and they feel that durable pieces of brassware become more com panionable as time goes by.

Nowadays, it is hard to find brass o n a dining table, but un til several deca de s ago it do min a ted Ko rea n tab les a long w ith ce ram ic di s h es.

According to Miscellan eo us Writings abo ut th e Capital (K y6ngdojapki), a book about the customs of Seoul w ritten by Yu Tu k -k o ng, a scho la r of Shirhak (practical studies) during the reign of King Chongjo (r. 1777-1800) of the Choson Dy nasty, people held brass in high esteem , using it to serve all kinds of dishes-rice, soup, cooked vegetables and meat. Yu noted that other wa res, s u c h as ch a mb e r p ots a nd washbasins, were also made of brass. It was common for women to sit together in the sunshine polishing brassware w ith sponges sprinkled w ith p ulverized roof tiles. This composed a typical Korea n scene.

In modern Korea, however, brassware is no longer a daily necessity. It used to be said that just a glance at the brassware in a kitchen was enough to tell the wealth and housekeeping standa rds of th e wo uld-be in-laws, but now that w isdom has long been forgotten.

Brassware has become a relic of history w hose use began to decline w ith 50

YiPong ju

Nowadays it is hard to find brass on a dining table, b ut un til several decades ago it dominated Korean tables along w ith ceramic dish es.

Korea 's annexa tion and colo niza tio n

by Japan (1910-1945). Especially d uring World War II, the Japanese conscripted brassware fo r military supplies, and as a result very little brassware was left in Korea.

After liberation from Japan in 1945, brasswa re aga in ca m e in to vog u e briefl y, but it was dealt a fata l blow a ft e r th e Ko rean Wa r (1950-1953)

beca use of th e natio nal fu el po licy: Wood was forbidden as fuel, and fo r this reason it was impossible to obtain charcoal for fusing metal. Later, w hen coa l briquettes ca me to be used fo r household fuel, it was unthinkable to u se b ras s tab lewa r e b eca u se coa l fum es ca used it to qui ckl y ta rnish.

Soon stainless steel and a luminum dishes became the predominant tablewa re , and brass dis hes pil ed u p in antique shops.

But p e rh a p s c u stom s c ir c ul a te across tim e. The stainless stee l, aluminum and plastic dishes that used to cover d ini ng ta bl es have g rad uall y given way to handmade ceramic dishes, and now brassware is also beginning to reappear.

Fashio ns and custo ms were o nce primarily swayed by price and convenienc but today they ha ve more to do with everyday elegance and bea uty. T h e -sc ie nt if ic ac hi eve m e nt o f a n c ie nt Ko rea n s is ev id e n t in th e gleaming beauty of brass, w hich might be one rea son fo r its resu rr ec tio n.

Un like o th e r m eta lw are, brasswa re re vea ls th e w isdo m th a t a n c ie n t Koreans gained from their daily experiences. For example, w hen watercress is washed in a brass container, leeches drop right off the plant, and w hen a brass bowl or spoon comes in contact w ith poison, its color changes instantaneo usly. In add itio n, beca use foods contaminated by pesticides and pollution are know n to be neutralized and detoxified by brass containers, perhaps it is only natural that people today are

I .._

I

Metal is heated in a furnace (left).

When the metal becomes molten (above), it is poured into molds and allowed tocool(right).Agong should be heated until it becomes red-hot many times for it to have a good sound (far right).

turning to this old-fashioned dinnerware.

Brassware is often called yugi in Korean. It can be divided into three categories depending on how it is made: handmade (pangtcha yugi), cast (chumul yugi) and semi-handmade (pan pangtcha yugi). Handmade wares are made by pouring molten metal onto an agalmatolite slab, and then beating it with a hammer. For cast wares, molten metal is poured into a mold. Semi-handmade wares, such as lidded rice bowls and bowls whose edges slant inward, are fashioned by casting but finished by beating and smoothing the edges by hand.

In the past, certain regions were known for certain kinds of brass.

52

Ch6nju, Unbong, Hamyang and Kimch'6n were known for handmade wares, whereas Ans6ng, Ky6ngju , Ch'ungju and Iri were known for cast wares and Sunch'un for semi-handmade wares. An interesting Korean expression, "Ans6ng match'um," which means "custom-made" in Ans6ng, originated froin the preference of highclass Seoul residents for brassware from Ans6ng, for these small, attractive wares of subtle sheen and color were so perfect that they looked custommade. This expression is still used to indicate satisfaction.

Although they look a bit crude, the highest-quality brass items are made by hand using traditional methods.

They are produced with an alloy that

differs in composition from that used for casting. Cast wares can be made with various compositions of metal, but handmade wares require a composition of 78 percent copper and 22 percent tin. When the proportiof) is different or when a foreign element is added to the alloy, the brass might not spread evenly and might break when pounded. The marks left from the pounding exude a beauty and elegance found only in handcrafted items.

On entering Napchong Industry in Ansan, Ky6nggi-do province, one's ears are deafened by the pounding of long¡ handled hammers. This is the workshop of Yi Pong-ju, who has been designated a "human cultural treasure"

(Intangible Cultural Asset No. 77) for his knowledge and skill in brass making.

Six workers, dressed in traditional Korean outfits and headbands, work in concert according to Yi Pong-ju's directions. The way they hammer away at the molds cooling on agalmatolite slabs reminds one of the blacksmiths of old. There is a rhythm to their pounding, which they do with great concentration and much sweating, counting the time under their breath.

The name of the factory comes from Napchong, a village near Yi's hometown of Ch6ngju, P'y6ng-anbukdo, in North Korea, a center for handmade brassware. Yi started on the path

of brass making by working a bellows at the Yangdae Factory in Seoul, whose owner was a craftsman from Napchong. Yi has spent his life keeping ali ve the spirit and skills of the brassware of the Napchong area.

