Koreana Winter 1999 (English) by The Korea Foundation

BEAUTY OF KOREA

Paekcha Lamp

In the past when electricity was still a rare commodity, every Korean household in both urban and rural areas used a lamp at night, regardless of whether they were affluent with a tile-roofed house or a commoner living in a thatched house. The lamp was usually hung on a wall or placed on a table. On a typical winter night, mothers sat by a small lamp doing household chores, while their children read aloud in a clear voice-a setting that for many Koreans invariably conjures up nostalgic memories of home. Fire signifies purification, life, the exorcism of evil spirits, passion and recreation, connotations that originated from its brightness and heat. Lighting a fire vanquishes the darkness while

driving away evil spirits, thus heralding a new beginning. It is even possible to dream of a great beginning for the new Âˇmillennium from a small lamp, thanks to the hope-inspiring character of fire. Lamps were made from diverse materials including wood, stone, metal and china, with wicks being out of mulberry paper, cotton or hemp twine. As for fuel, both vegetable and animal oil were used, including corn oil, sesame oil, and fish oil. Traditional Korean lamps using such oil were typically in the shape of small dishes or bowls with the wicks at the edges for easy lighting. Lamps with a wicker stand that also doubled as a cover-like that shown above- were used after the introduction of kerosene. +

KOREAN ART & CULTURE Cover: Pottery, often called the

Ceramics

art of earth and fire, includes daily utensils closely related

with human eating habits as well as works of art imbued

From Crockery to Masterpieces

with the aesthetics of d1e time they were crea ted. In this issue, KOREANA reviews the history and characteristics of Korean pottery and Korea's modern ceramics industry and culture. The cover photograph

by Charlotte Horlyck

E N T

shows an inlaid crane design on a celadon vessel.

Understanding Korean Ceramics

KOREAN A Internet Website With the inauguration of the Korea Foundation 's home page on the World Wide Web, on-line access to its publications is possible with abstracts of KOREANA features along with photographs. Please visit our Internet webs ite a t: httpJ!Www.kofo.or.krlkdata.htm

12 Korea's Contemporary Ceramic Artists and a Renowned Kiln by Lee ]ae-eon

Sanctuary for Korean Ceramics The Ataka Collection at the Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka

by Kobayashi Hitoshi

28 Outlook for Korea's Ceramics Industry by Chang Yoon -woo

32 In Preparation for the New Millennium ·

by ]in Seong-ho

Fifty Years of Korean Culture

The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represen t those of th e ed ito rs of KOREANA or Th e Korea Foundation.

Trumpet Shell The World of Cho Byung-hwa

CLOSE-UP

by Kevin O'Rourke

47 TRADITIONAL ARTISAN

Lee Yong-hee by Lee Hyo ung-kwon

52 ON THE ROAD

Kangjin Korea Foundation

by Kim ]oo-young

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by Kim Hyung-kook

38 THE 20TH CENTURY IN RETROSPECT

All rigbts reserved No part of tbis publication may be reproduced in any form witbout tbe prior pennission of Tbe Korea Foundation.

KOREANA, reg iste red as a quarterl y magazine w ith the Mi nistry of Cult ure and Tourism (Registration No. Ba1033, elated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in Chinese.

FOCUS

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Vol 13, No.4 W1nter 1999

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82 LITERATURE

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ways in which he and other modern English ceramic artists nterest in and appreciation of Korean ceramics have developed slowly in the West with the result being have been stimulated by the ceramic traditions of Korea, that they are little known by Western people, except and discuss why potters, as opposed to academics and colfor those who have special knowledge of Korea. lectors, found such great delight and beauty in later Korean Two major factors lie at the root of this problem. First, pottery. Korean ceramics were virtually unknown in England the failure by many Westerners to recognize the beauty of Korean pottery, and second a until around 1912, when John Platt wrote dearth of publications in Western lanan article on them in the Burlington IT HAS TA KEN MORE THAN guages on Korean art prior to the 1960s, Magazine, ("Ancient Korean Tomb HA LF A CENTUR Y FOR both of which are closely intertwined. Wares," Vol. XX, pp. 222-230). At this time The following is an attempt to highlight a small number of Korean objects, primarW ESTERNERS TO OPEN the various problems connected with the ily celadons, also began appearing at aucTHEIR EYES TO tions. Despite being admired only by a study and recognition of Korean ceramsmall and selective group of people, ics by Western people at the beginning THE SPLENDORS OF celadons were nevertheless becoming of this century. While introducing pioK OREAN CERAMICS. S INCE increasingly popular as collectors' items, neers in the field, most notably W. B. not least because they were readily availHoney and Godfrey St. G. M. Gompertz, SCHOLA RSHIP ON KOREAN this article will deal first with scholarship able in Korea as a result of the extensive ART IN WESTERN plundering of tombs taking place at this of ceramics of the Koryo period time. T. S. Smith, for example, writes in (935-1392), followed by that of wares LANGUAGES WAS SERIOUSLY The Korea Magazine in 1918 that "bowls from the Choson Kingdom (1392-1910). THE FIRST LA CKING DURING and dishes for common usage are 'plentiInasmuch as the study and connoisful, and examples can be acquired at reaseurship of Korean art have developed HALF OF THIS CEN TURY, sonable prices." It is worth noting that he along similar lines in America and recommends buyers to purchase broken Europe, the focus here will be on the MOST WESTERNERS W ERE pieces, arguing that the "few perfect speciUnited Kingdom, with the article drawing UNAWA RE OF K OREAN mens that are now found are high priced as its baseline the collection of Korean and will go much higher ("Korean Arts ceramics at the Victoria and Albert A RT TRA DITIONS. and Crafts," The Korea Magazine, Seoul, Museum in London, this being one of the most 1917, pp. 484-563). In this prophecy, he was indeed on the mark extensive of its kind at the beginning of the Aubrey Le Blond Collection 20th century. Totaling Meanwhile, Aubrey Le about 500 pieces, most Blond, an English collector, of which entered the had acquired a substantial museum during the first half amount of Korean ceramof this century, the collection ics when visiting the counvery much reflects early attitry in 1912-13. He is credited tudes toward Korean art during with being the first to have this time. Not surprisingly, it made Korean pieces available to the comprises mainly celadons of English public by loaning his extensive collection the Koryo period, as these were to the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1914. The collecreadily available in Korea for purchase and also sought after by the few tion comprised mainly celadons, but also included a numcollectors who had an interest in Korean art ber of ceramics from the Unified Shilla and Choson periods. When later donated to the museum in 1918, these objects objects, whereas ceramics of the Choson kingdom were came to form the backbone of the V&A's inventory of often dismissed as being of inferior quality. Although the collecting of Choson pieces did not become popular until Korean ceramics. Particularly fine artifacts among Le Blond's gift included a around the mid-20th century, English potters, such as celadon ewer shaped in the form of a bamboo shoot and Bernard Leach (1887-1979), had since the early years of this bowls decorated with incised as well as molded designs century been greatly fascinated by their rustic charm and (Plates 1 and 2). Judging from its shape, decoration and glaze, sturdy potting. The final part of this paper will consider the 5

the ewer dates to the 12th century. Its body is shaped by alternating rows of carved and incised leaves continuing without interruption into the lid. Also the spout and handle are formed by sections of bamboo. The foot is unglazed and has six spur marks: The devotion to detail and pursuit of elegant fluid forms that so much appealed to Western taste is further evident in the three celadon bowls which were also made in the 12th century. The two wares on the left have delicately incised decorations of fish and birds, while the piece on the far right includes a molded design of babies among lotus flowers. In connection with Le Blond's donation, Bernard Rackham (1876-1964), the assistant keeper of the department of ceramics at the V&A, compiled a catalogue on the collection that was published in 1918. Rackham strongly dismissed early Korean wares of the proto-Three Kingdoms period as being of "little artistic interest," in the belief that "all the best pottery found in Corea dates from the period of the Korai (Koryo) Dynasty" (Rackham. Catalogue of the Le Blond Collection. London, 1918, p. 4). Judging from the previously mentioned wares this view is perhaps not surprising and was in fact shared by many of Rackham's contemporaries. In praising their dignity and simplicity of form, coupled with an exquisite sense of proportions and beauty of subtle curves, Rackham felt that Koryo ceramics were entitled to being ranked among the highest achievements of the potters of the world. Though some of Le Blond's objects are undoubtedly of high class, the pieces available in England during the early parts of this century were generally of lower quality than those found in America and of course in Far Eastern collections. In view of this, it is perhaps hardly surprising that people were quick to dismiss Korean ceramics as being of inferior quality and as a consequence interest in the field was slow to develop. In addition, Chinese and Japanese ceramics were so popular and plentiful at this time that people hardly felt compelled to look elsewhere for other types of wares. R. L. Hobson, keeper of ceramics at the British Museum, is a typical example of this phenomenon. Having at first been reluctant to take much interest in Korean pottery, his views changed upon seeing the best Koryo wares during a visit to Japan and Korea in 1929. Following this experience, he w rote about them with enthusiasm while highly praising the beauty of celadon glaze. But it is perhaps W. B. Honey, keeper of ceramics at the V&A Museum and as such Hobson's counterpart, w ho should be credited with being the first scholar to truly appreciate the beauty of Korean pieces- celadons as well as Chason wares. Not only did he value the objects for their decoration and the color of their glaze, but in his ability to discern their overall aesthetic qualities he seems to have dis6

