Koreana Winter 1998 (English)

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BEAUTY OF KOREA

Pak

Pak is a fan-shaped wooden clapper. It is used in the majority of Korean court music pieces to signal their beginning and end as well as important musical changes, not to play music. Consisting of six wooden slabs tied together loosely at one end with a leather cord, it is used to produce a loud, clear clapping sound by holding the untied ends, and opening and closing it like a folding fan. The sound it produces is simple. There is no variation in the notes, only the clapping sound produced by the six wooden slabs coming together. From the perspective of Western music, the sound might be simply a loud "noise." But from the perspective of Korean music, which respects the sounds of nature by downplaying processed sounds, this is a natural sound.

The director of Korean court music uses the pak in much the same way that Western conductors use a baton. The director of court music is known as chippak in Korean, meaning a person holding a pak. A senior musician knowledgeable about the proceedings and content of musical pieces holds the pak and signals important changes or their beginning and end by clapping it three times. Because the reverberation of the sounds of Korean court music is subtle and gentle, while the tempo is slow, being based on the breathing cycle, the ambience of the music is passive, meditative and tranquil. By helping to bind and loosen the flow of such music and its performance, the pak serves as a guide in playing Korean court music. +


Cover: Ea1ly in Eastern cuiture, music was recognized as the key to moving people's hearts. As a result, the philosophy of yeak, rites (ye) and music (ak), was a basic principie in ruling a country In this issue, KOREANA takes a look at the National Center for Korean Traditional Perfo1ming Arts and its endwing history The cover photograph depicts heavenly maidens playing musical instruments which adorn a bronze bell at Sangwonsa Temple in Kangwondo province.

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Traditional Music In Harmony with Nature

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E

4 Korean Music: Harmony with Nature by Han Myung-hee

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s

10 Conservatory with 1,400 Years of Tradition by Song Hye-jin

18 Traditional Music: International Perspectives by Kwon Oh-sung

24 KOREAN A Internet Website With the inauguration of the Korea Foundation 's home page on the World Wide Web, on-line access to its publications is possible with abstracts of KOREANA features along with photographs. Please visit our Internet website at: http://www.kofo.or.krlkdata.htm.

Š The Korea Foundation 1998 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of The Korea Foundation. The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of the editors of KOREANA or The Korea Foundation KOREANA, reg istered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Registration No. Ba1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in French, Spanish, Japanese and Chinese.

A Day at NCKTPA Keeping Age-Old Traditions Alive by KOREANA Editorial Staff

28 My Experiences with the 'Institute' by Robert C. Provine

32

Avignon Festival 'Nights of Koreans' by Claire Be1ger- Vachon

36 FOCUS

Sungkyunkwan: Asia's Oldest University Preserves Confucian Tradition by An Byung-ju

40 ARTISTS OF KOREA

Film Director Lim Kwon-taek by Chong Sung-ill

44 ON THE ROAD

Taegwallyong: Winter Scenes on the High Plateau by Kang Woon-gu

Korea Foundation


50 MARKETS OF KOREA

Kurye by Chung Seung-mo

56 NATURE OF KOREA

Dinosaur Tracks of Korea by Lim Seong-kyu

60 DISCOVERING KOREA

Incense Culture by Park Hee-jun

64 TRADITIONAL ARTISAN

Han Hy6ng-jun, Tile-Maker by Lee Hyoung-kwon

70 KOREAN NATIONAL TREASURE

The Divine Bell, Emille by Lee Won-bok

72 KOREAN MYTHOLOGY

The Myth of the Shilla Gold Crown by Kim Yol-kyu

74 CURRENTS

'98 Ky6ngju World Culture Expo by Baek Seoung-mok

50 Years of Korean History The Story of Our Lives by Lee Chung-il

KOREAN A Published quarterly by The Korea Foundation 526 Namdaemunno 5-ga, Chung-gu, Seoul 100-095, Korea PUBLISHER

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orean music is of course based on sound. However, this sound is definitely a Korean sound. More precisely, its sound echoes from the Korean people's constitution and character. It is derived from the country's climate and landscape, and is intimately related to the country's religion and philosophy. In short, Korean

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music has sprouted from the fertile ground of Korean culture. Therefore, to understand Korean music, one must understand traditional Korean culture along with the unique national identity of the people. Most human activity can be classified into either intellectual or emotional categories. Likewise, traditional Korean music includes pieces that are

KOREAN MUSIC: ONY

WITH NATURE Han Myung-hee Director National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts

Korean music differs significantly from Western music. As the terms "beat" or "pulse" imply, the tempo in Western music resembles a heart beat. Consequently, Western music, like the beating heart, tends to be active and progressive, whereas Korea 's ch6ng-ak music tends to be sedate and contemplative like a long breath. 4

mostly intellectual in character as well as pieces that are primarily emotional. The former is generally known as chong-ak, the latter, minsok-ak. In Western musical terms, chong-ak is roughly equivalent to classical music and minsok-ak, folk or popular music. Characterized by a solemn, intellectual sense, chong-ak creates a calm, dignified, and contemplative atmosphere. Minsok-ak, on the other hand, is strikingly emotional, with its melodic themes tending to be unrestrained, direct and exuberant. Reducing a nation's complex cultural phenomena to a single underlying dualism is no doubt overly simplistic. Even so, a preliminary understanding of Korean culture may be gained by seeing it in terms of two strata: an underlying stratum representing the culture of the common people and an upper stratum symbolizing the culture of the sonbi (scholar-aristocrat). The



former is unbridled and robust. Honest and without pretension, this commoner culture has a great love of humor and wit. Korea's s6nbi culture, on the other hand, is elega nt and refined, sedate and contemplative. In contrast with the emotional, extroverted culture of the commoner that candidly expresses the full spectrum of emotions, the latter is intellectual and introverted and seeks emotional restraint as much as possible. These distinctive features of Korean culture are clearly evident in tr ad itional Korean music. Minsok-ak, the music of the common people, has a relatively fast tempo and enthusiastic vitality . With ample wit and humor, it is characterized by tremendous spontaneity. Even during exclamatory points, the singer cries out in a normal voice instead of employing a falsetto-an indication of the unpretentiousness and robust vitality of this musical form. As a result, the music gives one a sense of unadorned naturalness and exuberance. The music of the s6nbi, ch6ng-ak, on the other hand, employs

a much slower tempo and sedate, contemplative themes. With its smooth and relatively refined texture, the music can be likened to the fine silk attire of Korean aristocrats. Even when the vocalization reaches a crescendo, an unrestrained expression of the emotions is avoided and a falsetto is utilized. A leisurely tempo is one of the general characteristics of Korean music. Most of the musical genres belonging to ch6ng-ak have a slow tern po. Indeed, some compositions have a beat that lasts as long as three seconds. The slow tempo gives such pieces a distinctly calm, meditative character.

The leisurely pace of certain Korean music is related to its emphasis on breathing. Koreans have placed great importance on the act of breathing since ancient times and breathing exercises and training are utilized to control emotions and promote good health. This focus on breathing is also reflected in the spoken language. When a person dies, Koreans say that his "breath has been cut off" or his "breath has passed over." As a result of this inherent emphasis on breathing, the tempo of Korean music has also been set to a cycle of inhaling and exhaling. In this respect, Korean music differs significantly from Western music. As the terms "beat" or "pulse" imply, the tempo in Western music takes after a heart beat. Consequently, Western music, like the beating heart, tends to be active and progressive, whereas Korea's ch6ng-ak music tends to be sedate and contemplative, like a long breath. Generally speaking, Korean music conveys a gentle, warm timbre, which is particularly true of ch6ngak music. In fact, the timbre

Korean traditional music has a gende, warm timbre that can be attributed to the fact that Korean instruments are made of non-metallic materials.


is so gentle that the fusion of tones and melodies does not result in disharmony. The subtle tone color of the music can be attributed to the fact that Korean instruments are made of nonmetallic materials. In the West, even wind instruments such as flutes and clarinets are made of metal. In Korea, on the other hand, wind instruments tend to be made solely from wood and even stringed instruments have strings made of silk instead of wire. It seems that Koreans prefer the warmth and gentleness of natural materials. Nearly all of Korea's wind instruments use bamboo. During the Chason Dynasty (1392-1910), woodcrafts were developed to a greater extent than metalcrafts and natural materials were used even for everyday objects. It seems that the Western preference for metal instruments can be attributed to a dispassionate rationality that seeks to dissect objects into constituent parts, whereas the Korean inclination for plant-derived materials stems from a warm, emotional character that seeks to embrace all things. In other words, Western music developed from logic and reason that seek to dominate natural forces , whereas Korean music is based on a humanistic aesthetic that desires harmony with nature. Spontaneity is another characteristic feature of Korean music in general and minsok-ak music in particular. In contrast to the ch6ng-ak genres in which the emotions are suppressed, the minsok-ak genres stimulate the

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emotions while encouraging extemporaneous forms of expression. As is generally recognized, the emotional aspect of the Korean character is more prominent than the rational. Thus, Koreans can reach religious ecstasy relatively easily and kangshinmu, charismatic shamans, have traditionally been common in Korea. When performing a ritual, charismatic shamans tend to continue until their exuberance has been completely exhausted-a reflection of the emotional character of Koreans. In music, too, emotions can reach such heights that they transcend the music's formal elements. Indeed, when emotion plays a central role, precise formal elements have no reason to exist. Within such spontaneous genres, there is only a general framework with the content being determined primarily by the feelings of the moment. The music genres known as sanjo (solo instrument and drum accompaniment) and p'ansori (solo vocalist with drum accompaniment) amply demonstrate such improvisation. Unlike the numerous musical forms with fixed musical scores, these genres feature an open format that encourages spontaneous creativity. Different artists may interpret the same sanjo piece quite differently in their performances. In fact, the same artist may render a significantly different version at a given time or setting. Thus, the same piece might be condensed into a 10-minute performance or extended 20 or 30 minutes.

Likewise, folk singers still feeling energetic can often extend a song by adJibbing. With sensations of excitement and exhilaration, Korea's music is very spontaneous. It is open in form and does not have any definitive ending. Korean musical pieces are usually linked together when performed. This phenomenon is evident in kagok, a Korean genre similar to the Western song cycle. A good exam pie is Y6ngsanhoesang, a composition that resembles a Western suite. Kagok consists of over 20 lengthy vocal pieces that are accompanied by a small chamber ensemble. When sung, there is no clear break between pieces. Y 6ngsanhoesang is a representative instrumental composition consisting of nine pieces with absolutely no pause between segments. It is thus impossible to figure out which piece is being performed unless one is familiar with the composition. The lack of a hiatus between musical pieces is a reflection of the unique character of the Korean people, who are outwardly gentle but inwardly tenacious. Indeed, a literary scholar has defined the Korean character as "courteous and tenacious." This aspect of the Korean psyche is evident in Korean music, particularly the vocal genre known as p'ansori. In the p'ansori epic Ch 'unhyangga, the sole vocalist assumes numerous roles while singing nonstop for over eight hoursa feat that finds few parallels in other national cultures. The tempo distribution of traditional Korean music is also unique. Unlike Western music, which alternates between slow and fast movements, Korean music normally begins with a slow tempo that gradually accelerates


Min yo (above) and shinawi (below) are two examples of the improvisation that characterizes Korean music.

It seems that the Western preference for metal instruments can ultimately be attributed to a dispassionate rationality that seeks to dissect objects into constituent parts, whereas the Korean preference for plant-derived materials stems from a warm, emotional character that seeks to embrace all things. In other words, Western music developed from logic and reason that seeks to dominate nature, whereas Korean music is based on a h umanistic aesthetic that seeks harmony with nature. 8

as a piece progresses. The oft-performed sanjo genre, for example, begins with a slow movement known as chinyangjo, which is followed by the clwngmori (appropriate speed) movement. This, in turn, is followed by a rapid movement called chajunmori. Such a gradual progression is not limited to sanjo, a genre with relatively unified compositions, but is also evident in suites made up of numerous separate pieces. In suites, the initial pieces are performed at a slow tempo which picks up gradually in subsequent pieces. This pattern reflects the emotional, non-rational character of the Korean people. The gradually increasing tempo leads to self-absorption and finally culminates in an ecstatic state transcending the confines of the ego-a manifestation rooted in Korea's shamanic culture. In order to understand Korean music, one cannot ignore the prominent role which the yin-yang and five elements theory plays in ritual music, such as Pot'aep'yong, a musical piece performed at Chongmyo, the ancestral shrine of the Yi Dynasty of Choson. In Pot'aep 'yong, two instruments, a ch 'uk and an 6, are used. The ch'uk, which is only played at the beginning of the piece, is always painted blue (symbolic of the east) and is placed in the east section of the orchestra , whereas the 6, which is played at the music's conclusion, is always painted white (symbolic of the west) and is located in the orchestra's west section. Thus, one cannot understand such music merely by listening. For a full appreciation, one must be aware of its underlying philosophical significance. As previously mentioned, Korean music is intimately related to Korea's unique cultural context. Like the Chinese, from ancient times Koreans tended to think of music in metaphysical terms. This is evident in East Asia 's philosophy of yeak. Narrowly defined, yeak means rites, ye, and music, ak, but interpreted broadly, it signifies the dualistic cos-


mology of yin-yang. According to this philosophy, rites and musi c were established on the supposition that all phenomena have an opposing counterpart. In concrete terms, rites correspond to the earth and music, heaven, with discriminating functions being assigned with rites and unifying functions with music. Likewise, rites correspond to darkness and music to light, and rites are yin and music, yang. The philosophy of rites and music is thus synonymous with the yin-yang theory that opposites actually form a complementary unity. For this reason, musical discussions in East Asia customarily include discussions of ritesmusic's complementary opposite. So, Korea's traditional concept of music ac tually includes non-musical elements. This can be seen in the old story of a scholarly gentleman who, carried away in a deep state of poetic rapture, cut the string of his instrument and played the stringless instrument, indulging in a contemplative musical atmosphere. Thus, in traditional thought, music was used for personal, spiritual cultivation and as a means of rectifying social mores. In East Asia, the most superb music was thought to attain its height of perfect ion in silence. With such absence of sound, music was believed to be in complete harmony with the universe. It is interesting to note that this cosmic vision of music is in basic agreement with the idea of universal harmony put forward by Pythagoras as well as the Musica Mundana of Boethius. In Korea, metaphysical notions concerning music are primarily associated with ch6ng-ak. Minsok-ak music, with its emotional flu ct uations, is more closely related to another aspect of Korean character that could perhaps be called the tradition of refinement. By the Shilla period (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), there already existed an ideal of the refined gentleman. Such a person was able to incorporate the teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism into a h armoniou s lifestyle

known as p 'ungnyudo. The social class that best exemplified this ideal was the Hwarang-a Shilla youth corps of elite warriors. Song and dance form ed an essential part of their refined lifestyle, as it was believed that the true gentleman could only understand the elegant and leisurely aspects of life through the a rts. The tradition of p'ungnyudo eventually developed into a central theme in Korea and gave birth to the culture of mot (elegance, zest), which in turn gave birth to the musical genre known as minsok-ak. Thus at the core of minsok-ak, one can find Korea's traditional philosophy of refinement, which, in spite of life's tribulations, encourages one to maintain a positive outlook on life, relax and develop a magnanimous perspective that embraces the whole of nature. Minsok-ak's free flowing vitality and lack of any fixed form can be a ttributed to this philoso phical approach. In conclusion, it must be stressed that a proper understanding of Korean music has to be based on a wellgrounded understanding of Korean culture. We have seen how ch6ng-ak and minsok-ak are the two chief genres making up the Korean musical tradition, and through several examples, how these genres are intimately tied to the Korean constitution, customs and cultural background. It h as been demonstrated that ch6ng-ak music is closely associated with Korea's elite s6nbi culture and minsok-ak is deeply rooted in the culture of the common people. The former, which tends to be intellectual, is associated with the cosmological music theory that is a part of the yeak (rites and music) philosophy , whereas the latter, an unrestrained, emotional genre, is full of optimism, zest and humor, characterized by a carefree attitude. It is only after having delved into this relationship between Korean music and culture that one can properly approach and appreciate the country's traditional music. +

The 6 (top) and ch'uk (above) are good examples of the prominent role that the yin-yang and five elements theory plays in Korean music, particularly ritual music.

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National Center tor Korean Tradidonal Performing Arts

Song Hye-jin Music Critic

he National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts (NCKTPA) is the hub of traditional music in Korea today. Its diverse programs wield influence, both great and small, on some 20 traditional performing arts groups affiliated with local government authorities across the nation, on the Korean traditional per: forming arts departments established at 21 universities to foster professional performers, on middle schools and high schools devoted to nurturing gifted young performing artists, and on the activities of about 400 performing groups and associations. The center provides the basis for the continuing development of the nation's entire traditional performing arts community through musical and dance performances and experimental activities reflecting today's culture, such as performances of creative works featuring modernized versions of traditional musical instruments. It also engages in diverse educational activities and performance planning, and produces musical scores and recordings

in addition to compiling research data. The NCKTPA places utmost importance on the proper preservation of traditional music and on creative efforts to develop a sound and healthy culture for the future. This is why its activities clearly reveal both prudence in continuing traditions and boldness in seeking to create new directions. The center has become firmly established as the hub of Korean traditional performing arts by maintaining a harmonious balance between these two conflicting goals.

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The logo of the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts

NCKTPA's Venerable History The traditional music promoted by the NCKTPA boasts a history of about 1,400 years. Renamed the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts in 1951, its roots can be traced to much earlier national music organizations such as the Yiwangjik A-ak-bu (Department of Yi Dynasty Court Music) of the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945), Chang-ak-won of the Chason Dynasty (1392-1910), Tae-ak-s6 of the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392), and Ums6ngs6 of the Unified Shilla


Kingdom (668-935). Despite changes in the ruling dynasties, times and ideologies during the 1,400 years since the first official music positions were created with the establishment of the Dmsongso of the Unified Shilla Kingdom, Korea's traditional performing arts have evolved and have been passed down ¡ through national music organizations. It is truly astounding that the traditions of these national music organizations have continued for 1,400 years considering how often Korea has been threatened by annihilation in the course of its turbulent history. One wonders why Koreans regarded music to be so important and why the ruling dynasties of the past were so devoted to keeping national music organizations alive. The answer, to some extent, can be found in several ancient music history books. The introduction to the chapter on

The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts

Korea 's traditional performing arts have evolved and have been passed down through na tiona] music o1ganiza tions. It is truly astounding that the traditions of those national music o1ganizations have continued for 1,400 years considering how often Korea has been threatened by annihilation in the course of its turbulent history.

music of the Koryo Dynasty in Kory6sa (History of Kory6) states, "Music establishes virtuous customs and enlightens the people. Music is a manifestation of the merits and virtues of forefathers." This was considered the basic ideal of Korea's traditional music. The introduction to Akhak kyeb6m (Canon of Music), completed during the rule of Songjong (r.l469-1494), the 11th Chason king, states: Music is what came down from Heaven to be attached to human beings. As music originates from nothing and is created in nature, human beings feel it through their heart, which makes their blood pound and their mind clear. The sound of music differs according to the feelings of the listener so that it scatters when heard with a light heart It becomes fierce when heard with an angry mind, 11


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Akhak kyeoom (Canon of Music),a book on music and ethics written

during the Chos6n Dynasty

melancholy when heard with a sad heart, and relaxed when heard with a happy heart. Merging the diverse sounds of nature into one depends on the guidance of the king, which can be both proper or wrong. This in turn influences the nation's customs, which is why teaching music is intimately associated with governing the people. Chong To-j6n (?-1398), a scholar and politician who played a key role in the founding of the Choson Kingdom and in the shaping of its culture, explained the necessity of establishing a national music organization in the Kyongguk Taejon, the national code promulgated in 1471 to define the administrative structure of the Yi Dynasty. He said: Music is based on the proper disposition of the people, and expressed through sound and vocal text. The purpose of ritual music, played to accompany the Confucian rites performed at Chongmyo [the royal ancestral shrine of the Yi Dynasty of Choson1 is to extol the outstanding achievements of ancestors, and the music performed in the palace is to foster dignity and respect between the 12

king and his subjects. This is why the ancestors are deeply moved when music is played for those in the other world, and the sovereign and his subjects are harmoniously united in the present world. When music is propagated across the nation, people are enlightened and beautiful customs are established. So great are the effects of music. Song Hyon (1439-1504), a government minister who was both an outstanding scholar and a music administrator during the reign of King Songjong, expounded more specific views: A human being must know about music. The minds of those who do not know music turn dark and gloomy so that they cannot use their energy. There can be no harmonious spirit in the country when there is no music, even for a single day. This is why the late king fostered music and established an organization to oversee music, thus successfully unifying the minds of the people. The reason Korea's former governments established national music organi-

zations to promote music was not for the pleasure music provided, but rather they considered music to be a medium for harmoniously guiding relationships among individuals, between the state and its citizenry, and between ancestors and posterity. Musical Activities The key role of the early national music organizations, including the Umsongso, Tae-ak-so and Chang-akwon, was to oversee state Confucian rituals performed at Chongmyo and Confucian shrines as well as those performed for the gods of Heaven and Earth and the guardian deities of the state. They were also responsible for the music performed at morning meetings of the court and important events such as investitures of kings and queens, in addition to handling the overall management of music, songs and dances at official and private banquets of both major and minor importance. Since the 12th century, a-ak, or court music, was performed at state rituals, and hyang-ak, or Korean indigenous music, and tangak, secular music of the Chinese Tang and Sung Dynasties that was altered for use in court functions, were performed at other state events and happenings. Although there were times when each court musician had a specialty, it was customary for each to major and minor in a oroader category, and additionally to be able to perform two or three types of music, including hyang-ak and tang-ak. Court musicians were cultivated through a heredity system from the time of the Koryo Dynasty, a fact that indicates musicians were of a low social class. Although historical records show that during the Three Kingdoms period the ruler and the government ministers personally learned music and dance as well as composed music, thereby establishing a solid foundation for fostering music, the profession of musician came to be held in such contempt that by the time of the Koryo Dynasty a hereditary system was needed to secure a suffi-


cient number of court musicians. The system, which began with the founding of the Koryo Dynasty, continued until the collapse of the Choson Dynasty in the early 20th century. The musicians learned music from early childhood and became accomplished by sitting for tests given by the government. The number of musicians working for the government differed from era to era, but they sometimes numbered as many as a thousand during the most prosperous times. The national music organizations were the main channels for musical exchanges with foreign countries. Although Koguryo (37 B.C.-A.D. 668) and Paekche (18 B.C.-A.D. 660) did not leave any records of their national music organizations, we can guess at the range of international musical exchanges and the scale of music organizations from the fact that the three kingdoms of Koguryo, Shilla and Paekche all dispatched musicians to China and Japan for musical exchanges. Koguryo musicians, in particular, were ranked as high as members of Ch'ilbugi ( -l::;Jl'~{x, Ch'ipuchi) and Kubugi (11 :g:~ {x , Chiupuchi) music organizations established by China's Sui and Tang Dynasties. From the Unified Shilla period until the Koryo Dynasty, tang-ak and sa-ak of the Sung Dynasty, and court music as well as a-ak led to dramatic changes in Korean music. Needless to say, national music organizations established to serve the courts played a major role in this process. Earlier national music organizations actively accommodated music from other cultures by inviting foreign musicians to Korea and dispatching Korean musicians abroad. An important fact worthy of note is that these organizations, in addition to embracing foreign music, had the ability to rapidly adapt it to the needs of their own indigenous culture. The organizations ultimately localized foreign music by using Korea's traditional musical instruments in foreign musical formats, by integrating indigenous and foreign

musical instruments, and also by adapting foreign musical formats to Korean styles. It is well-known that the Choson Dynasty's King Sejong, who created a new type of music by combining foreign music and Korean native music, expressed a great pride in the local musical culture by declaring, "Although we cannot say our music is better than that of China, it is not inferior to that of China." In short, by actively accommodating and assimilating the high-quality music of foreign countries with the local music culture, the early national music organizations provided the foundation for the Korean music of today.