The son of a poor farmer, Yi was born in a mountainous area. He left his widowed mother and brothers behind in North Korea when he fled southward in 1948 to avoid being conscripted into the North Korean army. He promised them that he would return the next spring, but 49 years have passed, during which he has lived his life with brass making.

Yi first set foot in a brass factory to forget his loneliness right after coming south to Seoul. He had no intention of

becoro.ing a brass worker, but began working in the factory in the hope that he -might run errands for those migrants who were from his hometown. Then one day he came to think that he should no longer. waste his time as an office boy. He pleaded with the owner to teach him how to make brassware and the owner agreed because he had noticed Yi's diligence.

But learning the skills was not an easy matter. Because 11 people worked together as a team, everyone was expected to do his part and not become too ambitious.

Yi's first job was working a bellows.

Normally, a person was given this simple chore and was expected to learn other skills by observing others as 53

i

.,

From top: The heated metal removed from the fire is beaten into shape by a machine hammer. Metal becomes malleable through a repeated process of heating and dipping into water to cool. More beating is done by hand to gradually shape it into tl1e right form.

54

they worked, before he was allowed to join the team of smiths. A restless young man, Yi could not wait for such a moment to arrive on its own, because he was the type of person who had to get to the bottom of things as soon as possible. When there was a lull in his workload, he practiced pounding in a corner of the workshop, and when the other men would go out on the town after work, he would try his hand at melting and shaping zinc, which he brought to practice on because it was an easy metal to work.

After two years of such diligence, his skill was recognized; he became the captain of a team and eventually the most skilled crafter in the factory. With the outbreak of the Korean War, Yi served in the military, and after the war, his skills were wasted because of the emergence of coal briquettes.

Handmade brassware all but disappeared at that time, and crafters turned to other occupations. But Yi could not bring himself to turn away from brass work. Many people praise him for possessing an obstinate spirit. He says he stuck to his craft because he felt that he could not waste those skills that took such a great deal of effort to master.

Sometimes he could not sell even a spoon and the factory had to close. He eked out a living by doing odd jobs at constr1,1ction sites and helping his wife make and sell cheap bean-stuffed cakes.

What rescued Yi from a life of unskilled labor was the traditional gong. Traditional percussion instruments were revived on university campuses after an oppressive period in which they had been branded as products of superstition and useless custom by the "new village movement," a nationwide campaign initiated by the Park Chung-hee government in 1970.

This revival resulted in brisk sales of gongs.

At this time, Yi immersed himself in crafting traditional percussion instruments. In the early 1980s, he made a tour of the United States to visit pro-

ducers of world-class cymbals, and smiled with satisfaction upon learning that their manufacturing method was ¡ based on the same princle ~ as Korea's handmade brassware. Yi became confident that he could produce world-class instruments by using Korea's traditional handmade methods, and he hoped that some day his own products could compete with the instrumems made

by Westerners. He is now teaching his eldest son, Hy6ng-gun, his brass-making skills, because he believes that his descendants will fulfill his dream if he is unable to do so himself.

Although he is blind in one eye, the result of a flying spark, Yi has no difficulty at his work because he has reached a stage where he can craft brass without looking. His pounding echoes through the factory as if it were the sound of his soul. +

¡-

Putting the finishing touches on a gong with a small hammer (top); a handmade bronze dinner set (above) 55

i

Violinist

LiviaSohn A Rising Star Park}ung-jun Staff Writer, Gaeksuk (Auditorium )

"'

!though she is only 20 years old, Livia Sohn is already an accomplished stage musician.

Born in the U.S. state of Connecticut, she started taking violin lessons at the age of five at th e enco uragement of her moth er, who majored in cello at Seoul National University, and of her aunt, th e famous violinist Kim Nam-yun. It was during Sohn's high school days that her parents gave her the most help in her musical career: Every weekend th ey would drive her to New York, two hours from their hom e, so that she could take a violin lesson.

"W hen I was four , I saw Chung Kyung-wha play ing a Mendelssohn violin concerto on TV. Since th en I have wanted to be a violinist," says Sohn.

In 1985, at the age of eight, she played Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto in D major with the Connecticut Wallingford Symphon y. Even at this young age, she enthralled the audience with her superb playing. Just after the performance she was taken to Dorothy DeLay and Kang Hyo of the Julliard School of Music, the consummate trainers who have taught such prodigies as Sarah Chang and Koto Midori.

Four years later, Sohn won the first prize in the Yehudi Menuhin contest in Britain, th e second Korean aft er Eunice Lee to win the coveted prize.

At the contest, she was chosen by the 56

audience as the most popular contestant, making a spectacular debut on the international stage. As a result of her success at th e contest, she was giv en the opportunity to play a Mendelssohn violin concerto with the

"When I was four, I saw Chung Kyung-wha playing a Mendelssohn violin concerto on TV. Since then I have wan ted to be a violinist," says Sohn.

Boston Symphony Orchestra under the baton of Menuhin himself.

The performance with the Boston Symphony Orchestra was immediately followed by invitations from such prestigious orchestras as the Hartford Chamber 'orches tra, th e Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, th e New York Chamber Orchestra, the Tchaikovsky Chamber Orchestra, the Boston Pops Orchestra and the London Symphony Orchestra. She was also invited to the Aspen Music Festival and the Chicago Lavinia Festival. In July 1995, she was selected as one of the most promising young violinists to be invited as a solo performer in the Kuhmo Festival in

Finland, a world famous chamber music festival.

In an interview in 1995, Sohn said, "It is a great honor to have been able to lea rn from such great mentors as Dorothy DeLay for the past 11 years.