covered the essence of Korean ceramics. In his book on Far Eastern ceramics he w rites: "The best Corean wares are not only original; they are the most gracious and unaffected pottery ever made. They have every virtue that pottery can have. Their shapes are simple, characteristically beautiful in proportion and outline, flowering easily and naturally into plastic and other decoration, incised or carved or inlaid, of unsurpassed beauty and strength .... This Corean pottery in fact reaches heights hardly attained even by the Chinese. It has at all times a great dignity, a quality which is said to be in accord with the character of the Corean people" (Honey. The Ceramic Art of China and Other Countries of the Far East. London, 1944, p. 167).

Godfrey St. G. M. Gompertz Since then other Western scholars have produced important works on Korean ceramics, most notably the English collector and scholar of East Asian ceramics, Godfrey St. G. M. Gompertz. Gompertz was not only an avid collector but also a keen contributor to the study of Korean ceramics. From his first visit to Korea in 1927 to his death in 1992, he amassed one of the finest private collections of .Korean ceramics in Europe, which he generously donated to the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge in 1984. In contrast to his predecessors, Gompertz had spent considerable time in the Far East and therefore not only had direct access to collections in Korea and Japan, but was also well acquainted with several Japanese scholars of Korean art. As a result, he was able to assess the quality of Korean art from a very unique standpoint compared to that of most of his contemporaries. Whereas they had often compared Korean wares less favorably with Chinese works in particular, Gompertz, after having seen Korean ceramics of superb quality in Japanese and Korean collections, knew that they were on par with those produced in China. Consequently, he was able to develop his taste in and knowledge of the field on a level unprecedented at the time. It is worth noting that Gompertz collected most of his pieces in Japan where even today some of the best examples of Korean ceramics can be found. Western interest in Korean ceramics initially seemed to end w ith celadons, while those of the Chason Dynasty received only scant consideration. Often they were dismissed as being coarse and without distinction, leading, for example, Hobson to conclude that the production of the ceramics industry was left to decay following the fall of the Koryo Dynasty. Though a few English connoisseurs, notably Honey and Gompertz, expressed interest in the field, it was Japanese scholars such as Soetsu Yanagi who most fervently expressed their love of these later Korean wares. As will be discussed, Yanagi later introduced Bernard Leach, the English potter, to the intrinsic beauty of these pieces.

Plate 4:Jar, porcelain decorated with underglaze copper red. Choson Dynasty. Height 28.9 em Opposite page: Plate 5: Vase, porcelain with white glaze. Made by Bernard Leach, 1967. Height 28.7 em

purchased either in Korea or from dealers in England. The large porcelain jar decorated with a lotus blossom in underglaze copper red was purchased from the dealer S. M. Franck and Company around 1913 (Plate 4). Honey felt particularly attracted to this piece and described it as being the first object that revealed to him the beauty of Chos6n period wares. He described the decoration as having "an almost sublime quality, and the drawing fills its space in a most satisfying way" (W. B.

Honey, "Corean Wares of the Yi Dynasty,"

Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society,

1944-1945, pp. 11-24). Appreciation for Choson Ceramics Honey was in fact the first to draw attention to Chason ceramics in his presentation titled "Corean Wares of the Yi Dynasty" delivered to the Oriental Ceramic Society in London in 1944. Incidentally, it marked the first-ever paper on Korean ceramics to be presented to the society. Honey was greatly aware of the lack of interest in these pieces which often looked less than perfect, since he knew how highly Westerners praised the flawlessness achieved in especially Chinese wares, and that in comparison Chos6n pieces would always seem inferior. He therefore begins his paper by questioning to what extent, if at all, refinement is a necessary quality of good pottery, and instead advocates the celebration of creative achievement, where everything is new and comparable. Calling to attention especially the boldness and vitality of modeling, Honey states that "Yi Dynasty wares are beautiful, and beautiful in the most unusual way" ("Corean Wares of the Yi Dynasty," p. 11). Moreover, Gompertz developed an interest for Chos6n ceramics and began collecting them later in life. Like Honey, he emphasized the need for understanding the characteristics of the Korean people to fully appreciate the aesthetics of Chos6n wares. In the preface to his volume on Chos6n pottery and porcelain, he compares Korean wares with Chinese ones: "It is the combination of art with practical accomplishment which ... makes Chinese works so outstanding. With the Korean the emphasis is heavily

on the side of artistic expression, so that the final result is sometimes disappointing. But no one has ever excelled those Korean works in which the inspiration is matched by superior technique" (Korean Pottery and Porcelain of the Yi Period. London, 1968, p. XIII).

Artist-Potter Bernard Leach Whereas most Westerners, apart from a handful of scholars such as Honey and Gompertz, regarded Chos6n wares as being of inferior quality, Bernard Leach found them to be fascinating and highly inspirational. Leach has been regarded as one of the most significant and influential artist-potters of the 20th century, mainly due to his crucial influence on public attitudes toward crafts. His lifelong interest in the East was of paramount importance to his work Having spent the first ten years of his life in the Far East, Leach returned to Japan in 1909, where he learnt the craft of pottery making from eminent Japanese potters such as Tomimoto Kenkichi, Ogata Kenzan and Hamada Shoji. Yet, it was his friendship with the scholar Soetsu Yanagi that came to have a critical impact on the way in which Leach viewed and produced ceramics. As one of the leading connoisseurs of Korean art at the time, Yanagi never ceased to advocate the uniqueness and beauty of Korean objects. He was also among the first Japanese to appreciate the special qualities of Chos6n wares, of which he wrote extensively. Having been taught by Yanagi, Leach adopted the Oriental as opposed to the Western way of viewing ceramics. This meant regarding a pot as a whole , rather than emphasizing its separate aspects, such as the glaze, color, potting and so forth. Only in this way did he feel it was possible to perceive the spirit or essence radiating from the piece. Several times Yanagi and Leach traveled to Korea together, enabling Leach to not only view a wide range of wares but also allowing him to personally experience the country. For Leach this was extremely important, in his belief that a potter's traditions are part of a country's cultural heritage. From this point of view, the characteristics of the people and the pots they produced could not be separated but formed two parts of a whole entity. On seeing a collection of Chos6n pots, he com-

mented: "These Korean pots grow like wild flowers. Their naive abstractions and formalizations spring from quite another approach to living, a complete antithesis to our self-consciousness and calculation. The Coreans and their pots are childlike, spontaneous and trusting" (Bernard Leach. A Potter in japan. London, 1960, p. 161). Later, after his return to England, Leach tried teaching others the Oriental way of appreciating ceramics, which at the time was unknown in the West. In A Potter's Book, for example, he points out that the many irregularities seen on the feet of Chinese and Korean wares, not to mention the imperfectly centered turning of some Korean pots, may strike the ..tl~["._, European eye as pure clumsiness, and .... therefore be iÂˇegarded as defects. Yet, to Oriental people they are viewed neither as mistakes nor flaws, which clearly underlines the different perceptions of beauty which exist in the East (Leach. A Potter's Book. London, 1940,p.85). Inasmuch as Leach was deeply influenced by Japanese aesthetics, his work was more heavily inspired by Korean pottery above all else. About this Leach himself noted: "Many people assume that my pots are strongly influenced by Japanese wares. This is not true. Of all the patterns I have made there are few that owe a debt to Japan. To China and Korea-yes-but to Japan very little" (Watson. Bernard Leach. Potter and Artist. London, 1997, p. 92). He especially drew inspiration from Chos6n ceramics- white wares as well as punch'6ng. He enjoyed, for example, using porcelain,

"'.

not as a translucent material, but as the Koreans did, for the heavy, hard and lustrous stone-like qualities resembling jade or marble. This is clearly evident in the white porcelain vase decorated with fluted design, now in the V&A's collection (Plate 5). Leach superbly mixed Chinese and Korean ceramic traditions with the essence of English customs and tastes, of which the stoneware jar is an excellent example (Plate 6). Although the shape and incised decoration resembles that of punch'ong wares (compare with the punch'ong bottle in Plate 3), the glaze was produced as an experiment to duplicate Chinese bracken-ash glaze. This came about after Tomimoto had translated a Chinese document from the 17th or 18th century, which described the use of this particular glaze, whereupon, Leach and others were able to copy it with great success.

