Koreana Spring 1999 (English) by The Korea Foundation

KOREAN ART & CULTURE Vol. 13, No. 1 Spring 1999

ISSN 1016-0744

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BEAUTY OF KOREA

Pouch

Unlike Western clothing, Korea's traditional costume, hanbok, has no pockets. For this reason, Koreans in olden times carried their essentials in a small drawstring bag when going out, while pojagi, wrapping cloths, were used for larger items. The earliest pouches were of a simple, practical design. Later, they became increasingly ornate, decorated with fine embroidery and beads. Both men and women carried pouches with such decorations indicating the bearer's social class. Pouches were considered auspicious receptacles for good fortune and therefore used widely as gifts, especially at New Year's. It was customat-y for the royal palace to send a pouch containing a roasted pea wrapped in red paper, a good luck charm, to the royal clansmen on the first Boar Day of the first lunar month.

Children also carried small pouches containing rice, sesame, foxtail millet, red beans and other grains on their person to bring them good luck. It was also common practice to give pouches as presents on people's first and 60th birthdays. A bride prepared "piety" pouches upon returning from her first visit to her parents' home after marriage which were offered to her in-laws. The pouches wer~ also called pok or good luck pouches. The decorative yet practical pouch shown in the photograph is of a type that was most commonly used. Delicate floral designs of chrysanthemums, plum blossoms and lotus flowers are embroidered on the light green silk decorated with patterns. The edges are finished with red cloth and red strings. The lips are folded five times, the strings woven from both sides, and the end of the strings adorned with knots in the shape of chrysanthemum blossoms. +

A round purse embroidered with chrysanthemums, plum blossoms, and lotus flowers, 19th century

KOREAN ART & CULTURE Cover: Taehangno (University Avenue), which was home to the College of Letters and Science of the Seoul National University in the 1960s is a "Street of Culture" that sates the intellectual appetite of the young people. It has evolved into a cultural and artistic mecca where a new breed of young people flourish, while plays, concerts and art exhibitions are staged endlessly throughout the year. KOREANA takes a look at the attitudes and lifestyles of these young people.

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Taehangno Its People and Culture

N T

E N

4 The People and Culture of Taehangno by Cheon Seung-hoon

12 Taehangno: The Mecca of Korean Theater by Yi Hu-nam

18 Korea's Youth Culture is Safe and Sound

by Han ]unesang

The New Koreans KOREAN A Internet Website

by Greg Pratt

With the inauguration of the Korea Foundation's home page on the World Wide Web, on-line access to its publications are possible with abstracts of KOREANA features along with photographs. Please visit our Internet website at: httpfA.vww.kofo.or.krlkdata.htm

Korean Society's Modernization and Incongruity

INTERVIEW

Ryu Choon-soo

The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those o f the editors o f KOREANA o r The Korea Foundation. KOREA NA, registered as a quarterl y magazine with the Mini stry o f Culture and Tourism (Registration No. Ba1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also publis hed in j apanese a nd Chinese.

THE 20TH CENTURY IN RETROSPECT

by Chung Bom-Mo

32 by Kim Young-uk

38 TRADITI ONAL ARTISAN

Potter Kim Ch6ng-ok by Lee Hyoung-kwon

42 ON THE ROAD

Cheju's Southern Spring

by Kang Woon-gu

48 MARKETS

Yongsan Electronics Market by Kim Mee-kyung

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Vol 13. No 1 Sprtng 1999

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The People and Culture of

TAEHANGNO Cheon Seung-hoon Culture Reporter, Dong-A Ilbo

o understand the youth culture of Korea, just take a look at Taehangno. Whether it's autumn with the yellow leaves of gingko trees piled up on the ground or winter with snow covering the outdoor sculptures, Marronier Park is always crowded with young couples dressed up, whatever the weather or season. All along the streets, the passion of freedom and experimentation are palpable. From the moment you step into the area, all shyness and reserve are left behind. Taehangno is where conventional barriers between art, music and drama are constantly being broken down to create new art forms, like a cultural melting pot. It was toward the end of the 1970s and at the start of the 1980s that Taehangno began to emerge as a cultural mecca; the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation, Munye Theater, and Fine Art Center built their nests here, so to speak, with the red brick that has come to symbolize the Taehangno area. Young Korean Academy, Saemtoh Parangsae Theater, Hakrim Coffee Lounge and Marronier Cafe are landmarks that

T Every weekend, little-known singers and comedians stage various acts in Marronier Park at the center of Taehangno. (opposite page)

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have been standing at their present sites from the 1970s. Over time, small-scale theaters such as Patanggol, Marronier and Taehangno as well as the cultural complex Tongsung Art Center have cropped up, helping transform Taehangno into a "street of culture" true to its name with over 50 theaters and art galleries. These are mostly small and financially struggling theaters, which unlike the National Theater or the Seoul Arts Center, do not receive government backing. But one of the distinguishing characteristics of Taehangno is that, like weeds, such establishments have a fierce survival instinct, managing to adapt to the harshest of environments.

Marronier Park Marronier Park stands at the heart of Taehangno. Here one can while away the day without a cent, wandering about the outdoor sculptures or just observing passersby. It is a cultural park that is alive with a wide variety of activities and thiogs to see and do, from the music of nameless performers and the shows of street comedians, to portrait drawing by enterprising artists, teenage hip hop dancers, street basketball, and fortune-telling by sidewalk fortunetellers. In the mid-1980s when the street was closed to traffic on the weekends, Taehangno was known as an arena of music and arts. With the Young Korean Academy, founded by independence fighter An Chang-ho, taking the lead, college students with an interest in traditional culture would gather ~her to stage performances of samulnori and nong-ak (traditional percussion and farmer's music) as a part of their efforts to revive Korea's traditional community culture. As a result, Marronier Park became a popular cultural attraction, a favorite spot for camera-toting tourists who would find themselves naturally caught up in the performances of traditional Korean song, music and dance. Taehangno is like a little piece of paradise for street musicians. Some of the best-known regulars here are an old saxophonist who has continued to play under the shade of the Marronier trees for more than 10 years and a singing guitarist who goes by the name of Six Strings, Five Lines. On the outdoor stage in the center of the park, Songs of Love holds performances every

Saturday and Sunday afternoon. The 17-member group of nameless singers was formed in 1989 and for the past 10 years the members have been taking turns on stage to present their music to the public. Whether it be a sultry summer's day or a frigid winter day with snowflakes falling, an unceasing stream of people find their way to the stage to enjoy the performances. They come not only for the songs but because they know that the team indeed lives up to its name of "love," using the donations dropped by individuals into a collection box at the front of the stage to help the poor, the elderly and the handicapped. "Street songs are there to be heard by all sorts of people. The street cleaner may pause for a break, lovers may stop and join in the singing before moving on, the neighborhood kids come to play . .. Street songs make such chance meet-

ings happen, which is very romantic," says Huh Song, the 31year-old leader of Songs of Love. The courtyard in front of the Munye Theater is an open stage for comedians and young dancers. One of the oldtimers here is Yun Hyo-sang, a 32-year-old comedian who has been attracting crowds of 300 to 400 people every weekend for the past 10 years. He entertains the audience with an endless stream of comedy and song while drawing out couples from the audience to participate in ridiculous games. His friend and partner Kim Chul-min, is a 33-year-old resident comedian with the MBC network. Nearby are the street artists who bring to mind Montmartre in Paris. The artists, who come from diverse backgrounds, some from art school, others being white collar workers, sit drawing portraits with a collection of pencils, 5

charcoal, pastels and water colors. Their customers are mostly couples, mothers with babies, or families on an outing. In a quick 5 to 10 minutes the notable characteristics of a subject are captured in a portrait that, through its speed, detail and sketchiness, seems to embody the very liveliness and impromptu spirit of the whole Taehangno scene. Kim Sang-ho, a 38-year-old artist who has been drawing portraits here for the past 11 years says, "Drawing aside, I like to come here for the joy of watching people. The freedom of the Taehangno atmosphere seems to make all concerns disappear. It's like going to a bath house and taking your clothes off with complete unconcern." Although there are many couples in their 30s and 40s who come here out of nostalgia for their college days, Taehangno really belongs to the nattily attired young people teeming about the area. For exam-stressed high school kids in particular, Taehangno is where they can enjoy a game of street basketball or dance to their heart's content. The latest stars of Taehangno are the dancers who set up a cassette player in a corner of the park, turn the volume up and move to the beat of rap and hip hop. The gyrating movements seem to embody the teen spirit, while the dance acrobatics and amazing spinning on one's head never fail to elicit oohs and aahs of admiration and hardy applause. These dance groups, dressed in baggy hip hop pants and sporting dyed hair, may not appear on TV but they nonetheless have hundreds of young teenage girl fans, to whom they are idols among their own generation. So popular are these groups, that they have even shown off their talents in the courtyard of the Seoul Arts Center in S6ch'o-dong, Seoul's representative cultural performance venue. "No one taught us to dance. It's something that we do because we want to," says 19-year-old Lee, leader of the most influential of the Taehangno dance groups, CC Club.

Taehangno and Youth Culture It is 2 a.m. at the Tongsung Art Center when most people are fast asleep. However, the theater is filled to capacity, standing room only, with 600 people passing the night away moving their bodies in rhythm to strange sounds. On a Friday night there is no distinction between night and day at this theater where the midnight performance of the rock musical "Hard Rock Cafe" is in progress. This is a typical weekend in Taehangno where last autumn the Seoul International Drama Festival and the Independent Arts Festival were held, turning the entire area into a huge performance venue. The Independent Arts Festival stirred up the Taehangno area with performances well departing from the conventional, bringing the whole underground community out onto the outdoor stage of Marronier Park. Patrons of the open-air cafes drinking coffee or beer were rather taken aback by the 6

From the top: Saemt'o, housing an exhibition hall and a theater; inside the Hakrim Coffee Lounge; Hakrim Coffee Lounge and Baroque Records that share the same

sudden impromptu drama performances. Taehangno is a living testament to the youth culture of Korea that has its origins in the acoustic guitar culture of the 1970s. Youth culture with its representative values associated with rebellion and experimentation now embraces the underground band scene. Kim Min-gi, the one-time protest singer who led the student movement with songs such as "Morning Dew," is now happy to see that one of his songs, "Evergreen," was selected as the theme song in a promotional video produced to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Korean republic. "Taehangno is an incubator where so much diverse cultural software is being nurtured," says Kim, who operates the Hakchon, a theater in Taehangno that stages mostly musicals. The cafe At Tongsung-dong is for the 30-something crowd, otherwise known as the 386 generatiori-30s in age, went to college in the 1980s, born in the 1960s. Korea's 30s generation is known as the sandwich generation, stuck between the adult generation which was bent on hard work and success, and generation X, the liberal free-spirited generation that was born of prosperity. It is a generation whose identity is coming under serious threat. The cafe was created by 70 or so of these 30-something people, who are trying to promote youth culture through a variety of concerts and cultural events. Underground culture, which had its beginnings in the Hongik University area, is making inroads "above ground" in Taehangno. Underground bands have been emerging from the dark basement clubs frequented by die-hard fans only, taking their music to a broader range of people in Taehangno, to open-air stages and concert venues such as Strawberry Theater, Live, and Baroque Nanjang. Baroque Records, a Taehangno landmark, has for a long time been leading music development in this area. Following the opening of the jazz cafe For a Thousand Years in 1986, Baroque opened a 500-seat concert hall called Baroque Nanjang in August 1998. An indie band concert is held here regularly once a month, covering all genres from modern rock and hard core to hip hop and techno. With tickets priced at a reasonable 5,000 won, underground bands are gaining exposure to wider audiences.

Exotic Cafes and Cultural Spaces The cafes in the Taehangno area with their wide-open spaces and unique interior and exterior designs are popular dating spots and backdrops for

ing in value from 8,000 won to 1 million won. wedding photos. Many of the cafes also double as cultural venues for exhibitions and performances. Tired after rambling round Marronier Park, taking in an The Taehangno cafes are known for their interior and exhibition and a play, visitors to Taehangno stop in at restaurants featuring the cuisines of different countries from exterior wall paintings and are therefore sought out by art around the world; Korean pulgogi (seasoned beef) can be students and photographers. "Within the next ten years, the found at Naksan Garden, Italian food at Gabiano Piu and Taehangno area will be transformed into a community Roman Holiday, Sri Lankan curry at Chang, Japanese noodles known for its wall paintings," says Kang Chi-bong, a 42-yearat Kijoam, and tender steaks at Gold Rush, which is known old artist who has done wall paintings for some 30 cafes in the Taehangno area. "It will be a place where the flow of for its American Wild West decor. Apart from all this, there are a few special exhibition contemporary art can be observed," he added. venues including the Udang Memorial Hall featuring relics of The jazz cafe For A Thousand Years is emerging as a new Syngman Rhee, Korea's first president, the Haksan Library, hot spot in Seoul. Four hours of live music is performed each the Tongsung Art Gallery and the Institute of Industrial night, divided into two shows covering the full range of jazz, Design and Packaging. from standard to modern and cool jazz. Performances are diverse with the ripe skills of well-known artists such as Shin Kwan-woong, Lee]ungInformation about Taehangno Taehangno plays host to a wide variety shik and Lim Hee-sook, set off against new of cultural festivals all year round, includjazz bands such as Cool, Wave and Print. ing the International Theater Festival, The almost unnatural skills of percussionist Independent Arts Festival, Drama Festival Yoo Bok-sung leave audiences enraptured. of Love, Seoul Film Festival and the Others who have performed here and International Labor Film Festival. A onemoved on to become big stars include elecstop shop for information about all theater tric violinist Eugene Park and a husky performances in Taehangno is the ticket voiced female vocalist who sang "The Girl office in front of the Munye Theater. From Ipanema." Tickets can be bought after choosing from The Korean Culture and Arts the posted offerings. Foundation is an arts complex which Of all the Taehangno festivals, the oldest accommodates art exhibitions, musicals, is the Drama Festival of Love, which brings dramas, and music performances. The together some 40 theater troupes active in Munye Art Center (760-4612) comprises the Taehangno area. A set portion of the two theaters, the 710-seat Main Theater and profits from the festival is donated to help the 200-seat Small Theater. The library on the hungry children of North Korea. The the second floor of the Art Center funcpurchase of a "Ticket of Love" for 8,000 tions as a rest area and has a shop where won, half the ordinary price, gives entrance all kinds of art catalogues, theater handbills, to any one of the plays included in the fesmiscellaneous materials and souvenirs can tival. be purchased. On the third floor of Taehangno More information about Taehangno can be found at the PC network site set up by Cultural Space, an exposed concrete building known for its architectural features, can the drama lovers club Haje Village at "go Haje." Every other week a "Cultural be found Craft Space Mokkumto (764Performances Guide" is also published. The 0700), a gallery devoted to handicraft Taehangno Culture Plaza, which offers works that is also a meeting place for theinformation on cultural events and cafes, atergoers. The name of the gallery transcan be accessed on the Internet. lates into Wood, Metal, Earth and all the exhibits in the gallery are made of these From the top: Street artists; Shinch'on and the Hongik University Area three materials. The gallery features internaCraft Space Mokkumto, an Shinch'on, in northwestern Seoul, is tionally distinguished traditional handicrafts exhibition hall specializing in Korea's best-known university area. Several created by master craftsmen of the past, handicrafts; aerial view of prestigious universities-Yonsei, Hongik, including lacquerware inlaid with mother Taehangno Ewha Womans and Sogang-are located in of pearl and Koryo Dynasty celadon. It also holds special exhibitions of craft items rangthe neighborhood of the Shinch'on district 8

that has long been a center of youth culture. If university areas were centers of political rebellion in the 1980s, in the 1990s they are ground zero for cultural revolution. With a growing number of entertainment businesses opening in Shinch'on, it has become the university area with the strongest influence on consumer trends. But on the other hand, it is also where the most active challenges to commercialized pop culture can be seen. Shinch'on cafes and cultural venues are the haunts for young fanatics of all kinds-underground bands, independent movies, rock, jazz, heavy metal, mystery novels, animation and computer games, to name just a few. The new direction of university culture is to challenge the commercialized and mainstream culture of the adult generation through all manner of deviation and experimentation. Shinch'on is also where the movement for women's rights is most active, perhaps because Korea's leading women's university is located in the area. Last spring, 30 women with cigarettes in their mouths took to the streets in a campaign for

women's right to smoke. There is a women's only cafe called Lavris where the feminist club Manyo, a name that means witch, holds performances and female rockers stage concerts. Manyo organizes a variety of cultural activities designed to overcome the prejudices against women in Korea and has already become a hot topic of conversation with its performance of "Sex-mas," which dealt with the issue of sexual discrimination.

Shinch'on: Scene of the Latest in Fashion The majority of the people on the streets of Shinch'on are young couples. Shinch'on is where the latest fashions and trends originate and then spread. Everywhere you can see young students sitting in cafes, chatting on their cellular phones, or groups of friends huddled cozily in front of a photo sticker machine. The latest craze among university students is Internet do use these places to look game rooms. Of course, stud~n up information on the Internet and send data back and forth,

but the attraction is state-of-the-art simulation games and network activities. Open 24 hours, there are a great many students who spend all night there. On the wave of the Internet game fever, Yonsei University recently held the Chancellor's Cup Internet Game Competition. In contrast to the colorful neon signs and bright lights of the cafes, the bookstores such as Today's Book and Shinch'on Bookstore are often ignored. To attract the attention of students, they are converting unused areas into cultural spaces where students can hold seminars or watch midnight movies, for example.

Hongik Univ

Below, Bookshop Onill ui Ch'aek (Today's Book), an old favorite of intellectuals of the university town of Shinch'on (top); Internet game rooms that are sprouting everywhere

Hongik University, Mecca of Underground Culture The basement club Spangle, located in Sokyo-dong, the heart of the Hongik University area, known as Hongdae, is throbbing with the energy of over 70 people in their late teens and early 20s. As soon as the punk band Cocoa starts playing "Love Song," the audience gravitates toward the front of the stage. Intoxicated by the explosive sounds and rebellious messages of the music, they respond with a headbanging frenzy. This is the atmosphere of a live performance venue, or in the parlance of the Hongik area, a live club.

Hongdae is the mecca of underground culture. Every night, experimentation is underway with new kinds of fringe music such as techno jitterbug, Korean classical metal, hip hop and punk rock. Hongik has given birth to such rock stars as the bands Jaoorim and Pipi and it is the bands of this area that give some diversity to the Korean music market, which is so lopsidedly focused on teen dance music. There are about 15 live clubs in the Hongdae area and anywhere from 50 to 100 indie bands that perform there. Kim Jong-whi, manager of the independent record label

Large specialty shops on the fashion street in front of Ewha WomansUniversity(left) Above, from the top: This bookshop-cum-cafe in front of Hongik University is a favorite hangout of students where heated debates often take place over coffee or tea; the area near Hongik University, which is famous for its art school, is decorated with student art works; live music clubs offer stages for underground musicians

Indie, says, "This area has been able to spontaneously develop into a center of underground culture because it is where artists and others who are at the forefront of new culture gather." Hongik University is especially regarded for its art school, and as a result there are more strongly individualistic people in the area surrounding the campus than anywhere else. Ripped jeans, baggy sweaters, haphazardly hung accessories, tightly wound hair... The most common fashion among those who hang out at Hongdae is kitsch. The clothes and accessories that are found in the small stores that hug the alleys and side streets mostly fall into this category. Having lived in this area all her life, Sun Hyun-kyung, author of 303 Days of Honeymoon, says, "Kitsch fashion also exists in the affluent area of Apkujong-dong. There it is created by making expensive or imported new clothes look old and worn, but here kitsch culture is truly based on used and cheap goods." In the Hongdae area, people drink standing up, talk standing up and dance where they stand. Here, the "standing" culture has arrived. Originating from the party culture of the West, the standing culture is very alien to traditional Korean ways. But in the cafes of Hongdae, a student with little money can enjoy the music and atmosphere of a club for the price of one or two bottles of beer. Young people would rather enjoy the culture itself than fill their stomachs. "Hongdae may have started out as the hangout of some rather eccentric artsy types, but now it is the haunt of all types of people regardless of age in the fields of design, advertising, movies and fashion," says Yu Seung-yeol, owner of City Beat, a record store specializing in techno music. "It is the presence of these people that creates depth for the emergence of fringe cultures." Fashion Street, Ewha Womans University The Ewha Womans University area is home to more clothing stores per city block than anywhere else in Korea. Up until the 1980s, there were many established bars and cafes befitting the usual campus culture, but since entering the 1990s the area has lost most of its function as a cultural venue. Instead, the area is wholly occupied by myriad boutiques specializing in women's fashions and accessories, clothing stores, discount cosmetics outlets, mini accessory stores, shoe stores and character goods stores. This is where women in their late teens and early 20s congregate, so much so that the proportion of women in the area is about 83 percent. The reason why so many young women flock here is because the Ewha area is the source of new fashion trends. Niche businesses in the fashion market such as hair accessory stores, stocking stores and maternity stores can all be found here as well. + 11

TAEHANGNO The Mecca of Korean Theater YiHu-nam Cultural Reporter,joongAng Ilbo

Marronier

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Seoul Nation. University Hospitaf

ollywood symbolizes American film, but Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles conveys little of the overall ambiance of a movie industry. Tourists lured by the name Hollywood can do little more than look over the handprints, footprints and signatures of famous actors and actresses imprinted in the sidewalk in front of Mann's Chinese Theater, an excursion that hardly lasts more than 10 minutes. Broadway in New York symbolizing American theater and musicals, is somewhat better in this regard. Walking along 40th Avenue, tourists can easily view theater billboards on both sides of the street advertising plays and musicals familiar even to those uninterested in theater, from the megabit "Lion King" to the long-running musical "Cats." It would be a serious faux pas, however, to think that the works playing on Broadway repre-