What they expected of me is a complete commitment to music. We have mutual respect for each other. They don't just teach their students how to play violin. They put greater emphasis on draw ing out each student's unique ability so that the student can develop his or her ow n style."

DeLay herself said in an interview with Strad Magazine to commemorate her 75th birthday that Livia Sohn is one of her 20-some favorite proteges including Itzhak Perlman, Cho Liang Lin , Koto Midori, Gil Shaham and Sarah Chang. The fact that a violinist has received training from DeLay is a feather in one's cap, an indication that his or her ab ilit y is a fe w notches above the average.

Beginning at age 10, Sohn perfoi'm ed with Gil Shaham in the Aspen Music Festival for five co nsec utive years. Because of her mature performance, she was selected as the sole rec ipient of the fetsival 's It zhak Perlman scholarship. Perlman himself compared her to "a health y sa pling that will grow into a giant tree."

Sohn has been described as "a violinist who enthralls audiences with an aggressive, commanding performance" and "a violinist who boasts a rich, pas-

Sohn performing a Mendelssohn violin concerto during a Master Class with students of Dorothy DeLay.

sionate melody." She is also known for her wide repertoire, which includes Bach, Brahms, Beethoven and Bartok.

"Every single piece, be it a concerto, a sonata, a short piece or a chamber piece, is important to me. No matter which piece I play, I tell myself that I am playing the most beautiful piece that has ever been composed. I'd like to enrich my repertoire in the future. I find myself at my best when I play works by modern American com-

posers such as John Corigliano," she says. When she played a violin sonata

by Corigliano in the 1993 Aspen Music Festival, the composer himself praised her, saying, "She played with perfect technique and musicality."

In January 1997, Sohn performed in Korea with the Asian Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Chong Myung-whun. However, it was not the f.irst time that she has performed in Korea. She visited her ancestral

homeland for the first time in 1992 to perform a Bruch concerto with the Seoul Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra and a Saint-Saens concerto with the Pusan Symphony Orchestra.

At the time, she said she was deeply impressed by the sincerity and high musical standard of Korean audiences.

In 1995 she again toured Korea, visiting such cities as Chonju, Chongju, Ch'unch'on and Kwangju. She then said, "I am very happy to perform 57

..

" ~

again in Korea with the KBS Symphony Orchestra." During the tour, she performed Paganini's rarely played 'Violin Concerto No. 2, which)s known among violinists for its difficulty.

When asked why she had chosen to perform such a difficult piece, she said, "I love the challenge of playing a new piece. Particularly when I play such a piece in the presence of an

I

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I

'-

LiviaSohn

Sohn has been described as "a violinist who enthralls audiences with an aggressive, commanding performance¡¡ and "a violinist who boasts a rich, passionate melody.''

She is also known for her wide repertoire, which includes Bach, Brahms, Beethoven and Bartok.

58

audience, it begins to have a completely different meaning for me. I assume there is no need to explain why Paganini's Violin Concerto No. 2 is considered a challenge. When I first listened to the piece, it gave me a thrill to imagine myself playing it. I had played Paganini's Violin Concerto No. 1, which is played more often, and each time I found it rich in beautiful and lyrical operatic melodies, a characteristic of Paganini's music. The enjoyment grew even more as I began playing the cadenza to the piece." She then picked up her violin and played the cadenza to show us what she meant.

Sohn made concert tours through major American cities in 1995 and 1996.

She said she often dreamed of traveling alone around the world with nothing but her violin and imagined how wonderful it would be. However, her dream didn't quite come true this time as her mother accompanied her during the tour. Just a few years ago, she gave only a score of solo performances. Now she is x world-class concert musician who can hardly find a break in her very busy schedule.

She names Nathan Milstein as the violinist she respects the most. She says she likes him because of his pure, poetic, sincere, clear style. Even though she st,ill likes Chung Kyung-wha because Chung first inspired her to become a violinist, Sohn says Milstein is her idea of the "ideal violinist." She says that when he plays, the barriers between him, the audience and the music seem to fall away. ¡ Sohn says that she was very lucky to meet so many prodigies at Julliard who were nothing less than "the cream of the crop." Not content with her inborn talent, she continues to refine herself with incessant practice.

Despite her busy schedule, she says she never feels tired because she maintains a cheerful, pleasant attitude.

The day that this "rising star" finally ascends to the summit may not be very long coming. +

I

~rving

Korea's Documents

UNESCO's

'Memory of the World Register' Paik Syeung-gil Chairman, Korean Committee International Council of Museums

~

0

f all the various activities and achievements of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the protection of cultural assets is among its most important. If it were not for the endeavors of this organization, Abu Simbel Temple in Egypt would have been submerged a long time ago and the world would not now be able to enjoy the magnificent Borobudur Temple in Indonesia.

Each year, UNESCO registers important cultural assets from around the world on its World Heritage List in an effort to preserve and maintain valuable cultural assets in the interest of all humanity. In 1995, three Korean cultural assets-Chongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine of the Chason Dynasty; the woodblocks of the Koreana Tripitaka and their storage halls at Haeinsa Temple; and Sokkuram Grotto of Pulguksa Temple-were added to the list. In 1997, two more Korean architectural treasuresHwasong Fortress in Suwon (also called Suwonsong) and Ch 'angdokkung Palace in Seoul-were included on the list.