Preservation of Court Music The music currently promoted by the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts originates directly from

The reason Korea's ruling dynasties of the past est-ablished national music ozgm]iZations to promote music was not for the

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People playing musical instrrjments from Panch'ado, a painting oÂŁ various court ceremonies.

13


the Choson period. The musical culture established in the early years of the Choson Dynasty created a long winding river that flowed throughout the late Choson period, and having survived the cultural dark ages of Japanese colonial rule, continues to flow today. The fate of the national music organization hovered at the brink of extinction with the collapse of the Choson Dynasty in 1910. In particular, it no longer had a role to play when the state and other rituals it had been in charge of were abolished. Then something dramatic occurred: A Japanese acoustics specialist who was aware of the history of Japanese court music and its value, likened traditional music of the Choson Kingdom to "music from Heaven," and went on to say, "This music is a world heritage which must be preserved under any circumstances." His conviction ultimately influenced the Japanese colonial government, and the court musicians, who were on the verge of

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being disbanded, were thus incorporated into a new organization called Yiwangjik A-ak-bu, enabling them to continue to perform music of former royal dynasties. Another factor that contributed significantly to the continuation of Korean traditional music during Japanese colonial rule was that senior musicians of the Yiwangjik A-ak-bu established a regular training curriculum to foster future generations of musicians. Aware that the abolishment of the hereditary system of musicians would make it difficult to foster professional musicians who could carry on the legacy of Korean traditional music, they established the Yiwangjik A-ak-bu Training Center, a music school where students could learn both traditional music and modern subjects demanded by the times. The curriculum included not only court music of the past, but also music that had been enjoyed by the s6nbi, or literati, of Choson, which

was in danger of becoming extinct, as well as Western music theory and composition. The Yiwangjik A-ak-bu and the curriculum offered by the training center formed a vital bridgehead for traditional Korean music at a time when Korea was undergoing a transition from an ancient monarchy to a modern society. The two institutions easily adapted to performing on stage for the general public the music previously performed only at the royal court, thus ensuring their survival by adapting to a new performing environment. At the same time, they attempted new musical compositions based on Western concepts, trying in various ways to usher in a new era of rapid change. The Yiwangjik A-ak-bu was officially recognized as a national traditional performing arts center representing the Republic of Korea and renamed the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts in 1951. This enabled


The Yiwangjik Court Music Orchestra in concert (opposite top, below) A concert by Kim Wol-ha, a former teacher at the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts (above)

the center to broaden its scope of activities to include p'ansori, a narrative folk vocal art form; sanjo, an improvised solo instrumental form usually played on a long 12-string zither and accompanied by an hourglass drum; shina wi, the instrumental musical accompaniment for shaman dances; minyo, folk songs; and other types of folk music in addition to court music. Following the example of the Yiwangjik A-ak-bu, the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts established an affiliated training school in 1954 to foster future generations of traditional musicians. Students of the school learn not only historical court music but also a broad range of folk music, Western music and composition. The majority of them become masterful performers proficient in court music and ch6ng-ak, a classical form of court music. And they preserve

traditional music as members of the NCKTPA's Ch6ng-ak Ensemble.

ChOng-ak, Folk Music Ensembles There are about 80 members of the Chong-ak Ensemble, including senior musicians in their eighties who once served at the Yiwangjik A-ak-bu, and young performers in their mid-twenties. The senior musicians are continuing the court music of the late Choson Dynasty, and the musicians in their fifties and sixties, who learned from the seniors, are carrying on the traditions of classical music as close musical companions, having studied together at the traditional performing arts school in their early teens. A number of them have become members of the Korean Traditional Performing Arts Center, thus following in the footsteps of their great-grandfathers, grandfathers and fathers. There are also fathers

and sons as well as brothers and sisters at the NCKTPA who have devoted their whole lives to traditional music. The .traditions of music passed down from generation to generation and the lives of musicians who have worked together so closely as to be like blood relatives are the unique source that enables such music to boast a "sense of history and classicism." This is why the NCKTPA's performances of Sujech'6n, Y6-minrak and other classical pieces are different from those performed by other musical ensembles, and why the NCKTPA stands as the pillar of traditional performing arts today. The traditions and musical strength of the NCKTPA are also evident in its folk music. The 50 members of the Folk Music Ensemble specialize in p'ansori, kayagum py6ngch'ang (songs accompanied by a long 12-string zither), shinawi 15


ensemble, sanjo, minyo, and p'ungmulnori (traditional games accompanied by folk music instruments). They are either experienced performers in their forties and fifties who mastered the principles of music on their own by learning music the traditional way by word of mouth and by heart, or young performers in their twenties and thirties who learned traditional music through contemporary specialized educational training. In essence, the performances of the NCKTPA's Folk Music Ensemble are not very different from those of other folk musicians. However, the folk music preserved and performed by the NCKTPA is more authentic. The Folk Music Ensemble is noted for refined performances with the prototypes of folk music preserved intact. It avoids the use of commercial inclinations aimed at increasing affinity with the general public or gaining popularity through spontaneous performances. The NCKTPA also has a dance troupe. Its very existence proves that the traditional performing arts include dance. It is important to make known the history of musical traditions accompanied by dance. The troupe's 46 dancers are virtually the only dancers in Korea who are continuing the court dance tradition, and their performances feature hyang-ak court dances dating back some 1,000 years, tang-ak court dances, and about 40 court dances created in Korean style during the Chason Dynasty. Among their diverse activities are folk dances, creative dances, and dance dramas. As previously noted, the NCKTPA experiments with contemporary forms of traditional music as much as any other performing group. Since the 1960s, the NCKTPA has organized contests to encourage new forms of traditional music, has published musical scores, and has consistently dominated the establishment of new types of traditional music through numerous performances. However, with the number of chamber music ensembles performing new types of traditional music increasing sharply in Korea after the 1980s, and 16

the ensembles that mainly performed riew types of traditional music becoming more active, the role of the NCKTpA appeared to diminish. It is currently in the process of coming up with a new standard for modern and new forms of traditional music. The Ch6ng-ak Ensemble is responsible for developing new types of traditional music at the NCKTPA, although some people advocate the establishment of a creative traditional music ensemble independent of the Ch6ng-ak

The national music organizations, in addition to embracing foreign music, had the ability to rapidly adapt it to the needs of their own indigenous culture. The organizations ultimately localized foreign music by using Korea's traditional musical instruments in foreign musical formats, by integrating indigenous and foreign musical instruments, and also by adapting foreign musical formats to Korean styles.

Ensemble for the purpose of fostering musical specialties. Moreover, some people have stated that the NCKTPA must be bolder in accommodating foreign music, to enable traditional music to enter a new dimension by breaking away from the "music of the past," as was the case with former organizations that ultimately enriched Korean culture. As such, one can only look forward to the kind of musical world the NCKTPA will create in the future.

Education and Research Activities The NCKTPA, whose main function used to be the preservation of Korean traditional music through performances, experienced great changes at the end of the 1980s. It acquired its own building, 40;319 square meters, in southern Seoul. It also laid the groundwork for continuing performances as well as research and education. As of this year, about 90 people are working in the NCKTPA 's Administration Division, Music Management Department, Traditional Music Promotion Division, Stage Division and Trad.itional Performing Arts Research Center. It also established the National Center for Korean Traditional Folk Music, specializing in the preservation, research and performance of fo lk music , in Namwon, Ch6llabuk-do province in 1992, thus opening a new chapter in its history. The Performance Management Division, which maintains the Chang-ak Department in order to revive the traditions of the former Chang-ak-won, coordinates about 200 performances annually, while overseeing the management of music ensembles and dance troupes. At the moment, management is centered around the artistic director, with whom the Chang-ak Department consults to plan and manage its performances. The Traditional Music Promotion Division is in charge of developing diverse educational programs for teachers and students, both Koreans and foreigners, in addition to organizing about 30 days of overseas performances and lectures each year. It also oversees the rituals performed at Chongmyo and Confucian shrines, and other performances at non-cultural venues. The Traditional Performing Arts Research Center has nine researchers engaged in the search for and translation of ancient musical scores, basic research on Korea's traditional music, and plans academic seminars, publishes traditional music almanacs and com piles recordings of traditional music and dance. It also conducts research on tradi-


tiona! musical instruments as well as on methodologies related to traditional performing arts training, in addition to accumulating a variety of traditional performing arts data. In addition, the research center has been in charge of organizing permanent and special exhibitions at the Traditional Performing Arts Museum since 1995. The museum is mainly used as a forum for cultural education for primary and secondary school students, and for foreigners wishing to explore Korean culture. The museum currently possesses about 200 musical scores and instruments of the national treasure rank, performance props and performance related paintings, approximately 5,000 other exhibition items, and some 20,000 acoustical and published items. The NCKTPA recently came up with a slogan, "With 1,400 years of tradition, the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts strives for the pure spirit of literati and refined culture," as part of its efforts to establish a new future by discerning the value of its history and traditions from a cultural perspective. Actually, it has been a struggle for the NCKTPA to establish itself as the center of Korea's traditional performing arts in today's society, dominated as it is by Western ideas and values. Although interest in Korea's traditional culture has increased recently, the cultural values and modern significance of traditional music still remain underestimated, as it is perceived as being "very unique" and remote from mainstream society, education, culture and mass media. However, the NCKTP A is now transforming itself into a most traditional yet future-oriented musical organization by narrowing its gap with the public through performances, education and research, based on the belief that such diverse cultural activities can provide a foundation for the future of Korean culture so that it can become a true cultural hub rather than merely the center of traditional performing arts. +

Some of the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts'performance groups. From the top: the Chong-ak Ensemble performing Y ongsanhoe; the dance troupe performing P'ogurak; and a fan dance

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uring the Seoul Olympics in 1988, which were also known as the "Cultural Olympics," Korean traditional music was introduced to the world. As a result they spurred changes in our traditional music and led to a consensus that it was time to find a focus and a direction for Korean traditional music as it headed into the 21st century, an age of internationalization and of a struggle for cultural supremacy. Such moves are necessary to achieve thematic progress and expand the audience for traditional music. The Olympics was also an occasion for increasing understanding of traditional Korean music as a reflection of the cultural sensitivity that lies at the heart of the Korean people. To protect Korean traditional music from the danger of extinction, it is now time to promote it on the international stage, not just as a cultural asset of Korea but as a unique and wonderful performing art form that can be shared and appreciated by all people around the world.

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A traditional military band playing royal processional music started the Opening Ceremony of the 1988 Seoul Olympics.

Korean music returns to the fundamental belief that music originates from both a fear of and longing for nature. Music came as an overture, offered out of a need to overcome the fear of nature and to achieve unity with nature. For humankind, music and dance are an a wakening to the desire to be happy and at one with nature. The ultimate aim of music, therefore, is to bring humans and nature together.

International Perspectives The 1944 edition of the Harvard Dictionary of Music identified Korean music as being "the same as Chinese music." The origin of this error can be traced back toM. Courant who, in writing "La musique de Coree" for Lavignac's Encyclopedie de la Musique, based his research on literary documents rather than any experience or knowledge of Korean music. According to his study of ancient documents such as Kory6 sa (History of Kory6), Akhak kyeb6m (Canon of Music), and Chungbomunh6nbigo (An Expanded Literary Comparison), he wrote that there were "a great number of Chinese instruments in Korea." The first time Korean traditional music was really introduced overseas was in 1884 when Horace N. Allen, minister of the American legation in Seoul, arranged for 10 Korean musicians to perform at the Boston International Expo. At the time, the newspaper reviews said that, "Korean traditional music had great value as an Asian music form." Another U.S. perfor-


mance followed in 1929. From the 1950s, Western scholars were able to hear Korean music for themselves thanks to recording technology and the spread of LPs. It was through this direct experience with Korean music that they learned just how different Korean music was from that of China and Japan. The classification of Korean music as Chinese can be attributed simply to the fact that literature mentions the names of the five-tone musical scale and the 12 chromatic pitches in Chinese characters. The notion of Korean music as a genre of Japanese music can be attributed to the spread of erroneous information during Japanese colonial rule. On hearing Korean music, it becomes clear to anyone that Korean music is unique. Indeed in 1921, Japanese physicist and music scholar Hisao Tanabe heaped lavish praise on Korean music. After listening to classical court music, a-ak, he said, "This music is a series of mystical melodies that seem to open up the world that links the world of man to the heavens. Korean classical court music is voluptuously beautiful, finished off to perfection by the court dance music, muak. It is graceful and refined." He added that, "The world must be made to acknowledge Korean music as a unique and precious thing, an international cultural treasure." Chinese music critic Chai Ling said, "Korea's ancient musical instruments are capable of producing flowing rhythms that express their esoteric and yearning sentiments. In comparing such music to popular modern love songs, it is clearly evident which has the more artistic value. Different in feeling from Western music or Indian Buddhist music, it is easy to get a feel for the Oriental religious perspective and for the gods from ancient Korean music." The famous American contemporary composer Allan Hovahness has said, "Korean music is solemn and grand with beautiful tones. It is one of


the most expressive music types in the world, majestic and free. The naturalness and mysteriousness of its melodies are unmatched by any other music in the world. It is music of the mind and the spirit." Jonathan Condit is an English scholar from Cambridge University who came to Korea to study Korean music theory. In his doctoral thesis, "Sources for Korean Music, 1450-1600," he wrote: One of the special characteristics I would like to point out about Korean music, from court music to folk music, is its great diversity and wide range of expression. Court music is thoroughly refined and stately, sophisticated and dignified, sincere and very, very beautiful. On the other hand, folk music is emotional and passionate. Just as court music has a long tradition, folk music also has a deep-rooted tradition. To explain the difference between the two, folk music is more spread through the masses and is therefore easier to understand. With court music, the deeper you penetrate it, the deeper it becomes and the more appreciative you become of its true essence. For example, the court music piece "Sujechon" or "Wind Ensemble Ch6ngup" is a typical work of court music. The sound itself is impressive, dignified and strong but it must be listened to repeatedly to really begin to understand it. In comparing Korean music to Western music, Korean music can be very slow and very fast but there is no Western music that has the same kind of slowness. It seems that Korean music is one step closer to nature, while Western music is more artificial. Famous newspapers such as Germany's Die Welt and France's Le Figaro and Le Monde have written critical reviews. One of them says: "It is said that Korean music was influenced by Chinese music but this is not necessarily the case. Korean music in fact 22

poses a big threat to the contemporary music of the West. Korean music is contemporary music. This can be seen in works such as "Preserving the Peace," played at the royal ancestral shrine, and old military band music that dates back 500 years. These works are models of contemporary music. For us in the West, the happy opportunity to hear this wonderful mysterious music is nothing less than an historic occasion. The instruments, the clothes, the harmony of the colors and the beauty of the music in all its diversityfor those of us in the audience who tasted all this for the first time, it was an occasion of musical and artistic heights." The reason for this lengthy list of critiques by foreigners is to present the objective impressions of the artistic value of Korean traditional music from an international perspective. Actually, however, there is a great shortage of written materials that properly introduce Korean music in foreign languages. Also, the production and distribution of recorded materials that convey the spirit and living essence of Korean traditional music is not sufficient. This is something that certainly needs to be addressed.

The Status of Korean Music What distinguishes Korean music from the music of neighboring China and Japan? To explain simply, the first difference is an unbalanced length of bars, and a musical structure based on an uneven number of bars such as 3 or 5. It is interesting and certainly meaningful that Korea should have music based on rhythms of 3 and 5 beats, whereas the music of China and Japan, its neighbors, is largely based on 2 and 4 beat rhythms. Korean music is rhythmic and has pliant and curving lines. This is why the notion of timing is one with the concept of rhythm. Second, when it comes to singing, the smoothness of a melody depends on how many notes there are in one letter of the lyric words. Third, Korean

music allows for a great diversity in changes and ornamentation of the notes, including variations in intervals, dragging the notes down, wavering them or rolling them together. These characteristics, combined with an overall transformation structure, give Korean music its strong improvisational feel. This can be seen as the realization of the Asian spirit of bringing humans and nature closer together. Korean music returns to the fundamental belief that music originates from both a fear of and longing for nature. Music came as an overture, offered out of a need to overcome the fear of nature and to achieve unity with nature. For humankind, music and dance are an awakening to the desire to be happy and at one with nature. The ultimate aim of music, therefore, is to bring humans and nature together. ¡ In Korea, sacrificial and festive music that have sought harmony with nature, have long been kept alive by the common people. If one can say that court music, which was nurtured by the upper classes, seeks artistic sophistication, then folk music, hand in hand with dance, is an expression of the musical traits of the common people. There are few Asian countries that have a national organization for the preservation and development of its traditional music such as the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts. The center has long played a very important role in promoting Korean music around the world through regular overseas performances. However, it is now time to think about establishing an organized, systematic and long-term plan. The first task is to participate in prestigious international music festivals. For that purpose, the performing arts center should create a permanent overseas performance troupe. Experimentation must include all aspects of performance, from song and dance training to costumes, props, sound, lighting and sets, to develop a more sophisticated


stage presentation. Systematic support and a radically expanded budget must follow such efforts. Second, a wide variety of performances needs to be developed, from works of grand scale to small ct!amber orchestra concerts and solo; f ecitals. Programs that include tours of the leading performance halls around the world and partnerships with some of the world's most famous universities need to be created. Human resources need to be secured and a publicity program established to promote all aspects of Korean traditional music. The ideal would be for the NatioQ.al Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts to develop a kind of management system to take care of everything. The Korea Foundation sponsors one or two overseas performances every year under the Korean Culture Program, and other music groups and organizations have their own separate performance schedules. But for effective management, the performing arts center should form a master plan focusing on overseas performances to ensure that the activities of each group complements those of others. Efforts should be made to ensure that university musicians and dance troupes take part in music festivals such as the UNESCO C.I.O.F.F. World Festival. In conclusion, considering that Korean music is less well known internationally compared to the music of other Asian countries such as China, Japan, India and Indonesia, Korea needs to form more aggressive and systematic plans for promoting Korean music abroad. Although it is less well known, Korean music is attracting the attention of scholars and critics who have high expectations for Korean traditional music's development. To achieve the goal of promoting Korean music systematically on an international scale, musicians and various organizations must join together to work toward a common purpose and mobilize the required funds. + 23


ADAY AT NCKTPA

Inside the Seoul Arts Center, which stands at the foot of Mt. Umyonsan on the outskirts of Seoul, is the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts (NCKTPA). Although it takes great pride in its long history of 1,400 years, the center is constantl striving to keep up with tt\

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t is 9:30 on a Saturday morning. The NCKTPA 's usually quiet front courtyard is suddenly transformed into a playground. A noisy and somewhat clumsy ensemble of kkwaenggwari (small, flat bronze gong), puk (double-headed barrel drum) and gong is performing in one corner while in others children roll hoops, spin tops and play shuttlecock. After a while, the children rush to the Ye-akdang, the center's central performing area. It is time for them to learn minyo, Korean folk songs, from 27-year-old p'ansori (epic storytelling through song) singer Yu Mi-ri, who must struggle to hold the attention of the chattering children. "Now, follow me. Ari-arirang, surisurirang. .." Several children attempt a few bars, but inevitably waver off key, and Yu's scolding becomes lost in their laughter. The scene is typical of the Saturday Youth Cultural Inquiry Program. The

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program, which covers 12 different musical genres including court music, folk music, masked dance, p'ansori and sam ulnori (percussion quartet), involves participation in order to attract children and teenagers and includes narration in order to promote understanding by young people, most of whom are quite uninformed about their traditional culture. After playing traditional games, learning minyo, watching performances, touring the Traditional Performing Arts Museum and having a windup party, it is midday, time for the children to go home for lunch. The children, initially indifferent to their country's native music, return home, unconsciously intoxicated by the traditional tunes. It is two o'clock in the afternoon. In a rehearsal room, 120 foreigners from 24 countries become one through Korea's traditional music and dance during the Korean Traditional Music Class for Foreign Residents in Korea.