Checking the signboards covered with posters advertising plays to decide what to see is part of the fun of visiting Taehangno (left). The Tongsung Art Center has three small theaters (above).

sent American theater. Perhaps this is why the phrases "off Broadway" and "off off Broadway" have come into use. One might recall the fringes of East Village, the location of the Joseph Puff Public Theater, or La Mama Theater upon hearing "off Broadway." However, the definition inherent in "off Broadway" theater is too broad for it to be limited to any specific location nearby these theaters. In Korea, the Ch'ungmu路ro and Taehangno areas in Seoul are identified with local film and theater, respective路 ly. Ch'ungmu-ro represents film in name only, however, as many of the numerous film companies previously clustered around the area have since relocated to southern Seoul, while cinemas, once predominantly concentrated in the heart of Seoul, are now dispersed throughout all parts of the city. As such, Taehangno, the symbol of Korean the路 ater, is unique in that its location coincides with its symbol路 ic significance. Although it is called Taehangno (University Avenue) as it was the former site of the College of Letters and Science of Seoul National University, which is now nestled at the foot of Mt. Kwanaksan, few university students are found among its transitory population. Except for teenagers out for adventure and fun and the proprietors of the area's countless restaurants and bars, theater people form the single largest group of "adu lts" among Taehangno's mobile residents. People trying to choose a movie to see have to leaf through the programs of movie houses in various parts of Seoul and confirm the show timetable, but over 90 percent of those trying to choose a play merely have to go to Taehangno because about 30 of the overall 50-something 13

performance venues in Seoul are located in Taehangno. one of the most important channels for gaining recognition This represents about a 60 percent share, but the vast as a literary figure in Korea, be it novelist, playwright or critmajority of sought-after plays in Seoul are performed at ic. Oh's first play, a prize-winner in one of these contests, theaters in Taehangno. was staged by a then established producer. Oh is now doing Taehangno is the place to begin in order to gain a good the same, trying to discover unknown talents in an attempt understanding of the reality of Korean theater today. The to repay the gratitude he felt at the start of his now illustrimost prominent performance venues in Seoul, including ous career. the Sejong Cultural Center and the Seoul Arts Center, are The Hakchon Green Theater is a sure bet for anyone not located in Taehangno, but then for the most part they interested in musicals as it usually offers small-scale Korean present only productions of musicals quite distinct from grandgrandiose scale. The majority of scale Broadway or West End musiIN KOREA, THE CH'UNGJ\IIU-RO AND cals. It is currently staging Blood local plays are performed in the small theaters of Taehangno that Brothers, an adaptation of British TAEHANGNO AREAS IN SEOUL ARE playwright Willy Russel's West End have a seating capacity of 200 to 300 IDENTIFIED WITH HLM AND THEat the most. Blending radical experimusical of the same title. However, mentalism, commercialism and tradithose who have seen the original ATER, RESPECTIVELY. CH'UNGMU-RO play will find few similarities, as the tional styles of drama, the plays REPRESENTS FILM IN NAME ONLY, set and costumes are quite different. staged in these small theaters reflect And anyone who knows Korean the true character of Korean theater. HOWIEVER, AS MANY OF IRE Many of the theaters put on works will recognize even greater differNUME'ROUS HU\11 COMPANIES PREVIences. The mastery of Kim Min-gi, by young producers or playwrights the producer who adapted the play, for a brief run of as short as two OUSLY CLUSTE'RED AROUND THE transformed skillfully the conflict weeks, but there are also a number between workers and capitalists of of theaters that stage long-running AREA HAVE SINCE RELOCATED TO plays likely to satisfy the expectaLiverpool, a steel-producing city, SOUTHERN SEOUL, W'HILE CINEMAS, tions of those people who come into a story about the modernizamainly because of a theater's reputation of Korea after the Korean War ONCE PREDOMINANTLY CONCENtion. and its rapid economic growth. Kim TRATED IN THE HEART OF SEOUL, has transplanted the desperateness The small theater Arongguji, until and grief of a mother forced to recently called the Songjwa Small ARE NOW! DISPERSED THROUGHOUT Theater, invariably offers the prochoose contrasting destinies for her ALL PARTS OF THE CITY. As SUCH, ductions of Oh Tae-suk, an outstandtwin sons into a uniquely Korean ing playwright and producer known context through the depiction of a TAEHANGNO, THE SYMBOL OF for staging works featuring uniquely typical Korean mother's love for her KOREAN THEATER, IS UNIQUE IN Korean colors and bold symbols. children. This is not the first time that the Costumes in starkly contrasting black THAT ITS ACTUAL LOCA TIOlV Hakchon Green Theater has introand white and the dynamic choreogCOINCIDES WITH 11:'> SYMBOLIC raphy of 20 to 30 performers are cerduced adaptations of foreign plays. tain to satisfy the audience's desire It has already produced two plays SIGNIFICANCE. for dramatic flair. After the curtain based on German musicals, both of comes down (actually a mere figure which were adapted so skillfully of speech as the small theater does not have a curtain) and that Korean audiences had no difficulty in relating to them the audience has left, one might even have a chance to see as stories about their own lives. Subway Line No. 1 was a the producer in person if he hangs around for awhile. The refreshing play based on the experiences of an ethnic producer's unexpectedly small stature and boyish appearKorean from China. It struck a chord in the hearts of Koreans who have come to look down on Korean-Chinese ance only serves to intensify the powerful impression conas second-class citizens since the establishment of formal veyed by his work This veteran producer, who has only produced plays which he himself wrote, created a stir in ties between Korea and China and free travel between the two countries. Moskitos, a musical satire based on the autumn 1998 when he agreed to produce the debut work of a new playwright. The Spring Writing Contest, sponsored German original Die Moskitos sind da, parodied the educaby Korean newspapers at the end of each year and whose tional and political situations in Korea in which everyone winning works are published in the January 1 editions, is strives for an all-important college education, making the 14

secondary school years a living hell for students who must cram for the state-administered college entrance exam. Would audiences better appreciate Kim's works if they knew that he was the composer of the famous song Eve1green, cited as the most popular song among Koreans in a survey, and that his songs had been banned during the military regimes of the 1970s and 1980s? Not necessarily. Kim's talent lies not only in his adaption skills but also in creating lyrics that sound as if they were written originally in Korean, along with his use of rock music which the young audiences of the 1990s can readily identify with. While it is true that the limitations of a small theater and Kim's relatively brief professional career in the theater prevent him from coming up with grander productions, performances at the Hakchon Green Theater are nevertheless worth

seeing, by anyone's standards. Kim's fourth adapted play, which is currently in the planning stage and is scheduled to debut this fall, is already rousing high expectations. Kim plans to tell the story of Korea's ancient history by adapting the framework of Brigadoon, a Tony Award winner of the 1950s. Of particular note, he is collaborating on the script with renowned poet Kim Chi-ha. The recipient of the Great Poet Award from the International Poet Society in 1981, Kim Chi-ha served a lengthy prison sentence for his protest against the military dictatorship of the 1970s and 1980s, and as a result his health suffered, preventing him from writing for sometime. He is expected to express his thoughts on life and the traditions of East Asia, his newfound interest, through this play. The Munye Hall , located nearby the Marronier Park in the heart of Taehangno, is the

Plays currently being staged at Taehangno and its theaters (clockwise from left): The Fish Man; Arongguji (formerly called Songjwa Small Theater) where the play is being performed; the Little Theater of the Munye Hall, the hot spot for new and experimental works; and Blood Brothers currently on stage at the Hakchon Green Theater.

Clockwise from below: Classroom Idea on stage at Theater Hyehwa-dong "'1; the Ticketbox at Taehangno sells tickets to all theaters to save theatergoers the time and trouble of lining up at individual theaters; Ch'ilsu and Mansu at the Y on-wu Small Theater; First Love at Arirang.

hot spot for new and experimental works. But one has to hurry because plays there usually run for only about a fortnight. One of the Munye Hall's advantages is that the seats can be rearranged for more flexible use of the stage area. Producers sometimes arrange the stage in the middle of the audience with seating in two rows opposite each other, and occasionally demonstrate their creativity by beginning a show in the stairway leading to the basement performing area. Diverse experimental works with virtually no regard for commercial success are usually performed in this theater as the rent is cheaper than other venues in Taehangno, thanks to its management by the Korea Culture & Arts Foundation, a public institution. Hyehwa-dong #1, located across the Hyehwadong Rotary further up toward Sunggyungwan University, also stages experimental works. It can seat only about 100 people and the overall amenities are considerably lacking even compared to other small theaters of Taehangno, but it is popular among the theater community due to its favorable rental rate. This coterie theater was founded by Yi Youn-taek, Kim A-ra and Yi Byong-hun, now key Taehangno players in their 40s, who originally dubbed it "Theater Laboratory." Ownership of the theater was taken over by a group of producers in their 30s in early 1997. The experimental plays they 16

present merit interest in that they offer a glimpse of the future of Taehangno. Further up from Hyehwa-dong #1 is the Y6nwu Small Theater, the site of an important chapter in the local theater history of the 1980s. During this tumultuous decade, a performing group called Y6n-wu Stage introduced highly experimental plays based on the political and social reality of the times and deviated radically from traditional narrative structure. In the 1990s, however, producers and performers who built their professional careers at the Y6n-wu Small Theater branched out into different genres and other theaters, draining the theater's talent pool considerably. Theatergoers of the 1980s still vividly remember the play Ch'ilsu and Mansu in which Mun Song-kl'm, considered the brightest actor in Korea, played the leading role, and Even Birds Die which presented poems

by poet Hwang Chi-wu in an experimental narration. entrance to Hongik University is a possible alternative. The The interest in traditional performing arts that first began San woolim Small Theater relocated to this area in the early in universities during the 1970s is still going strong in 1980s, and the Post Theater, formerly a performing stage for dance, and the newly opened Theater Zero have created an Taehangno today in the form of open-air theaters that enjoyed w ide popularity in the 1980s. Although political and axis of performance venues in the region. The area is also social issues that once provided its main themes have dotted with restaurants and bars. become diluted under Korea's changing political and social There are even some people in the theater community circumstances, the dramatization of the problems and conw ho dream of getting out of Seoul altogether. The festival flicts that Koreans encounter in their daily lives and actors' troupe Much'on, based in a rural village in Ansong, Kyonggido province, each autumn presents an outdoor play in a traditional perfo rmance skills, such as an ability to perform traditional dance and grasp the rhythm of samulnori, a fourtheater measuring 10 meters in diameter built in a field. mao percussion performance, are still Autumn is the season of festivals in considered essential in th e works of Korea. The Seoul International Theater small theater Arirang. Festival, with a history of 20 years, Taehangno is also the scene of the takes place every fall. In addition, the most vulgar form of commercial plays, 2nd Thea ter of Nations Festival 1998 comm only referred to as "back street" was held in Kwach'on, a satellite city of plays. These plays, mainly based on the Seoul. It is interesting to note that it sex ual conflicts and adventures of a takes only 40 minutes on subway Line female lead, run five or six times a day No. 4 to reac h Kwac h 'on fr o m and continue to attract many view ers. Ta e hangn o. T h e 1997 Intern atio n al At a tim e w h e n small th ea te rs in Theater Institute General Congress held Taehangno are closing dow n because in Korea also p rov ided an excellent they cannot make ends meet w ith conopportunity for theater lovers to enjoy ventional works, the back street plays pl ays b y shu ttlin g b ac k and fo rth temp t un suspec ting passe rsby w ith between Taehangno and Kwach'on on "Sold Out" advertisements. In the last the subway. few years, comedy shows by TV comeThe confined and congested space dians have also begun to enjoy commerof Taehangno, however, can be unsetcial success in Taehangno. tling to its visitors, much like the hectic a nd co m p lex life of m e tropol ita n Taehangno, w here such contrasting Seo ul, bu stling w ith o ne -fo urth o f fa cets of thea ter coexist,.becam e the mecca of Korean theater less than 20 Korea's e ntire popula tion. Although The Sanwoolim Small Thea ter relocattheatergoers can enjoy plays dubbed years ago, rep lacing Myong-dong in ed to near Hongik University to break downtow n Seoul. Myong-dong contin"experimental," they sometimes are disaway from the Taehangno trend. ued to develop into a commercial hub appointed at the typically narrative trab efittin g its n a me, "Bright Light s," dition of unraveling the story through a conventional approach of introduction, development of becoming an area w ith the most expensive land prices in Seo ul, to tall y inaccessible to the "poor" theater peopl e. the theme, conversion and summing up. Perhaps it is also annoying to encounter theater people w ith such dichotoNevertheless, the Ch'anggo Theater (Warehouse Theater) recently opened on a corner in Myong-dong in an attempt mous thoughts on commercial works. Though they might to revive its past fame as the heart of Korean theater. not come right out and declare that "quality plays are those shunned by theatergoers," it is true that they cast a suspiThe problem w ith Taehangno today is that it is now developing into another Myong-dong. Though it might not cious eye at those enjoy ing w idespread popularity. But be a conglomeration of financial institutions and high-rise such debates are all pointless. just go one w eekend afterbuildings like Myong-dong, it is densely populated w ith noon to Taehangno w here posters flap like banners on drinking establishments. Rent rates continue to rise and are numerous bulletin boards. Nowhere else in Seoul can people become so excited as in this place w here teenagers in already almost too steep for small theaters to cope w ith, while the area is visited by an increasing number of people search of a place to show off the latest dance moves or out w ho are not interested in the theater. for a game of street basketball ru b shoulders w ith performers exiting theaters, their faces scraped clean of their stage As such, it is natural for the theater people to dream abo ut getting o ut of Taehangno. Th e area aro und th e make-up. + 17

Korea's Youth Culture is

SAFE AND SOUND HanJunesang Professor of Education Yonsei University

he culture and sense of values of the young people of today differ markedly from those of young people of the past. As a result, adults often perceive today's youth culture as an anticultural protest against the prevailing social order. Some go so far as to claim that youth represents a core social issue of these times. This view of youth as a social problem is quite pervasive among society. Another perception sees youth as struggling against the ways of the previous generation and as a lamb sacrificed to the culture of adults.

It should be noted that the adults who point out the problems of youth see these issues as a social evil in need of urgent treatment rather than prevention. Considering that it is the young people of today who will play the lead role in shaping the society of tomorrow, youth issues are indeed extremely significant. However, addressing these issues from a narrow perspective would merely exacerbate the divergence in views rather than solve the underlying problems, while serving to heighten tension between the generations. These problems stem from a lack of understanding of today's youth. This being the case, we must ask

ourselves, "W hat are the characteristics of the youth culture of today? What thoughts are going through their minds?" Basically, youth have a tendency to newly deconstruct the existing culture. A deconstructionist mind-set is to be clearly distinguished from a destructive bent that is simply out to destroy anything and everything. Deconstructionism basically takes the position of dismantling existing systems of order that have been observed by the previous generation. Today's youth want to completely ignore the self-justification of authority, which is naturally accepted and unquestionably

properly politicized. The youth of today are a generation that has a good understanding of the truth and falsehoods of democratization as well as the achievements and failures of political struggle. They have a deep-seated distrust of the older generation, whom they see as being represented by politicians. They do not bother to form organized opposition to the established order, but instead simply reject the culture of their elders as an object of ridicule. Second, nowadays the youth generation is financially well-off, knowing little about abject poverty. Certain youth may feel a sense of rela-

applied to all aspects of life and ways of thinking by members of the older generation in order to preserve their self-interests. Adults view this deconstructionist perspective of youth as a problem, or in some cases, as antisocial. In order to understand these issues more clearly, there is a need for a closer look at the particular characteristics of the youth generation. First, today's youth have been politically inactive and therefore are seen as a potential political force outside the mainstream that has yet to be

tive deprivation, but most believe that they should be financially self-sufficient. Consequently, youth culture is consumption-oriented, with this trend being a powerful force behind popular culture. Third, today's youth, like prisoners or institutionalized patients, have had to spend at least 12 to 16 years in school (more than 4,380 days), all the while engaged in fierce competition. As a result, they are tenaciously revolting against the school system. The culture that they are shaping is extremely anti-scholastic, while their cultural 19

activ ities an d rec rea tio n com e n ot fro m the schools but from the streets. Fourth, today's youth stand at a crossroad of social transition. They w ill leave the society of mass-production, w ith its emphasis on standardization and singular products, and enter a sophistica ted consu mer socie ty that emphasizes the need to satisfy diverse tastes and preferences of the individual. Moreover, they possess true creativity, something quite lacking in the adult generation, and w ill put this talent to good use in creating a new culture. The character of this generation can be seen in the way that individuals in their late teens and early twenties are now the primary creators and consumers of popular culture. Fifth, the youth generation is intimately fam iliar with computer culture. Like computers, they are able to handle a variety of social situations and information rapidly and thoroughly. In this resp ect, their behav ior is result- and entertainment-oriented. While developing a value system that is compatible w ith their sensibilities, they also exhibit the limitations of computers in terms of their difficulty in making decisions involving trade-offs. For this reason, they are often criticized as lacking patience and being overly spontaneous. It is difficult to understand th e culture of today's youth, and their culture may well elude any kind of typical evaluation. The unique creativity of the young Koreans of today w ho are continually seeking to create things anew and their desire to manifest latent energies are seemingly inconsistent w ith the existing social order. It is precisely at this juncture that a solution to the problem of youth can be found. Instead of concocting a strong "cure" fo r the problems of you th, we need to review our cultural policies and formulate basic preventive measures that w ill give them enough breathing space. Youth Culture and Social Environment

Many Koreans claim that there is a problem w ith today's yo uth culture as w ell as w ith young people's behavior and way of thinking; however, Korean youth cu lture of today is actually quite sound. Korean youth are actually more forthright than their elders. Although adults see young people as unreliable and at times overstepping their bounds, they still stand out as the most trustworthy segment in Korean society. 20

These days, there are few areas in life w here youth can do freely as they please. Adults rigidly control m ost of their actions. For this rea son, politicians and educators should not declare war on their occasio nal misbehav ior. Finding th eir way through an environment full of peril, youth are sacrificed to the cultural politics and educatio nal institutions of adults, but this does not mean that youth culture is the dregs of established culture. The current cultural and educational environment has done absolutely nothing to help Korea's young p eople create new cultural possibilities and h as failed to fun ction as a g uiding force. Consequently, today's youth have not been able to develop a positive cultural outlet for paving the way for new opportunities in the future. Yet, this is not a shortcoming of today's youth, but rather the result of the oppressive nature of our cultural environment, w hich has forced them to be submissive. Youth are like fish w ho once swam freely in a clea n ocea n but a re th e n f o r ce d to li ve in Ch'6nggyech'6n waste water. When adults tell them that they should become healthy and beautiful fish, it is little wonder that they feel resentment toward the cultural intolerance of adults. In order to properly serve and nurture youth in rega rd to culture, the cultural relation ship involving absolute authority, w hich is so needlessly restrictive, must be changed. Authoritative institutions including organizatio ns and cultural venues are, for w hatever reason, focused mainly on their ow n self-interests w ith youths being held hostage. It is no easy matter to .establish a proper relationship between youth and authoritative institutions. To do so, the rights of young people must be respected and youth-oriented cultural policy implemented. Cultural development policy should thus focus on our youth, and the results of the concrete actions of youth should be used to set up comprehensive cultural development strategy. Mo reove r, in ord e r for yo uth cultur e to advance in Korean society as a new form, and so that this culture can fulfill its function, a broadminded point of view regarding youth culture a n d re la te d cultur a l d eve lop m e nt p o li cy is required above all e lse. In o rd e r to consider changes in our point of view and cultural policy, we must first break free of the notion that youth is like a lamb that can be sacrificed to adult cui21

ture. If necessary, cultural debris that has been discarded by adults must be vigorously eliminated from the perspective of youth culture. Of course, the youth culture of today is oppressed, wounded and defiled by the culture of previous generations, but this does not mean that it is merely the debris or waste of adult culture. The sometimes extreme unruliness and waywardness of youth cannot be denied. It is a fact that the crime rate of teenagers and people in their twenties has risen steadily. Those who have a negative view of youth culture point to this as proof that youth issues represent the most pressing problems plaguing our society, in line with the old saying: "Where there's smoke, there's fire." In Korea, such crimes are being committed by a very small number of youths who have been ostracized from school and treated cruelly by society, along with those who have been ignored at school or over-protected. The disobedience of most students is not to be attributed to substance addiction or gangs, but rather entrance exam stress. Instead of seeing them as criminals, they should be viewed as young people suffering 22

from a dire psychological situation resulting from a totally unreasonable emphasis on college entrance exams. As such, a new cultural policy should be implemented for the sake of the wellbeing of our youth. Even so, there are many people who believe that the various forms of juvenile wrongdoing should be dealt with sternly. According to this view, youth are by nature problematic and thus need strict guidance. Korean research on youth, with frequent references to this and that sort of "guidance policy," "protective measures" and "practical measures," reflects this very thinking. For this reason, y~)Ung people naturally agree with the assertion that they are being force-fed the society, economics, politics and culture of adults. When youth are seen as beneficial to the business of adults, they are objects of lavish praise, but as soon as they fail to meet adults' expectations, they are quickly dismissed as incorrigible. If youth are nothing more than sacrificial lambs, they must be stuck in a corner of society where they can learn to assimilate the culture of their elders. However, such a replication of adult culture would hold no promise for the future. In order to revive youth cu lture, youth must be shielded from such misguided attitudes. Effective national policy must be implemented to prevent and deal with unacceptable behavior while creating a harmonious environment. + 23