It is also significant for Koreans that this year, the

Year of Cultural Heritage in Korea, Hunmin chong-iim (Correct Sounds to Teach the People) and Chason wangjo-shillok (Veritable Records of the Chason Dynasty) have been included in the "Memory of the World Register," an undertaking launched by UNESCO three years agO. Hunmin chong-iim, a detailed record and explanation of the creation and use of the Korean alphabet, han-gul (which was first called

Hunmin chong-urn

Hunmin chong-urn), is an unparalleled achievement. The Chason wangjo-shillok, a chronological record of the reigns of the kings of the Chason Dynasty-from the dynasty's founding in 1392 to Ch'oljong's rule until1863-is the longest and the most elaborate of its kind in the worid.

The purpose of the Memory of the World Register is to select, preserve and enhance the accessibility of documents-from printed material on any mediuil). (wood, paper, leather, parchment, papyrus) to audio material, film and even electronic media-that are considered valuable to all humanity. UNESCO has recommended that its member nations establish national a committees similar in function to the Memory of the -World International Committee; currently there are 26 countries that have set up such committees to preserve their nation's endangered documents.

To be included on the Memory of the World Register, a document should meet any of the following criteria: It should 1) have a major influence on world history; 2) reflect in an outstanding way a period of momentous change in world affairs; 3) contain important 59

CURRENTS

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The cover (right) and a page (left) ofSejong shillok (Annals

of King Sejong), part of the Chos()n wangjo-shillok that has been included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register

information about a place that made a crucial contribution to major developments in world history or culture; 4) have a special association with the life or works of a person or people who made an outstanding contribution to world history or culture; 5) embody a major theme of world history or culture; 6) be an important example of an outstanding form or style; or 7) have outstanding cultural or spiritual value transcending its native culture.

The Memory of the World Register program has two major purposes: conservation and accessibilty.

60

Conservation refers to saving and preserving rare and valuable documents that are endangered. It is an unfortunate fact that many documents that are valuable cultural assets are vanishing due to natural causes and human neglect Accessibility refers to the replication of such documents in media such as CD-ROMs and the World Wide Web so that more people can access them more easily.

Han-gul was invented in 1443 by King Sejong and was promulgated on October 9, 1446; hence the designation of October 9 as Han-gul Day to

commemorate this achievement In his postscript to the treatise explaining the creation and use of han-gul, Chong In-ji, the head of Chiphyonjon (the Hall of Worthies) which compiled the trea tise, recorded that the script was introduced on the tenth day of the ninth lunar month of 1446, which was October 9 by the solar calendar.

Hunmin ch6ng-i1m consists of tw o major parts. In the first part, which was written by King Sejong himself, the purpose for inventing the script is explained, and the 17 initial (consonant) sounds and 11 medial (vowel)

CURRENTS sounds are introduced. The second part, which was written b)' the scholars of the Hall of Worthies, comprises six chapters: 1) an explanation of the design of the letters, 2) an explanation of the initial sounds, 3) an explanation of the medial sounds, 4) an explanation of the final sounds, 5) instructions for combining the letters, and 6) examples of the use of the letters.

Recently, certain artists have been incorporating han-gul in paintings, sculptures and even choreography. It is very encouraging to know that more people are beginning to recognize and to interpret the formative aspects of han-gul.

Chos6n wangjo-shillok is a comprehensive record of the Choson Dynasty's reign over a period of 472 years- from King T'aejo, the founder of the dynasty, to King Ch'oljong, the third last Choson monarch. It covers not only political, diplomatic and military events but also social, religious and astronomical occurrences; extraordinary natural phenomena; advances in geography, music, science, warCt¡aft, transportation and art; and countless other topics in an encyclopedic style. Therefore it can be said that the historians of the Choson Dynasty were the precursors of today 's versatile journalists who can report single-handedly and objectively about any subject, be it political, economic, social or cultural.

During the reigns of Choson's first three kings- T'aejo (r. 1392-1398), Chongjong (r.1399-1400) and T'aejong (r.

1401-1418)-the record was written by hand. From the time of King Sejong (r. 1418-1450), metal type was used to print the record.

In 1431, realizing the importance of conserving the dynasty's chronicles, King Sejong ordered that the records of the first three kings be kept in Shillokchong, a building constructed

to serve as the dynasty's central archives. In 1439, two additional archives were built in Songju, Kyongsang-do province, and Chonju, Cholla-do province, and in 1445 another one was built in Ch'ungju, Ch'ungch'ong-do, to preserve duplicates of the records . During the Japanese invasions of 1592 and 1597, Shillokchong as well as the archives in Songju and Ch'ungju were burned down; only the archives in Chonju escaped destruction. In 1603 and 1606, duplicates of the records were deposited in the reconstructed Shillokchong and in newly built archives on Mt. Manisan on Kanghwado Island, on Mt. Myohyangsan in P'yong-an-do, and on Mt. Taebaeksan in Kyongsang-do.

Since the 1960s, the Korean government has financed a 26-year project to translate these valuable annals into contemporary Korean in han-gul script. In 1993, the result of the project was published, and in 1995 it was issued on CD-ROM, making it available not only to scholars but to the general public. Thanks to the CDROM, many scholars who had been hindered because of the Chinese characters can now easily study the records. For example, one scholar is writing a history of Korean arts based on materials excerpted from the Chos6n wangjo-shillok.

Koreans must make other valuable national documents such as the Tripitaka Koreana and Chikchi shimch 'e yojql (The Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters), the earliest extant book printed by movable type, more accessible so that they , too, can become part of the world's cultural heritage. Also, Korea should establish an institute devoted to the preservation and restoration of the rare books stored in the Kyujanggak, the National Library, university libraries and other places. â&#x20AC;˘

Worin ch'on-gangjigok (Songs of the Moon's Reflection on a Thousand Rivers),

one of the first books that used han-gul with Chinese characters

Hunmin chong-lim , a

detailed record and expla nation of the creation and use of the Korean alpha bet, han -gt11, is an unparalleled achieYement. The Chos6n wangjo-shillok, a

chronological record Qf the reigns of the kings of the Chason Dynasty, is the longest and the most elaborate of its kind in the world.