They have chosen to study changgu (two-headed drum), kayagum (long 12string zither) or dance every Saturday in classes the NCKTPA offers free of charge. The foreigners appear to understand every word the lecturer says in broken English. The foreigners, differing in hair and skin color, sometimes sit with their legs stretched out or lean on one side while playing changgu, unable to sit with their legs properly crossed. Lona Kim , a 48-year-old American English teacher who is learning changgu, says, "Kayagum and dan ce are a bit boring, so I chose changgu because I find samulnori and p'ansori exciting." In the kayagum class, the students are performing Arirang, a favorite folk song of Koreans. Everyone exclaims in admiration as Hamada Aya, a 19-yearold Japanese student, demonstrates considerable skill in playing the instrument.


The NCKPTA has been providing the traditional performing arts classes for foreigners residing in Korea since 1993. The foreigners have come from all walks of life and have included the wife of the Indian ambassador , employees of embassies and their family members , professors, scholars, members of the press and students. The center also opens a cultural school each year to teach the theory and practice of Korea's traditional performing arts to the general public. ChOn Su-hwan, a 29-year-old graduate student attending the cultural school to learn shijo (the singing of ancient three-line poems) and kagok (a lengthy song cycle sung as a solo or duet with the accompaniment of a chamber ensemble), said, "I chose shijo because I thought p'ansori would be too difficult. It is a pleasure to be able to learn directly from musicians of the highest caliber." He added, "One should learn shijo to personally experience the refined tastes of past s6nbi (gentleman-scholar)."

The NCKTPA offers various courses to promote traditional music. A Saturday culture class for teenagers (above) and traditional music classes for foreigners (below)

It is now three o 'clock and the Saturday Korean Traditional Performing Arts Training Program is in session for schoolteachers. The training session offers intensive lessons in minyo, tanso (a small, end-blown notched bamboo flute) and changgu in order to increase educators' understanding of Korea's traditional music. The sessions are held on Saturday afternoons after regular public school ends. Teachers have come from as far away as Kanghwado and Inch'on to attend the classes. They all look as serious as students preparing for an exam and concentrate hard so as not to miss a single w ord the teacher says. Starting from five o 'clock , the Saturday Permanent Korean Traditional Music Performance, which has been held for 16 years, begins on the stage of the Ye-akdang. Gover~ment­ designated "human cultural treasures" are participating in a fete, performing Ch '6yongmu, a form of court dance. The audience, made up of families, teenagers and for.eigners , laugh at

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The NCKTPA also offers training for teachers (above). Exhibition rooms in the NCKTPA (bottom): The Chukhon Room is dedicated to Kim Ki-su who devoted his life to promoting the modern development of traditional music (left). The Myong-in Room where the personal belongings of traditional music masters are displayed (right).

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times and seem to thoroughly enjoy the performances. The Saturday performance is the longest running permanent program in Korea. The performances are always a sellout, and many of the members of the audiences attend regularly. The fee is quite inexpensive-6,000 won (US$4.50) for adults and 3,000 won (US$2.30) for people under the age of 24. The repertoire includes about 100 works of diverse genres, from chong-ak (court music), minsogak (folk music), p'ansori, samulnori and court dance to creative music. The center's music ensembles and dance troupes perform eight works during each performance. An English version of the program is available. The performance ends at 630, bringing to a close a busy day at the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts. The center's performance areas are linked to the National Traditional Performing Arts Museum, which has a variety of exhibits on traditional music. The museum, which opened in 1995, enables visitors to learn a lot about the history and culture of Korean music at a glance. The museum is made up of a Central Hall, where large percussion instruments are displayed, and History, Musical Instruments, Ancient Records, Myongin and ChukhOn rooms. The overall ambience of the museum is passive and dynamic. The passivity of traditional musical instruments displayed silently inside glass cases in the Central Hall blends with dynamic sound effects and images. Among the displays in the Central Hall are ch 'uk (a large idiophone consisting of a wooden box and a round wooden hammer) and 6 (a wooden tiger-shaped scraper), which are used to signal the start and end of music, p 'yonjong (a set of bronze bells), p 'y6n-gy6ng ( a set of L-shaped chimes), and other musical instruments including large drums of diverse shapes. The History Room is


where visitors can learn about the roots and development of Korean traditional music. Of particular note among the various displays are Sejong shiJlok akbo, Korea's greatest music book, and a p'yon-gyong estimated to be over 600 years old. In the Musical Instruments Room one can see 53 traditional musical instruments including ka yagt'un , k6m un-g6 (long 6-string zither) and haegum (2-string spike fiddle) as well as some musical instruments of other countries. There is also an interactive display that produces the sounds of 14 types of instruments. The Ancient Records Room houses music books and valuable ancient records and documents related to music and dance including Akhak kyeb6m , Tae-ak bubo, and Shiyong mubo, as well as folding screens with paintings of festivals held at royal palaces. The My6ng-in Room has exhibits

Large instruments are exhibited on the first floor (top); the Traditional Music History Room (above); the Ancient Records Room (below).

of musical instruments, clothes, documents and cherished personal belongings of renowned masters of Korean traditional performing arts. Visitors can view slides, videos and other images in the Sound Effects and Image Room.¡ On the second floor is the Chukh6n Room , dedicated to Kim Ki-su (pen name Chukh6n), who devoted his entire life to the modern development of Korean traditional performing arts. Next to it is the Data Room where visitors can look up information related to traditional music. Preserving the traditions of the past while constantly striving to infuse life into traditional performing arts to make them current, and sparing no efforts in devising dynamic new plans to move closer to the public, the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts is creating the history of the future today. + 27


MY EXPERIENCES WITH THE 'INSTITUTE' Robert C. Provine Professor of Music University of Durham

ike everyone else, I came into . Korean studies by accident. In 1966, I received an undergraduate degree in music from Harvard; the Vietnam War was escalating, I was drafted into the U.S. Army, and my parents died in an automobile collision. Of the 35 soldiers in my training group, 25 were assigned to Vietnam and 10 to the rest of the world. I was one of the lucky ones, and my sergeant told me that the APO 96301 on my orders meant that I was going to Korea rather than Vietnam. Sometime after I got to Korea in early 1967, another soldier played me a scratchy old recording of p 'ansori singer Im Pang-ul, and over 30 years later Korean traditional music remains one of the most important things in my life. Many extraordinary, kind, and generous Korean musicians and scholars have made this career choice a rewarding one, but nothing has been more important to me and other for-

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ThemaingateofWongaksa Temple was relocated to serve as the main entrance of the old 'Institute' in 1963.

The Institute is the direct descendan t of go vernment music offices of rem arkable antiquity, and it p reserves in performan ce a substantial repertory of court music from the Chason Dynasty.

eign scholars than the Kungnipkugakwon. In English, the latest of its several names is the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts, but amongst foreign scholars it is almost always still called "the Institute" (from its first English name, National Classical Music Institute). In the late 1960s, a favorite place to meet friends in Seoul, where I occasionally visited from my base near Munsan, was the front gate of the Secret Garden (Piwon). I remember crossing the street a time or two and curiously looking around the old Institute compound in Unni-dong, but knowing no Korean language and feeling totally out of place (wearing an American army uniform in traditional Korean surroundings), I never actually met anyone there or attended any concerts. When I returned in 1973 after some Korean language training and graduate school in music (again at Harvard), things had changed greatly: the


Institute had left the traditional buildings in Unni-dong for the modern National Theater on Namsan. I went there frequently and made friendships that are still strong today, but it was difficult to feel positive about the Institute's situation: the facilities consisted of only a small room for the director, a larger room for the musicians and researchers, and a small practice room; they had occasional access to the Small Hall for performances. All the rest of the National Theater was devoted to modern, often opulent, productions of generally Western-style theater, and one could only lament the poor conditions afforded the traditional musicians. Since then, as shown by the photographs elsewhere in this publication, things have changed enormously, and the Institute has facilities that rival those anywhere in the world: offices, research rooms, multiple auditoriums, teaching rooms, a library, a museum, and much else. But when I see these grand new buildings and the everexpanding activities of the Institute, my thoughts are less about the physical

The main entrance of the old 'Institute' in Unni-dong, Chongrogu before the Korean War (above); a practice room (below).

facilities than the devotion of a group of musicians who persevered through incredible hardship to flourish today, and I count myself very fortunate to have known some of the people in- . volved. The Institute is the direct descendant of government music offices of remarkable antiquity (as early as the fifth century), and it preserves in per-

formance a substantial repertory of court music from the Chos6n Dynasty (1392-1910). At the end of the 19_th century, Korea experienced the convulsions of developing foreign relations at a time when foreign countries were primarily interested in expanding their own territory. It was a poor country and in a state of disarray, and one might well expect musical traditions

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Traditional music albums produced by the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts (above); p'yongjong, an ancient instrument that is still played today (below).

not to have survived the turn of the century, let alone the continuation of any institution devoted primarily to court music. When the court itself disappeared under Japanese colonialization in 1910, times became even more difficult for court musicians. But thanks to the amazing dedication of a few musicians (and there were only a handful who remained musicians) and the support of one or two influential Japanese scholars, the court musicians kept going in the so-called Yiwangjik 30

A-ak-bu (Royal Household Court Music Office). Similar determination continued in later generations of musicians, so that the traditions of court music also survived World War II, the Korean War (including a disruptive and dangerous move from Seoul to Pusan), and the onslaught of westernization. Witnessing a performance of music by the Institute today, with its extraordinary musical instruments, costumes, and subtle musical content, one finds it difficult to believe how anything so delicate and perfect could have survived the hardships that the musicians have endured in this centu. ry. In some cases, the remarkable precision of Korean preservation of their musical inheritance can be accurately measured. Koreans and foreigners alike admire the imposing tuned sets of bells called p'y6njong which are played in a number of pieces of court music and visually dominate the performance. It is reported in Korean music history that such sets of bells were imported from Northern Sung China in the early 12th century and that later Korean instruments were modeled on those originally received. Chinese history reports that China's own instruments of this sort, which were themselves of unusual design in the history of Chinese music, were all destroyed in an invasion of 1127. Skeptics, myself included, have expressed doubt that what survives in Korea at the Institute after more than eight and a half centuries could really be authentic copies of the Chinese originals. But in recent Chinese publications, one discovers that the original 12th-century Chinese instruments were not in fact destroyed, that their appearance is virtually identical to the instruments still used in

Korea, and that their pitch corresponds to that still used in Korea. When I took up a teaching position at the University of Durham in England in 1978, part of my duties was to assist in the organization of the Durham Oriental Music Festival, which had been held in 1976 and was to occur twice more, in 1979 and 1982. A great presence at those festivals was a group of musicians from the Institute. I remember, in particular, one occasion when a group of young (mostly teenage) musicians from Beijing attended a Korean concert and were amazed at how the Korean musicians continued to wear traditional costumes and play old-fashioned instruments. After the concert, there was a wonderful, warmhearted exchange of views and gifts backstage between the Korean and Chinese musicians, at a ti~e when their governments were still hostile. My friends at the Institute and I still reminisce about the Durham festivals. As a foreign scholar who must maintain a career in the West and only visit Korea infrequently and briefly, I have not been able to take full advantage of the training that takes place at the Institute, but instead have had to rely on materials which can be collected and taken back home. Through these materials as well as its perfor¡ mances, the Institute has proven its excelfence and devotion. For anyone dealing with Korean music history, as I do, the set of facsimile reproductions of traditional music sources published by the Institute (now up to 32 volumes containing over 130 different historical sources) is invaluable: because of this set of books, any musicologist can have direct access to the major sources of Korean musical history. The set includes such works as the 1493 Guide to the Study of Music (Akhak kyeb6m), a work which gives finer illustrations of musical instruments and other information than was available even in China at that time; its details on performance techniques and construction of instruments are well beyond


anything in late 15th-century Europe as well. Similarly, the Institute has published notated scores of traditional music, in both a modernized, detailed Korean notation (15 volum es) and Western staff notation (27 volumes to date). Both court and folk music traditions are represented in these useful collections w hich assist scholars at home and abroad in analyzing and interpreting the music. In addition to these large sets of books, the Institute has also brought out a substantial number of individual publications, ranging from beautifully illustrated pamphlets on instruments to scholarly translations of traditional sources (from Chinese into modern Korean). No one can claim to study Korean traditional music without having the Institute's publications at hand. The Institute has also made countless recordings over recent decades with rapidly advancing recording technology, and in Seoul today the CD shops have large numbers of technically superb disks recorded by members of the Institute, both individually and in ensemble. In the case of court music, these recordings are definitive and demonstrate the continuing development of the tradition, w hich has not become stagnant. Their recordings of folk music, too, are often excellent and reveal the broadening of the Institute's mandate to include all types of traditional performing arts. The Institute has also had a strong hand in furthering traditional music education in Korean schools, preparing many of the teaching materials used throughout the country. In addition to the books and recordings already mentioned, there are instructional videotapes that bring music to life in the remotest countryside. Recently, interesting and attractive materials from the Institute have also appeared on the World Wide Web. In 1994, I had the chance to visit Vietnam to present a paper at a governmen t-sponsored conference in

Hanoi on "Tradition Versus Modernization." It was clear that the Vietnamese were concerned about the future of their traditional music, and they brought in foreign scholars to present views about how other countries had dealt with the difficult question of how to preserve and develop traditional music. My paper dealt with the amazing change in fortunes of Korean traditional arts in the 1980s and 1990s, and in both the paper and ensuing discussions, there were many opportunities to describe the activities and success of the Institute. Vietnam in 1994

had much in common with the Korea I had first encountered in 1967, and in a sense I felt I had come full circle from the original circumstances that had brought me to Korea. In sum, this remarkable and productive institution has played a crucial role in the recent revival, preservation, and scholarly study of traditional Korean culture, and we can only hope that its musicians always retain their admirably steadfast dedication to traditional performing arts and maintain the direction of the Institute we ll into the future. +

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natural semicircular high cliff, which allows for the staging of a variety of productions as the space can be completely altered and adjusted for different types of performances. The somewhat secluded Boulbon cliff stage gives the audience a feeling that they are isolated from reality, yet breathing with the world through the power of the Earth at the same time. It was a natural and perfect setting to introduce Korea's traditional performing arts, a mixture of dance and music based on the harmony of heaven, earth and human beings, the foundation of Oriental ideology. Intricate and polished court dances that were once monopolized by the ruling elite, thrilling performances of percussion instruments which were once used to enliven festivals in rural regions, sungm u, a solo "monk's dance" deeply associated with Buddhism, and shamanic rites ¡¡¡ the organizers of the A vignon Festival wove the performances of different genres into a program for a single night. One can only imagine the difficult challenges the task must have posed. How was it possible to excerpt music and dance segments from the culture of a people boasting thousands of years of tradition and condense them into a mere few hours? What kind of association could be given to some 10 performances blending together arts of such diverse genres with obvious distinction but also possibly incompatible? How could the performances by "human cultural assets" with different and at times conflicting characteristics and personalities harmonize with each other? Was it really possible to anticipate how the unique rhythms of hard-to-decipher dance and music of a country far removed from the usual perspective of a demanding European audience with a preference for the exotic and the new would be received? Out of consideration for the relative anonymity of Korean culture in Europe, the organizers divided the performances of the Korean week pro34

gram into two parts to introduce performances based on the unique characteristics of Korean culture while emphasizing simplicity. The first part was entitled "Dynamism in Stillness" and the second "Freedom in Form." Quite unexpectedly, the audience was able to discover in the performances a deep association with Western art, that is, with the "Order" of Apollo, the Greek god of beauty and art, and the "Rapture" of Dionysus, the god of wine, which harmoniously integrates Greek tragedy through myths. Following Apollo's caution and restraint, Dionysian enthusiasm characterized the Korean week program. Performances in the first part were

marked by classicism and intellectualism, and in the second part, they were characterized by dynamic and rhythmic qualities. The performances began slowly and quietly, but ended in exhilaration. In between, contemporary dance and music injected appropriate rhythms and new perspectives into the overall program. They testified to the fact that modernity is rooted in traditions and can be renewed through them, albeit at times it might signify destruction and a breaking away. "Dynamism in Stillness," unified through a perfectly controlled and restrained energy, demonstrated the diverse aspects of Korea's court music and dance , and continued with


A stage featuring a spirit pole motif that was prepared for the A vignon Festival's Nights of Koreans program (left);p'ansori singer Ahn Suksun (top) was featured in the program which also included performances of modern dance and sam ulnori performances (above).

sungmu originating from shamanic rituals called kut. A solo dance of a magical nature during which the intellect and the senses engage in a dialect at the highest level, sl'mgmu sublimates the energy inherent in humans since antiquity through dance. Sungmu merges dance and puk, a shallow double-headed barrel drum with a wooden body, through an intense and passionate harmony. Shamanism, with a clear presence in contemporary Korean society, features aspects of various religions, and in the process of individually weaving the important moments in the lives of Koreans, adds a mysterious and incongruous touch to the nation that has achieved rapid eco-

nomic growth. The second part, characterized by spontaneity and freedom, as suggested by the title "Freedom in Form," began with p'ansori (epic storytelling through song) and the sounds of puk which accompanied all the ensuing performances. The perfectly guttural narrative and dramatic form of this folk vocal art evoked laughter from the audience through its popular and profoundly satirical elements, that was at times reminiscent of the music of Andalusia, southern Spain. Finally, the highly spontaneous performers of nong-ak (farmers' music), changgu (two-headed drum) and samulnori (percussion quartet) entered a trance to

deliver. the overall sentiments of the second part. The beautiful, exotic and innovative performances of Korean week were a successful staging of traditional performing arts cloaked in an ambience integrating both modern music and dance. As has been the case with other Asian countries that have been invited to the Avignon Festival, the Korean week program may have provided the impetus for expanding cultural and artistic exchanges in the future. The Avignon Festival, centered on contemporary creative works, paradoxically demonstrates the way to universality through the traditional. + 35


•FOCUSII

ASIA'S OLDEST UNIVERSITY PRESERVES CONFUCIAN TRADITION An Byung-ju Professor Emeritus, Sungkyunkwan University

36


' ' S choo ls are institutions for developing the talents of men. Yet this is not their only function. Schools should teach methods for governing all matters, and should teach their students how to determine right from wrong in all matters." These words are from the Ming-i-dai-fang-lu, a work written by Huang Tsung-i, a Chinese thinker of the late Ming and early Ch'ing periods. Centuries before Huang, similar sentiments were exp ressed by Korea's Chong To-jon (pen name Sambong, 1337-1398). ChOng, a political figure and scholar, wrote the Chason kyonggukchon (Chason Canon on Governing the Nation). In this work, he defined

schools as "basic institutions for edification which serve to clarify morality and develop man's talents." These two views on education have been presented here in order to shed light on the societal role played by Sungkyunk wan. Originally founded 600 years ago in 1398 on the present site of Sungkyunkwan University , Sungkyunkwan was created as a national institute of higher learning for the training of individuals so that they cou ld effectively serve their nation. However, the co llege had an even more important mission. Although national political ideology centered on moral edification, the college sought to "enlighten and develop the common people." In other words, it served as the standard-bearer of social reform. It was also the leading institution for promoting social consensus. In sum, Sungky unk wan served three basic functions: moral edification, promotion of social consensus and development of human talent. At Sungkyunkwan, Confucian moral edification was focused on Munmyo, a shrine where rites are held for Confucius and other ancient sages. Opinions of the college stude nts played a leading role in forming consensus on the determination of which Korean Confucian figures would be honored at the shrine. In this sense, the

college played a decisive role in the shaping of the Choso n Dynasty's Confucian tradition. This tradition is often referred to as simply Tohak (Study of the Way). The political aspects of Tohak include the Confucian doctrine on duties and moral obligations. As an ideology based on the welfare of the common people, Tohak also emphasizes righteousness over personal gain. The designated lineage of illustrious Confucian scholars actually began with the Koryo-pe riod minister Chong Mong-ju (pen name P'oun) and was sustained until Cho Kwang-jo (pen name ChOng-am) of the Choson Dynasty. This line of Confucian sages had generally encou raged the free discussion of ideas, academic research and logical explanation of the principles underlying phenomena. During the Choson period, the principle that a loyal minister "does not serve two sovereigns" was an important criteria in deciding which Koryo scholars were worthy of special rites. The respect for the lo yal minister Chong Mong-ju made him worthy of this special honor and elevated this principle to a key political cornerstone. Sungky unk wan stude nt s also paid homage to Chong and thus played an influential role in leading to his inclusion in the Munmyo rites in 1517. Chong Mong-ju was venerated in the Munmyo rites for a century. In 1610, the memorial list came to include five notable sages: Kim Kwang-p'il (pen name Hanhwondang), ChOng Yoch'ang (pen name Ildu), Cho Kwang-jo (pen name Chongam), Yi 6n-jok (pen name Hoejae) and Yi Hwang (pe n name T'oegye). In 1681, the seventh year of the reign of King Sukchong, Yi I (pen name Yulgok) and Song Hon (pen name U-gye) were also included. In this particular case, Sungkyunkwan students played an active role in shaping public opinion. The increased interest in neoConfucian theory was also reflected in proclamations concerning the Munmyo

Sungkyunkwan basically served three functions: moral edification, promotion of social consensus and development of human talent.