THE NEW KOREANS Greg Pratt journalist

beehive known as Taehangno, a cultural and entertainment s I was about to descend into the depths of the mecca buzzing with young Koreans on just about any night always hectic Hyewha subwa y station early of the week In fact, on many a morning, I had walked this one Saturday night, I slowed down to dodge a very same path to the subway, often sidestepping the countyoung man rushing ahead of me with a body less "soju pies" as I call them, which are pools (frozen in the precariously perched over his shoulder. winter) of hastily chewed foods and popular Korean liquor The body, that of his drunk, comatose friend, hung like an called "soju." Once mingled in the stomanimal carcass down his back The vicach, they form pizza-like patterns on tim's arms dangled in the wind as if TODAY, KOREAN YOUTHS ARE the sidewalks after they are unceremothey were the forelegs of an unlucky nio usly expunged from their host's deer draped trophy-like on the hood of GENERAU Y MUCH MORE OUTSPoinnards. Gross as they are, they are all a Wisconsin pickup in October. His KEN THAN EVER BEFORE THEY too conspicu ous testimonials to the skinny legs, held not so securely by his many drunken youths who dash for friend, dangled out of a modish, tight-fitARE MORE INQUISITNE AND OPINthe subway on their way to some pub, ting, Beatles-like suit reminiscent of the IONATED, MORE OUTGOING AND disco, clive, oblivion or beyond. 1960s fashion made popular in America And while a visitor to Korea may after the British pop culture invasion. EXPRESSNE, TRAITS TI!EIR PARENTS w itness this very same scene or many As for his coiffure, the man-boy's just like it in virtually every other poplong, stringy orangish hair was slicked WFJ?E NEVER RF.ALLY ALLOWED TO ular youth hangout in Seoul-from the down on his forehead and draped EXHIBIT WITHIN TilE RE51RICTNE trendy shops of Myongclong's fashion around his ears, each of which sported district to racy Shinch'on to rockin' a shiny earring. I couldn't tell, but the CONFINES OF CONFUCIAN CULTURE. poor soul could have been a teenager Kangnam to the haunts of Taehangno THEY'RE MORE IMAGINATNE, where I work and live- such events or a college kid or just some working may leave one with the impression stiff who tied one on too tight. Then INNOVATNE AND CREATNE WITH that Korean youths are out of control, again , he co uld have bee n one of MOUNTING EVIDENCE OF THIS bingeing on affluence, new found freeKorea's new age Einsteins or Gates or dom' s and a sudden rush of indepenone of many budding young entrepreFACT IN EVFJ?Y FACET OF KOREAN dence. Indeed, many Korean youths neurs here who, in a mom ent of joy, ART, SCIENCE, MUSIC, BUSINESS, CULact like so many stupefied American downed too many "one shots." college freshmen (and freshwomen) As his harried servant-very much TURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS. enjoying their first fraternity bash. the good Samaritan that he was-rushed to get his sick buddy clown the steps But look again. Having taught for a year in a prestigious Korean high and onto the subway, the poor boy's open mouth suddenly oozed with yellow puke that spilled clown the backside of school that sends 78 percent of its graduates to college or university and two years at a major Korean university, I can his rescuer and onto the subway steps. I avoided the splashes and drips as two smartly dressed, ruby-lipped and much too assure you that what I see on the streets of Taehangno is made-up redhead wannabes-looking a little tipsy themreally not at all representative of a new group of Korean selves-hurriedly reached for pocket tissues to wipe their young people dealing with life, love and country at the turn of this tumultuous century. Rather, these bizarre and at times clear friend's chin dry. It was only 8 p.m, but obviously this troubling incidents are simply the sometimes reckless, someraucous quartet had already been to one hell of a party. times destructive surface trappings of a profound and much This little melodrama, which I have witnessed on countdeeper countercultural revolution currently underway in less other occasions during my three years in Korea, is not at all that unusual amidst the swirl of Seoul's famed teenybop Korea.

And make no mistake. The pervasive 1960s-like exuberance of Korea's youth in 1999-reflected in the yellow, green and/ or purple hair, pierced ears, pony tails and odd mix of gangster rap, British-mod, or ultra-baggy hip-hop clothes-is actually the sure sign of a healthy cultural revolution with profound implications for Korea and the world. Indeed, Korea will never be the same as a youthful, blithe new spirit and a brave new world will slowly but surely emerge in this somewhat mislabeled "Land of the Morning Calm." Not only will Korea never be the same, but also I sincerely believe this dear divided land will be the better for it. While many in Korea today bemoan the horrors of youthful innocence-lost-the increases in teenage crime, flocks of runaways, rising teen suicides, trouble and turbulence in high schools, college dropouts, unmarried moms, not to mention the wild and wonderful embrace of heavy metal music, foreign-made movies, jazz, funk, punk rock, rap, body piercing, tattoos, metric tons of make-up, and yes, Buddha forbid, Japanese comic books-they are missing the big picture. What's really happening in Korea is that several generations of punishing, confining militaristic rule, autocratic topdown control and male-dominated, medieval ways of doing things are at long last giving way to an exhilarating and delightfully refreshing explosion of personal freedom. The explosion takes on many, many forms, one of which I witnessed that sultry Saturday night at Hyewha Station. But the explosion is really a deep and long overdue embrace; a weird, wild and woolly celebration if you will, of the individual human spirit, something Koreans have repressed for centuries. Today, Korean youths are generally much more outspoken than ever before. They are more inquisitive and opinionated, more outgoing and expressive, traits their parents were never really allowed to exhibit within the restrictive confines of Confucian culture. They're more imaginative, innovative and creative with mounting evidence of this fact in every facet of Korean art, science, music, business, culture, society and politics. Nowadays, virtually every single young Korean that I talk with, and I talk with hundreds everyday, yearns to travel abroad or study abroad, both of which used to be quite difficult. More and more young Koreans paint, draw, write software, compose music and read intently, especially magazines, novels and poetry, much more so than their parents. Fatigued and frustrated with what they perceive as a bloated bureaucracy, gangly conglomerates, and endemic corruption at virtually every level of government and society, most young Koreans truly yearn for a cleaner, freer, fairer and perhaps more progressive Korea. They embrace their reform-minded new President, Kim Dae-jung, a true rebel with a cause in his own right. And they admire the many new entrepreneurs who are breathing fresh air into Korea's

backwards, bruised and battered businesses. And deep down, they know all too well who and what brought Korea Inc. to the brink of total economic collapse: Not some JapaneseAmerican conspiracy, speculator-financier George Soros, or the big, bad ubiquitous IMF. While some of them won't say it out loud at home, in class they tell me it was without a doubt the fumbling and bumbling of the preceding generation. Although many Korean youths may seem adrift, indulgent or indifferent, many more are active in clubs, circles, volunteer groups, and church groups, as well as Korea's fledgling network of social, environmental and consumer movements. In general, they are thoughtful and they care. Not about power and money and control, like their predecessors, but about themselves, their lives and loves, their friends, their environment and their collective futures as more modern, more progressive members of the world community. Indeed, most of them eagerly embrace the current reform wave sweeping over Korea and they long for reunification with their bothers and sisters in the North. They want very much to embrace, not shun other people and cultures as they have often been told to do. And without apology, they want to redefine and reshape their own culture. In their own way and on their own terms. What else do they want? Above all, they want freedom. Not political freedom in the form of democracy. Some true Korean patriots of their parent's generation have already fought and won that for them. What they want is spiritual, intellectual and cultural freedom: Freedom to choose what novels, poetry or comic books to read and what movies to watch without some aging, myopic government censor peering over their shoulders. In addition, they want the freedom to make their own decisions about their hairstyl_es, lifestyles, clothes, music and majors. They want to make their own career choices, start their own businesses (the heck with the chaebol) and choose their own mates unfettered by meddlesome parental intrusions. In short, they want a New Korea. A better Korea. And that's why I call them the New Koreans. So while that unfortunate young bloke and his entourage at Hyewha Station may be all too familiar in Korea today, I'm willing to give him-and Korea-the benefit of the doubt. For he, too, is a New Korean, whether he knows it or not. A bit out of control for the moment, a bit reckless, a bit unsure of himself, but nonetheless in the helpful hands of a caring friend who's heading in the right direction ... heading home and into the future. Heading for a new dawn and a new day. A day in which a more mature New Korea emerges that is at once more creative, stronger, healthier, and more peaceful and prosperous than that hapless young man in his stupor could ever imagine. + 25

THE 20TH CENTURY IN RETROSPECT

Korean Society's

MODERNIZATION INCONGRUITY ChungBom-Mo Chair Professor, The Hallym Academy of Sciences Hallym University

As the 20th century is winding down, it is only appropriate to reflect on events of the past one hundred years. After enduring the first half of the century under Japanese colonial rule, Korea has spent the second half struggling to modernize. During this latter period, Korean society has undergone unprecedented change while realizing numerous notable achievements. For this reason, an in-depth look at the past 50 years will undoubtedly be meaningful. A thorough introspective view of these rapidly changing times could well serve as an accurate means of predicting the state of Korea in the 21st century. Korea's economic success during the last 50 years could be called "compressed modernization." In the West, modernization took several centuries, whereas in Korea it has been completed in an extremely short time frame through intense industrialization; which in turn has served as the basis for democratization. Political and economic reform has, more than anything else, brought about economic well-being and political awareness for the middle class, leading to diversification in society. Change begets change. The secularization and popularization of culture during the last half century has become yet another prevalent aspect of social change. KOREANA will therefore look at the developmental orientation and achievement of the Korean people in politics, economics, society and culture. It is hoped that this will provide valuable lessons for the 21st century. The following article "Korean Society's Modernization and Incongruity" is the first of a four-part series. (Ed.)

ocial change in Korea during the latter half of the 20th century has truly been both miraculous and dynamic. Often referred to as "progress" or "modernization," these changes contrast sharply with the nation's previous 5,000 years- in particular, the extremely dispiriting years of the late Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) and the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945) during the first half of the century. Progress has been stunning in its swiftness. Suffering from widespread poverty throughout most of its history, Korea has attained a per capita GNP of approximately $10,000 in the last 50 years. In Seoul, a city without a single apartment building 50 years ago, seemingly countless highrise apartment complexes now dominate the skyline. On streets where even hand-holding was previously taboo, couples can now be seen walking intimately in each other's arms. On the other hand, the nation's five major rivers have all become polluted, skylarks have disappeared from the skies, and grasshoppers have been all but exterminated from the rice fields.

Phenomenal, Structural and Mental Factors In order to broadly reflect on these social changes and predict future developments, this transformation is looked at here in terms of phenomenal, structural and mental factors. These three factors have not been selected arbitrarily: they represent three layers of a sphere. The surface layer of this sphere consists of the numerous phenomena that can be easily observed when looking at a society, such as high-rise apartments, disappearing skylarks and polluted rivers. The middle layer is made up of the structures, organizations and systems that comprise the society's basic framework, for example, social hierarchy, family structure, economic structure, and governmental system. Representing the mind of society, the central core includes

such factors as social values, sentiments, belief systems, and so forth. This view of society as consisting of multiple layers of a sphere contains several hypotheses about the dynamics of social change. First, it is assumed that the social layers that are closer to the surface change more often and more readily than the deeper layers. Korean clothing may be readily replaced by Western attire, but the practice of ancestral veneration is not altered so easily. Another hypothesis is that surface changes do not threaten a people's identity, whereas deep-rooted changes are seen as a serious threat that must be carefully weighed. While few Koreans feel that donning Western clothes affects their "Koreanness," many feel threatened by the direct introduction of foreign thought. According to this spherical la yer model, the inability of deeper social layers to keep up with the rapid changes of surface layers leads to discord and social problems. For example, the introduction of democracy to the middle layer conflicts with a lingering autocratic tendency within the core layer. Based on these h ypotheses, we will now look over the social changes of recent years.

The Phenomenon of Abundance During the last 50 years, the most striking social phenomenon has been Korea 's escape from abject poverty following the Korean War and the accumulation of economic wealth. As a nation that went from a US$100 to a US$10,000 per capita GNP, Korea's abundance is evident in a wide variety of indicators. Thanks to improvements in nutrition and sanitation, the average height of an 11-year-old child has increased by 15 centimeters. The streets are congested with cars, department stores are overflowing with the latest conveniences, and even most farming households now have a phone, refrigerator and TV. Skyscrapers proliferate in downtown metropolitan areas, while endless apartment complexes fill the suburbs. During holidays, the highways are overloaded with travelers. Fifty years ago, none of this would have been even imaginable. Along with this near miraculous econom ic growth, a number of problems have come to light. First, the process of industrialization through which this new wealth was created has meant a sudden increase in urbanization. The ratio of people living in urban and rural areas now stands at about 80 : 20-roughly an inverse situation to that of 50 years ago.

The population, estimated to have been around 7,000,000 fifty years ago, had grown to 40,600,000 by 1995, of which 18,600,000, or almost half, live in or around the capital of Seoul. These figures indicate that government has been excessively centralized in cities, especially in and around the capital city. For many people, urbanization represents the concentration of opportunity and power associated with politics, administration, economics, culture and education. At the same time, cities also mean slums and a great deal of chaotic social problems. The anonymity of the city, where one is not known or recognized can, on the one hand, be seen as a form of liberation, but on the other it can mean a heightened sense of alienation and loneliness. For this reason, there are more incidents of crime and cases of mental illness in urban areas. There is significant evidence that we have paid an enormous price in terms of pollution to attain our material abundance. There is no need to give a detailed description of this here. I would, however, point out that although environmental degradation is a worldwide phenomenon, this proble m is much more acute within the narrow confines of the Korean peninsula. Indeed, pollution and the resultant destruction of our environment will likely be the most shameful legacy of the current generation. During the period of rapid economic growth, interest has been exclusively focused on rapid "development at any cost." Hardly anyone had stopped to wonder whether the economic structure was secure or fle xible enough to be sustained. Korea's subway system is a good example of this mind-set. People boasted about how the construction work was completed in such a short time, but when the subway opened for operation, water could be seen leaking in many locations. Widespread social ills such as corruption, greedy business expansion, excessive reliance on debt-financing by large conglomerates, and the intimate links between government and business finally led to the need for IMF financial assistance. As the economist Keynes warned long ago, wealth can be either a blessing or a curse. Since the dawn of history, humankind has been enamored with attaining wealth. According to Keynes, if people fail to come up with another goal after wealth has been acquired, they can lose their sense of purpose. The crisis of values seen today in people's mammonism and selfishness as well as the excesses of 27

overnight millionaires remains an issue that must be addressed by societies that have attained abundance.

AChange in the Social Structure The traditional yangban-sangmin caste system that served to divide Korean society was formally abolished about 100 years ago with the Kabo Reforms of 1894. Even so, this system continued to exert considerable influence on people's consciousness and habits (albeit to a much lesser extent) during the Japanese occupation. Caste consciousness almost completely disappeared after liberation from Japanese rule in 1945, due to an expansion in Koreans' outlook A few years later, the Korean War erupted, causing mass displacements of people, intermixing and pervasive poverty. Under these circumstances, the caste system dissipated. In its place, a social class structure based on socio-economic status began to form. Increased educational opportunities during this period significantly enhanced this structure. According to one survey, about 80 percent of all Koreans regard themselves as belonging to the middle class. This subjective perception of themselves as part of the bowgeoisie may be in part due to the fact that everyone is considerably better off economically than they used to be. On the other hand, a sense of relative deprivation resulting from a widening gulf between the rich and the poor has led to a gradual polarization of

Korean society-a trend that has become even more pronounced during the IMF era. The zealous pursuit of education in Korea should also be understood within the context of social class structure. In the strictest sense, the "zealous pursuit of education" does not so much reflect a desire for education as a desire to get ahead. Korea's focus on education has often been glamorized as the pursuit of refinement, learning or human development, but it has actually been rooted in people's desire to improve their socioeconomic status. For this reason, Korean parents tend to be more interested in the "label" than the actual content of education. Korea 's uniquely fierce competition for entry into elite universities can be seen as a result of this thinking. When viewed in terms of the ideal aspirations of education, this focus on labels is inherently lacking. In a nutshell, this is the core problem of Korean education. A desired trend in modern society, and especially in any democratic society where people enjoy the freedom of assembly, is the appearance of numerous social organizations that become positive forces for social diversity, pluralistic opinion, public pressure and special interests. These groups can include economic organizations, labor unions and student unions as well as specialist groupings such as academic societies, professional associations and sports clubs. In Korea, examples include the Citizens' Coalition for Economic Justice ,

People's Solidarity for Participatory Democracy and Green Korea United. These numerous social organizations are often formed to promote their particular interests. However, in order for these organizations to effectively carry out such a role, they must also have a genuine interest in the overall good of society. After all, a "public" cause is often nothing niore than a label for what is actually a "personal" interest. To the extent that this is true, these groups merely exacerbate existing conflicts instead of contributing to a cooperative blend of diverse interests. Special interest groups thus require a mature outlook

Democratic System Until liberation some 50 years ago, Korea had been ruled by monarchies for most of its history. It spent the first half of the 20th century as a colony. When Korea was liberated from Japanese imperial rule in 1945, it created a constitution based on a liberal democracy. As part of this process, numerous laws were enacted, the government was separated into three branches, political parties were created, and num ero us elections were held. However, few people would say that Korea was truly a free, democratic nation then. The regimes of Syngman Rhee, Park Chung-hee and Chun Doo-hwan were in fa ct dictatorial, while the administrations of Roh Tae-woo and Kim Young-sam found it difficult to make a clean

break with past practices. Liberal democracy is a complex term with broad implications. "Democracy" presupposes general and fair elections or more precisely, elections free of corruption. "Liberty" basically comprises human rights such as the freedom of speech, thought and conscience. Yet in actual circumstances, even though outright corruption may not be involved, governments elected by a majority of the people are known to use subterfuge and secret deals to infringe on the human rights of a minority or the general population. This has often occurred overseas, and we have directly experienced such situations in Korea as well. A democratic system involves more than general and fair elections. A supportive mind-set and ethical maturity are also required. First, a respect for human dignity is necessary, ensuring that every individual is treated in a humane manner. In more concrete terms, even if a person is not related by family ties, does not fit into one of the five Confucian relationships (of ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, the young and old, and between friends), is part of a minority, or is not part of one's faction, he should still be treated in a sufficiently humane manner. Koreans still fall short in their respect for human dignity. To what should this be attributed? Does this derive from the traditional focus on the family, an ethical system that tends to be confined to the "Three Bonds and Five Relationships" pre-

Aerial view of Seoul, where evidence of its modernization is visÂˇ able everywhere, while innerÂˇcore incongruity remains below the surface.

scribed in Confucianism, xenophobia due to frequent invasions or a shortsighted collectivism? Respect for the rule of law is another basic element of democracy. A democracy, or for that matter even a dictatorship, cannot survive in an atmosphere of lawlessness. Thus, the overthrow of a dictatorship is technically a lawless act just as is the subversion of a democracy. The former can be justified while the latter clearly cannot. There is a problem when people resort to lawlessness in response to difficult situations even after a society has adopted democratic principles. In Korean society, there is little respect for the rule of law. This may be attributed to the way of thinking that developed during the colonial period when lawlessness was justified as part of the heroic struggle against the Japanese. An open system is another requirement. As mentioned earlier, as a democratic society undergoes modernization, a diverse range of special interest groups should emerge. The diverse and often contrary viewpoints of these groups should not pose an obstacle to the proper functioning of a modern democracy. On the contrary, they must be seen as a necessary by-product. At issue is whether each group and its members have an open-minded attitude that enables free expression and listening to various views. When such openness is lacking, narrow-mindedness, factionalism and regionalism block the path toward compromise. Korea still has a long way to go before it can be said to be truly open.

A Modern Mind-set In 1965, at a time when Korea strongly desired development and modernization, an international seminar on modernization was held at Korea University. During his presentation, the political 30

scientist Pye noted that modernity is comprised of five characteristics: a sense of efficacy, rationality, renovation, participation and universal civility. These modern thoughts clearly contrast with those of the past. The attitude that one need only apply oneself to get something done (hamy6ndoenda) contrasts with fatalism. The rational approach, under which one's thoughts and actions are guided by reason, contrasts with traditional society's irrational dependence on superstition, favoritism and coercion. A sense of responsible participation differs from the irresponsible practice of rebellion. A sense of renovation and a quest for new ways of doing things conflict with blindly clinging to the old ways of tradition. And a sense of universality contrasts with the exclusive devotion to one's family or hometown that characterized traditional society. Previously, society was said to consist of layers of a sphere with mental factors being closest to the center and most impervious to change. Although many changes can be seen in terms of social phenomena and institutions, it is difficult to gauge the extent to which the necessary psychological changes have actually occurred. For example, the "we can do it" spirit of the New Village Movement of the 1960s and 1970s represented a sense of community unity and resolve. Nevertheless, most people-even national legislative members and candidates-are known to visit fortune-tellers. Much of Korea's daily business seems to be carried out according to the rule of law and related principles; yet the ubiquity of favoritism and corruption as well as violent demonstrations suggest that the people's rational sense is still not mature. Although there is a great deal of new experimentation in the fields of technology, academia and art, most of it is based on previous work or imitates what others have done. There are actually few cases of someone venturing into something truly new. While many people desire to participate in society and many do in fact get involved, a proper sense of responsibility is still underdeveloped. Family and college ties, regionalism and personal connections still exert stronger influence in Korea than a notion of universal civility. Koreans still have a long way to go to develop a modern-day mind-set. Although there can be little doubt that there have been significant changes in Koreans' mentality, underneath many of the surface changes, traditional ways of thinking have survived essentially intact in many instances.