The Legacy of Bernard Leach Leach attracted several students who learnt all aspects of pottery production with many, such as Michael Cardew (1901-1983) and Katherine Pleydell-Bouverie (1895-1985), later emerging as influential potters in their own right. Leach's legacy lives on even today where many potters have continued to draw inspiration not only from his efforts but from the Far East as well. One such studio-potter is Edmund de Waal (b. 1964), who has conducted research on Leach and published several related works. De Waal himself spent a year in Tokyo making pots while his work is represented in a number of collections and has been exhibited widely, most recently at the V&A Museum in an exhibition highlighting contemporary British studio porcelain. Like Leach, de W aal

has been strongly motivated by Korean ceramic traditions while often attempting to capture the Korean essence in his own work. Rather than the regularity found in japanese wares, de Waal is fascinated by the informality evident in Korean pieces as seen in, for example, the warped shapes of some high-fired wares. He has also experimented with celadon glazes as can be seen on his "Tall jar" where the crackling of the glaze is reminiscent of Koryo wares (Plate 7). The shape of this piece has been developed from that of smaller lidded jars of which de Waal has produced a considerable number. Being interested in form and function, de Waal produces porcelain that can be lived with and handled. In this, one can draw direct parallels to Korean pottery, especially punch'ong, which clearly convey the rustic, unpretentious sense of wares having been intended for daily use. It has taken more than half a century for Westerners to open their eyes to the splendors of Korean ceramics. Since scholarship on Korean art in Western languages was seriously lacking during the first half of this century, most Westerners were unaware of Korean art traditions. As such, collectors and scholars, spoilt by the abundance of Chinese and japanese ceramics readily available in the West at the beginning of this century, were quick to brand the few Korean pieces which made their way to the United Kingdom as inferior and therefore uninteresting. Even after the collecting of Koryo celadons became popular, there was still a reluctance to take any notice of Chason wares. The reason may be that they hardly conformed to the aesthetic ideals of most Western people, who identified delicate shapes, flawless potting, and carefully applied glazes with perfection and refinement. The question of course is to what extent do these qualities equal good pottery. Leach, for certain, did not think so, since to him the overall sense and spirit of a pot was more important than the individual components of which it was made, that is, its glaze and potting. Certainly, when viewing Chason ceramics, one is compelled to agree with Honey that: "Perfection is a tiresome work at all times when applied to works of art" ("Corean Wares of the Yi Dynasty," p. 11). In view of the high prices which Korean wares have attained at recent auctions, it seems that Westerners have increasingly come to support this view. +

Opposite page: Plate 6: Vase, stoneware with gray slip under clear glaze. Made by Bernard Leach, 1931. Height 26.3 em Right: Plate 7: "TallJar," porcelain with white glaze. Made by Edmund de Waal, 1999- Height about 90 em. Private collection.

s compared to high-brow art forms, the ethnic customs, arts and crafts and indigenous architecture reveal more about the cultural essence of a people that has been handed down through the ages. This can be attributed to their more direct contact with people's everyday lives, with ceramics in particular being of great significance. From the earthenware of the Stone Age to today's porcelain, the ceramic art of each distinct time period represents a condensed sense of the aesthetics and community spirit of the times, much like an era's genetic fingerprint. The sensibilities of modern people have been rent asunder in many regards. Scientific advances have seriously damaged our natural environment, thus necessitating its restoration and protection by all possible means. In this respect, it is encouraging that many artists in Korea are now turning to a reinterpretation of traditional ceramic wares as part of the answer. Although Korea's ceramic arts can be classified into several

paekcha, the white porcelain of the Chason Dynasty (1392-1910), and punch'6ng, a ceramic ware with an overall white slip decoration, are today highly acclaimed throughout the world. Moreover, they serve as a barometer for understanding Korean culture in that they most accurately reflect Korean aesthetics and their worldview outlook Among the various ceramic types, punch'ong perhaps best portrays the characteristics of the Korean people and their sense of aesthetics. The following is an introduction to Korean artists who have molded their own world of punch'ong. Reinterpreting the Essence of Punch'ong Compared to the aristocratic elegance of Koryo celadon or the austerity of Chason white porcelain, punch'ong embodies the underlying traits and sentiments of commoners. It is notably dynamic and richly humorous, while exuding a freedom and naturalness that blurs the line between art work and frivolity. Consequently, punch'ong continues to enamor the Âˇ Koreans of today, just as it had been beloved by the people of the Chason Dynasty. Actually, people today admire nature and natural qualities more than ever in the turmoil brought about by industrialization. Punch'ong has been long cherished for its distinctive artistry and aesthetics, while the characteristics of modern society provide even greater appeal for its current popularity. Many artists are now rediscovering the essence of punch'ong, as its diversity is being further enriched based on the unique personality of each artist. Today, unlike in the past, a number of premier artists have dedicated themselves to the creation of punch'ong. Each artist produces punch'ong with distinct features, making no attempt for concealment or metaphors based on anonymity, while freely reinterpreting the core essence of punch'ong and its unique formative qualities in his or her own way. Among the various artists engaged in the production of punch'ong, the most active are young artisans in their twenties and thirties. However, three somewhat older artists stand out for their noteworthy contributions to the modernization of punch'ong: Shin Sang-ho, Yun Kwang-jo and Yi Su-jong. There are, of course, many other artists who have exclusively specialized in punch'ong as well, including Kim Yong-yun, Yi Chong-do, Yi Kang-hyo, and Han Pong-rim. The three artists, however, are widely known and have actively exhibited their works overseas to favorable reviews. Without a doubt, the long-time exploration of and experimentation with punch'ong by these three artists, who are in their early- and mid-fifties, have sparked a revival of punch'ong to such an extent that it now commands an important place in contemporary ceramic art.

Korea's Contemporary Ceramic Artists and aRenowned Kiln Lee}ae-eon Art Critic

distinct categories, they are all fundamentally grounded in a philosophy involving a universal naturalism. This is why traditional ceramic wares, reinterpreted and transformed to suit contemporary tastes, both directly and indirectly help to bring us closer to nature. At a time when lifestyles and methods of expression are undergoing radical changes, the use, appreciation and respect for traditional ceramics in our daily life symbolizes an understanding of the ideals, wisdom and emotions of ancient Koreans, while also re-creating new forms of wisdom and refinement. Korean culture is essentially future-oriented and optimistic, while never existing apart from nature and human beings. For these reasons, this article spotlights several prominent ceramic artists and an extraordinary kiln involved with perpetuating the centuries-old traditions and spirit of Korea's ceramic culture. Korea's traditional ceramic wares, such as ch'6ngja, the greenish-blue celadon of the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392), 12

Shin Sang-ho

Shin Sang-ha boasts a career that is second to none in his range and depth of experience with ceramics. Long devoted to researching traditional ch'ongja, Shin has acquired vast knowledge and skills in the production of punch'ong, while leaving an indelible mark on the history of Korea's contemporary ceramic art. His heavily experimental and dynamic work of the early 1980s provided a radical and shocking departure in contemporary ceramic art. His punch'ong

works can perhaps best be described by saying that they have attained a certain state. They reveal the same free flowing lines that are at ease with the nature of ordinary punch'ong, and yet they possess a unique elegance and refinement which ingeniously harmonize with its dark gray background, while at the same time being profoundly liberal. Simultaneously conveying a solemn and charismatic elegance as well as the vitality and expressive elements unique to punch'ong is like chasing after two rabbits with one stone. Nevertheless, Shin somehow merges such seem-

ingly contradictory elements. The shapes of his works are somewhat rough and coarse, but produce a refined negative image with the white slip created on a uniform surface through inlaying techniques. Uniform is perhaps not an apt description, as the surface of his works seem to have apparitions floating through the darkness of a void. The lines and white flower patterns often trigger an indescribably mysterious sensation. The sharp contrast of powerful tones and the profound depth of empty space are characteristic of Shin's work With the spirit of a true artisan, he does not hesitate to fire his works at high temperatures, even three times, in order to obtain the desired effect. Punch'ong is known for its humorous nature, an aspect that can be confirmed afresh in the works of Shin. Aside from diverse types of tableware, he also creates punch'ong animal sculptures. Such endeavors have earned him much recognition for his bold imagination and expressive techniques. His declaration that his works come about accidentally, without his intentionally setting out to create a specific form, also attests to his basic approach of acquiescing to the flow of nature.