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Seoul P'iri Festival Han Myung-hee General Director National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts

traditional wind instruments, or p'iri, a seeped into the hearts of the audin mid-October 1997. when the skies Korean term for flute ence, as did the joys and sorrows of and for aeroover Korea were crystal clear, hisphones in general, gradually led the caravan merchants making their way torical events dating back several audience from the real world into an centuries were vividly reenacted at against the blowing desert winds. The thought of long-ago festivals held on the National Center for Korean exotic, imaginary world filled with Traditional Performing Arts, located emotion. moonlit nights in oasis villages deep Numerous fragments of history in the desert makes our hearts pound on the skirts of Mt. Umyonsan in even now. These festisouthern Seoul. vals of ecstatic selfChinese history as oblivion, staged by old as the Yangtze River was revived people of different races, clothes, lanthrough a tranquil guages, customs, feelmelody, the poignant fragrance of the vast ings and thoughts and featuring drinks, Mongolian plains through gentle notes. women and music, The sounds of the were the catharsis of hooves of Kazakh horsthe culture that developed along the Silk es that pounded across the vast plains of Road , a subject of Central Asia long ago nostalgia for people resounded through the everywhere. deep tones of bass Such magnificent hisinstruments. The exotic torical events transcended the centuries to 1yricism of faraway A scene from the Seoul P'iri Festival Istanbul and the dreams be re-created through music under the Seoul and romance of Samarkand, the capital of skies during the secBukhara for a thouond Seoul P'irtfestival The Seoul P'iri Festival, an annual event that began held at the Center for sand years, melded in 1996, is the world's first international festivalamid the sounds of Korean Traditional various wind instruPerforming Arts from cum -contest exclusively devoted to traditional ments.

October 11 to 14. The wind instruments. festival , the world's Contrasting sharply with the busy world first international festioutside, a fantastic val-cum-contest excluworld transcending both time and sively devoted to traditional wind and regional landscapes unraveled space unfolded inside the traditional like the fragrance of the graceful wild instruments, is an annual event that performing arts center against the began last year under the sponsorship flowers of the vast Mongolian grassbackdrop of the beautiful fall sky. lands. The heartbreaking love of a of the Ministry of Culture and Sports.

The sound of the curiously shaped Persian princess counting the stars Last year, 49 musicians from 17

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CURRENTS

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countries around the world including African and South American countries demonstrated their traditional music, confirming the astonishing diversity of the musical world.

Whereas last year musicians from various corners of the world were randomly invited for the festival, this year musicians primarily from the nations that were the central players during the Silk Road era were invited.

Musicians from Turkey, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, China and Mongolia put on memorable performances together with musicians from Korea.

The nostalgia for the bygone era of the Silk Road is not limited to the world of music. It is widely recognized that the global interest in the Orient is now higher than ever before. Asia is assuming an increasingly important role in the world, both politically and economically. Asian cultures and art are being reevaluated, and the term "pan-Pacific era" is used widely to refer to the coming century. A scholar once referred to the modern age as the "third age of the Mediterranean." Throughout history, human civilization has moved westward, following the path of the sun: first, from the Mediterranean to western Europe and then across the Atlantic to America. It is now traversing the Pacific toward East Asia. If the age of the Atlantic was the second age of the Mediterranean, then today's era of the Pacific can be called the third age of the Mediterranean.

Numerous signs of the times point toward the likelihood that Oriental culture will gain more prominence and wield a greater influence over human civilization in the 21st century.

In fact, the Western culture that has dominated world civilization until recently is now encountering that of Asia on an equal footing, just as yin and yang oppose each other to create a harmonious balance. Mutual

A Korean performer (top) plays the taegiim. A performer from Uzbekistan (above right) plays thesurnay, while his companion plays a dayra.

63

Numerous signs of the times point toward the likelihood that Oriental culture will gain more prominence and wield a greater influence over human civilization in the 21st century. In fact, the Western culture that has dominated world civilization until recently is now encountering that of A_sia on an equal footing, just ¡as yin and yang oppose each other to create a harmonious balance.

Clockwise from top left: A Kazakh playing the sazisir; Mongolian musicians playing the everburee (left) and thetsoor; Turkish musicians playing the kemence and ney

64

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exchanges between the West and the East, on a wane since the ~5th century, are again becoming increasingly active. The phenomenon can be also referred to as the reemergence of the age of the Silk Road, and is the reason why the coming millennium is viewed as a unique opportunity to create a third civilization through the dialectic integration of the cultures of the East and the West. This is also why today can be called the "age of the neo-Silk Road."

Based on this perspective, Korea's "Neo-Silk Road Culture Club" started touring Central Asia for annual cultural performances years ago and planned this year's p'iri festival on the theme of the Silk Road. Naturally, it was to prepare for the coming "cultural age of the neo-Silk Road" in the 21st century-an era of a third new global culture that will be created when the cultures of the East and the West meet on equal terms and ultimately come together.

It is perhaps best to briefly mention why wind instruments were selected instead of string or percussion instruments for the music festival. Wind instruments are widely considered the most melodious of all musical instruments. Although some string instruments such as the Western violin and the traditional Korean haegum (2-string spike fiddle) are highly melodious, a few such as the guitar and Korea's kayago (long 12-string zither) are unable to sustain a single note. The majority of aerophonic instruments are, however, perfectly melodious and can sustain single notes as long as the performer can hold his breath.

Wind instruments are particularly noted for their melodiousness and, as such, they represent one of the most prominent aspects of Korean culture.