Taesongjon, the main shrine of Munmyo, the Temple of Confucius (opposite page) From the top: Chongyonggak, a repository for books used in the academy; Myongnyundang, the principal lecture hall; a hanging name plate bearing the word Myongnyundang, which means Hall ofWuminating Ethics.

37


Sungkyunkwan University's history is noteworthy, not only in Korea, but within the general context of East Asian development as well. After all, among the educational institutions in East Asia, one would be hard pressed to find many universities that can boast a history of 600 years. Throughout its long history, Sungkyunkwan has m ade significant contributions to the advancement of East Asian culture. In a re-enactment on the grounds of Ch'anggyonggung Palace, Sungkyunkwan stu-

dents sit for the kwago, the examination required to become a government official (above). A re-enactment of a ceremony to elevate a prince to crown prince, one of the events held to commemorate Sungkyunkwan's 600th anniversary (below).

38

memorial rites. In addition, actions such as kwondang (boycotting) and konggwan (voluntarily quitting the college) were used as a collective form of protest against the government. Such protest was based on Mencius who said, "When the sovereign is at fault, one remonstrates repeatedly, but if the sovereign does not listen, one should depart from him." Mencius also said, "If one remonstrates repeatedly and the sovereign does not listen, he should be replaced." Although this more radical approach could not be applied, Sungkyunkwan students did engage in active protest. On some 125 occasions between the reign of King Sejong and King Ch'olchong, Sungkyunkwan students resorted to kwondang and konggwan to protest against the monarchy. Through such activism, the students played a significant social role_during this period. Sungkyunkwan's history can generally be divided into two phases: the classical and the modern. The classical phase begins with the school's founding in 1398 and concludes with the Kabo reforms of 1894. During this phase, Confucian studies accounted for the major portion of the curriculum. The classical phase can in turn be divided into three phases. During the foundation phase from 1398 to 1494, the school's institutions and administrative pOlicies were established so that it could serve as Korea's national college. The second phase, 1495 to 1724, was a time of stagnation as the school weathered the Yonsan-gun's reforms and the 1592 to 1598 invasions of Japanese warlord Hideyoshi Toyotomi. The third phase, from 1725 to 1894, was characterized by resurgence. Following King Yongjo 's and Chongjo's revival of Choson political institutions, art and literature, the college regained its former standing as the nation's preeminent educational institution. During this phase, scholars of the new Shirhak movement also proposed a number of reforms. When viewed in its totality, the classical phase represented the


foundation-building of an exceptional intellectual tradition in Korea. At this time, Korean scholars formulated the most creative Confucian tradition in all of East Asia. The modern phase runs from 1895 through today. The Confucian ideal of this phase can be summed up in the traditional motto: "Cultivate one's self and govern people." With the introduction of a diverse range of academic disciplines from the West, Sungkyunkwan evolved into a university. Like the classical phase, the modern phase can be divided into three phases. The first, from 1895 to 1910, begins with the school's emergence as a modern college and ends with the Japanese occupation. Through a royal edict of 1895, the school was transformed into a three-year institution which offered courses in history, geography, math and other subjects. At this time, a system for the appointment of professors was inaugurated along with entrance examinations and a comprehensive examination system. A semester system with a set number of annual lecture days and weekly lecture hours was also instated. During the second phase from 1910 to 1944, the school encountered numerous difficulties due to the Japanese occupation. In 1910, the Japanese colonial government founded Myongnyun Hagwon on the school's campus. This later became My6ngnyun Technical Institute and then My6ngnyun Technical College in 1939. By 1944, the college's name had changed again to My6ngnyun Y6ns6ngso. Thus in a relatively short time, the school had gone from being Korea's top educational institution to a minor school. During the third phase from 1945 to the present, Sungkyunkwan developed into a large-scale institution with all the trappings of a modern university. During this time, the university established itself as a leading force in the preservation and development of traditional Korean culture. In 1945, the school, with Kim Ch'ang-suk (pen name Sitnsan) as its

first president and Yi S6k-ku (pen name Hakpong) as a professor, was formally designated a university. In the years that followed, a graduate school was founded, graduate school divisions were created and various restructuring efforts were carried out. To keep up with the school's growth, facilities were continually upgraded and expanded. Through affiliations with elite universities around the world, Sungkyunkwan University presently stands out as a truly distinguished international institute boasting an ancient heritage. Sungkyunkwan University's history is noteworthy, not only in Korea, but within the general context of East Asian development as well. After all, one would be hard pressed to find many universities in East Asia that can

boast a history of 600 years. Throughout its long history, Sungkyunkwan has made significant contributions to the advancement of East Asian culture. At the same time, it has been an active force in the establishment, preservation and development of traditional Korean culture. As is commonly known, the frantic push toward modernization has overwhelmed Korean society along with the rest of East Asia. Within this process, most schools have abandoned their traditional curriculums while adopting Western educational systems and academic disciplines. Sungkyunkwan University has also been a part of this general trend. Yet it has managed to preserve and advance the spirit of the Korean people. This accomplishment warrants Sungkyunkwan a special place within Korea's intellectual history. In spite of its keen focus on traditional Korean culture, Sungkyunkwan University is by no means a nationalistic institution. The school does not embrace a narrow conservatism by which all things foreign or new are to be shunned. To the contrary, the university operates from a premise that Western and modern cultural elements have their own intrinsic value and unique identity, just as Korean culture and traditions have their own unique flavor and significance. By preserving and bt!ilding upon Korea's unique cultural heritage, the university is confident that it has much to contribute to the advancement of humankind. As Sungkyunkwan University greets its 600th anniversary this year, it is preparing for a new leap into the future. As a worldly university representing Korea, it is mobilizing all its available resources in its push to become a leading educational institute of the 21st century. In the years to come, Sungkyunkwan is sure to remain a repository of the Korean spirit as it takes its rightful place among the ranks of international universities working for the mutual prosperity of all people. + 39


ARTISTS OF KOREA

Chong Sung-ill Movie Critic, KINO Editor

ike any other art form, film is a product of the land and history from which it comes and through films, moviegoers are treated to a ride on the imagination of the artists who created them. But there are two different viewpoints from which film critics view movies. One is that a movie can never leave its roots behind; though all filmmakers try to give movies a life of their own, they cannot rise above their given conditions. Perhaps this is why Bertolt Brecht said that all artists in the age of capitalism are stuck in cursed fetters. The other viewpoint is that a movie is the artist's attempt to resist, a move to break away from those shackles. It is in this context that we must judge the work of Korean film director Lim Kwon-taek. He is a master of trial and error. That is to say that he is not a born artist with an eye for making new and adventurous films. Lim is a film director who has learned the film industry by starting at the bottom and battling his way to the top, sometimes getting hurt in the process but never giving up. He has found his own cinematic style for the stories he wants to tell. It is no exaggeration to say that Lim's journey to find his own cinematic voice is one and the same as the identity-seeking journey the Korean film industry has made.

L

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Lim is a film director who has learned the film industry by starting at the bottom and battling his way to the top, sometimes getting hurt in the process but never giving up. He has found his own cinematic style for the stories he wants to tell.

The first Korean motion picture was made during the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945). The films made during this time were mostly within the framework of a typical Japanese movie. Korean movies began to break away from this mold only after the country's liberation in 1945. Lim first arrived on the scene in 1950, when Korean movies were taking on a character of their own. From day one to the present, Lim has never turned his eyes from Ch'ungmuro, the mecca of Korean filmmaking. He has spent his life making movies and, whether he likes it or not, his filmmaking history has become one with the history of Korean filmmaking. As¡ Lim has frequently confessed, unlike today's generation of directors, he did not begin to make movies because he loved them. After the division of Korea into North and South, his family broke apart. This was not unexpected, as his parents had been active socialists. With the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, they ran off to the mountains to join the Communist guerrillas and Lim was left to the care of his grandmother. Those years were to leave him with terrifying memories. His experience taught Lim to believe that there was something very wrong in the severe clash of ideologies between the South and North:


The war ended in 1953 and the guerrillas active in the Chirisan mountains were gradually wiped out. Lim's parents came down from the mountains and, although they converted from Communism, they were put on the surveillance list. For Lim, who was in high school at the time, it was hard to tolerate the fingers that were always pointed at him and finally one dark night he ran away from home. But in a country still hurting from the scars of a bitter war, there was nowhere for him to turn. He hopped aboard a train and got off when it stopped in Pusan. There he managed to make a living by selling military shoes and boots discarded by the American soldiers stationed there. It seemed that his life was in ruins and he had nothing to hope for. At 18, his miseries were compounded when, drinking more than

he should on an empty stomach everyday, his hands began to shake with palsy. While suffering such despair, Lim chanced to meet a film crew from Seoul who were in Pusan to shoot a movie. When they left Pusan, Lim went with them, not to make movies but to find work in Seoul. That was in 1955. Lim kept himself busy looking after props on film sites. The stars were the people who stood off at a distance under the bright lights. Lim stood on the other side of those lights, running around to get the props ready. In those days there was no clear definition of roles, so Lim did whatever task happened to fall his way. One day he was told to assist the cameraman. Director Chong Ch'anghwa, who had been keeping a close watch on him, later brought him

under his wing in the production department. Even then Lim had no thoughts whatsoever of becoming a director. But he did his best at whatever he was told to do and at the age of 25 he directed his first movie, Farewell to Tumen River, which was released in 1961. Farewell to Tumen River opened up the world of film for Lim. Having lived a life that had been a struggle from the beginning, he thought that if he gave up at this point, it would really be the end. So he continued to call the shots behind the camera. Art was a luxurious concept to him. He devoted himself to filming the scripts he received as faithfully as possible and making movies that would be box office hits. Producers concerned only with making money sought Lim out because he was known as a director

A scene from Lim's hit, SOp'yonje, 1993 41


who would do simply what he was asked to do. Lim made historical dramas that were not based on historical research, action films that starred street thugs, and everything else from comedies to melodramas. The films from this period in Lim's career had no unifying concept and were unpolished. Now Lim looks back on them with a sense of shame but at the time he made them he felt that he had no choice-it was either do as he was asked or starve. In the next ten years he made as many as 50 films; in 1969 alone he made 11. In 1971, he was suddenly struck with the idea of what it truly meant to be a film director. For the first time, he felt a sense of responsibility for the work he produced and decided that he could no longer feed lies to moviegoers. This decision led to the making of Weeds, which for all intents and purposes can be considered Lim's first real film. Unfortunately, the film was a boxoffice flop; theater owners were not interested in showing it, moviegoers stayed away and critics were silent. This forced Lim to take a close look at himself and he saw the ugly truth: society only embraced him when he was playing the fraud. The 1970s saw freedom of expression suppressed under the Park Chung-hee government. The country's many movie production companies were all forced to amalgamate into 20 altogether and Korean filmmaking began to suffocate under the weight of censorship. Movies hit the screens with many of their scenes arbitrarily cut. In any case, most of the films were nondescript action flicks, youthful romances, or government propaganda. In the midst of all this, Lim was slowly discovering his own voice. With great perseverance, he tried to rid himself of all the old commercial-oriented mannerisms that had become a part of him. He tasted failure time and time again, but took one step forward with each one. Lim, 42

therefore, is not afraid of failure. He has succeeded in finding himself without following any fashions or trends. Every once in a while, upon seeing the work of new and upcoming directors, Lim would be suddenly seized by the fear that his career was over. But he gradually began to produce works that reflected his own thoughts and showed that he was forging a surprisingly strong voice of his own. These works include Wangshimni, 1975, which portrays the lives of rootless people heading back to their hometowns; Family Tree, 1977, a story set in the Japanese colonial period about an old man trudging along his lonely life as seen through the eyes of a Japanese youth; Jacko, 1978, an allegorical tale about the division of Korea told through the lives of two old men who had been searching for each other for 30 years; and The Rider Without a Flag, which is set against the ideological confusion that followed Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule and poses the question "What is humanism?" Lim's movies were not beautiful to look at. What Lim was interested in was capturing the inner essence of his main characters. When asked by younger directors what lessons they should learn from his movies, Lim would simply reply: "The faces." In 1981, Lim made Mandala , his 76th movie and the high point of his career up to then. Although it is based on the Zen novel of the same name by Kim Sung-dong, the film 's overall spirit is Lim's. In the journey of two Buddhist priests from their mountain temple into the everyday world that forms the core of the movie, Lim sees himself straining to catch the sounds of life and finding in them his own way. For moviegoers, the scarred and bruised landscapes of cinematographer Jung Il-sung and the impenetrably grave expressions of the two leading men, Chon Moo-song and Ahn Sungki, as they carry out their Zen dialogue, were like a preview of the

troubled and difficult 1980s in Korea. For Lim, the movie was like a rite of passage. Despite Korea's poor filmmaking conditions, Lim succeeded in creating a movie that captured the essence of the country and its people of those times. Through the movie Lim succeeded in finding meaning in the true image of Koreans. It took Lim ten years to break from the commercial filmmaker mold to become a film artist with his own philosophy. He spent the next ten years destroying what he had built to start again. Lim continued to create his own style. In doing so, he captured the spirit of the country in his work. In all his many failures, he found the real strength of Korean films and conveyed that message to his audiences. With Kilsottum, 1984, which depicts the pains of J!ational division in a tearless, controlled yet angry way that leads the viewer to introspection, Lim was invited to take part in the Berlin Film Festival. He reached his peak in 1986 with Ticket, which portrays the slow destruction of the bodies and souls of four women stuck as coffee lounge waitresses doing tricks on the side in a small East Coast town. From there he moved on to Surrogate, which on the surface is the tragic story of a woman brought in to bear a son for an aristocratic family during the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910). On another level, Lim uses the story to explore the way the dead control the living with the deep-rooted, suffocating contradictions of Confucian tradition. For her role in this movie, Kang Su-yeon received the best actress award at the Venice Film Festival. Lim had come to observe life from a point that continued to move farther and farther away from the center, sometimes going back in time and at other times standing still and forcing us to realize that there is something wrong with our mission to modernize everything. By doing so, Lim showed us that he had escaped from the dangerous trap


of creating art for art's sake to create through his works the foundation for a philosophy for our times. Having reached this point in his career, Lim found himself caught in another type of struggle. As his movies became more strongly branded with his style, they became heavier and harder to deal with. W arks such as Aje, Aje, Bara Aje, 1987 and Adada, 1988 seemed to be locked in some kind of cast iron mold. Lim felt the need to escape. In the face of much criticism, he decided to adapt to film the memoirs of 1930s gang boss Kim Du-han in the Son of a General series. The three movies in the series brought Lim into the 1990s. Many considered the series to be a distress signal. But Lim had always come out of failure knowing himself better. He decided that he would no longer seek the image of Koreans in things that are visible but in the unseen world of the mind. When he tuned into the world of the spirit, perhaps it was inevitable that he would become interested in traditional Korean music. His 93rd movie S6p'y6nje, produced in 1993, is not just the result of Lim's new interest in the operatic singing style called p 'ansori. Lim takes a compassionate look at why, in the process of trying to safeguard the things that count from being lost in the rush of modernization, women must become crippled both in body and spirit, and thus leads the viewer to experience true grief. In recording the development of So-wha, the heroine, from a student of song to a master singer and showing how the song becomes the incarnation of her spirit and matures, Lim plays for us a masterful song of his own about how people are losing sight of things that really matter. One of the most notable things about Lim is that he is never content to stand still. He is becoming more and more reconciled with the tools of his trade, tools that he warily beheld before. In the past, Lim had a great fear of falling into trite sentimental-

ism but now he is able to embrace the trite and the sentimental and depict them in a restrained and simple way. That Lim can do this means that he has reached an age when he is starting to look back on his life. Nothing reveals this better than his 1996 film Festival. In this movie the central character is an old woman who has already passed away. Senile in her old age, she had been a burden to her family for a long time. However, when she dies, her family, scattered around the country, comes together for her funeral. During the funeral preparations, the feuding members of the family resolve their differences and are reconciled with each other. In this way the dead pass on the wisdom of life to the living. Lim finds the world he has been seeking for such a long time, a world where everyone can meet and embrace each other in the spirit of true humanism. Through countless trials and errors, Lim believes that the most important thing is to ask oneself what way of life constitutes a life worth living. Although this might seem a cliche at first, Lim has never swayed from his singular purpose. He has never been interested in fashionable aesthetics or politics. What he has always tried to do is to make us aware of the precious things that are being lost in contemporary society. In the end, however, movies can only awaken us to issues; they cannot change the world. This is not to say that Lim's films are just movies. Lim's works embody and embrace all the weaknesses of Korean films and turn them into strengths. They are a world of their own built on the foundation of these weaknesses and one in which he seeks to find the right form of expression, the history within the framework of the life portrayed. For Koreans, they are like a mirror of their passage into the modern world. Lim Kwon-taek shows us through the medium of film what it is to become an adult in this land of ours. +

From the top:Scenesfrom]acko, 1978; Surrogate, 1987;T'aebaeksanmaek, 1994; SOp'yonje, 1993

43




n the distance, layers of mountains are wrapped in fog. As the mist blows, peaks disappear only to reappear as faint shapes through the mist. On some days, the mist clears to reveal a bright, blue sky, and on others it turns into rain, or in winter, snow. When snow

I

These people are breaking the ice, which formed overnight, to get to the Alaskan pollack that have been soaking in the stream since the previous day (top). Fish are removed from the stream aftercleaning(below left). Alaskan pollack become what Koreans call hwangt'ae after about three months of drying in a cold place. Through repeated freezing and thawing, the dried flesh becomes tender and yellow (below right).