While it may seem ostensibly paradoxical, one trend relatIf the history of the human spirit is depicted in broad ed to a modernized consciousness is a return to tradition. strokes, the first millenniums, during which life was domiThe process of modernization implies erosion of many of nated by religion and its leaders, can be called the Age of the spiritual pillars of tradition. This lack of a spiritual founBeliefs, while recent centuries during which rational and dation leaves many people with a sense of emptiness and practical thinking held sway can be referred to as the Age of even a loss of identity. For this reason, people begin to look Reason. The most recent century, during which the logic of for something to fall back on, something that is "their own." economic development was the guiding force, has almost ended. The 21st century will be, and indeed must be, the In a society like Korea that has spent half a century suppressed by Japanese colonialism and inundated with foreign dawn of the Age of Man. A new concern for humanity has cultural influences since liberation, such a return to its roots already been expressed since the 19th century in ideologies such as romanticism, socialism and existentialism. During the is vital. This may be so, but any attempt to find Korea's identity solely within the confines of its ne x t century, this concern for humankind must be the main current tradition risks a return to isolationist FOR MANY PEOPLE, URBANIZAof the times. tendencies. A concern for humanity is accomTION REPRESENTS THE CONCENpanied by a concern for our environBeyond Development TRATION OF OPPORTUNITY AND ment, the fountain of all life. The franKorean society will continue to evolve as it enters the 21st century. tic pace of economic development and POWER ASSOCIATED WITH POLIhumans' wanton destruction of nature One can only hope that this change will proceed in a worthwhile direchas been rationalized by a sharp TICS, ADMINISTRATION, ECOtion. Presently, Korea is undergoing a Cartesian delineation between spirit NOMICS, CULTURE AND EDUCAsevere test known as the IMF manand matter (i.e., humans who have elate. This might be the inevitable spirit and nature that is spiritless). The TION. AT THE SAIYIE TIME, CITIES destruction of our natural environresult of Korea's attachment to its oneALSO MEAN SLUMS AND A ment has not only led to an increase in dimensional, rapid growth policy. In the number of ex tinct species, but other words, it may be clue to the GREAT DEAL OF CHAOTIC now even imperils the very existence imbalance and estrangement resulting SOCIAL PROBLEMS. THE of all humanity. In the confined territofrom its failure to adequately mature ry of Korea, this is of even greater conin its political, cultural, spiritual and ANONYMITY OF THE CITY, moral spheres. In order to create a cern. The philosophy of the 21st centuWHERE ONE IS NOT KNOWN OR ry should be lil<e an oriental landscape sound society, these qualities should be developed hand in hand with an painting-an expression of harmony RECOGNIZED CAN, ON THE ONE accumulation of wealth. between nature and man. HAND, BE SEEN AS A FORM OF In the 21st century, Korea must In addition, people are naturally interested in the social basis of their adopt an economic model that is holisLIBERATION, BUT ON THE everyday life-their nation. All people tic rather than one-dimensional. That is OTHER IT CAN MEAN A HEIGHTshould love their country and be conto say, we Koreans need a framework that is not only concerned about ecocerned about its security and its ENED SENSE OF ALIENATION nomic development but also takes development into a prominent nation. into account political, cultural, educaIf the remote past is disregarded and AND LONELINES._'i'. tional and moral development. Others we look only at the last couple of cenwill not regard Korea as an "advanced turies of Korean history, Korea does nation" solely based on our economic wealth. Without politinot seem deserving of respect. A century of isolationism, factionalism and corruption which ended the Choson cal, cultural and spiritual maturity, Korea will be looked clown on as a rich up-start. Fukuyama's statement that trust Dynasty was followed by a half century of Japanese colois a prerequisite for national wealth is just one example of nial rule and then a half century as a divided nation. this kind of thinking. Moreover, for the last half century, the nation has been obsessed with acutely one-dimensional economic developAs a basis for this sort of holistic approach to social development, there are three things that Koreans, and especially ment. This recent history poignantly reminds us of the the leadership responsible for guiding social change, need to tremendous challenge ahead. Instead of being puffed up be aware of: concern for humanity, our environment, and with narcissism, Korea must overcome this challenge and our nation. become a nation worthy of genuine respect. + 31

INTERVIEW

Harmonizing Tradition with Modernitv

Ryu Choon-soo Kim Young-uk Associate Editor, KOREANA

h a t is a n arc hit ect? Th ere is no si m p le answer to this question. To say that an architect is som eon e w h o designs houses and buildings leaves mu ch to be d es ired. An archit ec t designs creative, artistic and functional structures that contribute to the wellbeing of humankind. Because architecture is not an aggregate of simple functions and techniques, but a composite art capable of enhancing the quality of life and creating comfortable living environments, an architect is required to insightfully sense many aspects of th e total environmen t. An arch itect should thus have an especially discerning eye for w hat is and w hat might possibly be in the future. Architect Ryu Ch oo n-soo, 53, imbu es hi s mo de rn architectural creations w ith a spirit of Korean traditions. A leading Korean architect, he has opened up new possibilities for Korean architecture based on a creative rationale derived from an intuitive philosophy that encompasses a Buddhist worldview and a Taoist approach toward nature. I was elated as I traveled to Panya to

Architect Ryu Choon-soo imbues his modern architectural creations with a spirit ofKorean traditions. A leading Korean architect, he has opened up new possibilities for Korean architecture based on a creative rationale derived from an intuitive philosophy that encompasses a Buddhist worldview and a Taoist approach toward nature. 32

visit his studio. He had just completed the preliminary design of the 2002 World Cup Seoul Stadium, a project that involved six months of work. I was eager to meet this very talented architect, who is carrying on the tradition of his beloved teacher, the late Kim Swoo-geun, the father of modern Korean architecture. Nestled deep in a valley in Sokp'omyon, Ponghwa-gun, Kyongsangbukdo, Panya is one of the few remaining

places in Korea that defies easy access. From Seoul, it took seven hours to get to Panya and when we finally arrived, bright stars welcomed us. The beautiful crescent moon over the pine trees seemed close enough to touch. Ryu came to this picturesque mountain village, away from the din of the city, four years ago. At the time, the local primary school had just closed down so he was able to rent the dilapidated house where its teachers had lived

which now is his studio. He has since come here whenever he wants to work in solitude on important projects or to relax with friends. During vacation periods, he holds workshops for young architects in the closed school building. The studio was a simple structure that made the most of its limited space. Although the exterior of the building had not been changed, its interior had been remodeled to create a more functional and spacious living and work area. The ondol floors, rather low ceilings, translucent lattice-and-paper windows and soft white walls covered with the same textured mulberry paper created an atmosphere reminiscent of Ryu's architectural creations. This seemed to reinforce his philosophy that a living space is more beautiful when its walls, floors and ceilings are simple and subdued. A 500-year-old pine, visible through a large glass window , caught my eye, reminding me of an ancient scroll painting, while making beautiful exterior elements an integral part of the interior. What Ryu deems a quality building is one that fits into the natural environment; he did not hesitate to tell us that his studio is a quality building. On his drafting table was a schematic design of the World Cup Stadium, which he had just finished. "I have designed many sports facilities, butÂˇ each time I design one it feels

A bird's-eye view of the World Cup soccer stadium to be built at Sang-am-dong, Seoul, for the 2002 World Cup Championship (above); a sketch of an idea utilizing a food tray and a traditional Korean kite that Ryu had for the stadium before he designed it (left); Ryu at work in a studio he set up in an abandoned schoolhouse in a remote rural area (right)

Examples of Ryu's work (below, from the top): Hangyeryong Rest Area (1979); the National Museum Subway Station (19781983); the 1988 Seoul Olympic Gymnasium; a cross-secton of the Olympic Gymnasium (1985)

like the first time. Architecture is difficult and complicated, but its attraction as a challenge is endless, because aesthetics and state-of-the-art technology are applied to the 'container of life.' If,

with the passing of time, one's work becomes a symbol of an era, there's nothing more that an architect could hope for." Ryu says that he is one of the luckiest architects in the world because he has earned the right to design the 2002 World Cup Seoul Stadium, which will be the focus of the eyes of the world. This World Cup Stadium will highlight the beauty of Korea. Ryu got his inspiration for the design from a traditional Korean kite made of bamboo strips and light mulberry paper. From inside, the stadium reveals the shape of an upsidedown octagonal tray, the type of tray that is used to serve food in Korean homes; from up above, it resembles a traditional Korean kite. In fact, the engineers of the U.S. firm, Geiger Engineers, have dubbed it "Ryu's kite." Ryu's prowess as an architect lies in the identity of the Korean people. Korea and its 5,000 years of history are his inspiration. His confidence as a creative Korean is the foundation of his unique worldview. He has endeavored to portray the 2002 World Cup Seoul Stadium at Sang-am-dong as a symbol of Korean creativity, sentiment, technology, and culture-past, present and future. It is a work that reflects its ere-

ator's will and ability to draw on the universal language of architecture by balancing tradition and state-of-the-art technology. "It will be a space for those inside and outside the stadium to converge and experience a sense of Korean sentiments. The roof, resembling a shieldshaped traditional kite or a boat sail, will be made of a coated fiberglass material that resembles mulberry paper. At night, if you view the stadium from above during a sporting event, it will exude a tranquil radiance like that of a lamp with a mulberry paper shade. Like the rain hat of Kim Sakkat or a kite in the sky." Ryu, born in a country with a rich tradition of architecture, is confident that the stadium will be an architectural monument of our time; one which manifests Korean colors, tradition, themes and pride. We can expect a truly distinguished architectural masterpiece reminiscent of a sailboat on the Han River or a traditional kite in the sky. In the future it will occupy a notable place in Korea's cultural heritage, akin to the Sydney Opera House, a vivid symbol of the ocean and sailing that has become a cultural landmark of Sydney, Australia.

An architectural structure is fundamentally a space for human use. Thus, in the design of any architectural structure, be it a house, gymnasium or hotel, an analysis of social, humanization and utilitarian factors should precede any

More examples of Ryu's work (from the top): a house in Samha-ri (1986); Kangch'on Rest Area (1989)

consideration of artistic aspects. Many variables must be considered when designing an architectural structure. In designing a stadium, for example, one must consider where athletes and spectators will enter and where athletes can practice. In designing a hotel, there is the problem of providing separate traffic flows for hotel employees and guests and how to dispose of kitchen refuse and so forth. In architectural design, the architect must have a sensitive and discerning eye for the most minute detail in order create a true work of art. In addition to having a thorough understanding of structural engineering, Ryu has an eye for detail, which is one of the reasons his creations are so widely recognized and acclaimed. Ryu graduated from Hanyang University with a degree in architecture in 1970 and earned his masters degree in landscape architecture from Seoul National University in 1985. He has worked as an architect for the past 29 years. The fact that he is an exceptional architect who can translate strong native sentiments into modern architectural language is related to his early experiences. An only son, he was born in Mulya-myon, Ponghwa-gun, Kyongsangbukdo province. His family was not affluent, but comfortable enough. When he was young, he learned Chinese characters and calligraphy from his father, which later significantly influenced his architectural work He loved painting and dreamed of becoming an artist. While in high school, he won the grand prize in a provincial painting contest. Even now, he is well-known in architectural circles for his skillful sketching and painting. He takes a sketchbook and brushes whenever he travels, a discipline that continues to enhance his creativity. "Many people attempt to become 36

Like Korea's traditional architecture that was built in such a way as to make the most ofthe natural characteristics of the site, Ryu uses various levels to establish elements for the creation ofspaces, both inside andoutsUk.Forhim,the paradox ''the more difficult the site, the better the architecture" seems to be especially apt.

architects, trusting only their sense of aesthetics, but give up midway. This is because they didn't know that architects should be scientists and engineers before they are artists. A good architect cannot be satisfied with only beauty. The creation of a space convenient to everyday life should be supported by precise logic and calculations based on geometry, physics and mathematics." He switched his major from art to architecture because he was confident of his science-related ability and the sense of beauty with which he was born. His view of nature and Buddhist introspection were acquired while

spending two years at a mountain temple in his hometown before he entered college. This experience, which opened his eyes to the wonders of nature, may have helped him design the Hangyeryong Rest Area, the Kangch'on Rest Area, and the Ritz-Carlton Hotel, which he built on an existing knoll while respecting the natural site. The lay of the land influences his architectural design; he does not level sloping terrain. Like Korea's traditional architecture that was built in such a way as to make the most of the natural characteristics of the site, Ryu uses various levels to establish elements for the creation of spaces, both inside and outside. For him, the paradox "the more difficult the site, the better the architecture" seems to be especially apt. Another consit~ discipline of his architectural language is the preciseness of dimensional resolution; not even a centimeter can be compromised. However remarkable an architect's concept, or however incredible his ability in defining and merging spaces in an organized manner, he cannot produce an excellent work of architecture without having been trained in the solution of the smallest details. Ryu 's artisan spirit can be glimpsed in all his works, from his small-scale Samhari house, a traditional wooden house for modern times, which received a special award from the Korea Institute of Architects, to the Ritz-Carlton Hotel. During his career as an architect, he has worked not only with domestic architects but also with renowned foreign architects and engineers. He is also one of the first Korean architects to seriously venture abroad. Ryu became known as an international architect in 1988 when he was named a co-recipient of the Quatenario international

architecture award for the Olympic Gymnastics Hall, which h e had designed together with his teacher Kim Swoo-geun. Soon after, he again attracted international attention when he won an international design competition for th e 868 Tower Project in Haikou, China. His design motif was inspired by the yin-yang theory of Laotzu: it features two buildings, of 86 floors and 68 floors, connected as if one, symbolizing East and West while striking a balance between high and low, long and short, and nature and technology. Unfortunately, the project was indefinitely postponed due to China's economic difficulties. In addition, he has been invited to speak at architecture seminars overseas, including the 1990 International Symposium of Sports Architecture in Beijing and also featured in architectural magazines in Hong Kong and Spain. Everyone has a fateful encounter in life. Ryu is no exception. When he was young, he met the late Kim Swoo-geun, who inspired him with such sayings as "architecture is quality," and "architecture that is not beautiful should not be created." He has been reborn as an architect who leads Korean architecture with the uniqueness of his style. He spent 12 years under the tutelage of Kim in his studio called "Space Group." Ryu once said, "How can a person call himself an architect if he did not experience 'Space?"' Now that his teacher has passed away, Ryu is following his own path. He is a born architect with creativity and a persistent sense of challenge, practicing what his teacher preached"architects should succeed by drawing." After Kim Swoo-geun's death in 1986, Ryu left Space along with some 10 of its employees to open Igong, or "Beyond Space." The Chinese characters for Igong have several different connotations. Beyond Space stands high on a hill in Seoul's Pongch'on-dong, skirting Kwanaksan. This is where those who adhere to Ryu's architectural philosophy work together. He says, "Architects

Ryu Choon-soo and a sketch of the 868 Tower, a building he designed for Haikou, China (right); Ssangyong Earthscape Pavilion, Taejon Expo '93 (opposite page)

should have an eye not only for the shape and color of a small teacup, but also for the spatial structure of a city or the land of a country." The motto of Beyond Space, "We intend to enhance the environment, the city, and architectural culture by creating practical, beautiful and better spaces based on tradition and modern technology," has been reflected in every project undertaken by the firm , and now this will be reflected for everyone to see in the World Cup Seoul Stadium. Ryu says, "To be a true architect, one has to undertake large-scale projects." He is considered the No. 1 architect of Korean sports facilities. In addition to the Olympic Gymnastics Hall, he has been involved in the design of Ch'iak

Stadium in W onju, and the baseball stadium in the Pusan Sajik Sports Complex. Not many Korean architects have enjoyed more glory than Ryu, although glory is not his primary goal. He is an optimist with a Buddhist worldview. His life philosophy is that no matter how desperate a situation seems, it can be overcome by proper thinking. "Regardless of how high a mountain is, it is only a mountain under the sky." Architecture is said to be an act of altruism because it is designed for other people, the users, not the architect himself. Ryu Choonsoo does not own anything, not even a house. He smiled innocently as he shot a slingshot, saying it was more fun than architecture. + 37

TRADITIONAL ARTISAN

Potter

Kiln ChOng-ok Lee Hyoung-kwon Poet, Director of Cultural Assets Research Center

Uljinâ&#x20AC;˘

Yongyang

un-gy6ng, one of the northernmost towns of Ky6ngsang-do province, is nestled along the foot of a high pass nearby the southern end of the Sobaek mountain range. Although wellknown for its natural beauty, few people realize that during the Chason Dynasty (1392-1910) this area was home to many private kilns that specialized in pottery used by the common people. Mun-gy6ng pottery, which has a simpler, more traditional character as compared to the ceramics produced at other kilns, was used by the common people, particularly a form known as maksabal (common ware). The maksabal kilns in Sagimakkol in Kwanum village are particularly renowned. If one goes from the Mun-

gy6ng township up through a valley along Mt. W 6raksan, this village stands as the last lonely hamlet before ascending the mountain. Here, one can find kilns that have been in operation for three centuries and families that have been producing pottery for seven generations. About a century ago, there was a potter in the village by the name of Kim Mun-gy6ng. Kim made a name for himself with the white porcelain pots he turned out at a governmentoperated kiln in Punw6n village in Ky6nggi-do province's Kwangju county. His real name was Un-hi.'Ji, Mungy6ng being a pen name taken from his hometown. By the time he was about 40 years old, he had become highly regarded for his masterful work at the Kwanum village kilns, which led to his selection to work at a

punw6n, a kiln operated by the Saongwon, a government bureau in charge of overseeing the production of ceramics for use by the royal court. When Kim Mun-gyong was assigned to a government kiln, he relocated his entire family including his nine-year-old son who was just learning about clay. His son, named Kim Kyo-su, acquired his father's skill and expertise, eventually becoming a true master potter in Mun-gyong. With the decline of Korea during the final years of the Chason Dynasty, the government kilns were privatized in 1883. Cheap pottery flooded into the country from Japan, hastening the demise of Chason pottery. Before long, Korea's plain, simple pottery, known for its charismatic warmth, had essentially disappeared. Kim Mun-gyong, who was striving to preserve maksabal pottery, went to work for a short time at a private kiln near the punwon where he had been working, but later returned to his hometown. His nation had collapsed,

and no one seemed to care about the pottery or his expertise. Against this desolate backdrop, his return home must have been particularly melancholy. Operating the kiln of his ancestors in his hometown, Kim shaped the clay, kicked the foot-operated potters' wheel and lit the firewood for the kiln, but he was unable to create pottery with his former zeal. Fortunately, his faithful son stood ready to continue his legacy, gaining the requisite skills and expertise while working beside him. Due to their strenuous efforts, the Mun-gyong kilns were able to enjoy another golden age. The punwon had been designed for the production of high-class white porcelain. As these kilns were dismantled, Chason's white porcelain culture devolved into low-quality ware massproduced for the common people. Because the kilns were operated without any supervision and with craftsmanship not being a concern, the ceramics produced tended to be

rather crude and inelegant. The maksabal fired at the kilns of Mungyong may have seemed unrefined, but they were certainly unique, especially their color. This is because the potters adopted techniques that had been used at the punwon. Moreover, the area was blessed with an abundance of sandy soil, clay and terra alba, along with plenty of trees for firewood. However, the Japanese colonial rulers could not stand idly by as folkcrafts enjoyed a revival centered around pottery. In a bid to replace all pottery, including the everyday rice bowl, with Japanese-made wares, Japanese factories were founded throughout Korea w bile Koreans were not allowed to operate kilns without government permission. Supposedly for the sake of protecting the forests, the real purpose was to take control of all Korean industries. More than 30 kilns once thrived in the areas around Miruk, Kwanum and Chunggogae, but all were forced to

Cup,13cmx 8cm

shut down. Only the pottery factory at Hwangjongmo at the entrance to Kwan1:'1m received permission to remain open. At the age of 70, Kim Mun-gyong finally passed away next to a dilapidated kiln in Kwanum village. His son Kyo-su worked as a humble laborer at the pottery factory in Hwangchongmo village. After Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule, Kim Kyo-su fired up his father's old, run-down kiln. At this time, there was a shortage of brass tableware as Koreans had been forced to donate their brass for Japan's war effort. The exodus of Japanese ceramic factories back to Japan further exacerbated the shortage of common tableware. Kim was thus able to sell enough pottery to buy some land that had been used by slash-and-burn farmers. With the advent of nickel-alloy tableware and plastic-ware around 1960, the Kwanum village kiln again went into decline. The pottery shops that had once lined the village streets closed one after another. In the end, the Kim family's kiln was the only one in the area that remained in operation. On the verge of shutting down like the others, the Kim's kiln was rescued by the Korea-Japan Peace Accord of 1965. This agreement brought Japanese tourists into Korea who with a discerning eye appreciated the pottery produced by Korean potters in remote mountain valleys. The pottery produced by these dedicated potters happened to be typical of the pottery regarded as a national treasure in Japan. This same pottery , used by commoners in Korea, had been introduced to Japan by Korean potters who had been abducted to Japan during Japanese warlord Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea (1592-1598). Japanese aristocrats used this rather plain pottery for tea ceremonies, which came to be venerated in Japan as a symbol of wealth and status. Indeed, the 40

Japanese so admired this style that it was said that one could die happy if one touches such pottery just once in a lifetime. What Koreans had contemptuously thought of as crude bowls hardly suitable as dog-dishes were considered by the Japanese to be noble, treasured works of art. In order to fulfill Japanese orders, Kim Kyo-su continued to produce teapots and bowls until he died at the age of 79 in 1979. He was buried at Kwanl'llTI village. Kim Ch6ng-ok, the youngest of his three sons, is carrying on the family tradition. He now operates the Yongnam

Âˇ Slip-decorated punch'ong bottle, 16cmx17cm

Kiln in Chinan village, which is situated on a road that branches off at Kwan1:'1m village and heads toward Mun-gyong Pass. He represents one of the last generations to work the kilns here. From the time he was a runnynosed tyke, he did all the chores alongside his father. Eventually, he learned how to operate the kiln. When he quit school in his last year of high school at the age of 18, he began to learn how to shape clay on the potter's wheel. Except for his mandatory 30 months of military ser-

vice, he continued to learn from his father until the age of 32. Although people frequently praised his work, saying that he had indeed acquired his father's skill, when his father passed away, the Japanese tourists who had come to the kiln because of his father's reputation stopped visiting. Korean visitors also forgot about the place. Before long, the young Kim Ch6ng-ok could not even afford to fire up the kiln. Kim and his brothers had a difficult time making ends meet with the farmland that they had inherited. In order to earn a livelihood, Kim set up a new kiln by the roadside in the town of Mun-gyong. He figured that the location would be more convenient and would catch the eyes of people driving by. In dire financial straits, Chong-ok tried making every sort of pottery, including the plain style popular with the Japanese, imitation punch '6ng, inlaid porcelain, white porcelain and even urinal pots and flower vases. In order to gain recognition, he entered some of his ceramics in a 1986 handicrafts exhibition. However, contrary to his expectations, his works were not even accepted. He knew that pottery was a difficu lt profession, but when nobody seemed at all interested in his work, he became depressed and began to doubt himself. Still, the thought that kept passing through his mind was "tradition." He wanted to master the skills of his father and grandfather and exhibit his talent to the world. He then went to work creating traditional bowls of various shapes and sizes, and entered them in the following year's exhibition. Although he failed to win a major prize, they were readily accepted into the competition. Ye Yong-hae, a cultural assets specialist and Han Chang-gi, author of Saemi kip'un mul (Water of a Deep Spring), discovered Kim's pottery in a corner of the exhibition. They appreciated

that these works were filled with the memories of a time long past and therefore traveled to Mun-gyong to encourage Kim Chong-ok to persevere in his work. Thereafter, Kim conducted research into how to fashion the bowls and other pottery that his father used to produce. In the 1988 and 1989 exhibitions, his work was widely acclaimed and he received special awards both times. As the judges Chung Yang-mo and Ye Yong-hae explained, "His work reflects the common ware that was produced in regional kilns during the late Choson period. The simple and plain bowls are made with rough, sandy clay, bluish glaze, spontaneous 'grass patterns,' refreshingly open designs and an appropriate folk-art appearance." The Kim family's legacy, or to be more exact, the tradition of two centuries and seven generations, had finally attained well-deserved recognition.