From top: "Dream Series," 1995. Reduction fired at 1,230"C. 8.7 em x 54 em; part of Shin's studio; "Dream Series," 1995. Reduction fired at 1,230"C. 31 em x 37.7 em

Yoon Kwang-jo Aside from creating outstanding works of art, Yoon Kwang-jo has played an instrumental role in expanding the public's awareness of punch'ong. He is about the same age as Shin and also has extensive experience. He works in a studio in a remote area where he lives practically as a recluse, and yer he is frequently mentioned in the press, proof of his considerable popularity. It is easy to understand why he is known as the "wandering minstrel" of clay when one sees his works.

(Below) Punch'ong bowls; (right) Vase (Opposite page) WindyVally,33 X 20 X 54 em, 1998

Yoon's works, most of which are decorated with designs resembling graffiti, marvelously portray the earthiness unique to punch'ong. None of his works shows signs of detailed advance preparation. Yoon creates a dynamic world of art with his hands that move as if they are possessed, following impulsive inspirations. When he is molding clay or inscribing images or flower patterns, he does so with the speed of flowing water and spontaneous flair, almost as if his expressions resulted from instinctive reflexes. However, the images on his punch'ong are unexpectedly restrained and abstract. For today's society dominated by myriad mechanisms, his liberal yet solemn exploration and pursuit of punch'ong offer much in the form of a profound solace and comfort.

YiSuiong From left: Punch'ong bottle with underglaze iron decoration, 1998. 28 em x 16 em x 16 em; punch'ong dish with underglaze iron decoration, 1998. 4 em x 29 em x 29.5 em; punch'ong tray with underglaze iron decoration, 1998. 6cm x55cmx42em

Yi Su-jong's career is as illustrious as that of Yun and Shin in the scope of his work with various forms of clay. Early in his career, Yi earnestly studied the beauty inherent only to clay itself. It is interesting that he values the physical quality of the clay with a highly restrained sense of aesthetics. It is well known that Yi discovered and refined the ancient organic characteristics of clay and its inherent appeal by creating huge ceramic sculptures. A liberal mind-set and a ceaseless flow of creative energy have enabled him to remain a genuine practitioner of artistic freedom. The forms and texture of his works are rough and intense, and thus extremely difficult for others to emulate. The call of the wild can be easily perceived in his works of diverse forms. The coarse, rugged images decorating his ceramic works reflect a mature pictorial beauty that allows one to gauge the nature of the freedom he pursues. The bold lines, which well complement the fundamental qualities of clay, poignantly depict order amid chaos. Among the tangled fragments of emotions cascading like a waterfall, his ideal crystallizes as his concentration intensifies. The artist's total freedom allows the ceramic images of his creation to radiate even more brilliantly. 16

A teapot personally signed by Queen Elizabeth of England when she visited Park Y oung-sook's studioshop in Insa-dong (above). Opposite page: Various works by Park Youngsook

Elizabeth II looked around the street famous for antique shops in April1999 during her state visit to Korea. To the envy of many, the Queen stopped at a ceramic shop operated by the Park Young-soak Kiln. Park Young-soak, for whom the kiln is named, has devoted much of her life to re-creating the pure white paekcha used by the royal court of the Chason Dynasty, and finally succeeded in creating paekcha which conforms to contemporary aesthetics. One does not realize there can be so many different shades of white until one sees the dazzling pure white that almost hurts the eye. Paekcha symbolically represents the Chason Dynasty's resolve to adopt Confucianism as its nationwide code of ethics. The concise forms and pure white color of paekcha are meant to signify purity, restraint and contemplation. Such ceramic art is thought to be the ultimate validation of Koreans' highly developed aesthetics and sensibilities. The superior quality of paekcha, as compared to other renowned ceramic wares, is globally recognized today. Japan's annexation of Korea, which ended the Chason Dynasty, resulted in the closure of the official kilns used exclusively for the production of ceramics for the royal court, causing paekcha to lose its former luster. Many ceramic artists have sought to revive paekcha, but in most cases ended up with inferior copies, mere reproductions of earlier examples. Painstaking

research and experimentation as well as an artistic creativity to adapt the re-created pieces to today's lifestyle and aesthetics are required to produce genuine paekcha. Park Young-soak is one who has managed to do so. Park and her kiln have replicated the essence of the trademark white unique to paekcha after more than 20 years of trial and error and extensive research. At Park's studio and kiln in Songnam, south of Seoul, mainly tableware items are produced, such as dishes, teacups, and containers as well as hap, bowls with a lid-the necessary pieces for creating a refined and elegant table setting. Their shapes, harmonizing the elegant and dynamic lines unique to Korea along with modern geometric forms, embody not only a functional efficiency but the wisdom gained from life's experiences. The pictorial patterns done in cobalt blue on pure white portray a purity suggestive of a crystal-dear fall sky and indigo-blue sea, capable of stirring the hearts of even the most casual viewers. Park Young-soak has dedicated herself to creating ceramics with a conviction that Korea must have its own tableware that not only manifest the spirit and beauty of the times but also preserve the unique traditions of ch'ongja and paekcha. Park's workplace has now become a classic kiln highly recognized and respected by the world for having revived the traditions of royal ceramic wares. +

' .. '

Sanctuary for Korean Ceramics THE ATAKA COLLECTION AT THE MUSEUM OF ORIENTAL CERAMICS, OSAKA Kobayashi Hitoshi Curator, Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka

nyone who is the least bit interested in Oriental ceramics is likely to have heard of the Ataka Collection. It comprises mostly Korean and Chinese ceramics acquired by Ataka & Co. Ltd., one of Japan's top 10 conglomerates during the postwar period. It is considered to be among the finest collections of Oriental ceramics in the world, along with the Sir Percival David Collection in England. The Ataka Collection was assembled by the late Ataka Eiichi (1901-1994), the chairman of Ataka & Co., as part of the company's efforts to promote culture. As such, the quality of the collection is the direct result of Ataka's discerning eye and uncompromising sense of aesthetics, thus making it impossible to talk about the collection without an understanding of the man who put it together. In addition to art, Ataka also had a deep appreciation of music. During the postwar years, he was an active music patron who contributed much to the local music scene. Itoh Ikutaro, director of the Museum of Oriental Ceramics in Osaka and former assistant to Ataka in putting together the collection, says: "The Ataka Collection was created by a collector who had a natural artistic sense that is rarely found. Though it may be incomplete, it is in itself an art work that is timeless." Ataka was known to be a man of few words and, unfortunatel y, he did not leave behind any of his personal thoughts about his collection. However, the collection speaks for the man, telling us not only about his aesthetic values but his character as well.