46

falls gently for several hours, it seems like winter's blessing, but when it piles up for several days, it can seem like a curse. Likewise, when snow begins to fall, the faces of the residents light up with joy, but after several days, their expressions suggest dread. After all, Taegwallyong and the surrounding highlands receive some of the heaviest snowfalls in all of Korea. Located about three hours east of Seoul in P'yongch'ang-gun county of Kangwon-do province, the Taegwallyong Pass is about 800 meters above sea level. Passing over the ridge one comes to the deep blue waters of the East Sea. As the meeting point of inland and coastal weather patterns, Taegwallyong's high plateau is characterized by sharp variations in temperature. Mountains cover about 70 percent of Korea. At the foot of the mountains, there are a few level areas that are used for villages and farms, but good, level land is rare. In spite of this shortage, many mountainous areas have not been developed. There are several explanations for this, but perhaps the major reason is that traditionally Koreans, unlike Westerners, felt a deep reverence for nature and thus did not

see a mountain as an object to be conquered. In the past, many Koreans believed that a mountain spirit, popularly called Sanshin, lived in the mountains. At set times during the year they would beseech Sanshin to protect them from misfortunes that the mountains sometimes visited upon them. These beliefs continue to have a subtle influence even today. For example, when a mountain is cut in order to make way for a road, environmentalists are not the only people to oppose the construction. Due to this general awe and reverence of mountains, there are few villages situated at high elevations in Korea. At 2,744 meters, Paektusan is the highest peak in the two Koreas and the only mountain over 2,000 meters. In contrast, most of the peninsula's peaks are under a thousand. meters. The Nangnim Mountain Range, which begins at Paektusan, extends southward almost to the 38th parallel (the approximate line of division between North and South Korea), and from there, it joins the T'aebaek Mountain Range, which is often called the spine of the Korean peninsula. The T'aebaek range joins with several smaller ranges that terminate as they meet the sea at a


village known as "Land 's End" in Ch6llanam-do province's Haenam-gun county. These ranges extending from Paektusan to Land's End are often collectively referred to as the Paektu Taegan. Although geographers do not recognize this term, it serves as a poignant expression of Korea's longing for unification. These mountain ranges that traverse the nation from north to south create a geographical division between east and west. Long ago before the development of modern transportation networks, the roughly 800-meter-high peaks of the T'aebaek Range created a natural barrier. As a result, people to the east and west of the range developed different dialects and customs. At several points along the range, there were passes where people could pass back and forth more easily. Taegwallyong is one such pass. The eastern and western sides of this pass experience different weather patterns. The eastern side, known as the Y6ngdong area, has milder winters due to coastal influences, whereas the inland western side typically has harsh winters. These different weather patterns meet at Taegwally6ng, resulting in heavy fog and snow. In spite of its height, the pass has many level areas suitable for habitation, but due to the fickle weather, the population has remained comparatively low. Long ago, when people used donkeys for transport, the trip from Seoul to the top of the pass was said to have taken a week. With the opening of the Y6ngdong Expressway in 1975, the trip was cut to only three hours. Since then, farms and ranches have been established in the area, along with a ski resort. As the Korean econo my improved, more and more Koreans began to vacation in the area, which led to the building of restaurants, inns, large condominiums and apartments. In the process, much of the area's original landscape and customs disappeared. Hwangt'ae, dried Alaskan pollack, a product for which the area is famous,

is a good example. Hwangt'ae from the Taegwallyong area is said to have a unique taste that can be attributed to the area's weather. Dried outside during winter, the fish repeatedly freeze and thaw for three months. During this time, the flesh continually contracts and expands and as a result, it becomes very tender, even when completely dried, and takes on a light-yellow, or h wang, color. It sells at a higher price than the pollack dried in other regions. Hwangt'ae was produced using traditional drying techniques. Pollack, caught in waters off the coast, were gutted and cleaned and then left to soak for a day in the Hoenggyech'on Stream. In addition to thoroughly cleaning the fish, the fresh stream water served to rid the flesh of salt, which must be done if the fish is to dry completely. In earlier times, the village of Hoenggye-ri was filled with fish drying on racks and one could often see villagers breaking the ice to get to the fish soaking in the stream. Unfortunately, hwangt'ae production is rapidly becoming a thing of the past. To begin with, as the roads that run along the Hoenggyech'on have been widened, high dikes have been built, making it difficult to get down to the stream. More importantly, the huge influx of vacationers into the area has polluted the water, rendering it unfit for washing fish. In addition, the areas where the drying racks used to stand have been filled with condominiums and other large buildings. All that remains are a few racks used to dry fish that have been cleaned elsewhere. The young skiers who now come to the area have no sense of the tradition that has been lost. Hwangt'ae is not oily and does not have a fishy aroma. For these reasons, it is immensely popular. It is used in stews or is basted with a special sauce. It is also torn into small pieces for consuming as a snack with liquor. The famous Korean poet Yang Myong-moon wrote a poem eulogizing the fish, which is also known as

my6ngt'ae. In this amusing piece, the poet imagines that he has become a piece of dried fish.

.. .Like a mummified Egyptian king, When some lonely, poor poet, While inscribing some poem late one night, Drinks a glass of liqu01; 111 be his complementary snack, Or a poem. Though I'm tom to shreds, Let my name alone remain. My6ngt'ae, I am My6ngt'ae. .. Since only limited amounts of Alaskan pollack are found in the East Sea off Korea, fishing boats have to venture far out into the North Pacific; and most of their catch is processed in other places. The unexpected joy of seeing fish being processed during the winter in Taegwally6ng is fast becoming no more than a memory. In other seasons, potatoes, corn and Chinese cabbage are grown on the high plateau. Kangwon-do is famous for its potatoes, earning residents of the province the nickname kamja pawi, potato rocks. Among the growing areas in Kangwon-do, Taegwally6ng has a particularly high potato yield. In addition , many alpine vegetables are grown here. With temperatures several degrees lower than in the plains, vegetables¡ grow more slowly. The cool weather also prevents insects from damaging crops. The most common leaf vegetable grown in the area is Chinese cabbage. In a break with traditional farming methods, most are grown on giant farms. Because most farmers cannot afford to expand their operations on a large-scale on their own, most of the farms are operated with capital investments from urban investors. Yet even with ample capital, these large farms experience many difficulties. The first obstacle is labor. When Korea industrialized, large numbers of people moved into the cities, leaving few workers in the countryside. To 47


make matters worse, Taegwally6ng had a relatively small population to start with. Moreover, the stages in the production of vegetables are not easy to mechanize. This has led many farm owners to drive day laborers in from the city each morning and then back at night. This, in turn, has led to rising production costs that are of course passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices. There is one dish that Koreans cannot live without. Known as kimch'i,

this national specialty is made by pickling Chinese cabbage or radishes. Because kimch'i is eaten at virtually every meal, Koreans use copious amounts of these vegetables. In the early winter, every household makes enough kimch'i to last through the following year. At this time, farmers in Taegwally6ng and other regions are busy harvesting cabbage and radishes to be trucked to large and small cities across the nation. Most of the sons and daughters of farming households have

Hwangt'ae from the Taegwallyong area is said to have a unique taste that can be attributed to the area's weather. Dried outside during winter, the fish repeatedlyfreeze and thaw for three months. During this time, theflesh continually contracts and expands and as a result, it becomes very tender, even when completely dried, and takes on a light-yellow, or hwang, color.

Clear streams flowing down the slopes of the high plateau meet to form Hoenggyech'on, a stream that is more the width of a river (above). These waterways serve many important functions in addition to the role they play in agriculture. In good weather, one can see the blue ocean in the distance to the east of Taegwallyong Pass (right). 48

moved to the city where they pay high prices for the cabbages and radishes produced by their parents' generation, which still lives on farms. As industrial wages rise, ever more people leave the countryside, contributing to the vicious cycle of rising food costs. This cycle may ultimately lead to great suffering if the industrial sector enters a slump. In the worst-case scenario, a depressed industrial sector could mean wage cuts or even massive layoffs. In spite of such dangers, there


is little sign of those who left the countryside returning. The high plateau of Taegwallyong is stunningly beautiful with gently curving ridges and spectacular l'l_ndscapes. Its rare beauty can be enjoyed throughout the year: when the fog suddenly lifts exposing the outline of imposing peaks, when the leaves of the white birches along the roadside flutter in the wind showing their white undersides, and of course when snow covers the mountain. Descend-

ing eastward from the ridge through countless twists and turns, one comes to the city of Kangnung. The residents of this historical city are as mild as the area 's weather. When seen in the remote distance from Taegwallyong Pass, the city looks like a small piece of land abutting the vast blue sea. Koreans use the adage "mountains beyond mountains" to refer to times when one has conquered one hardship only to be confronted with another. As the phrase suggests, Koreans typi-

cally do not fret about the mountain in front of them, but rather the unseen mountain that stands behind it. Many times while traveling in the past, Koreans must have wished to see something besides another mountainwhether it be a plain or the sea. These days too, many Koreans sincerely hope to cross the mountain of economic crisis to find flat and level land or the peaceful sea waiting on the other side. They should come to Taegwallyong Pass. +




n the past rivers were the most important means of transportation in Korea. Before the appearance of automobiles, trains and other modes of transportation and the construction of roads and railways, people generally moved freight over land by carrying it on their backs or on horses. Mostly they traveled along narrow market roads and paths because many parts of Korea could only be reached by crossing over high mountains and deep valleys. Naturally, this did not encourage a wide use of wagons, which is why transportation by land declined compared to river transport. Mt. Chirisan stands on the border between Cholla-do province, the center of agricultural production in Korea, and Kyongsang-do province. It was via the Somjin-gang, which originates in the foothills of Chirisan's Mt. P'algongsan in Paekwun-myon, Chin-an-gun, Chollabuk-do, and its tributaries that products from the region used to be transported throughout the nation. The river deposits an alluvial fan just after passing through W onshin-am Village in Mary6ng-my6n, and flows on to feed the Kaldam Reservoir in Wun-ammyon, Imshil-gun. It converges with the Osuch'on Stream in Ch6ks6ngmy6n, Sunch'ang-gun, the Yoch 'on Stream at the boundary of Kumjimyon and Koksong-up in Namwongun, and the Posonggang River and the Hwangj6nch '6n Stream in Aprok, Ogok-myon, Koksong-gun. Then, flowing along its eastward course, it becomes the Akyanggang River and joins tidal water. In his T'aengni chi (Ecological Guide to Korea), Yi Chung-whan (1690-?), a prominent scholar of the Shirhak (Practical Learning) school during the late Chason period, wrote that Namwon and Kurye in Cholla-do were the most fertile land in Korea, and Kurye was the most ideal place to live because its residents could enjoy the benefits of salt and fish from the Somjin-gang. 52

There were about 10ftrry points between Hadong, at the lower reaches o/the Sonqingang, and Kurye. They include Shinbangch 'on, Shinwol, Somjin, Tolt'omt; Han-go!, Kaech 'i, Sokbawu, Komdu and Hwagaenaru. Asidefrom fonctioning as river-crossing points, they were also used as basesfor the collectiOJt and distribution qfproductsfrom Cholla-do and Kjongsang-do.

In addition to the market that opens

every day, Kurye has a regular market

that is held together with a cattle market on the 3rd and 8th of every month.


53


There were about 10 ferry points between Hadong, at the lower reaches of the Somjin-gang, and Kurye. They include Shinbangch'on, Shinwol, Somjin, Tolt'omi, Han-go!, Kaech'i, Sokbawu, Komdu and Hwagaenaru. Aside from functioning as river-crossing points, they were also used as bases for the collection and distribution of products from ChOlla-do and Kyongsang-do. Mainly cotton, fabric, and raw silk were produced in the southwest regions of ChOlla-do, hemp cloth, paper products and tobacco in the northeast ¡ areas, rice in the inner plains, and salt and sea products on the coastal islands. The rice was mostly transported to Pusan in exchange for fish from northern coastal areas, such as pollack and herring brought to Pusan by merchants from Seoul and P'yong-an-do province. Salt from the lower reaches of Hadong was first brought to the Somjin-gang estuary and later moved by land to various corners of the country. Cotton products were also transported to the central Ch'ungch'ong-do and Kyonggi-do provinces. Products from locations that were not readily accessible to the Somjin-gang estuary due to the mountainous terrain between ChOlla-clo and Kyongsang-do were transported overland to Ch'ungch'ong-do. From ancient times, Kyongsang-do's Chinju, Sanch'ong and Hamyang were geographically linked with Cholla-clo's Wunbong, Namwon, Imshil and ChOnju, while Sach'on and Hadong were linked with Kwangyang, Sunch'on and Posong. In order to understand why, one has to closely study the mountain routes of Chirisan, standing between the two provinces, and the waterways of the Somjin-gang. According to village elders, a 165meter sailing ship used to shuttle back and forth between Hadong Port and Hwagaejang before Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule in 1945. The trip took almost half a day. A motor boat would meet the ship at Kwangyangman Bay to take the goods 54

it had brought from Hadong on to Yosu, Samch'onp'o, Ch 'ungmu and Pusan. On its return trip, the boat carried salt, dried sea laver, codfish and other marine products, and also wooden wares such as sanjuk, a bamboo blind used to collect sea laver that was produced in mountain villages in Kurye, Ham yang, Sanch'ong and Haclong. There were also roads running alongside the Somjin-gang. The one linking the Hwajong ferry crossing with Pongso, Anch'on, Wonnae, Yongdu and Kurye was wide enough for wagons to pass. Three regular markets operate here, a permanent market and a livestock market in Kurye County that open on the same days as the regular market in Kurye-ttp. All are public markets. Since long ago, the regular market in Kurye-l"tp has opened on the 3rd, 8th, 13th, 18th, 23rd, and 28th of each month. Until Japanese colonial rule, it operated nearby the Kurye-ttp Rotary and the Agricultural Cooperative Association. It was relocated to the vicinity of the current permanent market and the Central Theater following Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule. On January 21, 1959, the market was moved to Pongdong-ri, Kuryettp. It is now situated on a site with a total land area of 20,229 square meters and a total floor space of 4,022 square meters with 166 stalls. According to statistics compiled 15 years ago, some 150 regular merchants, 150 itinerant merchants and 1,200 general users traded 7.6 million won worth of goods at the market each market clay. The livestock market moved from Pongbuk-ri, Kurye-up to its current location in December 1979. At the time, an average of 120 cows (70 percent of them bulls) and 100 pigs changed hands on market clay. The permanent market in Kurye-up opened on August 13, 1976 on a 3,362square-meter site with a total floor space of 1,842 square meters and 67 stalls, involving a budget of about 50

million won. The head of Kurye-ttp oversees its management. The T'oji Market, which was held in Kusan-ri, T'oji-myon from October 1, 1964 until its closure in 1989, used to open on the 5th, lOth, 15th, 20th, 25th and 30th of each month. It occupied an area of 2,458 square meters and had a floor space of 392 square meters with 11 stalls. Excluding livestock, it traded approximately 1.55 million won worth of goods each market day. It also had about 20 regular merchants and 40 itinerant merchants serving about 200 users. The Yonp'a Market in Yonp'a-ri, Kwang-ui-myon first opened on April 11, 1956. It is now held on the 1st, 6th, 11th, 16th, 21st, 26th and 31st of each month. It is located on a 4,673-squaremeter site and has a total floor space of 468 square meters and 5 stalls. Some 20 regular merchants and 50 i.tinerant merchants serving about 350 consumers trade about 15 million won worth of goods every market day. The Wonch'on Market in Wonch 'on-ri, Sandong-myon first opened on July 15, 1956. It is held on the 2nd, 7th, 12th, 17th, 22nd and 27th of each month. It occupies a 3,580-square-meter site, has a total floor space of 403 square meters and trades about 2.76 million won worth of goods each market clay through 30 regular merchants, 60 itinerant merchants and 350 users. The Yon-gok Market is thought to have been held nearby the mouth of the Yon -gok Stream at the entrance to Yon -goksa Temple in today 's T'ojimyon. The Yonp'a Market was opened in Yonp'a-ri, Kwang-l"ti-myon, and the Wonch'on Market in Wonch'on-ri, Sandong-myon when the road between Kurye-ttp and Namwon was expanded during the Japanese colonial period. Kurye's special products include silverfish from the Somjin-gang, chaksol tea made of tender tree buds, fatsia shoots, an edible root called todok, bracken, bellflower, bamboo shoots, and other wild edible greens from Chirisan as well as woodware, brass-


ware and honey. Silverfish, dace, carp, gray mullet, cornet fish, sea bass, mandarin fish, perch, mullet, crucian carp, goby, catfish, eel, prawn, crab, snapping turtle, marsh snail, and river shells are found in the Somjin-gang and nearby streams. During the Chason Dynasty, Ch6lla-do sent the king live silverfish as tribute in summer and salted silverfish in autumn. Yu Yong-op (1886-1944) was a prosperous landowner who lived in Omi-dong, T'oji-myon, Kurye from the late Chason period through Japanese colonial rule. A diary he kept from 1898 until 1936 contains references to the Kurye Market, providing a glimpse into its functions and credit practices. Following are excerpts from the diary:

Both a permanent market and a regular market are held at the current Kurye Market, which also includes a livestock marke~ which is held on the days following the Hadong Livestock Market held on the 2nd, 7th, 12th, 17th, 22nd and 27th of each month. Merchants who use the market only in the morning or the afternoon pay half the rate for an entire clay. The fee for using the market a whole day ranges from 400 won to 600 won depending on the type of stall, and

from 200 won to 300 won for street stalls. A merchant using a truck to sell a load of vegetables or crops weighing over 2 tons has to pay 500 won; 400 won for a load under 2 tons. A merchant using a cart or cultivator pays 200 won whereas one using a wheelbarrow pays 100 won. Unlike the nearby permanent market, the Kurye regular market has a warm feel to it that rural markets of the past used to have. +

May 28, 1909: One Japanese and four Korean military police came, so I entertained them with drinks I bought in the market. December 25, 1926: The Chinese shopowner came to collect 10 won of the 13.50 won I owe for the winter clothes I bought on credit last year. February 28, 1927: Paid 3 won on the bill I owe a shopkeeper in town for the goods I bought on credit in 1925. Among the documents kept with the diary is a shopping list for a coming-of-age ceremony held on November 14, 1920. It includes a variety of goods the family bought at the Kurye Market and their prices. codfish: stingaree: herring: spearfish: carrots: eggs: pig: noodles:

1 tail 3 tails 10 tails 1 bundle 1 bundle 19 1 head half a unit

75 chon 70ch6n 50 chOn 20 chOn 8 chon 38ch6n 3won (175 bundles) 3won 80ch6n

Bamboo shoots and wild herbs and greens from the nearby Mt. Chirisan are among the main items sold at the Kurye market. 55


NATURE OF KOREA

Lim Seong¡kyu Professor, Kyungpook National University



eventually hundreds or even thousands of meters underground. During this process, all the sediment layers hardened into sedimentary rock Later, these layers were subjected to epeirogenic movement, or mountain-making processes, by which they were thrust up above sea level and gradually eroded down, starting with the uppermost layers. As erosion continued, the layer containing the dinosaur footprints became exposed and the footprints were revealed. Dinosaur tracks reveal much that cannot be gained from fossilized skeletal remains and thus are important to the study of dinosaurs. In areas where no body fossils have been found, the discovery of dinosaur tracks is clear proof that dinosaurs once inhabited the area. Despite the many dinosaur tracks in Korea, very few fossilized remains have been found. The shape of a set of tracks and the trackway reveal a lot of information about the dinosaur that made them, such as its type, size, habits and living patterns. The tracks found in Korea can be classified into three major categories: the bird type which has three parallel toes like a fork; the animal type with a long central toe and two toes on each side of it; and the dragon type which has oval-shaped feet but the toes are not clearly delineated. These three kinds of tracks can be found in various sizes. The bird type is usually 10 centimeters to 60 centimeters long and the animal type 10 centimeters to 40 centimeters. The back foot of the dragon type can be anywhere from 10 centimeters to 1 meter in length. The shape of the toes, or digits, indicates whether the dinosaur was a herbivore or carnivore. The digits of the bird type are all short and thick and the claw mark is not sharp, indicating the dinosaur was a herbivore. The digits of the animal type are long and well defined and the claw marks are very sharp and pointed. It can thus be presumed that the claws were used to attack herbivores. The back and front 58

feet of the dragon type tracks are not clearly defined, while the toes are short and the claw marks are not sharp, indicating that the dinosaur that made them was herbivorous. A trackway reveals how the dinosaur walked and at what speed. The trackways of bird and animal type prints are mostly straight while those of the dragon type often forms an elongated "S" shape. The walking speed of the dinosaur can be calculated from stride length, the distance between two .

The tracks and trackways at a dinosaur track site indicate the living patterns of the dinosaurs. There are sites that show the bird type always formed large groups and moved together in the same direction. From this it can be assumed that they lived in groups. Other sites have tracks that indicate a few members of the animal type moved together at high speeds in the same direction. Another site has large bird type tracks together with 10-centimeter-long tracks of baby dinosaurs

prints made by the same foot. From the stride length it is possible to guess whether the dinosaur that made them was slow or fast or if it was running. In general, the stride length of anin1al type tracks is longer than that of bird and dragon type tracks, which are similar in stride length. This means that the dinosaurs that made animal type tracks could move faster than other types and thus could attack them effectively.

and is thus presumed to have been near a nesting ground. The condition of dinosaur tracks depends on the kind of sediment that existed in the areas around the rivers and lakes where they were made. In some areas, the tracks are so shallow that people often pass by without noticing them. Others are slightly indented only at the tips of the toes. Some are clearly shaped and well pre-


served. In rare cases, the depth of the indentation is more than 40 centimeters. Tracks vary in depth according to the weight of the dinosaur that made them. In certain bird type tracks, they are deeper toward the front. This is because the sediment grew increasingly moist as the dinosaur moved forward. Dinosaur tracks have been discovered in about 300 bedding planes of sedimentary rock distributed throughout the Y6ngnam region. Bird tracks have also been found in some 40 bed-

The first bird tracks in Korea were discovered in 1969 in Haman county, Ky6ngsangnam-do and they proved to be of the second new species in the world. In 1990, a multitude of bird tracks of a different size and shape, and thus of a different species, were found in the coastal area of Kos6ng. Recently, over 5,000 bird tracks and dinosaur tracks were found in the vicinity of Chinju, Ky6ngsangnam-do. At present, this area is regarded as the world's largest bird track site of the

tracks and dozens of pterosaur tracks. The latter tracks are the largest of their kind in the world and the site itself is the biggest pterosaur track site in the world. Most of the dinosaur tracks found in this area are of the bird type. Only a small number of animal type and dragon type tracks have been found. From the fossilized footprints, it can be deduced that during the 140 million years of the Lower Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic Age, the Y6ngnam

The oval-shaped indentations are dragon type dinosaur footprints (left, above left).

ding planes of the same region. Most track sites have been found in the coastal area of Kos6ng county in Ky6ngsangnam-do. There, some 3,000 dinosaur tracks have been found in 200 bedding planes of sedimentary rock 150 meters in depth, as well as some 500 bird tracks in 30 bedding planes. Having studied this area in great detail, I have been able to divide the tracks into 12 types, according to their shape.