In 1991, Kim ChOng-ok acquired the title Master Potter and in July he was designated Intangible Cultural Asset No. 105, making him a human cultural treasure. In commemoration of his designation, there will soon be a touring exhibition of the Kim family 's works in Seoul. Last night, I watched Kim ChOng-ok as he stoked his kiln while keeping careful watch over the pottery being fired. He looked almost reverent, like a monk engaged in meditation. Initially dumbstruck, I finally managed to ask him what his father's last words were. After telling his son Kyong-shik, who is 30, to stoke up the fire at the other end of the kiln, he said, "Though born with misfortune and no skills, if one works diligently one should never have to beg for a meal." As soon as the dry pine hit the fire, flames shot up like the tongue of a

snake ready to swallow the kiln. Within these flames, the Kim family's enduring tradition was germinating and being reborn. I emptied a glass of rice wine offered on a small ceremonial table. The countless stars above the Sobaek Mountains all seemed to have been poured into my maksabal wine bowl. Even in the dark, I could see the Mun-gyong earth, water and wind as well as the Kim family heritage sparkling in the bowl, like a traditional white-cotton garment. +

Kim Chong-ok's kiln (above) and a teacup made by Kim (left).

ON THE ROAD

Kang Woon-gu Writer and Photographer

Aewol Hallim

hejudo â&#x20AC;˘ Mt.Halla

Taej~ng

SOg~Jfip

When flowers bloom along the island's southern coast, this signals the beginning

o/spring throughout the country. However, it takes about a month for spring to work its way up to the heart o/ the peninsula. The coronas of these narcissus blossoms are beautiful and distinct. This variety is similar to theW estern variety, but smaller. Because this type of narcissus is particularly beautiful, people often pick them, which has reduced their number.

pring in Korea begins in the south. Specifically, it begins on Chejudo, an island situated in the Pacific Ocean, some 88 miles south of the Korean peninsula. When flowers bloom along the island's southern coast, this signals the beginning of spring throughout the country. However, it takes about a month for spring to work its way up to the heart of the peninsula. After enduring Korea's often long, harsh winters, people eagerly await the arrival of spring. In warm spots along Cheju's southern coast, flowers bloom throughout wintertime. Flowers such as the aster typically bloom in early autumn then disappear by late autumn, but those in warmer areas can survive even in wintet< Even during the height of winter, dandelions continually bloom within the island's ubiquitous stone walls or any other place where there is a windbreak. However, they grow with bent stems, hugging the

It must be kept in mind that similar.flora have been distributed throughout China, Korea andJapan. This would indicate that the three countries were once part o/the same continent, or that animals, wind or the sea transmitted seeds and rootsfrom similar climatic zones.

Chejudo is an island formed around the 1,950-meter-high Mt. Halla. The lower slopes of the mountain are green with vegetation, whereas its peak is covered with snow_

ground like cautious insects. Although they are not wild flowers, the cabbage blossoms that grow alongside them are even more splendid and picturesque. The cabbage seeds planted in the early fall grow rapidly during the cool autumn and then blossom in winter. Amidst the desolate winter scenery, fields of yellow flowers poking up through blue leaves are a vivid symbol of the vibrancy and hope of a new spring. The cabbage blossoms resemble the island's renowned rape blossoms. Actually, these cabbages are not cultivated as food, but rather for decorative purposes, providing scenic landscapes for tourists until the rape fields bloom in April. On the island's warm southern coast, there are a few other flowers that bloom from late winter to early spring,Âˇ the narcissus being one of the most representative. Some of Korea's botanical reference materials classify the narcissus as a garden plant that originated in the Mediterranean. There are locations on the southern coast of

Unlike the Western narcissus, the Cheju variety is smaller and paler yellow. Spring begins in Korea with the blooming of narcissus.

Cheju where clusters of narcissus begin to bloom in early February. Their vivid yellow blossoms announce the transition to spring. These are clearly not cultivated but instead grow naturally along the boundaries between vegetable fields and among rock piles. Ordinarily called susonhwa by Koreans, the native residents of Cheju call the flower malmanong. When pronouncing mal (horse), Cheju residents use a vowel between the normal Korean "a" and "o" sound, which mainland Koreans have difficulty pronouncing. Customs and cultural forms are sometimes transmitted to frontier regions where they take hold and remain, long after disappearing from their place of origin. In this sense, customs are like water, which flows far and wide from its source. In any country, language and culture transforms most rapidly at the center but at a much slower pace in peripheral regions. The pronunciation of malmanong on Cheju is just another example of this phenomenon. Malmanong actually means horses' garlic from standard dialect (the flower's root actually looks more like the root of an onion). Yet, the flower is called narcissus in the West, after the legend about the young man who fell in love with his reflection and then drowned in its pursuit, later reappearing as the narcissus blossom. Thus, the same flower signifies excessive vanity in the West and feed for horses in Korea. The two meanings are about as far apart as Cheju and Greece. The West and East can be that far apart. Situated about 88 miles south of Mokp'o, the nearest mainland port, Cheju has a 253-kilometer coastline and a total land area of 1,825 square kilometers. Although it is Korea's biggest island, it accounts for only 2 percent of the landmass of South Korea. The second highest mountain in all of Korea and the highest in South Korea, Mt. Hallasan rises up 1,950 meters from the

center of the island. Cheju is a volcanic island formed from the lava of previous eruptions. Its average temperature is 14.6oc with its lowest temperature in winter being about 4.7Â°C. The temperature varies with the altitude, ranging from tropical and temperate to frigid. Due to this wide temperature range, the island is home to over 1,700 species of plants. In short, Cheju is a botanical treasure island. Today, the island is easily accessible by modern transportation, including an international airport, but as recently as 50 years ago, it was a distant frontier whose residents led a harsh existence. During the Chason Dynasty it was a remote island where people who committed political wrongdoings wÂˇere exiled. During the Mongol invasions, it was temporarily incorporated into Mongol territory. The Japanese also frequented Cheju. As a result, the dialect spoken on the island includes many fossilized expressions from Mongolian and Japanese. For this reason, Cheju is also known as a "linguistic treasure trove." Due to the island's harsh environment, local residents have a saying: 'joy is as small as a grain of sand, sorrow as large as a boulder." Ironically, Koreans now regard Cheju as a beautiful, exotic tourist destination. In the West, Cheju was known as Quelpart. Being situated in a regular path for hurricanes from the South Pacific, it was often the site of shipwrecks. The first record of a Westerner to land in Korea refers to a person as Pingliyi. Because Koreans knew nothing about the Western alphabet, this is only a rough phonetic transcription from Chinese characters. There is no way of knowing the name or nationality of this person who arrived in 1582. As soon as he landed on Cheju, he was detained then dispatched to China. Thereafter, a number of Westerners came to Korea by way of Cheju. The best-known was Hendrik Hamel, who introduced

From the top: Narcissus grow in clusters here and there along Cheju's southern coast; the yellow corona of this type of narcissus, the most common on Cheju, is more complex than that of most flowers.

Korea to the West with his book The journal of the Unfortunate Voyage of the Yacht the Sparrow Hawk. His vessel was shipwrecked while on a journey from China to Japan. Of the 64man crew, 36 survivors washed up on the beach at Taejong on Cheju's southern coast on August 16, 1653. At the time Korea was not aware of the Western world and thus had no experience in sending shipwreck survivors home. The crew was thus forced to spend 13 years in Korea. On August 30, 1666, they escaped to Japan, from where they eventually made it back to the Netherlands. Hamel, the author of 45

the book, served as the ship's scribe. Loyally carrying out his duties, he wrote a comparatively accurate account of his years in captivity and the daily life of Koreans, which became the first introduction of Korea to the West. Because of geopolitical factors, Cheju was the first to come into contact with the West, with more frequent encounters thereafter. As mentioned before, Korean botanical texts describe the narcissus as "a decorative flower originating from the shores of the Mediterranean." This implies that the narcissus is not indigenous to Korea and it is not one of the 1,700 plant species that grow naturally on Cheju. For whatever reason, the narcissus flourishes on the island. Of its own accord, it blooms according to the season here and there along the southern coast-particularly on the beach at Taejong where the Dutch sailors washed ashore. Needless to say, these blossoms should be clearly distinguished from the artificially cultivated narcissus plants used to landscape Cheju's roadways. As previously mentioned, the narcissus is

known as malmanong in the Cheju dialect. This term from the Choson period, albeit no longer extant on the mainland, is definite proof that the narcissus was already growing in Cheju during the Choson period. It is widely known that the distinguished Choson calligrapher Kim Ch6ng-hi:ii (1786-1857, pen name Ch'usa) spent eight years and three months (from

The dandelion blooms even in winter. Because of the island's relentless wind, it grows with virtually no stem, hugging the ground like a cautious insect.

September 2, 1840 to December 6, 1848) in exile on Cheju at Taejong (the location where Hamel's group was shipwrecked). In spite of the island's less than hospitable environment and his advanced years (he was over 55 at the time), Kim devoted himself to perfecting his own elegant and distinct calligraphic style which came to be known as the Ch'usa Style. Moreover, it was on Cheju that Kim produced his most famous painting Sehando, which is perhaps the world's most forlorn landscape painting. Surprisingly, some of the poems from this period mention the narcissus. One verse goes:

Flinging your seeds into the blue sea and blue sky, I cannot break off my karmic affinity to the narcissus. Having dug you up with the hoe, I threw you, worthless thing, away. Yet now, you quietly grow next to my window. Although 150 years have passed since Kim composed this poem, the narcissus still flourish in Taejong. Even

now in the Taejong area, farmers weeding their garlic fields dig up the thriving flowers with their hoes and toss them onto the earthen borders separating the fields. There, the fragilelooking flowers take root and bloom anew. The narcissus may have the appearance of an aristocrat, but it has the stubborn determination of a stout farmhand. Thus, the flower still grows in the island's windy fields, announcing the arrival of spring with its rich yellow blossoms. For some reason, the narcissus has not caught the interest of Korean botanists. Yet, the flowers, evidently undisturbed by this lack of attention, continue to flourish in Cheju's Taejong area. Although the flower is said to originate in the Mediterranean, it can also be found in abundance in southern China. Compared to the European variety, the Chinese narcissus is a lighter yellow with smaller petals. The narcissus on Cheju has the exact same color and character as the Chinese variety. In the ancient past, did these blossoms ride the waves of a gale from China's coast to the beaches of

Taejong as did Hamel and his men? On the coast around Hallim in northwestern Che ju , one can see groups of crab-claw cacti. Of course, this tropical cactus is not indigenous to Korea. Korean botanists agree that these tall cacti, which grow naturally on Cheju, long ago washed up with the tide and dug their roots into Korean soil. If this is true for the cac-

On some less windy parts of the coast, the aster that blooms in autumn continues to bloom through winter (above). . In February, while winter still reigns on the mainland, it is already spring on the southern coast of Cheju where cabbages, which are cultivated to enhance the natural scenery for tourists, are already blooming brightly (below).

tus, it must also be true for the narcissus. The crab-claw cactus is of a single variety living in a specific area. The narcissus, on the other hand, can easily be found in more areas and includes two varieties. It must be kept in mind that similar flora have been distributed throughout China, Korea and Japan. This would indicate that the three countries were once part of the same continent, or that animals, winds or the sea transmitted seeds and roots from similar climatic zones. The Cheju narcissus is thus distinct from the Mediterranean narcissus, and should be recognized as a wild plant of Korea. I am certain, however, that the flower itself is not concerned with whether or not it receives such recognition. The narcissus still thrives in the wind-blown fields around Taejong beach. Looking like a young maiden but with the strength of a farmhand, it refuses to wither and die even during times of drought. This year, the narcissus will bloom again, announcing the joyous spring of the new year with its deep yellow blossoms. +

MARKETS

Kim Mee-kyung Reporter, Living & Science Department, Hankyoreh

I Y ongsan Electronics Market (below); Computer Market (opposite page)

he Yongsan Electronics Market in Seoul, the largest market of its kind in Korea, has a relatively brief history; as of this year it is just 11 years old. Just 10 years ago the area around the Yongsan Railway Station where the market is located was a wholesale produce market where every kind of vegetable and fruit was brought from around the country for distribution to retailers in the capital city. In a mere decade, this site where piles of cabbages and turnips were a common sight has been transformed into a marketplace overflowing with personal computers and electronics products. Before the creation of the Yongsan Electronics Market, the Se-un Market at Chongno was Korea's leading electronics market. As the volume of electronics goods handled by the Se-un Market burgeoned out of control, the government decided to build the Yongsan Electronics Market. However, since it was the government's decision to develop the market, the Se-un Market merchants were reluctant to move there and thus many of its shops remained unoccupied for quiet a long time.

Shops and Goods The Yongsan Electronics Market comprises six shopping centers-Electro Land, Terminal Electronics Mart, Najin Mart, W6nhyo Mart, S6nin Mart, and Electronics Town-encompassing some

just 10year.r ago the area around the Yongyan .Railway Station where the market if located was a wholesale produce market where every kind o/ vegetable and.fruit was brought from around the countryfor distribution to retailers in the capital dfJ!. In a mere decade, this site where piles if"cabbages and turnips were a common sight has been tran.iformed into a marketplace oveiflowing with personal computers and electronicsproducts. 7,800 shops in total. As each of the shopping centers has its own specialty, the one you should go to depends on what you want to buy. Of the six shopping centers, Electro Land is the best-known. Although the overall atmosphere of the Yongsan Electronics Market is that of a wholesale operation in line with its original concept, Electro Land features a department store-like setting designed to attract ordinary consumers. It has a total floor space of 66,000 square meters (16 acres)

in three buildings-a main building, a new building and an annex-and some 800 shops. Offering a diverse variety of personal computers and general electronics parts, its underground floors are the place to go for individuals wanting to as~mble their own personal computer. It is also the ideal place to purchase computer games and accessories. The first floor includes shops selling electronics appliances as well as telecommunication and electronic office automation equipment. On the second floor are shops that sell domestic and imported audio- and video-equipment. The third and fourth floors specialize in personal computerrelated products, with the third floor featuring software, hardware and perih~Âˇals , while office equipment, telecommunication equipment, stationery, and computer-related books are found on the fourth floor. The fifth floor is for furniture shops. Shoppers can take a break from shopping at the Event Hall on the sixth floor of the new building. In addition to the Event Plaza, where various events are held, there are restaurants and Amuse 21, an entertainment center featuring a virtual reality room, and the Laser Ball Room, where one can play a survival game. The Terminal Electronics Mart is well-known for its in1ported audio- and video-equipment and personal computers. Directly connected to Yongsan 49

Station on subway line No.1, the center is very popular because of its convenient access. About half of its more than 400 outlets sell personal computers, peripherals, and software, while the remainder offers imported audio and video equipment, computer game machines, and other electronics products. The prices here are relatively less expensive than at Electro Land. Because the building is newer than the neighboring Sonin Mar~ the Terminal Electronics Shopping Center is favored by the younger generation. Though its building may seem somewhat older, the Najin Mart is where one can get a real fee l for the Yongsan Electronics Market. Its 1,470 shops sell almost every conceivable electronics product including personal computers, audio equipment, office equipment and household appliances. Buildings 10 and 11 are for electrical items, lighting equipment, electric cables and personal computers; buildings 12 and 13 deal in lighting equipment, office equipment, and computer game machines; building 15 features office equipment and computer game machines; buildings 17 and 18 specialize in household appliances and computers; buildings 19 and 20 specialize in audio equipment and car stereos. The Najin Mart is not aimed at ordinary consumers, but retailers and discount shops from all over the country. This means you can get a huge bargain if you walk into the right shop. The wholesale prices are about 10 percent cheaper than the factory prices, which is why it is known as the place where you can buy electronics at the lowest possible price. However, if the price is too cheap to be true, chances are it involves so-called dumped goods, for which product warranty and after-sale service do not apply. The Sonin Mart, which is housed in buildings 21 and 22, has some 1,200 shops, the largest number of shops in a single mart in Korea. Some 700 of them specialize in computer-related products, while the rest handles electronic com50

ponents and parts, computer game machines, and various telecommunication equipment including radio communication devices. Lil<e the Najin Mart, the Sonin Mart is a wholesale operation that deals primarily with retailers from across the nation. These days, however, many regular shoppers come here in search of computer parts such as RAM and memory chips to upgrade their home PCs. There is a saying among the

From the top: Electronics, lighting and software shops

younger-generation consumers that a novice goes to Electro Land, whereas a computer whiz goes to the Najin Mart. The Najin Mart has been the driving force in boosting the used PC trade since it set up the first consignment business for second-hand PCs in the

Yongsan Electronics Market. It is the place to go if you are thinking of purchasing a second-hand PC. Its Saturday Sale is where shoppers can find a real "steal." The Wonhyo Mart includes building 5 where electric lighting equipment shops are clustered, while buildings 6 and 7 specialize in computer-related items. The glittering lights from building 5 enliven the otherwise mundane atmosphere of Yongsan Electronics Market. Most of its shops are wholesalers that deal with retailers rather than ordinary consumers and thus its computer prices are relatively cheaper than at other marts. Selling not only electronic appliances and computers but also furniture and kitchen appliances, Electronics Town targets newly-weds and newly-weds-tobe who are in the market for things needed to furnish their homes: Building A specializes in household products including appliances, furniture and accessories. The first and second floors of building B feature household appliances, while the third and fourth floors specialize in computer-related products. Like W onh yo Mart, most of its customers are retailers rather than individual consumers.

The Cyber Yongsan Electronics Market The Yongsan Electronics Market recently opened an Internet homepage, "Yongsan Network" (http:/ /www.yn. co.kr). The newly added English section may have some glitches here and there but it still is the fastest way to get an overview of the Yongsan Electronics Market. The site includes news updates about events there, a map of the market, transportation information, and a list of the products sold at each shopping center. Click on a location on the map and a list of the products that are sold there will appear. One is advised to use the homepage to determine where to go before actually going to Yongsan Electronics Market to make finding the right shop less complicated. +

LIVING

Huh Dong-hwa Director, The Museum of Korean Embroidery

The sound of fulling in a neighbor's house, gathers momentum through the night. The fulling women must be so sleepy, but the work continues even after the cock crows.