The Ataka Collection and Korean Ceramics The Ataka Collection consists of 793 Korean works and 20

144 Chinese works, indicating a clear emphasis on Korean ceramics. That a collection of such excellence could have been accumulated in a relatively brief period of 20 years is thanks to the financial resources of Ataka & Co. and the ample pool of sources for material that had been established before World War II. The emphasis on Korean art is a direct reflection of Ataka's own tastes. But as Hayashiya Seizo and others have pointed out, the Ataka collection was essentially put together from the many ceramics that were brought to Japan by other collectors since 1910, the start of Japanese colonial rule of Korea. Nevertheless, the purpose of this article is to introduce the Korean works in the Ataka Collection, and examine the acumen of Ataka Eiichi as one of the most distinguished collectors of Oriental ceramics. There are 793 Korean works in the Ataka Collection, with the majority being from the Koryo and Choson periods: 304 Koryo pieces and 485 Choson pieces, along with 4 Unified Shilla pieces.

The Koryo Dynasty The representative ceramic ware of Koryo is ch'6ngja, or celadon. In Travelogue to Kory6 of a Chinese Envoy, written by Xu Jing, a member of a delegation from Sung China to the Koryo capital of Kaesong, the word "purity" is used to describe the carving and engraving skill featured on Koryo ceramics. The book also mentions that the Koryo people used the term "kingfisher blue" to describe the color of their ceramic ware, which was more treasured than silver or gold. Koryo celadon was influenced by the ceramics of Sung China, which was regarded as the finest ware in the history of ceramics, while attaining a standard worthy of comparison to Sung porcelain. Koryo celadon features the purity, symmetry, tension and elegance of Sung porce-

Plate I

lain, and as such can be said to have achieved a universal beauty. Accordingly, when Korean ceramics began to gain attention in Japan and the West at the beginning of the 19th century, this interest was centered on Koryo celadon. Koryo celadon can be divided into several types according to technique: pure celadon, sunch'ongja (painted, intaglio, relief, stamped); inlaid celadon, sanggam ch'ongja; celadon with white slip designs, paekt'ae ch'ongja; ironglazed celadon, ch'olyu; iron-glazed decorated celadon, ch'olsa ch'ongja; and copper-glazed celadon, chinsa ch'ongja. The Ataka Collection includes examples of almost every IN CONTRAST TO type, style and pattern of THE REHNED AND ELEGANT Koryo celadon. The distinguishing feature KOR YO CELADON, AT FIRST of Celadon Bottle with Peony and Lotus Design SIGHT PUNCH'ONG APPEARS (Plate 1) is its long, thin neck, MISSHAPEN AND DECORATED often called a crane neck, or gun barrel neck, a form WITH CLUMSY PATTERNS, AND which originated with the THUS HAS NOT RECENED celadon or copper ware of the Wolchu region of China. RECOGNITION UNTIL The pattern on the bottle is RECENT TIMES. THESE SEEMINGLY carved in relief while the glaze is a beautiful color. NEGATIVE ASPECTS WERE NOT Celadon Water Dropper ONLY THE RESULT OF in the Shape of a Young Girl (Plate 2-left) is a rare examDIFFERENCES IN TECHNIQUE BUT ple of Koryo celadon sculpALSO CHANGING TASTES AND ture. It is a superb piece, a delicate depiction of an AESTHETIC VALUES DURING THE engaging young girl. The lid TRAN!::>1TION FROM ONE of the dropper forms part of the shape of the sculpture DYNASTY TO THE NEXT. with the spout of the bottle that the girl is holding forming the spout of the water dropper. Delicate patterns are carved by hand on the water bottle and clothing. Celadon Water Dropper in the Shape of a Young Boy (Plate 2-right), which was most likely produced by the same artist or at the same kiln, was later purchased by the museum to make a fine partner for the young girl, with the couple having since delighted many visitors to the museum. One of the major types of Koryo celadon is hukbaek sanggam or celadon inlaid with 22

white clay and red clay, the latter turning black when fired. Inlaid Celadon Maebyong with Bamboo and Crane Design (Plate 3) is a representative example of sanggam ch'ongja with a lyrical bamboo as well as crane design inlaid with white and black. Ty pical of maebyong, it has a small mouth, wide shoulders and is gathered in at the bottom. There is a subtle harmony between the neatness of the modeling and the painterly quality of the pattern. In China the inlaid technique was commonly used for lacquerware and metalwork but was rarely used on ceramics. Its use on Kory6 celadon reveals the unique tastes of the Kory6 people. Another prominent feature of Kory6 celadon is its striking kingfisher-blue color. Among the Chinese, the ideal color was jade green, but anyone who has visited Kangjin, a major Kory6 celadon kiln site in Korea, has probably noticed that the color of the sea there resembles the color of Korean celadon. Crane-necked Bottle with Inlaid and Copper-glazed Peony Design (Plate 4) is an example of inlaid celadon with a copper glaze that produces a brilliant cinnabar color when fired at very high temperatures. This kind of copper glaze used for chinsa ch'ongja was in most cases used on a very small part of the design, with such restraint according the finished piece a chaste yet sensuous charm, like the discreetly applied lipstick of a woman. Although Kory6 was the age of celadon, white porcelain or paekcha was also produced in lesser ql)antities. Porcelain Bottle with Engraved Peony Design (Plate 5) is one of the finest examples of Kory6 paekcha. Its fluent shape and intaglio peony decoration produces a different kind of beauty and elegance than what is seen in celadon ware.

Choson Ceramics Japanese interest in Korean ceramics first heightened in the Muromazi and Momoyama periods, a time that coincides with Korea's transition from the Kory6 to the Chason Dynasty. This was a tim e when Korean tea bowls produced in regional kilns were highly prized. It is interesting to note that Koreans actually used these so-called tea bowls as tableware and ritual vessels before they were "discovered" and reinvented by the tea masters

of Japan. Up till that time, Japanese tea masters considered ceramic vessels from Tang China to be the best-suited for the tea ceremony while their shift in taste to Korean tea bowls represented a kind of prejudicial reaction to all things Chinese. Korean tea bowls were especially admired because of the newly emerging aesthetics of that time in Japan, wabi (which valued quietness, humility and serenity) and sabi (favoring quiet and sedate). Of the 10 or so Korean art works that have been designated National Treasures or Important Cultural Assets of Japan, most of them are Korean tea bowls that crossed over to Japan a long time ago. The aesthetic values of the past that revered Korean tea bowls as a pinnacle of elegance, continue to exert a significant influence even today. However, these Korean tea bowls, which are among the most cherished and popular Korean ceramics in Japan, are conspicuous in their absence from the Ataka Collection. This rna y seem strange. But it is the result of Ataka's uncompromising pursuit of masterpieces only, with his eye for pieces capable of transcending genres and contemporary aesthetics. A masterpiece was considered to be a work which embodied the most exceptional characteristics of any given period. In fact, Ataka did try to include one Korean tea bowl, an important cultural asset of Japan, in his collection. But even with the tenacity and singlemindedness that Ataka showed when it came to collecting, a dedication that has been passed on to the next generation, there were times when a desired object could not be obtained, says Itoh. The absence of a Korean tea bowl is the only exception in the Ataka collection, which otherwise has examples of all the major Chos6n masterpieces in terms of shape, technique, and pattern. There are very few collections in the world that represent such a systematic collection of works with such high standards. The ceramic ware of the Chos6n Dynasty, which lasted for more than 500 years from 1392 to 1910, can generally be divided into three periods: early, mid and late. In the early Chos6n Dynasty, the representative type was punch'6ng, which was derived from the techniques of Kory6 celadon, but involved cover-