Mesozoic Era. In 1997, another dinosaur track site of the Upper Cretaceous period was discovered in Haenam county, Ch6llanam-do where excavation work has been underway for the past two years. Many years ago, tracks of webfooted birds were found in this area and studies have proved them to be of the oldest new species of web-footed bird in the world. Excavations have thus far yielded over 500 dinosaur

region of the Korean peninsula was home to a large lake frequented by many kinds of dinosaurs, birds, ducks and pterosaurs. The area had just the right climate for these animals to thrive. We Koreans should be proud that we have such an incredible natural treasure of international importance. Therefore, it is our task to make every effort to preserve it properly for our descendants. + 59

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any Korean people, especially those over the age of 40, can remember splitting aromatic tree branches for burning in an incense burner filled with ash and embers, and inhaling its fragrant aroma together with its blue smoke. Many also think of incense when they recall ancestral rites because Koreans would invariably burn incense during such rites even when they could not afford a variety of food offerings. This is why Yi I (pen name Yulgok, 1536-1584), a renowned philosopher and statesman of the 16th century, stated in the chapter on rites in his book Ky6kmongyogy61, "Koreans always burn incense during ancestral rites performed on New Year's Day, the winter solstice, and the first full moon day falling on the 15th of the first lunar month." As such, incense, or hyang in Korean, has always been a part of ancestral rites. The Chinese character for hyang, ~' which is used for both incense and fragrance or aroma, is a combination of the character ;5f:, h wa, rice, and B, il, the sun-literall y meaning the smell of ripening rice. In ancient documents, however, the Chinese character ~' so, millet, combined with -~-, kam, sweet, is used for hyang. Millet becomes sweet onl y when fermented. Wine made with fermented millet, called ulch'angju, is believed to have been a gift from the gods and is thus used in important national events such as the rituals performed for the gods of heaven or the memorial rites performed at Chongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine of the Yi Dynasty. Hyang is thus used as a medium to unite heaven, earth and human beings. Incense is also a link between the gods and Korea. The history of incense in Korea is directly associated with its ancient history, which today is unfortunately relegated to the category of myth. The mugwort and garlic that Ung-ny6 (bear-woman) is said to have eaten to turn into a human being is sy mbolic of a strong fragrant spice,

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indicative of the long history of what is today called aroma or herb. But why of all the trees did Hwan-ung, the son of the ruler of Heaven and the father of Tan-gun, the founder of the Korean nation, choose to ride down to earth on a tree called shindansu? The character for dan in shindansu is m,the same one used in paekdan, sandalwood, chadan, rosewood, and ch6ndan, aromatic tree, all trees known for their fragrance. Although the character is at times used to refer to birch, a tree of bright color, it is more commonly used to refer to aromatic trees. The name of the mountain on which Hwan-ung first descended is Myohyangsan, Mountain of Fragrance, which clearly indicates that Koreans regarded aromatic trees to be shindansu, the divine tree upon which Hwanung descended to earth. Although there is dispute as to the actual location of Myohyangsan, there is no disputing that shindansu was a fragrant tree. Also revea ling th e close relationship between aromatic trees and Koreans is the custom of y6m, the washing and clothing of a corpse during burial rites. During the process, water boiled with aromatic wood is used to wash the hair of the deceased and water boiled with mugwort the body, harking back to the shindansu used by Hwan-ung and the mugwort eaten by Ung-ny6, considered a mere myth by Koreans today, but in reality a part of their traditions. Thus in death, Koreans return to the history otherwise ignored in their life, with aromatic wood and mugwort being the fragrances symbolic of their forebears. Another custom related to ancient history is the burning of incense during a process called kangshin in ancestral rituals for the merging of heaven and ea rth in a revival of Hwan-ung 's descent to earth on shindansu. As such, in Korea, incense is not just part of mere legend, but an actual part of history that continues today.

Incense Culture in Korean History Korea's incense culture appears to have originated from Buddhism. During the

reign of King Nulji (r. 418-458), the 19th ruler of the Shilla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), before Buddhism was proclaimed the state religion, the Liang Dynasty of China sent the court gifts of ritual clothes and incense. Records show that Mukhoja, a Buddhist priest, used the incense to cure an ailing princess, proof that incense had already been used as a medical treatment. Mukhoja said in reference to incense, "An aroma rises when incense is burned, and the ardent wish merged within reaches sacred places," adding that, "The gods will always respond when one makes a wish while burning incense." It is clear from this historical record that incense was used both as a medical cure and a supplicatory medium. There are numerous extant vestiges of the incense culture that flourished during the Shilla period. Judging from the images of heavenly maidens holding incense burners in the form of lotus flowers depicted on the Divine Bell of King S6ngd6k the Great, commonly called the Emilie Bell, and the shapes of in cense burners on the images of Buddha carved on a cliff of Mt. Tans6ksan in Ky6ngju, one can surmise that bronze incense burners were manufactured during the Shilla period. The agalmatolite lid of an incense burner discovered in Anapji Pond in Ky6ngju indicates that Shilla used incense burners of ' various materials and shapes. Other historical data indicative of the status to which incense culture prospered during Shilla include a variety of incense, including hardened tree sap and aromatic wood chips, discovered in the S6kkat'ap, Sakyamuni Pagoda, on the grounds of Pulguksa Temple in Ky6ngju. Shilla also exported incense to Islamic nations, proof of the high level of incense culture enjoyed by the ancient kingdom. Kory6 (918-1392), the kingdom that replaced Shilla, continued Shilla's incense culture, importing raw ingredients from China and Southeast Asian countries and re-exporting incense and fragrant oil, a fact that testifies to the outstanding incense-making 61


skills of ancient Koreans. A Japanese record from 400 years ago about a man of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) who taught techniques for producing incense sticks is also indicative of a flourishing incense culture. The best indication of the high level to which Korea's incense culture developed is a Paekche (18 B.C.-A.D. 660) incense burner excavated in 1992. Its beautiful, stately form depicting a dragon and Chinese phoenix embracing the world of humans and the world of the gods embodies the essence of Paekche culture, which greatly elevated the status of Korea's indigenous incense culture. The dragon supporting the world of humans and gods, and the phoenix embracing that world depicts the harmony of heaven, earth and humankind, ancient sentiments inherent to the Korean people. Envisioning the incense smoke floating between the mountain peaks engraved on the incense burner, it seems natural to imagine Paradise. Perhaps, the place where incense burns is the world of our dreams.

Ritual of Burying Incense A unique Korean tradition is kye, an informal mutual-aid association. The kye of modern times, which came into being before the establishment of commercial banks in Korea, is a type of credit union created to help its members gain access to a lump sum of money. However, its prototype is the mutual-aid groups that were once formed to clean village wells or plant trees, as well as other tasks for the common benefit of the community which involved the collection of money, leather or crops in return for such work. As such, kye used to be comprised mainly of blood kin and other close personal relations, and because its members shared a common goal, it played a key role in the functioning of the community. Tracing the roots of kye, one comes upon a unique group called h yangdo. The original definition of hyangdo is "aromatic crowd," "a crowd of people 62

striving to preserve the custom of burning incense" or "a crowd endeavoring to lead a fragrant life." It was autonomous, having no connection with administrative systems or productive communities, and though its form evolved as society changed, its original goal of leading a fragrant life remained. In some ways, it is akin to social volunteer groups of today. The constituents of hyangdo were mainly Buddhist priests and Ia y believers. The first hyangdo mentioned in historical records is Yonghwahyangdo, an organization that Kim Yu-shin (595-673), a Shilla general, established under

h warangdo, the principles observed by

emanates when a pot of incense is buried in the ground. From various records, it can be surmised that after lengthy observation, Koreans discovered a method for aging incense and also learned that aromatic trees were transformed in nature. Interestingly enough, the rituals of burying incense appear to have taken place mainly in coastal areas, where fresh water and salt water would converge. Usually pine and oak wood were buried and commonly referred to as ch'imhyang. But in the strict sense of the term, the incense produced by this method is not ch'imhyang because the term actually refers to heavy tree trunks sunk in water. The incense produced by the burying method is called ch'imhyang in the hope that it will result in fine quality incense like its namesake. This ultimately led to the belief tha~ a new world will be established when the incense buried underground rises to the surface. This is why Kory6 people buried incense; they dreamed of ch'imhyang spreading across the nation with the beginning of a new world 500 or a thousand years later. The people of Kory6 left a unique intangible cultural heritage called maehyang, the burying of incense, together with a tangible cultural heritage, Tripitaka Koreana. If the latter represents Buddhist culture of the ruling elite, the former is representative of popular Buddhism.

a troop of young Shilla warriors known as Hwarang. The organization was closely associated with the worship of Maitreya, the Coming or Future Buddha, which was based on a belief of creating a new world. The disciples erected tem pies and produced Buddhist paintings in their efforts to create that new world, donated food and clothing, and also performed a ritual of burying incense in the ground. Of particular note is the ritual of burying incense, which can be regarded as a process for the aging of aromatic trees. Kyuhapch 'ongs6, an encyclopedia compiled during the Chos6n Dynasty, notes that a strange aroma

Incense Enjoyed in Daily Life It is said that paper used to wrap incense will later exude its fragrance, an indirect reference to the importance of what life embraces. Koreans of old called the house of s6nbi, a traditional scholar, a "house of orchid fragrance," meaning that a s6nbi lives with orchids in his heart, leading a life of self-reliance by resembling an orchid that lives on dew and fresh wind. From long ago, s6nbi considered lighting incense, drinking tea, hanging paintings and planting flowers to be the Four Virtuous Acts. Koreans burned incense not only during ancestral rites, but also in places

Koreans burned incense not only during ancestral rites, but also in places where the mind should be purified. It is said that a sonbi always read with a reverentframe if mind as ifactuallyfocing the author, and thus he burned incense to concentrate wholly on his reading alone.


where the mind should be purified. It is said that a sonbi always read with a reverent frame of mind as if actually facing the author, and thus he burned incense to concentrate wholly on his reading alone. This act is called punhyangdokso, literally meaning burning incense and reading. The first record of this custom appears in Hyangbo ('i!l'w~, Genealogy of Incense) written by Hung Sou C iMl~) of China's Sung Dynasty. It is said in the book, "The History of Chin states that Ts'en Ch'ihching (tj!,Lj~t), whose childhood name was Ssuli (}~'JlÂŁ), was gentle, industrious and pious. By the age of five, he was reading Hyokyong (iÂĽ:kil ., Virtues of Piety) during which he always sat upright and burned incense." This act was considered virtuous so people often burned incense while reading to drive away evil spirits and insects. The oil essence contained in incense also helped the reader to concentrate. Actually, in aroma therapy today, the ingredients in incense such as aloe and rosewood are known to enhance concentration. Perhaps this is why incense burning became a natural part of the reading habits of early sonbi. In the records of the fifth year of the reign of King Sejo (r. 1417-1468) in the Chason wangjo shillok (Annals of the Chason Dynasty), the life of Kang Sok-dok, the father of Kang Hui-an and Kang Huimaeng, two outstanding scholar-statesmen, is stated as follows: "While in office, he was cautious and thorough in carrying out his duties. When staying at home, he sat upright with a stack of books on both sides and incense burning nearby. He was a man of tranquility and peace, and did not seek worldly honor." This is a good indication of the status of incense in the culture of sonbi. Many types of incense were used, including rosewood, aloe wood and benzoin, and came in various shapes. Incense burners were made with diverse materials including clay, copper and other metals. Yi Kyukyong (pen name Oju, 1788-?), was a

Choson scholar who lived with incense eve ryday of his life. In his book Ojuyonmunjang-jonsango, he states that he burned jade oil incense in the morning to give off a refreshing aroma, crescent-shaped incense in the evening to harmonize with the moon, and stick incense while drinking tea, thus living a life accompanied by incense throughout the day. Incense ingredients, or hyangjae, are classified into animal, plant and mineral extracts. Musk is one of the best-known animal extracts. Plant-based incense is produced from virtually every form of aromatic essence found in the roots, branches, stems, leaves and flowers of plants. Countless aromatic ingredients are also used in Oriental medicine such as sandalwood, rosewood, aloe wood, dried clove buds, and other aromatic wood. Hardened tree sap and borneol are also fine ingredients for incense. Incense in the form of small lumps made with splintered aromatic wood is called p 'yonh yang, meaning splinter incense, and finely ground incense is called kawhyang, powder incense. Incense in the form of round pills is called alh yang, or pill incense, small cones, ppulh yang, or horn incense, and spirals, kwonh yang, or rolled incense. The most common type of incense is a stick form called chawhyang, stick incense. In Southeast Asian countries, stick incense is laid horizontally to burn rather than placed vertically as in Korea, and is thus called hwahyang, or lying down incense. Incense packed into reeds or bamboo is called sonhyang. While burning incense, drink a cup of tea or grind an inkstone and write on a piece of white paper. All the while, the aroma of the tea, the smell of the ink, and the fragrance of the incense will silently come together. Incense reverberates in silent harmony. The person burning incense also selfimmolates, resembling the incense that cleanses its surroundings, while seeking to make the world fragrant. Let us hold onto such sentiments. +

From the top: A pine needle is used to lightpowderedincensein which the Chinese character for mind has been drawn. The pine needle is then placed on the incense in such a way that with the drawn character it forms the character "one mind," indicating that the incense is burned to bring peace of mind. 63




f a single phrase were to be used to define the inherent beauty of Korean culture, it would be the "beauty of lines." The resilient, soft curves of the kingfisher blue celadon of the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392), the white porcelain wares of the Yi Dynasty of Choson (1392-1910), the touching melodies of the p'ansori tunes, the highly expressive movements of the solo dance of spiritual cleansing called salp'uri, or the tranquil tones of the taegum (large transverse bamboo flute) unraveling the accumulated grief of life like a gently flowing evening stream, are all art forms created with beautiful lines. Why did ancient Koreans express their philosophy of life through such linear forms, and hope to find solace therein? Such lines appear in the serene topography of Korea's mountains and fields and in the cyclical nature of its four seasons. The sentiments of those whose lives had been swept about by the turbulent tides of their nation's painful history could only become as rounded as pebbles in a riverbed. The epitome of Korea's linear aesthetics is traditional architecture, especially the lines of tiled-roof houses. The elegance of the graceful roof tiles greatly enhances the beauty of tiledroof houses, whose lines are so much more dynamic than those of simple thatched-roof dwellings. Tiles appear to have been first produced in Korea during the second century B.C. when Emperor Wu of China's Han Dynasty conquered Wiman Choson and established four commanderies in Korea. By the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century), tile production had entered a golden age characterized by intricate patterns and a refined sense of aesthetics. Ancient records show that during the height of the Shilla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), every house in Kyongju, its capital, was built with a tiled roof and its people cooked

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their rice over charcoal to prevent their homes from being covered with soot. Blue tiles appeared during the Koryo Dynasty, while the Choson Dynasty established an office in charge of mass-producing tiles for the royal palace. The office, called Pyolwaso, mobilized tile-makers from all parts of the country. This in turn greatly increased the number of tiledroof houses in Seoul. Not everyone could enjoy the luxury of having tiles on their roofs, however; with only ruling aristocrats and government officials being able to afford to live in large tiled-roof houses, commoners lived in thatched-roof dwellings, as they had for generations. The same was true of tile-makers. Although they devoted themselves to turning out tiles until their hands and feet swelled, they themselves lived in dilapidated huts. One must not forget that excruciating poverty, hunger and sorrow are ingrained in the elegant lines of ancient Korean structures. Han Hyong-jun of the Anyang Korean Traditional Tile Factory in Moryong-ri, Anyang-myon, ChanghUng-gun, Chollanam-do, has made tiles all his life. Since starting at the age of 11 as an apprentice at a tile factory in return for room and board, he has spen~ some 60 years baking clay tiles. Although his hard work has never brought him much money, fame or respect, he is still devoted to a profession that is little appreciated. He has continued to produce tiles in the arduous traditional way even though other tile-makers he used to work with turned to Western tiles and cement tiles, which are more profitable. As time passed and tile-makers with the skills and ability to produce traditional style tiles could no longer be found, people turned to Han. Eventually the government bestowed on him the title of Important Intangible Cultural Asset No. 91. Nothing has changed since Han's designation as a human cultural asset,


however. He still continues to knead clay and bake tiles in a factory resembling a hut. Because the work involves many physically demanding tasks such as pounding clay with a club. Han's children have tried hard to dissuade him from working, but he plans to keep on doing so as long as his body allows it out of gratitude to the world for acknowledging his skills. Han began to produce tiles when he was 11. When his father became sick and the family fortunes declined, he went to live with an aunt in Posong where he worked in the tile factory of his uncle, Ch'oe Kil-su, in exchange for room and board. Working as his uncle's assistant, he first did mainly manual chores such as lighting the kiln fires and kneading clay. When Korea gained independence from Japan on August 15, 1945, his aunt and uncle packed their belongings and urged him to come with them to Moryong-ri, saying "We can set up a humble tile factory like this anywhere." The Anyang Korean Traditional Tile Factory was established by Han's Uncle Ch'oe and the then factory manager, Ko Yun-sok. Han has spent over 50 years there producing tiles. One might expect a human cultural asset to work in a tile factory of considerable dimensions boasting a traditional ambiance, but there is only a kiln resembling a fuse box and a warehouse built with loosely stacked bricks. When I pointed out that there is not even a moss-covered tiled-roof over the factory, Han laughed and said it had been purposefully built that way to allow ventilation. Han was designated a human cultural asset because he makes tiles using the traditional method. Perhaps this is why there are no traces of the passage of years at his workplace. Han, his crude hut and the tools all suggest the past. The 35 some odd tools, including a wooden spade and hoe, clay paddle, wire clay cutter, ruler, concave and convex tile tubs and molds, are exactly

the same as those used by tile-makers of the past. Despite his advanced age, Han continues to live and work in the old hut with his clay-covered tools, which, like their owner, have no hint of refinement or elegance. According to Han, one of the most important factors in tile-making is good clay and access to a good source. It is because of Moryong-ri's abundance of excellent clay that he has remained there for over 50 y ears. The clay, which he finds in rice paddies, is an ideal mixture of clay and sand. As soon as the autumn harvest is over, he heads to the fields in search of clay. Because barley cannot be planted where he digs out the clay, he must compensate the farmers for their lost crops. To get to the clay, he must first clear away the topsoil. Black and yellow clay are of the best quality. Black clay, which is so colored because it does not contain sand, is very strong and durable, while yellow clay, though not as strong because it contains sand, is used to adjust the extent of tile contraction. Han stores the clay in pits from autumn through winter and begins to make tiles only when the weather becomes warm. He first removes some clay from the storage pits and sprinkles it with water. He lets the clay sit overnight, and then kneads it. Tile-makers often say, "Kneading the clay is half the work of tile production," an indication of just how arduous the process can be. While kneading the clay, Han has to remove any small stones and other debris found in the clay. He repeats the process three times to ensure that even the smallest pea-size stones are removed. Next, the thoroughly kneaded clay is piled up in a stack 1 meter high and 8 meters long. This stacking is called tamurak in Korean. Tamurak is Chollado dialect for walls. The stacked clay has to be sliced with a wire before it hardens. The slices of clay are then turned into plain and convex tiles using two different

Opposite page, from top: Kneaded clay is piled up in a stack the width of a roof tile to dry. Before it hardens, it is cut into slices with a wire cutter. The clay slices are then brushed with water and

gendy moved to a mold Above, from top: Han puts slices of clay in wooden molds of various sizes. Before the clay becomes too hard, he must draw lines in it so that the clay will break along the lines when baked. 67