Were they sisters-in-law chatting happily of household events

''T

he Sound of Fulling" was written by the late Yang Chu-dong, poet and Korean literature scholar. His keen observations of Korean-style fulling might well overwhelm someone who has never seen the traditional way that Koreans removed wrinkles from clothing, or heard the sounds of traditional fulling. The basic tools for fulling were a squat stone "fulling block" tatumi-tol and two rounded wooden sticks called pangmaengi. A woman sat on the floor in front of the tat(Jmi-tol and literally pounded on the laundry wrapped around a wooden board with a pangmaengi held in each hand until it was

wrinkle-free and shiny. The rhythmical sound of the wooden sticks, muted somewhat by cloth on stone, is truly musical. This type of fulling is generally suited to bulky items such as autumn and winter clothes or ibul (eiderdown) covers. Naturally, the sound of the sticks marked the colder seasons and resonated pleasantly from the house out into the neighboring alleys. As a child, I often fell asleep to the rhythm of tatl'1mi pounding; if I awoke later during the night, the sound still permeated the stillness: "To-tak, to-tak, t'tuktak, t'tuk-tak, ko-tu-rak t'tak, t'tak." Koreans like to speak of "three joyous sounds": the sound of a baby crying, related to the security of having one's bloodline continued; the sound of reading, indicating advancement in one's spiritual life; and the sound of fulling cloth, ensuring diligence, peacefulness, and security within the household. The saying was probably coined so that we wouldn't think of these sounds as unpleasant. Interestingly enough, there are many taboos associated with the tatl'1111i-tol. To sit on the tatl'Jmi-tol is to invite divorce. A daughter who sits on a tatumi-tol will lose the good favor of her mother-in-law, and a son who sits on it will lose the good favor of his mother-in-law. If you use the tatumi-tol as a pillow, your

devotedly fulling the winter clothes of their husbands,

This tatiimi-tol is unusual in that it has a wooden supporting frame and a wooden roller.

they would accept their cloth-wrapped roller is turned

pain with joy.

But life is difficult; their clothes are shabby and thread-bare; they resent fulling another's silk; yet they must full through the night.

marriage negotiations will not be completed successfully, or your mouth will become crooked. The taboos were to remind people to treat their tatumi-tol with care. Fulling was frequently thought of as a way of dealing with stress. For married women it was a way to cope with the pressures and strains of living with overbearing mothers-in-law. It was customary for a father on his first visit to his daughter after her marriage to bring her a tatumi-tol because she could relieve her emotional stress while learning the virtues of restraint and patience through tati:'uni pounding. Aside from all that, the sound of the pangmaengi is very musical. Two women, enthusiastically beating away on a pile of wrinkled clothes or fabric, produce a sound as musical as any percussion instrument. A folk song from Yangp'y6ng, Ky6nggi-do province, evokes both the sight and the sound of a woman working at a tati:'uni-tol:

rna y have been carved to emit a favored sound much in the way a percussion instrument is selected. I have spent my life collecting artifacts related to the culture of the women's quarters, which, of course, includes the tatumi-tol. I have always thought of the tatumi-tol as an example of Korea's stone carving heritage as well as a kind of percussion instrument of the common people. I have collected several hundred of the most beautiful. I stack them wherever I find the space.

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Ta-ti-mi, ta-ti-mi ceaseless pounding hands ply shoulder high birch sticks they should be so lucky wielded only by the hands of the oldest daughte1~ The tati:'1mi-tol is stored upside down when not in use. This is to keep the surface smooth; it looks like an animal on its back The underside of the tatumi-tol is also very distinctive, reminding one of a miniature castle or a cocoon. In fact, there are some tatumi-tol that have four carved legs and a protruding belly, complete with bellybutton. Some tatumi-tol have decorative carvings on the underside. This was to lighten their weight and to make them look attractive when stored upside down. It was also sometimes to improve their tonal quality. Tati:'1mi-tol invariably have different tones. People in different regions like different sounds. The family tatumi-tol 52

Various kinds of tatiimi-tol (from the top): a black tatiimi-tol with an inscription written in Korean; a rare tatiimHol with intricate decoration, said to have been used in the palace; a tatiimi-tol made of a grained stone that is usually used to make small boxes; a tatiimi-tol decorated with colored flowers. (Opposite page) Women fulling cloth in an ancient painting

Collecting tati:'lmi-tol was inevitable for someone interested in objects that were used in women's quarters, but I had no idea I would end up with so many. My collection grew to more than 500. I have heard of people with several dozen tatumi-tol, but I have yet to hear of any research being done on their aesthetic value, in other words, their beauty in shape and sound. Although the tatumi-tol is not included on the list of "seven friends in the women's quarters," it was an essential item for smoothing the cloth in the making of clothes; its function went beyond that of a simple tool for fulling. Koreans in the past loved to wear white clothing, which meant that clothes had to be washed frequently. Moreover, since Korea was very cold in winter, clothing had to protect against the wind and provide insulation. Hanbok, the traditional Korean garment, was not washed as is, but rather taken apart and each part laundered separately. As the pieces were put back together, they were starched; they were also fulled to get the fibers to spread out and soak up the starch more effectively, thereby making the garment windproof. Hence fulling was important. A well-starched hanbok was more soil resistant, and when laundered, the starch came off easily taking any dirt with it without harming the fabriC. A well-fulled garment was stiff and shiny; it rustled like paper when the wearer moved. The tatumi-tol has virtually disappeared today, but until the end of the Chos6n Dynasty (1910) every home had one or two. When I was young, I did not think the tatumi-tol beautiful or the sound of the fulling sticks beating the cloth on the fulling block wonderful. However, in the process of collecting needles and thread for my main interest, embroidery, I began to collect tatumi-tol, pangmaengi, mats and other items needed for fulling and in the end I amassed a collection of truly beautiful objects.

As my collection of tatumi-tol grew, I was forced to keep only the nicest ones inside my home, those with carvings or paintings. I put the rest, about three hundred, on the roof. Unfortunately, many of them, worn smooth and shiny by long use, were damaged by acid rain. Every morning I used to go up on the roof and move about a dozen of them. One day I put several of them together end-to-end and started beating on them with pangmaengi. It was fun; I felt like a child playing the xylophone. I played for quite some time and although my lack of musical training makes it impossible for me to describe the sound accurately, each tattimi-tol had its own distinctive t'tak, tak, t'aeng, taeng, pok, ttuk, or chaeng. I realized I was hearing not just the sound of tatumi sticks fulling clothes, I was hearing the particular tatumi sound that had been selected by a particular mason. Had I more musical knowledge, I could have "drummed" all 500 tatumi-tol in my collection and identified the five basic notes in Korean music. Suddenly I realized that tatumi-tol are worth studying as traditional instruments. One of the tatumi-tol had a beautiful color and the phrase "eight directions/ one universe" carved on it. The inscription embodied the idea that the universe is a single house, containing self, family, home, tatumi-tol, etc., in harmonious co-existence. The average housewife had a concept of universe and as she worked the tatumi sticks on the household clothes, she savored the beautiful sound. It would probably be difficult to identify another object that has as much sentimental and culturally identifiable value for Koreans as the tatumitol. It seems the more that people use something, and the more uses the item has, the more vital is its role in their culture. Air and water are the most representative examples. Every new experience of this truth elicits from me a

cry of pleasure. Traditional wrapping cloths, various household items, and paper objects are other examples. Apparently only Korea and Japan have this tradition of the tatumi-tol. I met a Japanese dancer once who told me her family had donated a rare and beautiful tati:imi-tol to a museum. When I finally saw the piece, I was disappointed. Rectangular, with edges that were only roughly finished, it was only of very average quality. I was surprised that someone who fancied herself an artist had so little understanding

It would probably be difficult to identify another object that has as much sentimental and culturally identifiable value for Koreans as the tatUmi-tol. It seems the more that people use something, and the more uses the item has, the more vital is its role in their culture.

of what was artistic. Unfortunately, however, Japanese tatumi-tol exist nowadays only as items in literature, a state of affairs that Koreans should not take for granted. In a hundred years, Koreans may find themselves in a similar situation without even a crude

tatumi-tolleft to admire. In the traditional Korean home, furniture served both a functional and aesthetic role. It was a source of family pride and thus was of the best quality that the family could afford. It was true for the tati:'Jmi-tol as well. Once a tatumi-tol was elegantly carved and painted, it embodied the owner's desire to aspire to a higher social class. However, I have several tati:'Jmi-tol decorated with folk paintings. I asked the experts, but they could tell me little. After careful thought, I came up with my own ex planation: Once upon a time a tatllmi-tol salesman was trying to sell his stock of unpainted tatumi-tol. A hungry painter, seated nearby, made an offer to the young peasant housewives who came to buy the tati:'Jmi-tol: "For the price of a bowl of noodle soup, I'll decorate your stone with a painting." The housewives agreed. The artist thus ca rv ed designs and then painted them. The satisfied women gladly paid his fee and, balancing the tatumi-tol on their heads for easy carrying, happily took it home. Many of the tat(Jmi-tol paintings were of surprisingly good quality. This made me look at the carvings and paintings on tatumi-tol again in terms of their artistic qualities. As a result I discovered a new facet of uniquely Korean aesthetics. Perhaps tatumi-tol should be collected for that reason as well. I also discovered that many of my tatumi-tol were inscribed with information about their owners. Probably the gravestones of abandoned gravesites were saved and used as tatumitol in memory of their ancestors. Recently, I donated my collection of 500 tati:'Jmi-tol to the National Museum. My only desire is that those who see these fascinating pieces will find them an inspiration. I hope that they will be studied for their musical and artistic qualities, and for what they tell us about Korean cultural values. + 53

n the heels of lunar New Year 's comes Ipch 'un, marking the beginning of spring, from which time herbs sprout in sunny places that are then gathered to be served on dinner tables. With the approach of spring, our bodies crave fresh, refreshing foods as a means of rejuvenating themselves after being inactive during the cold of winter. Foods rich in vitamins and minerals are helpful for regulating the physiological functions of the human body and spring herbs fill the bill nicely. Spring herbs are alkaline and rich in vitamin C, protein, and minerals such as calcium and iron. The "Song of the Farmer's Almanac," an ancient cyclical poem, lists herbs for each month.

In the first month, thick scallions and watercress sprout in compost. They look so refreshing we don 't envy the five spicy herbs . .. In the second month, the mountain herbs are all gone, so let us pick field herbs to eat: kodulppaegi (Ixeris sonchifolia), sst:'1mbagwi (Ixeris dentata), sorujaeng-i, and mulssuk (Artemisia salengensis). Talrae (wild rocambole) kimchi and naeng-i (shepherd's purse) soup stimulate our appetite ... In the third month, the front mountain is clear after rain, so let us pick fragrant herbs: Sapju, turup (shoots of fatsia), bracken, flowering fern, torat (root of bellflower) and 6ari. Let us hang some to dry and eat the rest cooked with spices . .. In Tongguk sesigi (A Chronicle of Seasonal Events in the East Country), which includes customs of the Chos6n Dynasty (1392-1910), it is noted that six mountainous regions in Ky6nggi-do province supplied five spicy vegetables-thick scallions, wild leaf mustard, licorice, watercress shoots and radish shoots-to the royal court at Ipch'un and that the residents of those areas 54

CUISINE

SPRING

HERBS Han Pok-jin Professor of Traditional Cuisine Hallim Junior College

With the approach ofspring, our bodies crave fresh, refreshingfoods as a means of rejuvenating themselves after being inactive during the cold of winter. Foods rich in vitamins and minerals are helpful for regulating the physiological functions of the human body and spring herbs fill the bill nicely. exchanged these vegetables as gifts. It describes wild leaf mustard as a shoot that sprouts in early spring as the winter snow melts, with a spicy taste and is especially good when boiled and dipped in a sauce made of vinegar and soy sauce. Also it notes that licorice, grown in a warm thatch-covered place, is as clean as a silver topknot clasp and very tasty when dipped in honey. These methods of eating wild leaf mustard and licorice were transmitted from China a long time ago. Pibimbap, rice mixed with various spring herbs, is good for satisfying one's appetite. It is a popular dish because, being nothing more than rice

mixed with side dishes, it is a simple yet satisfying meal that can be fixed easily even when one has nothing special on hand. These days, the pibimbap served in restaurants includes raw vegetables such as lettuce, radish slices and cucumbers, but in the past it included no raw ingredients other than thin slices of spiced meat. In the past, Koreans held various rites, including rites to mountain gods, village rites and seasonal rites far away from home. When the rite was completed, the participants shared the food offerings; each person was given a bowl filled with rice and various vegetables and meat from the ritual table to eat, and as they ate, the ingredients became naturally mixed. Sharing the ritual food after a rite symbolized a partaking of food among gods and humans, the ancestral spirits and their living descendants. The custom of eating rice mixed with food from the ritual table existed long ago. Nonetheless, pibimbap may have developed from a meal eaten by field workers-a serving of rice with fresh vegetables and red pepper sauce presented in a gourd. Pibimbap is also called koldongban, kol meaning haphazard and dong meaning mixed rice. At present, pibimbap is enjoyed year-round, but its ingredients can vary from season to season. In his Song of Seasons (1895), Yu Man-gong describes eating spring pibimbap: "There are green scallion shoots, yellow mustard, and many herbs arranged on the table, making the air quite fragrant. To eat, we mix some of them with our rice, but because they taste bitter this way, there is paky6pju (arborvitae leaf wine) to drink" The most representative spring herbs are shepherd's purse, wild rocambole, Ixeris dentata, fatsia shoots, artemisia selengensis, day lily and sorujaeng-i. Most are boiled and then seasoned to make what is referred to as namul or are added to soybean paste soup.

Naeng- i

The end of a knife or other sharp tool is used to pick naeng-i, shepherd's purse, with its root intact in March before its leaves harden. Naeng-i, which is also called nasaeng-i or nasunggae, is cruciferous. It is an annual or biennial plant that grows to a height of 10 to 15 centimeters with a 10to 15-centimeter-long root and a fuzzy body. It is common in the temperate zone, including Korea, growing in fields or along raised footpaths of rice paddies. There are several varieties:

ssari naeng-i, h wangsae naengji, chopssal naeng-i, non naeng-i, nado naeng-i, and kaetgat naeing-i. Naeng-i is rich in vitamins and compared with other vegetables has an abundance of protein and calcium. In traditional Oriental medicine, naeng-i is believed to revitalize the spleen, pro-

mote urination, counteract the effects of toxins, stop bleeding, and alleviate edema. For eating, any yellow leaves are removed and the rest of the naeng-i is cleaned. It is then boiled briefly and seasoned or added to soup. Tender naeng-i can be eaten as a salad with a sprinkle of seasoning, whereas tougher ones can be divided into leaves and roots, boiled separately, seasoned and served side by side for the enjoyment of two different textures from the same plant. Naeng-i soup is usually made by boiling naeng-i in a broth made with clams or dry shrimp; red pepper paste may be added for taste. Naeng-i can also be put in porridge, or batter-fried. Green leafy vegetables such as naeng-i can be seasoned with iÂˇed pepper paste, but often taste better if seasoned with soybean paste. Tal rae Talrae, wild rocambole, is a perennial belonging to the Liliaceae family. It grows everywhere in the fields and mountains of Korea, especially in bunches on the footpaths of fields or

paddies in early spring. The larger the lumps at the bottom of the plant, the spicier the talrae. The plant has whiskers at the ends of its roots. Similar species include sandalrae, sanbuch'u, tumaebuch'u, hallabuch'u and sanp'a. Talrae contains calcium, vitamins A and C as well as aline and

alicine, which are also found in garlic. For gathering talrae, a small shovel is used to dig up the plant, root and all. After sorting, smaller ones are replanted in the ground. The outer leaves are peeled off and cleaned in preparation for cooking. The plant is known to be good for anemia, improving the liver and preventing hardening of the arteries. Tender talrae is dressed with red pepper powder, soy sauce, sesame seeds and sesame oil, whereas thick bit-

Wild vegetables are served fresh or mixed with spices after scalding. Some go well with soy sauce, some with red pepper paste, and others with bean paste. From left: Scalded and spiced naeng-i, turiip, talrae, ssiimbagwi and wonch'uri

ter ones are used in soybean paste stew. Chopped talrae can be used in vegetable pancakes and also added to a dipping sauce of vinegar and soy sauce to be eaten with vegetable pancakes, fried fish or tofu.

Ssumbagwi Ssi:imbagwi (Ixeris dentata) looks much like naeng-i, but the edges of its saw-toothed leaves are longer. Its white stalk is fuzzy and when the root is broken, a white sap oozes out. The herb is named ssi:imbagwi because of its bitter taste. It is often confused with kodulppaegi (Ixeris sonchifolia), another plant that has smooth leaves and is made into kimchi. It is believed that eating a lot of ssi:'Jmbagwi in spring will enable a person to better withstand the heat of summer. It also helps with fever, digestive problems, and boils while its juice is said to be good for treating jaundice. Ssumbagwi with sturdy roots is boiled, then soaked in several changes of water to extract some of

its bitterness and finally prepared for serving. Ssumbagwi can also be made into kimchi after being soaked in salted water. Mulssuk This plant grows along the footpaths of rice paddies or damp riversides. Unlike other herbs, mulssuk (Artemisia selengensis) appears from very early spring, and cannot be cultivated in a greenhouse. Although a variety of mugwort, it is often mistaken for a weed because its leaves have a totally different shape. It is picked root and all, but its stalks and leaves are discarded and only its roots are eaten. Mulssuk has a strong fragrance. Because it becomes tough and discolored after a day, it is often sold slightly boiled. From boiled mulssuk, yellow stalks are peeled off, in the fashion of the stalks of sweet potatoes, and tough roots are cut off before boiling again and being cut into short pieces. It is usually seasoned w ith vinegar and salt, but red pepper powder

may be added. It may also be stir-fried with sesame oil and seasoned with red pepper paste, soybean paste and sesame seeds. Mulssuk can be added to t'angpyongch'ae, a dish of seasoned mung bean jelly strips, to enhance the flavor with a subtle tang. Turup About ten kinds of turup, fatsia tree, are native to Korea. They include the Japanese Angelica tree, kalopanax and Araliaceae. The young shoots of turup are bitter and flavorful. Unlike other vegetables, turup are sold in bunches of

10 bound together with straw. The plant has long been revered as the "king of mountain herbs". The kalopanax tree is especially thorny. Its young shoots are called kaedun/p or onggae namul. The shoots of wild turi'1p are available for a short time in April and May, but these days they are grown in hothouses and can be found in markets from early spring. The wild tun1p shoots are short and

Spring vegetables have a p eculiar fragrance and piquant flavor that is especially appetizing when they are

fat with a reddish outer skin and have a strong flavor and taste. Wild shoots have a dark greenish hue compared to cultivated ones, and when boiled briefly, change to a pretty green color. Cultivated ones are grown in hothouses on fatsia tree branches kept warm and damp under thatch; one branch can yield four or five harvests. Wild turup is rich in vitamins A and C as well as calcium and cellulose. To eat, the turup shoot is cleaned, any hard parts are removed and the red outer skin is peeled off. It is cooked in salted boiling water and then rinsed in cold water. When it is not sufficiently boiled, it is green with dark spots. To best enjoy the flavor, the boiled shoots are dipped in red pepper sauce with vinegar, and to serve it seasoned, the shoots are sliced and mixed with a red pepper sauce. Boiled turup can be also

skewered alternately with seasoned beef strips, then coated in flour and egg and cooked in a greased skillet over low heat. Wonch'uri

Wonch'uri is a day lily of the Liliaceae family. A perennial, it grows in

groups in damp areas in fields and mountains all over Korea. It is also called hwonch'o and manguch'O. Its young leaves are boiled and seasoned to make what is called nopnamul. In the past, its dried flower buds, called

Ssumbagwi namul (four servings) ssumbagwi: 300 grams seasoning: 2 tablespoons of soybean paste, 2 tablespoons of red pepper paste, 1 tablespoon of minced scallion, 1/2 tablespoon of minced garlic, 1/2 tablespoon of ground sesame seeds and 1/2 tablespoon of sesame oil. 1. Remove whiskers from roots, clean, and put in boiling water briefly. Squeeze out water and cut into 4centimeter pieces. Cut thick roots diagonally into small pieces. 2. Prepare the seasoning and mix well with the boiled ssumbagwi.

Wonch'uri namul (four servings) wonch'uri: 300 grams seasoning: 2 tablespoons of soybean paste, 2 tablespoons of red pepper paste, 1 tablespoon of minced scallion, 1/2 tablespoon of garlic, 1/2 tablespoon of sesame oil, 1/2 tablespoon of ground sesame seeds 1. Remove hard parts from the

hwanghwach 'ae, were an essential ingredient in chapch'ae, noodles with vegetables. In China it is called Gold Needle Plant, but it used to be called "son-producing plant," because its root was believed to be good for helping women conceive a son, and women who had not delivered a son often carried it on their person. W onch'uri is boiled briefly and then seasoned. It can be used in soybean paste soup as well. W onch'uri is the only spring herb that does not have a bitter taste. It is sweet, with a soft smooth texture. As for special pharmacological effects, it is known to be good for promoting urination, reducing fever and relieving coughing and aches. It is also used as a cure for anemia and boils. Wine made with its flowers is considered good for strengthening bodily functions and alleviating fatigue. +

tablespoon of sesame oil.

wonch'uri, clean, and put in salted boiling water briefly. Rinse in cold water, squeeze out water, and cut in half if too long. 2. Prepare the seasoning and mix well with the boiled wonch'uri.

~) turllp: 400 grams seasoning: 2 tablespoons of red pepper paste, 1/2 tablespoon of vinegar, 1/2 tablespoon of sugar, 2 teaspoons of minced scallion, 1 teaspoon of minced garlic, 1/2 tablespoon of ground sesame seeds, 1/2

1. Choose tender, thick turllp, cut crosswise at the bottom, and boil in salted water briefly. Rinse in cold water and drain. Slice thick ones into two or three parts. 2. Prepare the seasoning and mix well with the boiled turllp.

Talrae saengch'ae (fou1· se1•vings)

tal rae: 200 grams seasoning: 2 tablespoons of soy sauce, 1/2 tablespoon of vinegar, 1/2 tablespoon of sugar, 1/2 tablespoon of red pepper powder, 2 teaspoons of ground sesame seeds, 1 teaspoon of sesame oil

pieces. Flatten or slice round, big roots. 2. Prepare the seasoning and toss with the tal rae.