It is widely acknowledged that Korean culture is hea vii y character-

ized by outstanding linear qualities. In broad aspects, a silhouette of Korea's landscape boasts supple and smooth lines, as does the outline of traditional thatched roofs. More narrowly, the same quality can be observed in the beautiful lines of traditional Korean women's dresses and in the intricate contours of Korean ceramics.

Similarly, Korean traditional music is a beautiful blend of lines and notes.

One of the aims of the Seoul P'iri Festival is to highlight both the similarities and differences between the traditional music of each nation, and another is to verify how much Korea's linear concept of culture differs hom that of other nations through the music of wind instruments.

The second Seoul P'iri Festival, small in scale but packed with significance, continued for four days and nights. During the evening, musicians from various countries formed mixed groups to stage performances vibrating with unique emotions. Lectures and workshops on the music of each participating country were held during the day. The festival also included a cultural exhibition, and participants displayed and sold musical instruments, books, clothes, antiques and accessories reflecting the unique cultural aspects of their nations.

It is said that music is not a universal language. It is indeed extremely difficult to share common qualities when the shapes and playing techniques of each musical instrument, as well as the musical idiom, differ. But one must concede that music is in fact a universal language. This is true at least of the music performed during the Seoul P'iri Festival as the naked sentiments, the pure joys and sorrows of humankind that underlie music, were manifested without artifice despite the substantial superficial differences between the musicians. +

Korean musician Kim Ch'an-s6p playi11g the double flute (top); Chinese musician Zeng Ming playing thedizi (above)

65

CURRENTS

Thoughts on a Korean Festival in Hamburg Shim Jae-ryong Professor of Philosoph y, Seoul National University

he port of Hamburg, in northern Germany, recently hosted a month-long festival promoting Korean culture. The city's culture council has been sponsoring special events to promote an understanding of Asian cultures for the past four years; previous festivals have highlighted Vietnam, China and Japan.

Korea and Germany have been trading partners for 113 years. That the two countries have had ties for over a century is a matter of record, but in some ways they are so far apart they seem separated by thousands of years. Many Koreans know of Germany as the land of the philosopher Immanuel Kant or the composer Ludwig van¡ Beethoven. In contrast, the average German is still likely to confuse Koreans with Japanese, though not intentionally. It is regrettable that the gap between the two countries remains so large.

This year's Korean culture festival, organized by Hamburg's culture council with support of the Korean Ministry of Culture and Sports together with several private organizations, was intended to bridge the gap. Local newspapers and broadcast ¡ media trumpeted the festivities planned for "Korean Day," but few Germah natives were to be found at any of the events. To be blunt: The event halls would have been completely empty except for the Korean

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66

A poster featuring the event

Korea and Germany have been trading partners for 113 years. That the nvo countries have had ties for over a century is a matter of record, but in some

~vays

they are so far

apart they seem separated by thousands of years.

organizers and the people staffing the events, the Korean tourists who were in the neighborhood at the time, Koreans working or studying in Germany , and members of the Korean-German community-mostly nurses or miners married to German citizens.

Why should this be the case? Two reasons come to mind. First, relations between the two countries have too short a history for Germans to have developed any interest in Korean culture. Second, the Genilan people are not known for their enthusiasm for these kinds of events.

Let us consider several points. In retrospect, when did Germans first begin to take an interest in Korea?

Although the two countries have had ties for ¡113 years, the tragedies of the ensuing years -including Korea's occupation by Japan, two world wars, the Korean War and the division of both nations-forestalled any meaningful exchanges until the 1960s. The Korean consulate general in Hamburg was not established until 1964. At that time, Korea was just beginning to evolve from an agrarian society into an industrializing economy.

As a key member of the Hanseatic League, Hamburg developed into the largest port and trading center in northern Europe, and it remains so today. The recent flurry of cultural events that the city has hosted spotlighting Asia is unprecedented. But

, the Korean festival featured only 40 events compared to 140 ~ponsred

by Japan last year-less than a third.

The Hamburg senate director, Dr. Volker Plagemann, had this to say about this year's showing: "For the first time ever in 1997, we had 'Hamburg-Korea Day ' in order to introduce Korean culture to a broad audience in Germany. Although Korean artists are well known in Asia, they are barely known here. So this was an excellent opportunity for them to show us their traditions and their art."

The Korean government and the cultural organizations that supported the festival should be thankful that Germans took an interest in any of the events at all. Germany is still in the midst of a painful and costly transition process integrating former enemies East and West politically, economically and socially. What's more, Germans are generally charac-

CURRENTS terized as cool and not easily swayed by emotion, so the sight of even a few Germans clapping and cheering enthusiastically at Korean performers was most gratifying indeed.

Nevertheless, I must say I found my tour of the various events uneventful and even dull. Ch'usok, Korea's harvest moon thanksgiving festival, had passed and the weather was chilly. I walked briskly, trying not to shiver in my short sleeves. In the northern part of Hamburg's Central Park, I came across a handsome building with a Japanese-style teahouse and a Japanese rock garden.

I couldn't help but feel that when Germans saw these attractive installations;-Korea would appear shabby in comparison. It was a strange, uncomfortable feeling for a member of the Korean delegation. What does it mean to airlift a part of one's culture into another country, even temporar¡ ily? Was I the only one to feel that

Pak Ch 'an-su, a sculptor of Buddhist images (above); a performance of the traditional Korean dance y ongsanje (below)

67

this modern "cultural event" was more like a static display better suited for a museum?

Apart from these personal and ambiguous feelings, the festival did include several notable perfor-

mances. The festival, held from September 15 to October 19, featured Korean culture in seven different categories. Probably the highlight was a nighttime festival celebrating Buddhist culture, performed by a

Using a variety of items such as traditional masks, other articles with traditional Korean design and photographs, the artists were able to convey to the German public a unique view of Korea's past and present. It was gratifying to see German viewers appear so absorbed in the works.