Finished roof tiles are stacked in the front yard of Han's tile factory (top). Tiles inside the kiln after the firing (center left). Han taking tiles out of the kiln (center right). The best clay for making roof tiles is found in rice paddies (above). 68

wooden molds. At this stage the tiles are called mulgiwa, or wet tiles, and must be moved to a field to dry in the sun. The drying is not easy either. When the tiles become too dry, the humidity has to be adjusted by lighting fires of varying degrees of heat. And when the tiles have dried completely, they have to be covered with straw mats to protect them from dew and frost. The dried tiles are stored in the warehouse until there is enough to fill the kiln-about 1,300. On the day of their firing, they are stacked inside the kiln in the following order: plain convex tiles; plain concave tiles; maksae, convex tiles with variously shaped tips are used along the edges of a roof; and tiles with variously shaped tips are used to line the edges of the eaves of a roof. They must be stad<:ed in a way that will enable heat from the fires to spread evenly throughout the kiln. Next, Han closes the kiln and, after adopting a respectful frame of mind, he performs a ritual beseeching the gods to watch over the firing. When the fires do not burn properly, the gas inside can explode, or the tiles can become warped, rendering all his hard work useless. This is why firing the kiln is the most difficult job for a tile-maker. It is the skill he needs to ensure his livelihood. A fire is first lit in the fire holes on the sides of the kiln in order to heat it up slowly and dry out any moisture that might remain in the tiles. Next, the temperature is raised slowly. During the initial stages of the firing , it is important for the heat to spread evenly throughout the tiles. In the next stage, wood is burned to raise the heat until the tiles turn gray or slightly red. During the next two stages, with the fire strong and hot, the tiles turn silver. At this very moment, the fire holes have to be quickly plugged up with yellow clay. This allows the black smoke and soot from the firewood to settle on the surface of the tiles and become a natural glaze that ultimately


produces the unique gray color of the tiles. The kiln is opened three days after the blocking of the fire holes, and Han sees the gray tiles for the first time. Han says that it is for that moment of ecstasy that he has lived and worked in his hut for 50 years, a feeling that many say is akin to seeing a baby born. Tiles produced with ancient tools by a person who does not know how to change with the times are historical artifacts. Amazingly enough, the tiles Han produces are more durable than

those made by modern techniques, and they also adapt well to changes in the weather. Although they might look polished and sleek, modern tiles mass-produced by automated machines cannot endure cold weather and easily crack On the other hand, the simple, clumsy-looking tiles produced the traditional way never freeze or crack, nor does rain or snow seep into them easily. When it snows or rains, the tiles absorb the water but this later evaporates when the weather clears up. Han says this is because the tiles can breathe. +

Han Hyong-jun ofthe Anyang Korean Traditional Tile Factory in Moryong-ri', Anyang-myon, Changhiing-gun, Chollanamdo, has 111INk riles allhis l!fo. Since starting at the age of11 ns an apprentice at a tilefactory in returnfor room and board, he has spent some 60years baking clay tiles. 69


KOREAN NATIONAL TREASURE

Largest Buddhist Temple Bell

The

e Bell, E111ille LeeWon-bok Curator, National Museum of Korea

Koreans have never boasted about the bell's noteworthy size, considering its dimensions to be insignificant, and have merely appreciated its being. Still, it is an indisputable fact that the Divine Bell of King Songdok the Great is the largest of the ancient bronze Buddhist temple bells known in Asia today.

he Divine Bell of King S6ngd6k the Great, also called the Emilie Bell and the Pongd6ksa Bell, was created to extol the great achievements of King S6ngd6k (?-737, r. 702-727), the 33rd king of Shilla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935) who internationalized the kingdom at a time of domestic political stability. King Ky6ngd6k (r. 742-765), S6ngd6k's son, was the first to attempt to cast the bell, but it was not completed until 771 when it was finally successfully cast during the reign of his son, King Hyegong (r. 756-780). The largest bell in Korea, it hangs in a pavilion on the grounds of the Ky6ngju National Museum. It is quite difficult to determine its precise measurements, especially its weight. It was long said that the bell was 3.33 meters tall and weighed 25,000 kilograms (25 tons), but according to an in-depth study conducted in August 1997, the bell measures 3.36 meters in height, 2.2 meters in diameter, and weighs 18.9 tons. Although one cannot help but marvel at its grandeur, it appears that its extraordinary size was of no partie-

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A beautiful kneeling apsaras adorning the surface of the Divine Bell of King SOngdok the Great.

ular significance to Koreans in ancient times. In the Korean language, the term h6widae, meaning "a tall figure of large build," is usually used in a rather negative sense to mean a "a tall and big person without resourcefulness." Rather than express admiration for their stature, Koreans employ various phrases to scorn 'or ridicule tall people. Perhaps this is one of the reasons Koreans today seem at times insensitive to the actual scope of the cultu"ral accomplishments of their ancestors, with perceptions which tend to downplay their actual significance. So many historical relics have been destroyed through frequent foreign invasions that what remains today is only the tip of the iceberg of what once existed. Chang-om is a Korean term meaning "great and majestic." Although the statues of Buddha and the ancient palaces and fortresses of Korea may not seem chang-om compared to those of China , there are many Korean cultural relics that are truly great and majestic, including the Divine Bell of King S6ngd6k the Great. However, Koreans have never


boasted about the bell's noteworthy size, considering its dimensions to be insignificant. More important to them has always been the primary function of Buddhist temple bells: calling the masses to prayer with their sound-the voice of Buddha. Still, it is an indisputable fact that it is the largest of the ancient bronze Buddhist temple bells known in Asia today. Other special features of the Divine Bell of King Songdok the Great worthy of attention include the beautiful kneeling apsaras (heavenly maidens) and arabesque design carved in relief on its surface; its silhouette resembling a vase; the four square patterns on the shoulder of the bell, each containing nine nipple-like projections set in a lotus flower; and the flowerlike scalloping of the rim. Searching the origin of Buddhist temple bells, people generally look to India, the birthplace of Buddhism, the bronze hand-bell and gong used for rituals in ancient China, and the wood block used in Buddhist temples. Korea has always created cultural forms distinct from originals following their introduction from abroad, and Buddhist temple bells are no exception. This is why Korean temple bells came to have their own academic nomenclature, "Chason Bell," in the history of Asian tern pie bells. It cannot be overlooked that a devout religious belief, an exceptional sense of aesthetics and innovative technology lay behind the creation of the beautiful Divine Bell of King Songdok the Great. As the lengthy inscription-630 Chinese characters-on the bell indicates, the bell was the

product of painstaking workmanship on the part of the ancient Koreans who sought to extol! the virtues of King Songdok and express their desire for the peace and happiness of their nation and its people. +

An indentation was created under the bell to produce a deeper sound(above). The rim of the bell is scalloped like a flower and adorned with lotus blossoms and a floral arabesque band (below).

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KOREAN MYTHOLOGY

The Myth of the Shilla

Gold Crown Kim Yol-kyu Professor of Korean Literature Inje University

Indigenous peoples of Siberia such as the Tungusic and Manchurian tribes and Palaeo Asians, whose shamanic beliefs are often compared with the shamanic beliefs of Koreans in anthropological studies, all have their cosmic trees, or "shaman trees." They also worship deer antlers.

he gold crown of the Shilla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935) is incomparably beautiful. Even those who do not lust for kingly powers would want to adorn their head with such a gorgeous and resplendent crown, if only for once in their lifetime. It might sound odd to some that the gold crown of Shilla embodies a myth. They might think that it is sufficient for a crown to simply suggest the glory and the power of the throne.

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The gold crown of Shilla, however, tells a tale through symbols. In general, myths are transmitted orally with words. It is hard to tell a myth through symbols. Nevertheless, because symbols carry meaning, a combination of them can tell a story. The gold crown of Shilla embodies the cosmology of the Shilla period and before through symbols. The cosmology of a people is, needless to say, the concepts that they hold in common regarding the relationship


that exists between humans and Heaven and Earth. This constitutes the primary myth of a people, together with the myth of cosmic genesis. Korea's ancient myths, however, have to do with the creation of the various dynasties. So they are not creation myths, at least not the verbally transmitted ones. Therefore, if a crown reflects the cosmology of a people, then it should be regarded as mythologically more significant than myths passed on orally. This is a very significant fact in Korean mythology. When wearing their crowns, the kings of Shilla wore myths on their heads. Crowns, of course, signify the divine origin of royal power, which is based on a myth containing the promise that the king will rule in accordance with the concept of the royal mandate explicit in the myth. Shilla crowns are perfectly symmetrical. A tree stands in the center, forming an axis and resembling two "mountain" ideograms (LlJ) one on top of the other, or the ideogram for "exit" (1Âą\). The tree is not an ordinary tree but a world tree or a cosmic tree. The tree stands upright in the center of the universe, with its roots extending far down to the center of the world and its boughs stretching toward the heavens just like the Ygdrassil tree of the god Odin in Scandinavian myths. In Ancient Chason, Korea's first kingdom, the tree was called shindansu, "the divine altar tree." God descended to Earth by using the tree as a ladder, and humans performed religious rituals under it. Thus it formed the center of the altar from which God governed men. Later, the idea spread, and each village had its own divine altar tree, or "Sonang Tree." It is only natural that the tree that is the pillar of the Earth and upholds Heaven stands at the center of the crown. On the crown right next to the tree is a piece resembling a deer antler. In this way, it is similar to the crowns of the indigenous peoples of Siberia such as the Tungusic and Manchurian

tribes and the Palaeo Asians, whose shamanic beliefs are often compared with those of Koreans in anthropological studies. They all have their cosmic trees, or "shaman trees," and they also worship deer antlers, which adorn the crowns worn by the shamans of some of these tribes. Some Siberian tribes regard deer as an animal for all seasons. Deer are the only animals that move around on the frozen snow-covered plains of Siberia. This is enough to make them objects of worship. But the fact that deer shed their horns in late autumn and sprout new ones in spring makes them even more sacred. Deer antlers are worshipped for having the power of renewal or resurrection, and deer . are worshipped for being divine animals

space, accompanying gods and the souls of shamans. Since eagles were believed to have led the first fathers or shamans of each race from Heaven to Earth, they were thought to be heralds or messengers of the gods. Some Siberian shamans wear crowns adorned only with feathers. In Korean folk religions of later times, birds were worshipped as village guardian spirits, being regarded as messengers between the heavenly and the earthly worlds. The divine tree stands at the center of the universe, connecting Earth and Heaven, making it possible for gods to travel to Earth and back, carrying messages to and from humans. This makes human habitation on earth a sturdy and secure one, with strong pillars.

In general, myths are transmitted orally with words. It is hard to tell a myth through symbols. Nevertheless, because symbols carry meaning, a combination of them can .t ell a story.

that can renew themselves every spring, just like trees. Thus we find in Siberian shamanism the reason Koreans regard deer antlers as elixirs of eternal life. In the center of the Shilla crown is the cosmic tree, and on each side of it are deer antlers, and beside the antlers are bird wings. These three symbols may be regarded as the trinity of the Shilla crown. In Siberian shamanism, eagles and other birds are cosmic animals. Birds can not only move freely in cosmic space, but they can also travel through

The cosmic bird perching on top of the cosmic tree surveys human affairs and reports back to the gods. It also carries the words of the gods to humans. In this way, Heaven and Earth are open to each other. Close by the trunk of the cosmic tree is a deer with a full rack of antlers. The deer brings humans a life of plentitude, thus helping to make human habitation an earthly paradise. The Shilla crown, in short, embodies the cosmic blueprint of the Shilla people, and a radiant tale explaining their conception of cosmic principles. + 73


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tance of culture. As icing uturists have predicted that on the cake, the event the 21st century was held in Kyongju, the will be "the ceneastern end of the failed tury of culture" Silk Road and an ancient city with a history of with global dominance being determined not by 1,000 years in which the brilliant culture of Shilla economic or military strength but rather by blossomed. With the venue being cultural sup eriority . Another intriguing prenone other than Kyongju, Baek Seoung-mok di ction is that cu lture the organizers chose Reporter, Kyung Hyang Shinmun "The New Millen-nium will emerge as an industry in the near future Smile" as the title of the and evolve into the most event. And be-cause its purpose was to encourage global cooperation in preprofitable industry of all. More importantly, however, culture is the only medium that can resolve conflict serving existing cultures and creating new ones or confrontation between countries and ethnic through cultural exchanges, it was subtitled "Inheritance, Harmony, and Creation." groups as well as lead to harmony through universal values. It is thus meaningless to try to put a price on There were six major event categories: video shows, exhibitions, performances, supplementary culture. In this regard, the '98 Kyongju World Culture Expo events, official events, and special events. With some was a most valuable experiment. Even though the 7,000 participants from 48 countries, the events were event ran only two months-from September 11 to held in six halls and various other places in Kyongju, including Pulguksa, a Buddhist temple on the World November 10-it was meaningful in that it was the very first attempt to impress upon people the imporHeritage List of the United Nations Educational,

'98Kyingju World

Culture Expo

The entrance to the Kyongju World Culture Expo

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Currents in that it was the very first cultural festival attempted Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). At the entrance to the Expo was the New in the world. It served as an excellent vehicle for Korea's globalization effort; through the festival the Millennium Smile Hall where the works of 12 promiworld was introduced to Korea and Koreans gained a nent video artists, including one entitled Inheritance, greater understanding of the world. The festival is Harmony, and Creation by the world-famous Paik Namjune, were displayed. Another hall popular with slated to be held biannually hereafter. Koreans have seen many international events visitors was the World Civilization Hall where relics of the world's come and go as onetime events that only cost money wh ile four major ancient civilizations, achieving disappointingly little. It including those of the Indus and is thus encouraging to learn that Yellow Rivers, could be seen. the Ky6ngsangbuk-do provincial Among the 704 relics were a statgovernment, the sponsor of the ue of Anubis from Egypt, a stone festival, is committed to promotbracelet from India, a clay figure ing this event and improving its of a general that was excavated programs so that the event can from the tomb of Shih Huang Ti, become a world-class festival. That the first emperor of China's Ch'in the local government was able to Empire, and a gold crown from successfully host an international Korea's own ancient Shilla event without much support Kingdom. Three hundred and from the central government is an sixty-five of the relics were genachievement in itself. uine, and the Expo organizing The World Culture Expo can committee had to purchase museserve as a model for other internaum insurance to protect them. tional events to be held in Korea. International folk art perforIt clearly showed that whether an mances were staged at the event is for the mutual gain of all Paekky61 Performance Hall and participating countries or for the Ch'oyong Open-air Stage. Here goodwill to promote friendship spectators could appreciate diverse and exchanges it w ill not attract folk art performances from much attention from the Korean around the world, which would people, not to mention the interprobably take most people at least national q)mmtmity, if it does not two years of international travel to present uniqu e features. Deep see in person. The World Cultural pockets may ensure an extravaPlaza and the House of Friendship gant festival. However, the effecfeatured souvenirs and traditional tiveness of an event is not deterfoods as well as games from mined by only the size of its budaround the world. Of particular get. Especially in this time of ecointerest in the House of Friendship nomic restraint, it is critical to were rare examp les of North design events that can achieve Korean culture, specifically maximum effect at minimum Kogury6 culture. These included expense. No such undertaking photographs and a full-scale reproScenes from the exposition (from should end up merely an event duction of a wall painting from a the top): The Flag Plaza, the World "for show," as so many past events Kogury6 tomb. Cultural Plaza, the World have been. "Economics" is now a In addition to such distinCivilization Hall and critical factor in promoting a sucguished programs, the '98 Kyongju a commemorative performance. World Culture Expo was unique cessful event. +

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very country has a civilian government its own modern for the first time in 32 history. But its years in 1993, Korea's people may feel modern history has differently about been an endless series it, with differing views of turmoil and despair. and thoughts. Countries At the end of all this, that have experienced Korea found some colonial rule and then semblance of security. gone on to achieve ecoRising from the ruins of nomic prosperity perthe Korean War, Korea haps develop more achieved rapid economLee Chung-il ic development to potent feelings than Reporter, Chosun Ilbo most. Marked by such become a country to be events as liberation from reckoned with in Asia. Japanese colonial rule in 1945, the founding of the Even Koreans themselves find it difficult to believe that their country's modern history has been so turRepublic of Korea in 1948, the Korean War, a battle bulent. of Cold War ideologies, in 1950, the student revolution of 1960, the military coup d'etat led by Gen. Park Cheong-hee in 1961, the civilian uprising in The Story of Our Lives Kwangju and the seizure of power by Gen. Chun Of Korea's 5,000-year history, the past 50 years Doo-whan in 1981, the struggles for democratization have been the most dynamic. This was vividly in 1986, the Seoul Olympics in 1988, and the return to depicted in a comprehensive manner and without

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50 Years of Korean History

The Story of OurUves

Large panels presenting major events over the past 50 years line an entire wall of the first floor gallery.

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exaggeration in the exhibition "50 Years of Korean History-The Story of Our Lives" which was held at the Seoul Arts Center from August 15 to October 6 under the sponsorship of the Chosun Ilbo. The exhibition was the culmination of two years of planning by 100 specialists, among others, who collected 500 artifacts, 2,000 photos and other visual materials, along with 300 rare documents for the event. Large 8-meter by 45-meter panels presenting a chronological overview of major events over the last 50 years were featured on the first floor of the hall, along with a wide variety of artifacts including examples of the first "Made in Korea" items such as a typewriter, public phone, car, artificial heart, 64M DRAM chip and armored car, as well as documents, arms and daily utensils used in the 1950s around the time of the founding of the republic and the Korean War. Artifacts from the 1960s and 1970s illustrating Korea's economic development, prolonged military rule, and increasing gap between the rich and poor, and from 1987 onward showing the development of the nation after the 1988 Seoul Olympics and the lifestyles of the Korean people were exhibited on the second floor. The third floor featured a "corporate pavilion" presenting the history and key products of the country's major conglomerates such as Hyundai, Samsung and Daewoo, as well as an exhibition of dolls in scenes from everyday life from the 1950s through the 1970s.

Unexpected Crowds The exhibition, which opened on August 15 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Korea, drew crowds that well exceeded the expectations of the organizers. It was a huge success with more than 10,000 visitors on weekdays and over 20,000 on weekends and public holidays. However, as this volume was three times the 3,000 visitors per day that was considered ideal for this event, people had to wait an hour in line just to get into the exhibition. And considering that there was an admission charge, this was quite unprecedented. Most visitors included families, in some cases with three generations of relatives from grandparents to grandchildren. They came from not only Seoul and its vicinity but as far away as the Ch'ungch'6ng and Kangwon provinces, driving for two to four hours to

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attend the exhibition. President Kim Dae-jung visited the exhibition as did former presidents Chun Doowhan and Rho Tae-woo and other distinguished figures from political and religious circles as well as other segments of society.

This is the Way Our Parents Lived Why was the exhibition so popular? In general, Koreans have been so busy worrying about tomorrow that they have not taken the time to reflect upon their past. They have gone forward while ignoring the pains of yesterday. Fifty years covers roughly two generations. During this period of time, which is neither short nor long, Korea has changed very dramatically and rapidly. As a result, parents have not had the time to talk properly to their children about the proud and not so proud moments in their lives while these children have grown up doing the same with their own children. And even if they did have the chance to talk about such things, it is more than likely that their children would have had a hard time understanding. Without realizing it, a barrier was built by suppressing painful memories. Perhaps the exhibition was so popular because, in effect, it helped to break down that barrier. The elderly could look back on their turbulent lives, the middle-aged could look back with some affection on their make-do yet happy younger days, and young children could see for themselves how their parents lived. For families, the exhibition proved to be an opportunity to travel back in time. "That's right! Remember that, we used to use those. Today's children wouldn't use them even if they had them." "These are the books your father and mother used." "Those are the leg irons used on North Korean soldiers during the war. They were put on the soldiers to stop them from running away. Soldiers were given just a machine gun. It was a terrible war." "When your father was young there was always plenty of fish in the streams. Not like these days when you have to go to the country to see clean water." Such comments could be heard throughout the exhibition halls. Toward a Promising Future After holding their children's hands and explaining this and that exhibit, adults came out of the exhibition looking as if they had been relieved of a heavy

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Currents burden. But in one respect, something remains unresolved. Yes, the exh ibition showed how Koreans lived over the past 50 years but there are some misgivings as to whether or not it was the best way. Koreans call today the "IMF era." This is because Korea had to be bailed out of a foreign exchange crisis last yea r w ith emerge n cy loa n s fr o m th e International Monetary Fund, the result of failed economic policies. With problems such as soaring unemployment, restructuring of the financial sector, labor strife arising from corporate mergers and acquisitions, economic recession, and the closure of small and medium businesses, Koreans today are suffering troubles no less painful than war. That people are severely despondent is an inevitable consequence. For the

Clockwise from above: A young child learns how to weave a straw sack that was used to store rice at one of the many interactive displays outside the gallery; an attendant at the LG corporate pavilion on the third floor tells children about a high-tech material calledsiliconprimerthatdoesnotstick toyourhandsandwhenshapedintoa ball. bounces; youngsters look with curiosity at household objects they had never seen before but which were commonplacejust20or30 yearsago.