Naeng·i namul (four servings) naeng-i: 500 grams seasoning: 2 tablespoons of red pepper paste, 2 tablespoons of soybean paste, 2 teaspoons of scallion, 1 teaspoon of garlic, 2 teaspoons of ground sesame seeds, 2 teaspoons of sesame oil 1. Clean the naeng-i, getting rid of roots and yellow leaves. Cut thick ones into two. Put the roots first in boiling water and drain. Then boil the leaves. Squeeze out water and cut in 4-centimeter-long pieces. 2. Prepare the seasoning and mix well with the boiled naeng-i.

1. Remove the whiskers, clean well, drain, and cut in 3-centimeter-long

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the P'algwe Ferry is called the South ivers are the milk of the earth, Han River. Further upstream the river the lifeline of all things living. Therefore, rivers must be progoes by a different name. P'algwe Ferry is also a meeting point of two tected, especially from pollution and degradation. The streams. One of these streams, which flows health of rivers is inextricably linked to the well-being of humankind. to the east of Yongwol, is the Rivers are the fountainheads of Tonggang, or the East River. The stream to the west side of y ongwol is human history. It is hardly by accident the Sogang, or West River. Sogang that four great ancient civilizations stretches down to the west of sprang up alongside major rivers: the Y6ngw61 from Odaesan Mountain, by Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the way of Ch'ongryongpo, where Indus and the Ganges, and the Huang Ho. Rivers are gifts from god, and the Tanjong (r. 1452-1455), the youthful cradle of life. ruler of the Choson Dynasty who One of the greatest of god's gifts to N the Korean peninsula is the Han River. The Han has bestowed life on the s Korean people for 5,000 years, and has never run dry since the beginning of history. The Han River stretches 514 kilometers from its source in Taebaek, Kangwon-do province, to where it empties into the West Sea. The South Han River and the North Han River converge to form the greater Han River. The Han flows through the capital city of Seoul, which has flourished on both of its sides, where Koreans achieved their so-called miracle on the Han River. The North Han River originates in Mount Kumgang, the Diamond Mountains, flows through Yanggu, Hwach'on, Ch'unch'on, and Kap'yong, and merges with the South Han River at Yangsuri. The South Han River has Yon ol â&#x20AC;˘ two branches, one of which originates in Komryongso at Kumdaesan The Tonggang is popular for Mountain and the other in Ut'ongsu at _... '{~ gan rafting (right). Odaesan Mountain, with the two ,._ P vilion branches combining to form the South ed his throne, was exiled, and Han River, which in turn merges with gch'ang. The source of the the North Han River to form the Han Tonggang can be traced to Ch6ngs6n River, which literally means great, or and Taebeak. However, in that the vast, river. The confluence of the North an streams merge again at Kasuri, East River is technically the name for the the South Han rivers is called stream running between P'algwe Ferry Yangsuri, which means the meeting and Kasuri. point of two heads of waters. The stretch of river between y 6ngw61 and To form a true river, myriad

streams and tributaries have to come together. Each stream and tributary has its own name and its own role. Along the banks of each stream and creek, villages and towns develop, while shaping the lifestyles and environment of these areas. That is how life has developed through the ages, humans adapting to the conditions of nature. Human life can be healthy when it is in harmony with nature. The areas around the Tonggang have been preserved in an essentially uncontaminated state, while today, when so many forms of life

have become forever extinct due to pollution and abuse of nature, it serves as a repository of natural resources. Human beings are often of the mistaken belief that they can distinguish themselves by attempting to conquer nature. The beauty and the ecological system of the Tonggang area are now endangered by plans to construct a

dam on the river. If such a dam is constructed, which will invariably alter the landscape and ecological conditions of this region, all the mystery of nature that thrives around the river will be lost forever. Those who argue for building the dam maintain that it is a necessary measure for proper management of our water resources. Meanwhile, those who oppose this plan insist that the Tonggang should not be tampered with, so as to preserve its unique natural environment. Each side is staunch in its conviction, and there seems to be

AJourney Along the Tonggang I would like to take you on a tour of the Tonggang, which is in serious peril of being buried under water. This is not so easy a journey, as there is no road, no vehicular access alongside the river. To visit the Tonggang, one must start from Chongson in Kangwon-do. Seven kilometers from Chongson in the direction of P'yongch'ang, there is the Kwanghagyo bridge. Just in front of the bridge, a village road branches off from the main road. This is the only road that leads to the Tonggang.

This mountain is known as Nap'albong, or Trumpet Hill, and it indeed looks like a trumpet blaring toward the heavens. A narrow stream flows from its foot. The mountain next to Nap'albong is Manjisan. Both peaks are about 700 meters in height, not very high for peaks of the Taebaek range. With the Choyang River churning and rushing beneath them, they look as if they are soaking their feet in the water. Even though one finds residential dwellings here and there along the road, the area is so undeveloped that it

little possibility of either side yielding ground. What are some arguments in favor of preserving the Tonggang? What kind of river is the Tonggang? It has suddenly become a kind of tourist destination, visited by people who want to take a last look before it all disappears.

The road is just wide enough for only one car to pass in either direction. On one side of the road is a steep cliff and on the other side is the rushing Choyang River, which is formed by streams that flow down the mountains of the Taebaek range. The view of the mountain across this road is gorgeous.

looks untouched by human hands. After driving along the road for about eight kilometers, we come to the village of Kasuri, where there is a small primary school. Tongnamch'on, which is another stream that merges with the river at Kasuri, runs through the mining towns of Sabuk and Kohan, thus its water is often darkened by runoff. 61

The real exploration of Tonggang begins from here. The Tonggang starts from the point where the Tongnamch'on Stream and Choyang River merge. From here there is no road for vehicles. There is only a path along the sandy shore where small tractors can be driven. This gravelly road through patches of reeds is ideal for adventurers who enjoy off-road travelling, but it is quite a hardy course for the average tourist. This is the charm of the Tonggang; such inaccessibility has enabled the river to retain its natural beauty and ecological system. Following the river, we come to the village of Kat'an, where smoke rises from chimneys, cows moo from cowsheds and one can smell medicinal herbs drying. Past the village, the river, which had been flowing along a straight course, takes a big curve. There is a wide bank on the opposite side. For awhile, as we follow the river we encounter no trace of man. The river then takes us to the picturesque village of Hami, where there is a bridge across the river. This bridge

is swept away every summer, and then rebuilt every winter. The bridge is the only link the residents of Hami have with the rest of the world. All the villagers help out to reconstruct the bridge, which fosters a spirit of cooperation among residents while cementing neighborly ties. This kind of community spirit has virtually disappeared from modern society. The river rounds another bend and flows past P6np'y6ng. As there is another village on the other side of the river, one might think that the area from there on is more populated. But soon there is another stretch of noman's land. The river grows deeper, its current stronger, and our breath shorter. Unch'i Primary School appears after we pass Chomjae and arrive at Unch'iri. The Unch'i coal mine is located on the mountain to the rear of Unch'iri, and there is an ice valley nearby, from where ice is available year-round, even in the summer. But like so many primary schools in remote mountain areas , Unch 'i Primary School is about to be closed

No less than 250 caves have been found alongside the Tonggang Riv er. Most of them have not been disturbed by human hands and are thus of high academic value. From far left: Red bats now on the verge of extinction; large stalagmites in Paekryong Cave; a lace curtain of stalagmites; a rare habitat of tungchul kul noraegi

down due to a lack of students. The road continues along a steep slope from here. If we go through the Kos6ng Tunnel, we can descend to Shindong straightaway. From here, no vehicle of any kind can be accommodated. The river is its own master from this point.

Paekryong Cave and Ora yon Pond The real face of Tonggang begins to be unveiled from here. After coursing leisurely, the river's flow becomes turbulent between the Paekun and Shinby6ng Mountains, which are 882 and 687 meters in height, respectively. The stone cliff descending to the river creates the most breathtaking gorge in Korea, a truly awe-inspiring scene. Here adventurous sorts can enjoy rafting, a sport calling for courage and daring. In the old days, rafts were used to transport timber along the Tonggang, with the stretch of river between this gorge being the most dreaded by rafters, but today it is an ideal site for recreational sports. The timber from the mountains of Kangwon-do was needed in bygone times for the building of palaces and large tiled-roof houses in Seoul. Paekryong Cave, Natural Monument No. 260, is found further up the river, after it has rounded several bends. Surrounded by mountains, its entrance is concealed from view, so casual passersby are totally unaware of its existence. Paekryong Cave is a mysterious primeval cave formed in the Cretaceous period and is not open to the public. It is home to scores of cave animals and water insects not found in 63

other caves, making it an important ecological preserve. Stalactites and stalagmites of the most peculiar and intriguing shapes give us an appreciation of the infinite mystery of the universe. The soil of the Yongwol area is rich in lime, with numerous limestone caves scattered throughout the area. There are several dozen caves along the Tonggang. Some of them are known, while others have yet to be explored. Perhaps there are hundreds of caves still to be discovered.

If a dam is constructed on the Tonggang to build a reservoir, all these natural caves will be submerged, never to be explored. That would be a desecration and abandonment of god's

precious gifts. This is the core of environmentalists' objections to the proposed dam construction. Geologists also oppose the dam project, claiming that water intended to be held in the reservoir would simply seep out through the innumerable network of caves, thus defeating the very purpose of the project. These are pragmatic as well as scientific grounds for objection. In Korea, the government often pushes through such projects in spite of the protests and outcries of environmentalists and scientists. Of course, such things hap-

pen in other countries, too. The final outcome of the proposed Tonggang Dam project is a matter of serious concern for many. The Tonggang draws another sweeping curve after passing Paekryong Cave then slows down to form the 6ray6n Pond, often called the Dragon Palace of Tonggang. 6ray6n, which means silky fish pond, is so named because a scene of fish cavorting in the stream is worthy of being depicted on an embroidered silk screen. There are so many fish in the pond that it has often been described as a pond consisting of half water and

half fish. Among them are some rare species that have become endangered or even extinct in the rest of the world. It is said that fish in the 6ray6n Pond can communicate with humans. The following is one of the legends concerning the fish in the 6ra y6n Pond. The ghost of Tanjong, a child king who was deposed by his ambitious and ruthless uncle and later executed after being sent into exile, wandered around the world, weighed down by unmitigated sorrow, unable to ascend to his resting-place in heaven. On reaching the 6ray6n Pond, the ghost became enchanted, and settled

Not o n ly is the scen ery alon gside the Tonggang b eautiful and unusu al, one can see a frequ ent clump of wildgrass or wildflowers among the rocky crevices of its cliffs (above). Seventeen caves have been identified on this cliff alone (left).

on its shore to appreciate its beauty. Then all the fish in the pond came out and led the ghost to Taebaeksan Mountain, telling him that he should not tarry beside the pond but rather take his place among the mountain spirits of Taebaeksan. Fifteen kilometers past the pond toward Y 6ngw61 is the Kl'1mgang Pa viii on on the banks of the Tonggang. It is said that any court women who had served the boy king jumped into the river from this pavilion, to demonstrate their loyalty and compassion by accompanying him in death. The rock on which the pavilion stands is called N akh wa -am , the Falling Flowers Rock, after a famous rock on the embankment of the Kl'1mgang River from w hich 3,000 Paekche women threw themselves into the river to escape ignominy at the hands of conquerors when the Paekche Kingdom came to an end. The area around the Tonggang thus abounds in natural monuments and historical sites. Various citizens' groups are protesting the Tonggang Dam project. Kim Won, an architect and the president of the Artists Who Are Tonggang Lovers Association, is pushing for the cancellation of the dam project. He insists that the Tonggang area boasts not only some of the most beautiful scenery in the country but also the best-preserved ecological diversity while calling the government's plans to build a dam on the river anachronistic and misguided. Other environmental groups are also vehemently objecting to the project as well. Nonetheless, the government seems determined to push the project through come hell or high water. The Tonggang, which has kept inviolate the natural beauty of its landscape and biodiversity from the intrusion of human beings, still carries crystal-dear w ater even toda y, unaw are of the destruction that might overwhelm it all too soon. + 65

henever I stand before

Kiimgangjondo (Complete View of Diamond Mountain),

I feel a mysterious force come over me powerful enough to strengthen me. Perhaps it is because the enormous force of yang, symbolizing creation and generation, emanates from the paint-

ing's blue hue. Or perhaps it is because this color which stands for east in terms of direction and wood among the Five Elements (metal, wood, water, fire and earth) in Oriental philosophy demonstrates the infinite potential for growth of Korea, located in the East. It is well known that the Chos6n

NATIONAL TREASURE

Chong Son's

Complete View of Mount Kiimgang (Diantond Mountain)

almost six decades, which fully demonstrated his prowess as a true master artist. 66

Dynasty (1392-1910) enjoyed an era of noteworthy development and prosperity during its early period under the leadership of King Sejong the Great (r. 1418-1450), as well as during the later reigns of Kings Y6ngjo (r. 1724-1776) and Ch6ngjo (r. 1776-1800). It was a time of remarkable political, economic, social and cultural development that was distinctively Korean in several ways. The kings had a deep appreciation and love of art, with many master artists rising to prominence. Throughout history, countless dynasties have risen and fallen, none rarely lasting for more than 300 years, in the East or the West. The Chos6n Dynasty, however, existed for more than 500 years and the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392) for almost 500 years. Since antiquity, Korea has been strongly influenced by China due to geopolitical factors, with repercussions from the rise and fall of Chinese dynasties influencing Korea as well, at times leading to a change in the ruling dynasty. It is also clear there are many similar elements in the cultures of Korea and China, partly because they both use Chinese characters. A closer study, however, reveals marked differences and clear distinctions. The same is true of painting. Korea's ancient painting style, known as Oriental painting, can be easily regarded as an imitation or epigone of Chinese painting. Just as each country's food is different, however, there are clear differences in the structure, composition, style and brushwork of the paintings of the two countries. Though it is possible to mistakenly view Korean pa intings as basically copies of Chinese paintings because the people appearing in them are not dressed in Korean clothing, they are clearly distinguishable in the aforementioned aspects. The late Chos6n Dynasty was Korea's "Golden Age," when uniquely Korean characteristics flourished in arts and sciences. It was a time of thorough

self-introspection in the wake of merciless destruction wrought by foreign invaders, and the strenuous efforts made to emerge from such devastation. It was also when the kingdom enjoyed a renaissance under the leadership of Kings Yongjo and Ch6ngjo comparable to that of the early Choson period during the rule of King Sejong the Great. Economic, social and cultural development peaked, and as for painting, artists broke away from conceptual landscapes, leading to the widespread popularity of realistic landscapes featuring mountains and rivers actually found in nature, genre paintings of figures and everyday scenes so seemingly alive and breathing, as well as ultra-realistic paintings of animals. At this time, the master literati painter ChOng Son (1676-1759) opened an entirely new world of painting through his portrayal of Korean landscape. Known as the "Noble Painter" of Korea, he continued to paint until well past th e age of 80, esta blishing a unique art form spanning a period of almost six decades, which fully demonstrated his prowess as a true master artist. ChOng Son painted Kumgangj6ndo in 1734 at the age of 59. It is commonly regarded as his most representative work and has been designated National Treasure No. 217 in recognition of its irreplaceable value. The painting of the 12,000 peaks of Kumgangsan depicted from a bird's-e ye view reveals the artist's consummate expertise through the bold portrayal of a rockless mountain in front and a rocky mountain in the rear drawn with dynamic brush strokes. Perhaps it is only natural that such an exceptional artist during the golden age of th e Choson Dynasty should have produced such a masterful work of art. The painting fully captures th e splendor of Choson art through a unique style characterized by the distinctive brushwork and techniques used to depict a Korean landscape.

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Realistic paintings depicting nature are an invaluable element of Choson painting, and there can be no disputing the mastery of ChOng Son who established that school. Above all else, his was a world of painting possible only through an accurate perception of his own identity, a profound love of and pride in Korea's natural landscape, and great talent. All of Chong Son's paintings of Kumgangsan, regardless of their size, are magnificent works of art revealing

the artist's uniquely individualistic character. This is not to say that the paintings are of regional nature in terms of aesthetics; they are considered masterpieces for their excellence in both refinement and skill. Kumgangj6ndo evokes even more profound emotions today now that travel is possible to Mount Kumgang, hitherto forbidden to South Koreans since the Korean peninsula was divided into North and South over 50 years ago. + 67

IArt R eview

History of

Korean Photography Exhibition KimHan-soo Reporter, Chosun Ilbo

n a hill covered with pine trees, a voluptuous woman stands nude, her back to the camera, her arms stretched toward the sky. The woman's hairstyle is rather unusual, however; her hair is done up in a chignon instead of falling naturally. Although the woman had taken off her clothes to pose for the photo, which was taken during the 1920s or 1930s, apparently neither she nor the photographer thought to undo her hair that was knotted in the traditional style. This photograph was among those on display at a large-scale exhibition titled "History of Korean Photography" that was held at the art gallery of the Seoul Arts Center from November 20 through December 19, 1998. A retrospective look at over a century of Korean photography, the exhibition featured about 1,400 rare photographs, some of which had never been exhibited to the public before. The exhibition, which included photographs borrowed from 25 domestic and overseas institutions as well as some 60 individuals, was arranged by the 1998 Year of Photography Organizing Committee. While unprecedented efforts went into preparing the exhibition, its key attrac68

N ude, Kang Tae-sok , 1920-1930, 305 mm x 406 mm

tion lay in an absence of the rigidity that the word "history" typically entails. Each and every picture was selected to help educate the public about the legacy of Korean photography. The entire exhibition area was arranged like an installation art work and categorized into sections based on various themes to enable visitors to gain an understanding of Korean photography and its history. The first section of the exhibition, "The Past," opened with a picture titled "Dark Room Glass Eye." Taken near the end of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) when photography was first intro-

duced to Korea, it portrays neoConfucian scholars discussing the principles of a "pinhole camera." This section included a number of rare antique photographs of such sites as Seoul and Kanghwado Island that were taken by foreigners during the final days of the Choson Dynasty, along with portrait pictures taken in China and Japan by 0 Kyong-sok, father of renowned calligrapher and independence fighter 0 Sech'ang (1864-1953), and by Kim Ki-su (1832-?), a government official who headed a mission to Japan immediately after the conclusion of the Kanghwa Treaty on February 26, 1876. Aside from such rare and historic pictures that were especially appreciated by photography enthusiasts, one of the notable merits of the exhibition was its display of photos of everyday life, which the general public could easily identify with as an actual part of their lives, particularly a collection of photographs of Koreans from the eight provinces borrowed from the National Museum of Korea. One could only wonder why the people standing side by side in a picture of married couples from the same village wore number tags on their chests like prisoners. There was a simple explanation. Jhis picture was taken in 1911 during the colonial period (1910-1945) when the Japanese GovernmentGeneral used photography to keep records on Korean residents in every corner of the country. Following displays of studio portraits and souvenir pictures taken during the 1920s and 1930s, visitors stood in awe before a 1930 picture of Korea's first modern dancer, Ch'oe Sung-hui, smiling gently as she curtsied. A picture of water flowing over a dam, the winning photo of the 1938 Summer Photography Contest sponsored by the Chosun Ilbo showing soldiers standing with bared chests, and photographs recording the history of a

IArt family from a wedding picture of a couple taken in 1960 to a family portrait taken with their grandchildren in 1991, all served to demonstrate that photographs serve as visual records of history. The section dubbed "Portraits of Koreans" featured photographs of literary figures from the 1950s and 1960s such as Chu Yo-han (1900-1979), 0 Sang-sun (1893-1963), No Ch'onmyong (1913-1957), Pak Ko-sok (1917-?) and Ch'oe Hyon-bae (1894-1970), as well as singers Nam Jin and Na Hun-a and actress ChOng Yun-hUi. This section was reminiscent of a high school yearbook as the photographs were placed close together on an entire wall of the second floor of the Art

Gallery instead of being displayed in a more conventional manner. The exhibition also included advertisement photos, often frowned upon by so-called art photographers. Those for Oran C,Jinro Soju, Kt"1mbokju and Dongyang Nylon, which stirred up memories in anyone who spent the 1960s and 1970s in Korea, and calendar pictures were given the same respect as documentary pictures of the late 19th century. Through newspaper photographs, the exhibition also depicted major events in Korean history such as Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule on August 15, 1945, the tragic Korean War (1950-1953), the April19

Rev i ew

Student Uprising that toppled the Syngman Rhee government in 1960, and the 1980 Kwangju Massacre during which military troops killed over 200 civilian protestors. The exhibition covered virtually every trend related to Korean photography, from pictures of a Western-style wedding in the 1910s to photographs showing the development of experimental and artistic photography from the 1920s to the present. Despite its comprehensive coverage of the history of photography, the exhibition was neither boring nor too abstract for the general public, as outstanding display techniques were used to present the vast collection of works in an interesting and pleasing format. +

Clockwise from top left: Woman, Chong Hae-ch'ang, 1929-1941; Lateral View of Body Measurement of Seven Couples of Chongp'yong, Hamgyongbuk-do, Anonymous, 1911,508 mm x 406 mm; Children, No Ik-pae, 1963, Asahi International Salon,]a pan, 355 mm x 279 mm; Dancer Ch'oe Sung-hili, Shin Nak-kyun, 1930,146 mm x 203 mm; Map'o Ferry at the Time of Korea's Liberation, Chong Nam-yong, 1945, 508 mm x 610 mm

jArt

Rev ie w

OSu-hwan's Solo Exhibition in Paris Marks Noteworthy Event Kim Hyung-kook Professor of Environmental Studies, Seoul National University 70