ing a piece in a thick white slip before applying the glaze. This white slip allowed for a greater variety of patterns and designs. There were four main types of punch'6ng: sanggam (inlaid) punch '6ng, inwha (stamped), pakji (carved or combed), and t6mb6ng (glaze dipped). For the most part, punch'6ng is almost entirely different from Kory6 ch'6ngja, with less refinement but at the same time being vibrant and earthy. Punch'6ng Dish with Carved and Inlaid Design (Plate 6) was originally a ritual vessel for holding grain. Although the original form of this type of jAPANESE INTEREST IN KOREAN ware comes from the Bronze Age of China, it has CERAMICS FIRST HEIGHTENED IN been completely trans - THE MUROMAZI AND MOMOYAMA formed, with the pattern on the inside as fresh and PERIODS, A TIME THAT COINCIDES appealing as a modern W ITH KOREA S TRANSITION FROM abstract painting. Iron Glazed Punch'6ng Pot with Lotus, THE KOR YO TO THE CHOSON Bird and Fish Design (Plate 7) is a representative exam- DYNASTY. THIS WAS A TIME WHEN ple of punch '6ng with KOREAN TEA BOWLS PRODUCED IN underglaze iron decoration. REGIONAL KILNS WERE HIGHLY The image of a kingfisher captured at the very instance PRIZED. IT IS INTERESTING TO NOTE of being hooked is created THAT KOREANS ACTUALL Y USED with dynamic and bold strokes, bringing to mind a THESE SO-CALLED TEA BOWLS AS Zen scene. TABLEWARE AND RITUAL VESSELS Glaze-Dipped Punch'6ng Bottle (Plate 8) is an exam- BEFORE THEY WERE "DISCOVERED" ple of a technique called AND REINVENTED BY THE TEA t6mb6ng in which a vessel is clipped entirely in glaze. This MASTERS OF jAPAN piece had been handed clown through the Maeda family of Kaga and is somewhat spotted here and there from use. In Japan, it is described as amamori, "leaking rain," because the shape brought to mind the sight of rain leaking through a roof or ceiling. It is rough with a robust and sturdy shape, small but substantial while being highly regarded as a liquor bottle used for kaiseki, a light meal served before a Japanese tea ceremony. In contrast to the refined and elegant Kory6 celadon, at first sight punch'6ng appears misshapen and decorated with clumsy patterns, 23

Clockwise from top left: Plate 6: Punch'ong Dish with Carved and Inlaid Design, 15th century. Height 16.2 em; Plate 8: GlazeDipped Punch'ong Bottle, 16th century. Height 18.1 em; Plate 9: Blue and White Porcelain Pot with Plum Blossom and Bamboo Design, 15th century. Height 35.0 em; Plate 7: Punch'ong Pot with Iron Glazed Lotus, Bird and Fish Design, 15th16th century. Height 14.4 em

and thus has not received due recognition until recent times. These seemingly negative aspects were not only the result of differences in technique but also changing tastes and aesthetic values during the transition from one dynasty to the next.

Punch'ong: Treasured by Many in Japan Whereas Kory6 celadon was shaped by Sung Chinese influences, punch'6ng can be said to have been based on a uniquely Korean expression of beauty. This expression struck a chord with Jap anese sensibilities, with

punch'6ng being the most treasured Korean ceramics of many in Japan. Punch'6ng ware, which was the representative ceramic ware of the early Chos6n period, suffered much and declined following the 16th century Japa nese in vasions of Korea. These raids are also known as the "Pottery Wars" because the abduction of Korean potters and seizure of ceramic masterpieces were among the objectives of the troops led by the Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Indeed, the Korean potters who were forcibly taken to Japan at that time form ed the foundation

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for Japanese ceramics, while their absence led to a significant deterioration of Korea's ceramic industry. In contrast to punch'ong's descent, paekcha (white porcelain), which had appeared during the early Choson Dynasty under influ ences from Ming China, continued to develop during the mid and late Choson periods. As much as Koryo is considered to be the age of ch'ongja, Choson is recognized as the era of paekcha. Even punch'ong ware, which made use of white slip, was a movement toward the development of paekcha. This comparison is often

regarded as being parallel to the relationship between the Buddhist culture of Koryo and the Confucian culture of Choson. It is written in Yongje Ch'ongwha, a historical record, that only paekcha was used for the royal table during the reign of King Sejong (r. 1418-1450). As this might suggest, "modesty , austerity and purity" were recognized as important virtues of paekcha, which was greatly influenced by the porcelain of Ming China. Of the early paekcha, there are some pieces that are faithful replicas of Ming wares in their form, with this kind of ware being produced at a porce-

Clockwise from top left: Plate 10: Blue and Whlte Porcelain Octagonal Bottle, 18th century. Height 24 em; Plate 12: Iron-Glazed Pot with Tiger and Bird Design, 17th century. Height 30.1 em; Plate13: Blue and White Porcelain Pot with Copperglazed Lotus Pattern, 18th century. Height 44.6 em; Plate 11: Blue and White Porcelain Pot with Pattern of Plant and Flowers, 18th century. Height 23 em

Plate10

The Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka

lain kiln site estimated to have been set up in stantial change over time. The Blue and White 1460. This kind of pattern was also seen in Porcelain Octagonal Bottle (Plate 10) and Blue early blue and white porcelain, ch '6nghwa, and White Porcelain Pot with Pattern of Plant which began to be produced in the 15th centuand Flowers (Plate 11) are masterpieces that ry, based on influences from Yuan China. Blue are much loved by the Japanese. Influenced and White Porcelain Pot with Plum Blossom by the simple and serene literary tastes of and Bamboo Design (Plate 9) is a representaChing China, everyday subjects such as flowtive piece from that time. Its shape conveys a ers or plants were drawn on these vessels sense of stability and balance while the plum with elegant strokes. and bamboo design is drawn in vigorous On one hand, blue and white porcelain can strokes with liberal use of expensive cobalt be seen as along the same lines of porcelain pigment, which was imported. In Yuan China, decorated with iron glaze, ch'olsa ware, which the designs on blue and white porcelain were was popular in the 17th century. However, the performed by painters at kiln sites, but Chos6n ch'6lsa paintings were steeped in the mood of Dynasty records indicate that artists retained black-and-white ink paintings, much like the by the royal court showed off their skills by iron-glazed punch'6ng ware. Iron-Glazed Pot painting on ceramic wares. As a potter and with Tiger and Bird Design (Plate 12), abrupt painter team, the Ogata brothers and Kori . and dynamic with the character of a Buddhist painting, it is an exceptional example of Kenzan are well-known in Japan, but it is worthy of note that such a teamwork system was ch'6lsa ware. already in place in the 15th century in Korea. Chinsa, or copper-glazed ware, was in Blue and white porcelain underwent subvogue in the 18th century but the production

site of this type remains a mystery. Blue and White Porcelain Pot with Copperglazed Lotus Pattern (Plate 13) is an example of the effective use of copper glaze on blue and white porcelain. With an exquisite shape as well as dignified and refined decoration, it has been long recognized as an especially valuable example not only of chinsa ch'6nghwa but of all Chos6n ceramics. This piece passed through the hands of Asakawa Noritaka (1884-1964), "the Godfather of Korean ceramics," and Akaboshi Goro (1897-1966), an expert in ancient Korean ceramics, before finding its way into Ataka's possession and then being donated to the Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka.

Ataka's noble goal to create a collection that would promote a better understandCONSIDERED TO BE THE ing of the history of Korean ceramics. Originally, plans called for the establishAGE OF CH'ONG]A, CHOSON ment of a museum for the collection, IS RECOGNIZED AS THE ERA but unfortunately, due to the bankruptcy of Ataka & Co., this was never realOF PAEKCHA. EVEN ized. As a result of the bankruptcy proPUNCH'ONG WARE, WHICH ceedings, the fate of the Ataka collection was up in the air for awhile. But fortuMADE USE OF WHITE SLIP, nately, the administrator of the estate, \VAS A MOVEMENT Sumitomo Bank and the 21 companies of the Sumitomo Group, agreed to donate TOWARD THE DEVELOPthe entire collection to the city of Osaka. MENT OF PAEKCHA . THIS To ensure a proper setting to conserve the collection, the city of Osaka COMPARISON IS OFTEN built the Museum of Oriental Ceramics in November 1982, in a central location REGARDED AS BEING PARALin Nakanoshima, with a wonderful view. LEL TO THE RELATIONSHIP Thus, the Ataka Collection found a Sanctuary for Korean Ceramics As can be seen, Korean ceramics, home where it could safely reside. BETWEEN THE BUDDHIST It is said that once a work o.f art with their varied and profound appeal, CULTURE OF KORYO AND leaves the artist's h ands, it no longer were cherished and revered not only by belongs to the artist but to the whole of Koreans but also the Japanese. Korean THE CONFUCIAN CULTURE society. Probably the same could be said tea bowls were already popular in Japan OFCHOSON of an art collection. During his final days, around the time of transition from the Ataka twice visited the museum in a Muromachi period to the Momoyama wheelchair. At that time Itoh, who was period, and the same is still true today. his guide, remarked to him: "A lot of people are saying you Around the beginning of the 20th century, Korean ceramics must be sad to see the collection go into other hands." But were rediscovered and reassessed from a new perspective, Ataka replied: "It does not matter who owns the collection." which formed the basis for Japanese and Western appreciation of Korean ceramics. In Japan, there is a deep underIn this statement we can detect the old art collector's sense of triumph over his personal sorrow despite giving up the standing of the value of Korean ceramics, evidenced by a collection that he loved as dearly as his own child. special fondness for Kory6 celadon, which is internationally acclaimed, and Chos6n ware. That there are so many The sanctuary built for Ko.rean ceramics so ardently collected by Ataka is now the Museum of Oriental Ceramics in Korean ceramics in Japan is due to the discerning eye and Osaka, where the Korean ceramic masterpieces of the collecting activity of the Japanese of old who loved Korean ceramics, with many of the most outstanding pieces being Ataka Collection will be preserved, treasured and passed on to future generations. found in the Ataka Collection. As pointed out by Hayashiya Rece ntl y, the museum re ce ived a donation from Seizo, the Ataka Collection contains almost all of the finest Korean ceramic works that have ended up in Japan over a Korean-Japanese collector Dr. Rhee Byung-chang which period of many decades, beginning with Japan's Taisho included 301 Korean works and 50 Chinese pieces. And in Period (1912-1926). The many masterpieces acquired by the March this year, the museum opened the new Dr. Rhee Japanese of days gone by were then singled out by the disByung-chang gallery to exhibit these works. With the ad& cerning eye of Ataka, the masterful collector. tion of Dr. Rhee's world-class collection to the Ataka Ataka's collection philosophy can be described as Collection, the range of Korean ceramics in terms of quantity and quality at the museum is now all the more com"comprehensive with an emphasis on masterpieces." However, this does not mean Ataka indiscriminately gathplete. Given the rising interest in Korean ceramics shown ered together all the masterpieces he could find; like a true around the world, especially in Europe and the United collector, he made sure that his collection itself was a work States, this museum will assume an even more significant role as a center for promoting the beauty and appreciation of art. Through the collection of pieces that best embodied of Korean ceramics. + the spirit and sensibilities of each historical period, it was