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past 50 years, we have marched relentlessly toward the goal of becoming an advanced country and have reaped some results. But what does our demise into the so-called IMF era mean? Many people say that we are suffering because we have not properly understood what it means to become a developed nation. It is not possible to become a developed country without attaining material abundance but rather a wealth of our minds. Our collective conscience, the oil th at kee ps th e soc ietal m ac hin ery running smoothly, has been thrown out of kilter and we no longer have room to maneuver. This has been a stark 50-year chapter in our history. And in this respect, recovery is the subject of our story for the next 50 years. +


Currents onfident of its abilithe three others were winties after successfulners in a drama contest. ly hosting the 1997 During the festival, theatergoers were able to attend the Theater of Nations, a large-scale interperformances by purchasing a "Seoul ticket," priced at a national theater festival last bargain 7,000 won (about year, the Korea Theater US$5), thanks to the sponsorAssociation has upgraded ship of the government and the former Seoul Theatrical various corporate supporters. Festival, held every With such reasonable ticket autumn, into the Seoul International Th eater prices and the superb quality Kim Mi-do Festival. A country cannot of the featured works, the Theater Critic Seoul International Theater entertain the idea of hostProfessor, Seoul Industrial College Festival is destined to be the ing an international festival most splendid international unless its own culture has theater festival in Asia. reached a certain level, and Of the eight Korean the very fact that the entries, the performance that Korean theater community attracted the most attention has transformed the festiwas the Yonhidan Group's val into an annual internaHeavenly Feeling at the tional affair demonstrates Munyehoegwan Small Theath e qualitative advanceter, September 18-24. Written ment which Korean theby Yi Kang-baek and directater has achieved. ed by Yi Youn-taek, it was Seoul is one of the few first performed during the Yi cities in the world where Kang-baek Drama Festival at theaters remain active. the Seoul Arts Center in the Everyday there are 20 to 30 A scene from Heavenly Feeling first half of the year. At that plays presented in the city. Only New York, London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna time, the combination of this generation's best playwright and best director created a stir among theater match or surpass Seoul in the number of plays staged circles. When Yi Youn-taek deleted some repetitive from day to day. The areas around Taehangro Street, dialogue from the script and' put more emphasis on including Tongsung-dong, Hyehwa-dong, and body language, the author became enraged and openMyongnyun-dong, form a theater district unlike any ly expressed his displeasure with the director's other in the world. Scattered about this area are some changes. However, this literary-theatrical controversy 30 large and small theaters as well as numerous cafes, benefited both the writer and the director in the end. bars, and restaurants popular with members of the Yi Youn-taek rediscovered the "power of words" younger generations, who form the core of Korea's through Yi Kang-baek's persistent philosophical, contheatergoers. On any given day, one can always find ceptual language, whereas Yi Kang-baek rediscovered at least one play to one's liking at Taehangro. the "language of the body" through the splendid draEight Korean drama companies and six foreign matic expressions created by Yi Youn-taek. To portray groups were officially featured in the '98 Seoul the numerous Buddhist statues that appear in the play, International Theater Festival. In addition, 20 Korean Yi Youn-taek utilized the performers' bodies, thus deliplays were presented at the festival on a voluntary participation basis. Of the eight official Korean entries, cately manifesting the invisible benevolence of the five were selected through an intensive screening Buddha. process conducted in the first half of the year while Mr. Kim Ch'i-guk Has Gone Crazy, which was writ-

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'98Seoul InterJtational Theater Festival

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ten by Chang So-hyon, dramatized by Yi Yun-chol, directed by Ch'oe Yong-hun and performed by the Yon-wu Theater at the Hakjon Small Theater, September 16-29, successfully killed two birds-art and popularity-with one stone-illuminating problems of Korean unification from a comical viewpoint. While reading a newspaper one day, Mr. Kim Ch'i-guk, a notorious penny-pincher, learns that 1.8 billion won (about US$13 million) had been withdrawn from his bank account and donated to the "Help North Koreans" drive. After many twists and turns, he discovers that the person behind the donation was none other than Kim P'yong-ch'on, his twin brother whom he had lost in North Korea in his youth. The twins' Scenes from some of the official entries (clockwise from right): Song of

Wanderer; Mr. Kim Ch'iguk Has Gone Crazy; Heavenly Feeling

separation and strife are a metaphor for the antagonism between the two Koreas. The only physical feature by which the two brothers can be distinguished is the shape of their genitals; but even Mr. Kim's wife cannot choose the right one. The issue of whether the genitalia should lean to the right or the left symbolizes the confrontation of ideologies: right-wing vs. leftwing. By completely wrapping the serious theme of national unification in comical elements, the play succeeds in making people laugh as well as stirring up desires for national unification. Michu's performance of Blazing Sunshine, the dramatization of a novel by Park Sang-ryung, and

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Shinhwa's At the Land's End, You Can See the Ocean, a play with comical touches that depicts the life of poor commoners, were other favorites. Among the foreign entries that attracted many theatergoers were Reporter Londres's W 01ld Report (La Planete Londres) by the Theatre des Arts of France; Crash! (Patapumfete) by the Rome Modern Theatrical Company (Compagnia del Teatro Meoderno di Roma) of Italy; Life Is a Dream by the Ljubljana National Theater of Slovenia (Slovensko Narodno Gledalisce Drama Ljubljana); and Carmen, the Pitiful (Carmen Funebre) by the Biuro Podrozy Theatrical Company (Teatr Biuro Podrozy) of Poland. Carmen, the Pitiful, which was performed at the open-air stage of Tongsong High School, September 18-19, had been a hit as the opening performance of the '98 Kwach'on International Open-air Theater Festival and was thus included in the Seoul International Theater Festival. With the Bosnian civil war as its main theme, the play depicts the grim situation of Eastern Europe with appalling, cruel, grotesque aesthetics. The overpowering appearance of actors hobbling about with absurdly high crutches, wearing black cloaks and skull-faced masks, cracking whips and waving huge flags, forced spectators to come to grips with the horrors of war. It was unfortunate that the Seoul International Theater Festival lacked sufficient auxiliary events to give it a true festival atmosphere. Nonetheless, the friendly mingling of the performers, audiences, and other involved persons created a festive mood. However, it would be desirable if such events as street plays and open-air performances that can attract non-theatergoers can be added hereafter. It was also disappointing that the international festival did not attract many foreign viewers. This was probably the result of insufficient publicity owing to this being the first year of the festival. More effort should be made to attract foreign viewers next time. One possibility is to include this festival in tour packages for tourists from Japan and China. The Seoul International Theater Festival may someday emerge as a center of international theater along the lines of the Avignon Festival of France and the Edinburgh Festival of Scotland. +


Currents

The Face of Bwnor in Korea's Contemporary Art Park Rhai¡kyoung Director, Korean Interculture Research Council

Seoul from August 14 through September 3 entitled aehak, the Korean term for humor, general"The Changing Face of Humor Within Contemporary ly alludes to a sense of liberation, usually Korean Art," provided a forum revealing how various accompanied by laughter, at overcoming an aspects of humor in today's Korean society have oppressive situation. At the same time, haechanged from those of the past. The emphasis of the hak transcends the universal concept of exhibition was on tracing humor in that it incorporates the historical development both the witticism and jocuof humor abundantly found larity of attempting a bold in Korea's culture and art. leap from mundane life and The exhibition focused on desperate reality through a the humor inherent in strong resolve that turns into works of art, an aspect of mental poise and composure. Korea's indigenous culture Since ancient times, Koreans that had never been highhave displayed a rich sense lighted in the form of an of humor in their daily lives exhibition. It also sought to as well as their artistic define the existence of expressions. humor in today's intellectual Koreans today are living and critical art expressions. It in an era afflicted with varifea.tured 53 works by 22 ous types of oppression origlocal artists of different geninating from diverse sources erations, ranging from those including the times, society already de-ceased to young and the environment. As and old working in various such, this era demands of genres, including painting, them a unique and rich sculpture, photography and humor to overcome the conTiger and Turtle by Lee Man-ik installation art. The works tradictions and inconsistenwere categorized into three types to highlight the discies of reality and superficial phenomena. There is tinctive aspects of contemporary humor. also the singular sensation of living at the end of a century, a rising concern over the earth's environment The first group, narrative expressions of comical portraits of humans and caricatures of personified aniand a struggle to preserve it, and the realization of the mals, included works by Lee Ung-no, Sung Jae-hun, limitations of such efforts- all of which serve to raise Kim Ki-chang, Lee W al-chong, Choi Young-lim, Chang awareness about the humor unique to Koreans. Uc-chin, Lee Man-ik, Oh Yoon and You Jong-ho. Under such circumstances, an exhibition held at the Running through these works was an aesthetic sense Dong-A Gallery and Munhwa Ilbo Gallery in central

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Currents of conventional humor. The photographs by Kim Dae-byuk, in particular, well reveal the humor commonly seen in Korea's traditional formative arts, including a portrait of foolish people with various shortcomings warmly embracing each other, and stone and wood changsilng, spirit posts, featuring comical, exaggerated expressions humorously revealing Koreans' bold spirit. The second group of works were examples of a playful intuition coupled with abstractionism. Contemporary abstract ink paintings embodying a definitive dynamism of life, they present a type of humor that is different from that found in the ink paintings and calligraphy of Korea's traditional literati. The works of Seo Se-ok unravel an abstract world of ink painting that demonstrates such definitive dynamism of life through the artist's astute perception of humor. Chung

Woman by Lee Wal-chong

(above); Smiler by Paik Namjune

Kyung-yeun's fiber art installation, a display of different colored cotton gloves whose finger tips appear to be whispering to each other, also reveals a playful sense of humor. In Bae Bien-u's photographs, the flickering light of large and small lanterns coming from a fishing boat floating on the silent night sea off Chejudo Island create a jocular, playful image. Just as Korea's traditional expressions of humor, as portrayed in folk art works such as ceramics or

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changsi:ing that also display Koreans' bold temperament through exaggerated expressions, are continued in the works of the first group, those of the second group are also related with traditions in some ways in that they feature a tranquil composure that is ultimately revealed as humor through comical expressions. More specifically, just as a sense of humor permeates certain types of traditional ink paintings and calligraphic works, a new and contemporary sense of humor runs through many modern art works. Included in the second group were works by Hong Seung-hye who mainly creates organic and geometric patterns. The playful and frisky characteristics of humor are displayed through the insertion of alien items that deviate from a group of orderly and repetitive units. The third group included works by Paik Namjune, Byun Jong-ha, Ann Chang-hong, Yoon Dong-chun, Kim Sang-sook, Jung Bok-su, Kim Beom and a laser work by Che Mi-hyun. A uniquely Korean humor that underlies the satirical character of Paik Namjune's works is manifested in its pure form in the small installation works titled Smiler and Puppet that were included in this exhibition. Korean humor can also be discerned in Byun Jong-ha's political parody, After Don Quixote-DictatOJ; Ann Chang-hong's social parodies Pig and Madam and Artist, Kim Beom's ironical works Pregnant Hammer and Brick Wall, and Yoon Dong-chun's installation art, which wittily shows the satirical reversal of power. A sense of humor fills the entire canvas in Jung Bok-su's satirical work entitled Tige1; in which the artist relentlessly pursues the relationship between humans and greed. Meanwhile, Kim Sang-suk's In Transit transforms a space in the real world into a realm of fantasy that ultimately turns into a space of experience for participants. In Gesture of Earth, Chae Mi-hyun presents a captivating display of laser-generated red dots that repeatedly stop and dynamically change their location on the canvas symbolizing an exploding earth. The exhibition highlighted the existence of humor in contemporary works by modern artists employing different methods of expression and media. +


Arts of Korea Park Eun-wha Professor Archaeology/Art History Ch'ungbuk Nat'l University

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York opened its first permanent gallery dedicated to the arts of Korea on June 9. The inaugural exhibition of the new Arts of Korea Gallery, featuring the finest examples of Korean art in all major media, including 22 national treasures, will be on view until January 1999. Drawn from the superb collections of the National Museum of Korea as well as from public and private collections in Korea, Japan, and the United States, and including works from the Metropolitan's own collection, the exhibition is the first comprehensive display of Korean masterpieces to be seen in the United States in the nearly 20 years since the "5,000 Years of Korean Art" exhibition toured the United States and several European countries in the early 1980s. Arts of Korea was published in conjunction with the opening of the gallery by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The fully illustrated 512-page catalogue ($ 50), which presents the 100 works of art of the exhibition, examines the most significant developments in Korean art, from the Neolithic period to the 19th century, through outstanding examples in four major areas: ceramics,

Buddhis.t sculpture, metalwork and decorative arts, and painting. The color plates are accompanied by brief entries that explain the stylistic characteristics, technical innovations, and historical significance of each work. The catalogue contains six essays written by leading Korean art historians. The essays, reflecting the scholarly expertise of the contributors, introduce the latest research findings in Korean art history with ample endnotes and black and white illustrations that present a full sampling of the key objects in the development of Korean art. "Profile of the Korean Past" by Professor Jonathan Best of Wesleyan University provides an essential historical oveNiew of the geographical, political, and social conditions in which the art objects presented in the catalogue were created. "The Art of the Korean Potter: From the NeolithiC Period to the Chason Dynasty" by Chung Yang-mo. Director of the National Museum of Korea, "Tradition and Transformation in Korean Buddhist Sculpture" by Professor Kim Lena of Hongik University, and "The Origin and Development of Landscape Painting in Korea" by Professor Ahn Hwi-joon of Seoul National University present complete and thorough suNeys of the important developments in the history of ceramics, Buddhist sculpture and landscape painting. "Artistic Tradition and the Depiction of Reality: True-view

Landscape Painting of the Choson Dynasty" by Professor Yi Song-mi of the Academy of Korean Studies is an in-depth study on the true-view landscape ( OC~ il.J ;}(fi!ii) tradition of Korea, which advocated the depiction of real Korean scenery instead of imaginary scenery based on Chinese models, and culminated in the 18th century in distinctive Korean landscape styles. In her essay, "An Kyon and the Eight Views Tradition : An Assessment of Two Landscapes in The Metropolitan Museum of Art," Professor Kim Hong-nam of Ewha Womans University analyzes the landscape style of An Kyon (act. ca.1440-1470), the most popular and influential painter of the early Chason Dynasty, and attributes the pair of landscape paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art to him on the basis of a stylistic comparison. Professor Pak Young-soak of the University of London discusses the Metropolitan's collection of

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Korean art in detail in her essay entitled "The Korean Art Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art." One of only a few volumes on Korean art to be published in the English language, Arts of Korea is a comprehensive introduction for the Western reader to the uniqueness and beauty of Korean art, and is a valuable contribution to East Asian art history. The book was produced with meticulous care, and its elegant design and layout with high quality plates rnake reading it a pleasure.

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W indow into the M odern Era

.I.IW indow into the Modern Era," an exhibition of black-andwhite and color drawings intended to introduce traditional Korean paintings of the late 18th century through the first half of the 20th century, was held at the National Museum of Contemporary Art in Kwach'on from September 4 to November 4. As a sequel to an oil painting exhibition held last year, the exhibition featured some 120 drawings by some 80 artists including An Chung-shik, Cho Sokchin, Yi Sang-born, Pyon Kwan-shik, Kim Un-ho, Kim Ki-chang, and Chang U-sung. Several side events were held in conjunction with the exhibition. These included a lecture by Seoul

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National University professors Ahn Hwi-joon and Chung Hyung-min on "Inheritance and Reform of Tradition" on September 5, and a showing of four Korean movies made in the 1950s from October 16 to 18. The museum is planning to continue this series with exhibitions on sculpture, crafts and architecture next year.

M odern A rt R ediscovered n mid-November, the National

I Museum of Contemporary Art opened a 2,000-square-meter gallery

at S6kjoj6n, a hall of Toksugung Palace that once served as a modern art museum, with an inaugural exhibition entitled, "Modern Art Rediscovered." S6kjoj6n was opened as a private art museum of the royal Yi family at the end of the 19th century and later served as the National Modern Art Museum until1986 when the National Museum of Contemporary Art was opened in Kwachon. For the

next 12 years, it was used as a government office building for such departments as the Cultural Assets Management Office. The inaugural exhibition included works by Kim In-sung, No Su-hyon, Choi Tuk-hyu, Kim Hong-shik and Yi Kon-yong from private collections that have rarely been viewed by the public, and some 120 previously unpublicized works by major early modern artists, which have drawn renewed interest lately. The National Museum of Contemporary Art Annex at Toksugung will focus on early modern art.

Opera Festival at Seoul A rts Center n opera festival was held from September 5-29 at the Opera Theater of the Seoul Arts Center to

A


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commemorate the 50th anniversary of both the establishment of the Republic of Korea and the introduction of opera to Korea. Bizet's Carmen, Verdi's Rigoletto and Puccini's La Boheme were co-produced by the Seoul Arts Center and nine private opera companies including the Kim Cha-kyung, Hankook and Seoul opera troupes. The festival was unique in that all the vocalists were selected through an open audition and it adopted a format under which the three popular operas were performed in a rotational cycle. It was the first time for such a format, which presents multiple operas repeatedly during a season, to be attempted in Asia. The organizing committee plans to develop the festival into the nation's top cultural event.

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duced to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Korea, the play was written by Kim Eui-kyung and produced by Pyo Jae-soun. The play is a biographical account of An Chung-gun, an educator turned independence fighter who assassinated Hirobumi Ito on October 26, 1909 in Manchuria and was later executed on March 26, 1910. The cast included such veteran actors as Kim Kap-su, Chang Min-ho, Pak Ch6ng-ja and Chon Moo-song in conjunction w ith the Seoul City Musical Company, Seoul City Dance Company, Seoul City Choir and the National Classical Music Orchestra.

n Chung-gun, the Great Korean,

a musical about Korean martyr An Chung-gun, was presented at the Sejong Cultural Center from October 30 to November 4. Specially pro-

he 2nd Puch'on International

T Fantastic Film Festival was held

,

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ON Ch'unch'6n A nitown Festival tlriAA'* t'•

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he 2nd Ch'unch'on Anitown Festival was held from October 10-25 at Subyon Park in Ch'unch'on, Kangwon-do province. Ch'unch'on was designated an "anitown," meaning animation town, in 1996 and held its first animation festival last year. The festival featured 26 programs in five categories. These included a cartoon drawing contest for children, an invitational show for popular cartoonists, a cartoon projects exhibition, the Anitown Hall show, and a business advertisement show. Special events included an exhibition and lecture on digital animation technology, a workshop on original animation production, and various seminars. Other attractions included a cartoon drawing contest, face painting and a multimedia graphics show. North Korean cartoons and comic books were presented for the first time in South Korea. Animated films from five countries including Japan and France were shown and a comic book shop reminiscent of those of the 1960s and 1970s was opened. The organizing committee and the city of Ch'unch'on plan to upgrade the festival into an international animation film festival starting next year.

T Puch'6n International Fantastic Film Festival

A n Chung-gun, the Great K orean

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from December 18-23 at six venues in Puch'on, Kyonggi-do province. It mainly featured films that had never been released in Korea. Some 80 entries competed in the four categories of "Puch'on's choice," "World's fantastic cinemas," "Fantastic short movies," and "Special theme movies." The festival consisted of two parts, each aimed at a specific group: fantastic movies for film buffs and family-oriented popular movies for the general public.

85


The Korea Foundation Fellowship Programs FEllOWSHIP FOR KOREAN STUDIES

The Korea Foundation offers fellowships for Korean studies in the fields of humanities, social sciences and arts. The_program is intended to provide scholars and other qualified professionals overseas with an opportunity to carry out in-depth research in Korea for a period of three to twelve months. Each successful applicant will be provided with round-trip airfare to Korea and a monthly stipend during the grant period. Applicants should complete the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Studies application form and submit their academic research proposals to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 31 of the same year.

Support for Korean Studies Programs Abroad The Korea Foundation offers financial assistance to universities, research institutes and libraries abroad in their efforts to promote the study and understanding of subjects related to Korea. Projects submitted for consideration must be in the fields of humanities, social sciences or arts and within the categories listed below: 1) Establishment and expansion of Korea-related courses and faculty positions, 2) Fellowships for graduate students or research grants for faculty members, and 3) Library acquisitions and cataloging. Applications must be submitted to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by November 30 of the same year. For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN LANGUAGE TRAINING

Korean Studies Support Team The Korea Foundation

The Korea Foundation offers grants for Korean language training to graduate students, scholars and other qualified professionals overseas who wish to learn the Korean language at a Korean university language institute for a period of six to twelve months. Each successful applicant will be assigned to a Korean language course at a major Korean university, and will be provided with tuition and a monthly allowance during the grant period. Applicants should complete and submit the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Language Training application form to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 31 of the same year. For application forms, program guidelines or further infonnation, please write to:

CPO Box 2147 Seoul. Korea Tel 82-2-753-3464 Fax, 82-2-757-2047.2049

Personnel Exchange Team The Korea Foundation C.P.O Box 2147 Seoul. Korea TeL 82-2-753-6465 Fax. 82-2-757-2047.2049

KOREA FOCUS A BIMONTHLY ON CURRENT KOREAN AFFAIRS

In addition to KOREANA, the Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of globalization. KOREA FOCUS offers a comprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korea's current affairs. In this bimonthly, you will find timely essays and commentaries on Korea's politics, economy, society and culture, opinFOCUS~~ ions on world affairs, and a chronology of recent events in Korea. Published in English and Japanese, its articles are selected from leading publications in Korea, including major daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals.

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they grow their own food. We can; including fann fresh uegetables, and this delicious rainbow trout - bred in the cool, clean waters of our trout fann, on Cheju Island, Korea.

KSRMNAIR BEYOND YOUR IMAGINATION


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