!Art

R evi e w

Tranquilllte, 362 em x 227 em, 1998

orean artist 0 Su-hwan was invited by GaletÂˇie Maeght in Paris to hold a solo exhibition that ran for a month in November of last year. The exhibition featured 10 prints produced in the Galerie Maeght's workshop as well as 15 oil paintings. Galerie Maeght is a much celebrated gallery that first opened its doors in the late 1930s when the world's most talented artists were flocking to Paris

where they started a movement that would become known as the Ecole de Paris. If the fame of a gallery rests on the reputation of the artists with whom it deals, then Galerie Maeght enjoyed a position second to none. It was through Maeght that such artists as George Braque, Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Joan Miro and Alberto Giacometti were nurtured to become world-renowned names. The gallery was particularly known for working

with promising artists from outside France and launching them onto the Paris art scene. In this way, American sculptor Alexander Calder and Spanish sculptor Gonzales made their names in the international art world. As such, to be invited to hold a solo exhibition at Galerie Maeght is a noteworthy honor for any artist. It is an honor as significant as winning a prestigious art award, or perhaps even greater. An art award recognizes the 71

IArt R eview 1

artistic value of a particular work, whereas an invitational exhibition places more importance on the commercial qualities of an artist's portfolio. The artistic qualities of a work are judged only through the eyes of a handful of experts, but the commercial qualities of an artist's work are confirmed by a large number of collectors with high standards, taking into account the opinions of the experts. So it can be said that commercial qualities sometimes are a more important gauge of an artist's abilities. It is with the beginning of modern art that art began to be considered a livelihood rather than a hobby and it is no exaggeration to say that the value of an artist's work depends on its commercial appeal. While O's exhibition at Maeght is first and foremost an honor for the artist himself, it is also an event that contributes immensely to the Korean art circle that has provided the foundation for O's artistic development. Contemporary art is the result of movements toward modernism since the 18th century. Modernism in art began to flourish in Western Europe following World War I, and arrived in Korea half a century later in the 1960s, around the time of the student uprising that proved to be an important turning point in Korea's move toward democratization. Pioneering Korean artists first came into contact with modern art in the 1930s, during Japanese colonial rule of Korea, after traveling to Japan to study. It was secondhand contact at best-modernism seen through the eyes of Japanese artists who had studied in Paris. Even this limited opportunity, however, was short-lived. After Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule, the country became caught up in a whirlwind of sweeping social upheavals, including the division of the country, the Korean War (1950-1953) and military dictatorship. Thus, there was no 72

chance for liberalism, the core element of modernism, to take root in Korea. Liberalism was able to finally gain ground in Korea with the 1960 student revolution. The military coup d'etat of 1961 seemed on the surface to put the new liberalism on hold. But in reality, as the government put all its energy into economic development and succeeded in providing a measure of prosperity to the Korean populace, the people gained a new self-awareness

0 Su-hwan (above) draws inspiration .from the abstract patterns found in traditional Korean art such as the lines in this 15th century punch'ong bottle (below).

and the tide of liberalism could not be turned back Artists are the avant-garde of the spirit of an age. As Korean artists worked feverishly to advance under the banner of liberalism, modernism in Korean art rapidly took shape. With the spread of modern art education and the emergence of hundreds of art galleries around the country, art became a growth industry. As Korea's economy recorded unprecedentedly rapid growth, it was held up to the world as a model of successful industrialization. At the same time, the development of Korean art accelerated with Korean artists able to take their place in the international art world, as 0 Su-hwan's exhibition at Galerie Maeght testifies. 0 Su-hwan's work falls under the category of abstract expressionism, which has its roots in the foundation of modernism. As the history of painting shows, before the advent of modernism, most artists reproduced what they saw. But from the beginning of the 20th century, artists began to analyze things independently and see things from a new perspective. Thus the distinguishing characteristics of modernism are a high degree of e x pr ~ sion , a lucid structural analysis of subjects and outright simplicity of techniques, which developed into various schools such as expressionism and cubism. As emphasis on the mental image rather than the physical appearance of an object developed, expressionism evolved into abstract expressionism. O's development into an abstract expressionist artist of international standing was influenced by several external factors, but it seems that internal factors actually played a larger role. One such key internal influence was O's study of calligraphy from an early age. The main subjects of Korean calligraphy are traditional Chinese charac-

jArt Review ters or pictographs that can be read by all well-educated Koreans. As the pictorial expression of physical phenomena, Chinese characters are forms of abstract expressionism. O's work shows the versatile characteristics of Chinese characters by treating painting and writing as the same. In local Korean art circles, he is acclaimed as the Korean artist who has been the most successful in developing traditional Korean art into modern art. O's keen observation of abstract elements in primitive Korean art is another factor. As is true of primitive art around the world, strong abstract elements can be seen in the traditional art of Korea. Some representative examples are the patterns found on 15th century punch'ong ceramic wares and the headstones of ancient tombs. The works featured in O's Paris exhibition at Maeght were his "Unmun" (Gateway to the Clouds) series. We have no way of knowing if

While O's exhibition at Maeght is first and foremost an honor for the artist himself, it is also an event that contributes immensely to the Korean art circle that has provided the foundation forO's artistic development.

Tranquillite, 362 em x 227cm, 1998

clouds have doors, but we can see in O's work the influence of Zen Buddhism that has greatly influenced the Korean psyche. According to Zen teachings, all natural phenomena such as the moon and the clouds in the sky have a moral character which never conflict with nor contradict one another. In this vein, artists often say that their aspiration is "To reach an ideal world of unbounded freedom, like a huge open space, through harmony with nature." Another commonly expressed thought is that, "The thing that an artist can do is to set free the imagination so that it can wander about in infinite space." O's work stakes a claim on nature, reproduces it and expands on its grace. In the unconscious flowing of water and blooming of flowers, nature has a consciousness. In the consciousness of 0 Su-hwan's art, one can see an ardent desire to return to the unconsciousness of nature. +

!Art Revi e w 1

Spring in .My Hometown A Vivid Retninder of Past

Tr~gedy

Leeje-ha Novelist

irector Lee Kwang-mo's debut film Spring in My Hometown is an intimate portrayal of a serene village in Korea, its landscapes and its residents during the 1950s. The lovely impression of serenity and beauty is superficial; it is only the result of the movie's overall ambiance. A closer observation of the characters and their lives reveals something totally different. The 1950s were the most tragic period in Korean histo74

ry: the Korean War erupted on June 25, 1950, U.N. forces arrived on the peninsula, the capital of Seoul was overrun by North Koreans and then regained on September 28, 1950. The Chinese army intervened, Seoul was recaptured by the aggressors on January 4, 1951, and the Armistice Treaty was signed in 1953, locking the Korean peninsula into its current state of division. The Korean War, which was extremely bloody, lasted for over three years,

leaving the entire country in ruins and compatriots pitted against each other. Under the circumstances, there could not have been a tranquil place in all Korea. Yet the overall tone of this movie, set during that turbulent period, is one of quiet serenity, one of the reasons it has been attracting considerable interest. Director Lee says that he made the movie as if he were "leafing through an old photo album, soberly reflecting

!Art Review 1

on the hardships that the older generations endured," an approach w hich embraces a number of significant issues. One of them is his reason for depicting a period of such unimaginable suffering and tragedy as if he were solemnly looking over old photographs, which appears to be related to his determination to portray that period of time objectively and logically. When attempting to depict a certain time in history and the suffering involved, Korean directors have not hesitated to accentuate the dramatic, often resorting to exaggeration as if they had been personally involved with the issues at hand. As a result, their films often ended up too subjective or excessively chaotic, while lacking logic and the power to persuade viewers. Noise and exaggeration fail to deliver facts accurately, and often lead to distortion. Director Lee must have perceived these fatal defects in Korean films more astutely than others. Spring in My Hometown is also significant in its suppression of subjective judgment. From the opening scene of villagers running amok in search of a Communist collaborator and upon finally finding him in a well severely beating him, the film captures the desperateness and chaos of the times, without the need for explanation, like an illustration in a book. Several other scenes are no less shocking, from a village woman being forced into prostitution to make up for linen she stole while doing laundry for foreign soldiers, to the head of a household walking home dejectedly after being beaten and doused with red paint for smuggling goods out of a U.S. military base. All the scenes are presented from a distance in a detached manner as if the events were happening to someone else, heightening their tragic reality. Portrayed visually, the tragic lives of the adult villagers contrast sharply w ith the innocence of the children

who are dreaming, playing and becoming a part of that world. Director Lee must have employed such a technique in an effort to depict the tragedy of such events as if they were distant memories in order to minimize the film's subjectivity. The bird's-eye view technique of filming from a distance while capturing minute details is commonly employed by directors of art films. The director's efforts to transform the war and its utter tragedies into distant memories like aged photos, ultimately sublimates it into a work of art. The film was 11 years in the making-an unprecedented production period-and involvedÂˇa great deal of repetitive filming and significant editing to achieve the final result. The lengthy production period in itself is quite amazing, but the efforts that went into the making of the film attracted a great deal of attention even before its premiere. Perhaps it was due to such a tenaciousness in creating this work of art that Spring in My Hometown has been so successful in enhancing the status of Korean film. It was the best Korean film of 1998, winning several awards and accolades from the international film community including the grand prize at the prestigious Hartley-Merrill International

Screenwriting Contest in the United States in 1995, the 11th Tokyo gold prize and the Kirin prize at the Tokyo International Film Festival, the grand prize at the 18th France Belfort International Film Festival, the best artistic achievement at the Greece Thessaloniki International Film Festival, and the grand prize at the 18th Hawaii International Film Festival. +

In Spring in My Hometown, scenes are presented using a bird's-eye view technique of filming from a distance while capturing minute details (left). The only close-up in the entire film is this scene in which a boy watches his mother's act of prostitution (above). This scene of a school picnic symbolizes the tern porary peace enjoyed by the villagers (below).

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

CHOEYUN "The Gray Snowman" belongs to the literary category of reminiscence or recollection. Branding the story as such, however, fails to reveal anything about its significance. The-story's main focus, however, does not involve portraying the lives of activists during the whirlwind antigovernment movement. Its significance is multi-dimensional.

Intense Quest that Defies Repetition

Ch'oe Yun's Stories YuJong-ho Literary Critic Professor of Korean Literature, Yonsei University

h 'oe Yun is not a prolific writer, having but one novel You Are No Longer You, one novella There a Petal Silently Falls, and about 20 short stories to her credit. The mass production phenomenon that has propelled Korea's economic development since the 1960s has likewise influenced the literary community such that many authors have churned out an unbelievable number of literary works. Despite such a phenomenon, Ch'oe has opted for a literary career characterized by restraint and self-control, receiving attention from critics and highly lauded by discerning readers. This was Korean society's response to Ch'oe's intense pride of authorship, which defies imitation through canned literary works. She deals with an entirely new theme in each of her works and takes a different approach, omitting nothing that is necessary and including nothing that is unnecessary. Ch'oe's literary sense is so unique and distinct it can be said to flow against the currents of the times. Her distinguished literary career, while not readily selfexplanatory, can be examined to better understand her mind-set and attitude toward writing. Ch'oe was born in Seoul in 1953 after the end of the Korean War. As a child, she dreamed of becoming a cartoonist. Her critical mind can be seen in her account of an episode from her

elementary school days. Accompanied by her older sister, she returned to school in the late afternoon and calmly confronted her teacher to object to his disciplining a classmate by stamping her forehead, like a branded calf, for not doing her hom ework. (Confronting a teacher was an extremely unusual and bold act at that time in Korea). As a student at one of the most prestigious middle schools in Korea, Ch'oe founded a literary club. She went on to major in Korean literature at college, and while still in school she attracted keen interest by publishing a critical essay entitled "Analysis of the Significance of Structure of Novels" in a literary magazine. After graduation from college, she went to France and earned a degree from Provence University, writing her thesis on Marguerite Duras. Upon returning to Korea, she was appointed a professor of French literature at her alma mater, while also translating Korean novels into French and introducing contemporary literary theories. She began her career as a writer at the height of h er scholastic activities, which included the dissemination of information about foreign educational practices, especially in regard to French literature. She was approaching 40 when she completed her debut novella There a Petal Silently Falls, which was based on the military's bloody suppression

of the 1980 antigovernment uprising in Kwangju that resulted in the killing of hundreds of civilians. This work was later made into a film. She won the Tong-in Literary Award for her short story "The Gray Snowman" in 1992, and the prestigious Yi Sang Lit~ray Award for another short story titled "The Last of Hanak'o" in 1994, distinguishing herself as one of Korea's representative writers. It is impossible to summarize her literary world in a few sentences. As with Marques, a prominent writer of the late 20th century, or Milan Kundera, there can be no dispute that her strongest suit as a writer is her strict self-discipline and her exploration of diverse themes that are totally unrelated to earlier works. In Korean, the words undong, or "movement," and undonggwon, or "the sphere of movement," have rather unique connotations. The student-led antigovernment movements that first emerged in the 1960s, intensified in the 1970s and then peaked in the 1980s, are collectively referred to as "the movement," with the sphere of the activists ' acts and influence being undonggwon. Because the movement was pitted against different government regimes, the activists' methods of resistance differed according to the circumstances. However, over time, protests became more intense and were gradually forced underground, finally entering a state of lull in the 77

late 1980s with the end of rule by military dictators. Throughout their struggle, antigovernment activists earned tacit sympathy from intellectuals, with literary works on the subject often reflecting their silent support. "The Gray Snowman," a short story that consolidated Ch'oe's status as a writer, can be said to be the first Korean literary work implicitly critical of and skeptical about the antigovernment movement. The protagonist is a woman in her early forties called Kang Ha-won. Written in the first person, the language Kang uses reflects a kind of remorse as well as calm, befitting her age. The narrator's recollection of the past begins when she comes upon a brief newspaper article about a woman found dead in New York's Central Park due to starvation. The woman had been carrying an expired passport with the name of the narrator. Memories of a period 20 years earlier suddenly overwhelm the narrator. Her widowed mother had married a foreigner and moved to the United States, leaving her to live with an aunt. One day, she leaves home, stealing the money her aunt had saved to pay hospital bills. She goes to Seoul and enrolls in college. Living alone in a dilapidated neighborhood, she tutors students to earn money. After coming into contact with a person trying to obtain books forbidden by the government, she starts to work in a print shop, one of the bases of the antigovernment movement at the time, but remains mainly a bystander and is occasionally subject to suspicion. She translates the works of an Italian historian written in German into Korean, and comes to view the underground movement with a curiosity mixed with a touch of yearning somewhat akin to admiration. She helps to print propaganda leaflets at the instructions of An, a drop-out from music school and the de facto leader of the Cultural Revolution Association. One day, having fallen asleep in the print shop, she 78

feels An's hands covering her with a blanket. The association is later disbanded with the arrest of its ke y members including An while its other members seek refuge. Later, a woman, Kim Hui-jin, visits Kang with a letter of introduction from An. Kim, An's companion and lover, hides in Kang's room for several days, then flees to

Ch 'oe's writing has at times been criticized for having the unpolished style commonly found in translated works. However, it reflects a tension and suppression that a superficially smooth literary style would fail to capture. Even though it might read like a translation, Ch'oe's writing is ofa kind that Walter Be11jamin might say "expands and intensifies the mother tongue through the medium of foreign languages."

the United States with Kang's passport after switching the photo. Kang even buys the woman's plane ticket even though she had been involved with the Cultural Revolution Association for a mere three months during its five-year existence. Twenty years later, Kim Htli-jin is found dead of starvation in New York, An has become a well-known popular artist, and the

narrator is living in the countryside as a research assistant to a retired scholar, having been betrayed by her love. "The Gray Snowman" belongs to the literary category of reminiscence or recollection. Branding the story as such, however, fails to reveal anything about its significance. The story's main focus, however, does not involve portraying the lives of activists during the whirlwind antigovernment movement. Its significance is multi-dimensional. It begins with the narrator reading a newspaper article about the death of herself, or rather of a person carrying a passport with her name. It begins like a mystery novel such as Sophocles' Oidipus Tyannos, not a detective story in the conventional sense. The narrator recalls her youth, but not in an orderly and chronological fashion. As the flow of memories tends to be, her recollections. are random, inducing readers to follow along the narrator's reconstruction of her past. This begs for a second reading from the reader, adding to the intellectual interest through new discoveries not made in the first reading. The narrator's tone in recalling the dark past is neither sentimental nor bitter. She show s no trace of resentment or remorse although she was taken advantage of by An and Kim. Her lack of emotion and faint yearning for the past serve to make her life and the life of the dead Kim seem even more tragic and pathetic, while appealing strongly to readers. Structure-wise, the unraveling of routine activities of the past fully exposes the story's theme-the cold ruthlessness of politics and organizations. Tacit statements that are not completely clear are profoundly significant and gentl y remind one of Theodor Adorno's claim that "ideology conceals and art reveals." Another key attraction of the story is its literary style. Although literary style is significant in distinguishing written works as literature or non-lit-

erature, the new generation of writers tends to downplay its importance. Ch'oe plays a role in helping to restore the value of style as evident in this passage from "The Gray Snowman." "So, this is how people forge their destiny, I told myself. Though aware of impending catastrophe, in a momentary lapse people give themselves up passively to some unopposable system, and thereby have the compass of their lives reset. But this passivity is a choice too." Ch'oe's writing has at times been criticized for having the unpolished style commonly found in translated works. However, it reflects a tension and suppression that a superficially smooth literary style would fail to capture. Even though it might read like a translation, Ch'oe's writing is of a kind that Walter Benjamin might say "expands and intensifies the mother tongue through the medium of foreign languages." In "The Gray Snowman," in which seemingly ordinary, mundane days are intricately and carefully connected, it is no accident that Kim, the main victim in the story, and the narrator Kang are both women. This strongly implies that women will only end up the

biggest victims in a male-oriented society. Such a feminist perspective, which is also carefully incorporated in "The Last of Hanak'o," serves as an underlying theme in all of Ch'oe's works. "The Last of Hanak'o," winner of the Yi Sang Literary Award, is an outstanding short story of considerable critical acclaim. Poet Kim Kwang-kyu once sang about the fundamental superficiality in the relationships among people living in cities as: "We only brush by each other and never really meet." In "The Last of Hanak'o," a carefully crafted and rapid-paced short story set in Venice, Ch'oe persuasively confirms that people do merely brush by each other and never really meet in today's reality. For the characters in the story ther e ca n be no Hanak'o as they brush by each other as mere objects of men's greed or their sexual fantasies. Many critics overlooked it, but special note should be taken of the fa ct that Hanak'o is a woman. "Watching Over Father" is also a controversial work delving into the tragedy of Korea's division. The story itself is very dramatic; in Paris, a father, who had defected to North Korea, m eets his youngest son, who had

grown up fatherless. The son had chosen to live overseas to escape the pain of social discrimination and restraint resulting from his father's defection to the North. He is working as a researcher at a plant research institute (He studies weeds, but as weeds are not especially appropriate for botanical study, it is a derogatory reference to his life.). The obvious awkwardness, conflicts and ultimate mutual understanding resulting frorn'. the smmge encounter of father and son for the first time captivate readers through a plot resembling a mystery novel, a carefully thought-out composition and an alluring literary style. Such characteristics are common to all of Ch'oe's works, but the basic theme is never repeated in any form . As such, each and every one of her literary works is refreshingly new. "If there is one positive aspect that I have, it would be compassion for the world. It clearly was formulated during this period," Ch'oe writes in a recollection of her past; she is not referring to the compassion of Neitzche's "exquisite contempt," but in the genuine sense of sharing pain. The valu.e of Ch'oe's works can be said to derive from such noble compassion. +

The Korea Foundation Fellowship Programs FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN STUDIES

The Korea Foundation offers fellowships for Korean studies in the fields of humanities, social sciences and arts. The program is intended to provide scholars and other qualified professionals overseas with an opportunity to carry out in-depth research in Korea for a period of three to twelve months. Each successful applicant will be provided with round-trip airfare to Korea and a monthly stipend during the grant period Âˇ1, Applicants should complete the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Sttidies application form and submit their academic research proposals to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 31 of the same year.

Support for Korean Studies Programs Abroad The Korea Foundation offers financial assistance to universities, research institutes and libraries abroad in their efforts to promote the study and understanding of subjects related to Korea. Projects submitted for consideration must be in the fields of humanities, social sciences or arts and within the categories listed below: 1) Establishment and expansion of Korea-related courses and faculty positions, 2) Fellowships for graduate students or research grants for faculty members, and 3) Library acquisitions and cataloging. Applications must be submitted to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by November 30 of the same year. For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

FEllOWSHIP FOR KOREAN LANGUAGE TRAINING

Korean Studies Support Team The Korea Foundation

The Korea Foundation offers grants for Korean language training to graduate students, scholars and other qualified professionals overseas who wish to learn the Korean language at a Korean university language institute for a period of six to twelve months. Each successful applicant will be assigned to a Korean language course at a major Korean university, and will be provided with tuition and a monthly allowance during the grant period. Applicants should complete and submit the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Language Training application form to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 31 of the same year. For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

Seocho P.O Box 227 Seoul. Korea Tel82-2-3463-5612 Fox 82-2-3463-6075. 6076

Personnel Exchange Team The Korea Foundation Seocho PO Box 227 Seoul. Korea Te l 82-2-3463-5613 Fox 82-2-3463-6075. 6076

KOREA FOCUS A BIMONWLY ON CURRENT KOREAN AFFAIRS

In addition to KOREANA, the Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of globalization. KOREA FOCUS offers a comprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korea's current affairs. In this bimonthly, you will find tin1ely essays and commentaries on Korea's politics, economy, society and culture, opinFOCUS~ ions on world affairs, and a chronology of recent events in Korea. Published in English and Japanese, its articles are selected from leading publications in Korea, including major daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals.

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