Yi Ki-ll yang's Kippum Qoy) which wasfeaturedin the festival (left); performers who participated in the festival bowing to the audience after their performance (below)

68

group of professors who had prepared for three months.

These professors, who had missed the Ch'us6k celebrations at home, landed at Frankfurt airport and took the seven-hour night bus. When they arrived in Hamburg, the birthplace of Brahms, they went straight to the concert hall for an off-the-cuff rehearsal, and then, without stopping for dinner, launched into the actual performance. What a feat!

The arena may have been only half filled, but it was no less inspiring to see Lee Su-ja, designated an "intangible cultural asset" by the Korean government, start the show off strongly by leading a Buddhist chant.

Then, with Kim So-hili's recorded singing of t 'aep'y6ngga as background music, Pak Ch'an-su, another intangible cultural asset, split a tree trunk into several smaller stumps and carved Buddha images out of them within 20 minutes. Then the monk P6mju, a Buddhist painter, sketched a dozen dharma drawings on the stage, each in a single stroke.

Dancer Yi S6n-ok wrapped up the performance with a high-spirited Buddhist monk's dance.

Another noteworthy event was an exhibition at the Atmen Jetzt, a fourto five-st~ry building converted into a gallery. What had once been a warehouse for traders was now transformed into a showcase of avant -garde installation art¡ pieces.

Using a variety of items such as traditional masks, other articles with traditional Korean designs and photographs, the artists were able to convey to the German public a unique view of Korea's past and present. It was gratifying to see German viewers appear so absorbed in the works.

One caveat, though: The space was so cavernous and there were so many levels that it was difficult for the viewers to see everything. +

JOURNEYS

IN KOREAN LITERATURE

Kim Won-il

Modern Korean literature has been dominated by works commonly referred to as ¡'division literature,'' with the most impressive including several written hy Kim Won-if. But this is not to say that the bulk of his creative works has been limited to the subject of . national division. Kim has written many exceptional stories on other themes as well. He is a writer who has successfully delved into a broad spectrum of literary realms

69

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Kim Won-il and His Literary World YiDong-ha Literary Critic Professor of Korean Literature, Seoul Municipal University

I

n the three decades since his literary debut in 1966 at the age of 25, Kim W on-il has written numerous outstanding works. In doing so, he has firmly established himself as one of Korea's prominent authors.

The most controversial and talkedabout of his literary works are those dealing with Korea's division following its liberation from Japanese colonial rule and with the Korean War. Perhaps this is only natural as modern Korean literature has been dominated by works commonly referred to as "division literature," with the most impres-

70

sive including several written by Kim W on-il. But this is not to say that the bulk of his creative works has been limited to the subject of national division. Kim has written many exceptional stories on other themes as well. He is a writer who has successfully delved into a broad spectrum of literary realms. , Kim W on-il gained fame with the publication of a short story entitled "Soul of Darkness" ("6dumui bon") in 1973. This story, set against the backdrop of Korean society in the immediate aftermath of Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule, traces the mental development of a young child who, after having witnessed the murder of his leftist father, is preoccupied with intense doubts about the meaning of life and the general order of the world. Kim then went on to write an extensive collection of stories on national division in the process of expanding and delving deeper into elements of "So ul of Darkness." Most prominent among the collection are the stories "Sunset" ("Hwanghon") and "Winter Valley" ("Ky6wul-ui kyegok") and the novel Festival of Fire (Pullii chej6n). Festival of Fire is Kim's' most arduous literary work, requiring an astonishing 17 years, from 1980 to 1997, for its completion.

The basic plot of "Sunset," published in 1978, concerns a middleaged person living the life of an ordinary citizen in Seoul. He had grown up with the memory of his father who died after leading a violent leftist riot in his hometown in 1948. The

main character reminisces about the events of that fateful year as he travels back home for the first time in years to attend the funeral of his uncle. The story unfolds by alternating between the past and present, and quite naturally poses such questions as "What significance does a horrible past hold for the present?" and "How can one genuinely overcome the past in the present'" Although such questions are not.clearly answered in the story, one can evaluate that "Sunset" made the most penetrating inquiry possible at the time of the 1970s by effectively articulating and persistently examining such questions.

Kim attempts a more thorough investigation into the same issues in Festival of Fire. "Winter Valley" (1987), based on the notorious massacre of K6ch'ang villagers in early 1951, was written before the novel was completed. In this story, Kim again demonstrates his prowess in dealing with the division theme by skillfully combining detailed descriptions from a naturalistic perspective with an antiwar consciousness based on humanism.

Then what kind of story is the seven-volume Festival of Fire, which commands th e ultimate standing in Kim 's collection of stories on national division? The novel begins in January 1950, five months before the Korean War broke out, and ends in October of the same year. The author masterfully brings scenes to life with vivid tension and urgency through the use of a diary format. The novel is basically set in two locations, Chiny6ng and Seoul, and is filled with numerous characters and complex events as befitting such a .. .. ~

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sweeping work. Kim, who had used the roundabout technique of relying on the innocent and naive perceptions of a young child to nart~ "Soul of Darkness" and "Sunset," thoroughly and directly probes into problems related to ideology, war and national survivalthe core of Korea's modern history-in this novel. Through this method, he also succeeds in integrating and ultimately transcending the achievements of two preceding masterpieces of contemporary Korean literature that represent two contrasting positions on these issues: Yi Mun-yol's The Era of Heroes (Yongwung-ui shidae) and Cho Chongrae's T'aebaek Mountains (T'aebaeksanmaek). In this respect, it is possible to regard Festival of Fire as the climax of all the stories that Kim has written on national division as well as the most comprehensive treatment of the subject in Korean literature. . In addition to his stories on national division, Kim Won-il has produced a number of noteworthy works on other subjects. Among them are several novellas and short stories such as "Contemplation on a Snipe" ("Toyosae-e daehan myongsang") (1979) , recipient of the Korean Literature Creative Award; "Unable to Forget" ("Mimang") (1982) and "Prison of the Heart" ("Maumui kamok") (1990), winner of the Yi Sang Literature Award. However, I will focus on fulllength novels, namely The Wind and the River (Paramgwa kang) (1985), House with a Deep Yard (Madang kiplin chip) (1988) and Eve1green Pine Tree (Nulp 'urun sonamu) (1993).