As MUCH AS KOR YO IS

Outlook for Korea's Ceramics Industry Chang Yoon-woo Professor, College of Art, Sungshin Women's University

taken to Japan at that time, this loss of talent dealt the local istory of Korean Ceramics industry a severe blow, leading to a period of steady decline. It could be said that ceramics are a kind of artificial rock. They are like igneous rock, which is In the early Chason period, an official office was established formed from intense heat, and can be easily suitto oversee porcelain production. The Veritable Records of ed to the needs of humans. King Sejong from the early Chason period contains a very detailed survey of the location of kiln Ceramics developed early in Asia, blossoming in Korea in both sites around the country and the producCERAMICS ARE NOT THE quality and quantity. In particular, the tion quality of each site. It indicates there were 139 earthenware kiln s and 185 celadon of the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392) and the white porcelain and punch'6ng porcelain kilns in operation across the RESULT OF THE NATURAL nation, which were classified into three of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) have come to be highly regarded the world grades according to their product quality. GIFTS OF jUST A SINGLE over for their artistic excellence. Of note, at that time, the official central Ceramics are not the result of the natkiln loca ted in Kwangju, Kyonggi-do INDIVIDUAL, BUT ural gifts of just a single individual, but province, was among Korea's top three porcelain kilns. rather the product of the labor and cooperation of many people over a long periThe Kwangju kiln was loca ted in RATHER THE PRODUCT od of time. They can be generally dividPunwon-ri because of its favorable coned into the following categories: unglazed ditions for porcelain production. There, OF THE LABOR AND earthen wa re fi red at 700° to l ,OOOOC; large quantities of porcelain were proearthenwa re fired at 1,100° to 1,200°C; duced under a well-ordered and systemCOOPERATION OF MANY porcelain fired at l,OOOOC; and fine porceatic p rodu ction regimen that was an lain fired at around 1,450oC. The artistic ea rl y exa mpl e of division o f labo r. value and appeal of these ceramics differ Porcelain continued to be produced at PEOPLE OVER A LONG the Kwangju kiln until1883, the 20th year due to the variations in firing temperaof the reign of King Kojong (r. 1863-1907). tures and glazes. PERIOD OF TIME. Koreans have always been accomKorean ceramics are delicate, finely detailed and elegant. Rather than the use plished potters, rightfully taking their place among the best in the world. Unglazed earthenware of complicated or ornate techniques and several colors, they are the result of significant labor, time and resources. In addiwas produced in Korea from the New Stone Age. In 436, during the Paekche Kingdom (18 B.C.-A.D. 660), Korean pottion, they are characterized by a natural flair based on simple shapes and colors, along w ith ample lines and dignity. ters ventured over to Japan and established kilns there. In the 12th century, Korean potters produ ced the worldKorea's Ceramics Industry Today renowned kingfisher-blue celadon, w hile becoming the first to apply inlay technique to ceramics. Yi Sam-p'yong, one of Although Korea has few natural resources, its ceramics the Korean potters who was abducted to Japan during the industry thrived from an early time due to a plentiful supJapanese invasion of 1616, settled in the Arita area where he ply of the necessary raw materials. These days, with emphastarted a kiln, thus laying the foundation for Japan's ceramics sis clearly shifting to high-end goods, raw materials are often industry. In fact, so many Korean potters were forcibly imported in order to boost the quality and quantity of 28

ceramic production. This, of course, has a major impact on basic production costs and is thus one of the problems that must be overcome. In comparison to countries such as Belgium or Denmark, which lack an adequate supply of raw materials but have nevertheless been producing quality wares for the past 300 years, Korea enjoys a distinct advantage in this regard. However, of the 470 some ceramic producers in Korea, only about 40 have been successfully commercialized. In 1963, Korea's first ceramic exports included tableware and tiles. Full-scale export activities got underway in 1971, while over the next 10 years the industry recorded $100 million in aggregate overseas sales. The lowest export results were recorded in 1985 and the highest in 1988, amounting to $9.4 million. Since then, ceramic exports have steadily contracted at some -24.4 percent annually on average. Until recently, the industry's major export item has been mugs, a low-end item. However, Korea has essentially lost the low-end market to Southeast Asian countries where labor costs are significantly lower. Export activity has now declined to only one-fifth of its all-time high while there is much worry that this downward trend will continue. Thus it is urgent for efforts to be concentrated on the development of high-end items. As such, a workable mix of traditional ceramics, together with innovation, creativity and commercial viability needs to be created. In recent times, rather than trying to revive the essence of traditional ceramics, there has tended to be an obstinate pursuit of modern sculptural and creative works with an unfortunate disregard for function. This coupled with adverse business conditions has led to the con-

tinued deterioration of the Korean ceramics industry as a whole. In addition, much more effort is needed to promote closer cooperation between ceramics-related university depa.rtments, research institutes (the research institutes of Ewha Womans University and Dankook University and other industry institutes) and design-hungry ceramics makers. Although it may not be practical to construct new ceramics kilns, festivals at existing sites have been very successful thanks to the combined efforts of the ceramics industry, the government and the civil sector. In particular, major ceramic festivals are held at Ich'on (13th year, held September 8-19, 1999), Yoju and Mokp'o (4th year, held September 15-19, 1999). There are also a number of ceramics competitions and related activities. The major events include the Seoul Shinmun Ceramics Competition, the Dong-A Ilbo and Segye Times Handicraft Competition, the Mid and Small

The Ich'on Ceramics Festival is the most popular of the festivals promoted by the ceramics industry (upper left). In addition to v iewing many kinds of ceramics, visitors can try their hand at making their own (above).

Korea's representative ceramics manufacturers are Hankook China (above), Haengnam Co. (right) and Kwangjuyo (opposite page).