House with a Deep Yard, the second of the three novels in chronological terms, is based on the author's own painful childhood as the oldest son in a poor household headed by a widowed mother. The novel, however, does not

merely transpose the author's personal experiences into a literary form; they are sublimated into a profound exploration and extraordinary depiction of circumstances universal to the entire nation in the aftermath of the Korean War. The Wind and the River describes how the main character, Yi In-t'ae, meets a peaceful end after suffering extreme mental turmoil. The protagonist, a member of the independence movement during Japanese colonial rule , is arrested and tortured by Japanese gendarmes; in the end, he is released but only after divulging confidential information. He then spends

several decades wracked by self-torment, haunted with guilt toward the people he compromised. Tracking the process of this character's descent to death after being afflicted by an illness, Kim accords profundity to guilt and salvation. The author's inquiries in this novel lead quite naturally to religious themes. Kim himself is a Christian, but the novel does not highlight any particular religion. From many different perspectives, the novel consistently and without prejudice explores Koreans' innate psyche with religious messages.

Such an unbiased outlook enables this novel to render a truly powerful literary impact.

The author's effort of exploring without any bias the encounter of Koreans' inner thought with religious

messages is further undertaken even more seriously and extensively in Evergreen Pine Tree. This novel, set in the period between 1910 and 1920, one of the darkest periods in Korean history, comprises nine volumes. Befitting its length, the novel develops into a masterful mosaic of Korean society at the time, and is one of the outstanding works of Korean literature.

"Clash of Beliefs" is a short story in which Kim explores Christianity. As such, the story occupies a distinct place in his literary world. After carefully reading this story, one comes to realize the distinction is only superficial. The story is basically of a similar nature as The Wind and the River and Evergreen Pine Tree in that it tolerantly explores the way Koreans innately interpret religious messages. In the story, the author presents three different types of Christian belief: that of the mother of Song Mungyu, the narrator of the story; that of the mother appearing in a novel Song is writing; and that of Shin Chu-yop, Song's classmate. These three types of Christ'an belief shed light on a significant portion of the entire spectrum of Christianity as practiced in Korea today.

What is important is that the writer does not reveal a clear preference for any of the three types . of belief.

Throughout the story, he consistently maintains the attitude of a painstaking seeker of truth who never stops doubting, searching and questioning not only the three different types of belief but also Christianity itself. Thus "Clash of Beliefs" avoids becoming a complacent work of literature that advocates a particular belief; instead it is a literary work of genuine suffering and inquiry comparable to Graham Greene's The Power and the Glory and Paek To-ki's Bronze Snake. â&#x20AC;˘ 71

The Korea .Foundation Fellowship Programs FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN STUDIES

The Korea Foundation offers fellowships for Korean studies in the fields of humanities, social sciences and arts.

The program is intended to provide scholars and other qualified professionals overseas with .,. ~ an opportunity to carry ' ~ out in-depth research in ,z._·~ Korea for a period of three to twelve mo?ths.

Each successful app!tcant will be provided with round-trip airfare to Korea and a monthly stipend during the grant period.

Applicants should complete the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Studies application form and submit their academic research proposals to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 15 of the same year.

.Z :ltA. . •

Support for Korean Studies Programs Abroad The Korea Foundation offers financial assistance to universities, research institutes and libraries abroad in their efforts to promote the study and understanding of subjects related to Korea. Projects submitted for consideration must be in the fields of humanities, social sciences or arts and within the categories listed below: 1) Establishment and expansion of Korea-related courses and faculty positions, 2) Fellowships for graduate students or research grants for faculty members, and· 3) Library acquisitions and cataloging.

Applications must be submitted to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by October 15 of the same year.

For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN LANGUAGE TRAINING

International Cooperation Department I The Korea Foundation

· The Korea Foundation offers grants for Korean language training to graduate students, scholars and other qualified professionals overseas who wish to learn the Korean language at a Korean university language institute for a period of six to twelve months.

Each successful applicant will be assigned to a Korean language course at a major Korean university; and will be provided with tuition and a monthly allowance during the grant period Applicants should complete and submit the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Language Training application form to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 15 of the same year.

For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

CPO Box 2147 Seoul. Korea Tel 82-2-753-3464.

Fox 82-2-757-2047. 2049

International Cooperation Department II The Korea Foundation C PO Box 2147 Seoul. Korea Tel82-2-753-6465 Fox 82-2-757-2047.2049

KOREA FOCUS A BIMONTHLY ON CURRENT KOREAN AFFAIRS

In addition to KOREANA, the Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of globalization. ~ KOREA FOCUS offers a <;omprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korea's current affairs. In this bimonthly, you will find timely essays and KOREA commentaries on Korea's politics, FOCUS economy; society and culture, opinions on world affairs, and a chronology of recent events in Korea.

Published in English and Japanese, its ......_ articles are selected from leading pul:r . .__ . , lications in Korea, including major daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals.

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