Industry Promotion Corporation's National Handicrafts Competition, the Korea National Tourism Organization and Seoul Metropolitan Government 's Cultural Products Competition, the Association for the Preservation of Cultural Properties of Korea's Traditional Handicraft Exhibition, the Korean Institute of Industrial Design Promotion's Indus trial Design and Exhibition, the Seoul International Ceramic Art Biennale, sponsored by the city of Seoul, and the recently inaugurated Ch'ongju Handicraft Biennale. In addition, there are many exhibitions centered around the academic community with earthenware exhibitions (Seoul National University), ceramic and woodwork exhibitions (Ewha Womans University), ceramic art exhibitions, creative ceramics exhibitions, and even an exhibition for ceramic accessories. It is worth noting that the proportion of the government budget allotted to cultural spending has reached the 1 percent level for the first time since Korea's founding in 1948. With the goal of commercializing Korean culture, a new cultural products divi-

sion has been created within the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The priority now is the development of a high value-added cultural industry capable of achieving commercial success. As for ceramics, it must not be forgotten that Korea is the motherland for many renowned potters in Japan, including the descendents of Yi Shi-p'yong and Shim Sukwan, master potters forcibly taken to Japan. Korea's leading ceramics companies include Hankook China, Haengnam Co. and Kwangjuyo. As Korea's representative ceramics manufacturer, Hankook China is on a par with international competitors in terms of its technical know-how and product quality. However, there is room for improvement in regard to the diversity of its tableware and designs. Kwangjuyo is based in Ich'on, Kyonggi-do province, a traditional ceramics production region. It has enjoyed much success in developing tableware that integrates uniquely Korean elements to the Western-style dishes produced by the larger-scale companies. The company was founded in June 1963 and has been exporting to Japan since 1990 and the United States since 1991. To further expand its distribution network, Kwangjuyo has been staging various

promotional events such as the New Lifestyle Exhibition held in Japan in 1990 and in Korea in 1992. Kwangjuyo has undergone a transformation from the mass production system of a large-scale manufacturer to a workshop system focused on handmade and customized items. Most of its products are designed for the domestic market, but because they are proving popular with foreigners as well, the company is being closely watched by the ceramics industry. If Kwangjuyo has a shortfall, it is the need to develop a product line with greater variety. Haengnam Co. was founded in 1942. The company succeeded in independently developing bone china in 1957 then became the first Korean company to set up a ceramics plant in Venezuela and export its technical expertise. Nine of Haengnam's products have earned the Good Design Mark while the company has since launched a joint venture company in Indonesia and several subsidiaries. Haengnam, with its main factory situated in Kwangju and head office in Seoul, is an exemplary enterprise in many regards.

Future Prospects and Challenges Since the Seoul Olympics in 1988, art ceramics began to emerge in earnest. As mentioned earlier, however, efforts to achieve a viable combination of art, business and tradition have been less than successful, although recent moves to enhance domestic and export market activities are beginning to pay dividends. The future of Korea's ceramics industry will depend on its ability to overcome several problem areas. First, in developing countries, production costs account for over 30 percent of a finished product's total costs, a figure which is 15 to 20 times higher than in underdeveloped countries. Therefore, it is urgent to reduce production costs by adopting the latest technology and automated systems of advanced countries. Second, energy costs, which account for 20 percent of total production cost, need to be reduced. As such, it is necessary to develop kilns which can minimize heat

loss and increase energy efficiency. Third, talented human resources need to be fostered. Of the 38 ceramic art courses offered at universities in Korea, 16 have been integrated into metalwork departments, foreboding a contraction in the pool of talented human resources available to the ceramics industry. Fourth, technical information must be more actively exchanged. Although the fine points of ceramic-making may have been family secrets for generations, it is now time to openly share information in order to ensure the continuity of unique Korean techniques, such as the revered kingfisher-blue color of Kory6 celadon. Fifth, the most important factor in the success of the ceramics industry is the development of marketable designs. Ceramics is a high value-added industry and while the reduction of produetion costs is important, it is all the more critical to develop design capabilities that will lead to the production of ceramics that are practical as well as attractive, along with high-quality interior items. As is commonly said: "Design is the only way to survive." And in these times, there must be maximum utilization of computer-aided design (CAD) software in order for Korea to distinguish itself among the leading ceramics-producing countries of the world. Products that reflect an understanding of consumer preferences and can satisfy diverse customer demands must be developed and produced under a custom-order system capable of timely delivery. While over the long-term, the penchant for Western-style designs should be rectified to make way for the promotion of more Asian, and especially Korean, design elements. Identifying the relevant problems is the first step toward solving them. As a country with a truly exceptional ceramics tradition, the ongoing transition has seen its share of conflicts and difficulties, but there is no doubt that the future holds great promise. Still, however bright the prospects for the future might be, success will only be realized if a proper harmony between traditional and creative contemporary ceramics can be achieved. + 31

FOCUS

In Preparation for

The New

â&#x20AC;˘ _enmum Jin Seong-ho

Culture Desk Reporter, Chosun Ilbo

bipolarism. This antipathetic paradigm he entire world is busying is the result of the two world wars, itself with preparations to the destruction of our environment usher in the new millenniand the collapse of moral values. In um, with Korea being no order to transform this paradigm of exception. Several lavish destruction and conflict into one of events are already being planned, by peace and restoration, we need to act both the government and the private on 'the principle of both sector, but the most ambitious hands,' which encompasses by far is the "New Millennium the notions of recognition Project" being carried out by and acceptance of others as the Presidential Commission well as harmony and cooperfor the New Millennium, which ation. Our catchphrase is 'The is headed by Lee 0-young. new millennium dream, both The commission was inauhands make it come true."' gurated in April as an ad hoc Of all the new millennium organization to coordinate the projects, the biggest in scale various events being planned and therefore the one which by the central government, is drawing the most media loca l governmen ts and priattention, is the project to convate organizations for the struct "Twelve Gates Leading more efficient undertaking of The logo of The Presidential Commission for the New to Peace and Happiness." noteworthy millennium fesMillennium (top). Tl1e Koreans' Dream to Hold the New tivities in Korea. The commitMillennium, a sculpture based on the commission's The Twelve Gates of tee has already developed an catchphrase "The new millennium dream, Peace and Happiness both hands make it come true" (above). outline of various events to The Twelve Gates Leading be held from December 31, in a Western proverb: "God never to Peace an d Happiness project 1999 to January 1, 2000, and is now strikes with both hands at the same involves building one gate every 10 busy finalizing preparations for the time." Commission head Lee 0-young years beginning in 2000. When the national celebration to greet the 21st explains it this way: "While God may unification of Korea is achieved, an century. strike with one hand, the other hand additional gate w ill be built to make a total of 12 by the 22nd century. The is extended in forgiveness and salvaPhilosophical Outlook: tion. Those are the two hands of God. first gate will be built in time for the "The Principle of Both Hands" opening ceremony of the 2002 W oriel To summarize the history of the 20th The underlying philosophy of the century in a word, it is extremism or Cup. The second will be completed in new millennium project has its roots

January 2010 and an additional gate will be built every 10 years thereafter. The gate to be built in 2100 will be called the "Gate of Completion." In the center of the corridor leading to the 12 gates will be a symbol of peace made with melted guns, cannons and other weapons used in the various wars up through the 20th century. In front of each gate will be constructed the "Steps of History," with each step being inscribed with a major incident in Korean history, from the foundation of the country by Tan-gun, through the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century), the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392), the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910), independence and up to the present-day. A time capsule will also be buried alongside each gate. An observatory and various facilities will be constructed inside the gates to allow visitors to experience a sense of peace and history. The gates will be constructed according to traditional concepts of spatial relationships and will take on the form of a traditional gate. The outer surface of the gates will be decorated with people's names and inscriptions or images expressing the wishes and prayers of the people or historical incidents. Each gate will be the height of a 10-story building so that it can

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function as an observatory. A "Gallery of Peace" will be inside each gate.

Public Participation in the Gate Construction The unfinished corridor linking the 12 gates will be eventually completed with the inscriptions of people's names and prayers for peace, carved every 10 years. The gates will be constructed with as much public participation as possible. Fund-raising plans include having one million people inscribe their names or prayers on the walls of the gate in return for donations. Through an unprecedented scale of public participation, the gates of peace will be brought to life. The 12 gates represent a long-tet'm construction project to be carried out over a period of 100 years. The intent is to create an architectural work that will be comparable to the Sagrada Familia cathedral in Barcelona, which has been under construction for more than 100 years already and still remains unfinished. The idea is to create a "Zone of Peace" that will serve as a lesson on the history of war over the past 1,000 years while embodying the desire for Korea to become a birthplace of world peace. The 12 gates project is being led by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism

and the Seoul Metropolitan Government as part of a project called "A Thousand Years of Peace." The most likely site for the construction Is the area around the World Cup Main Stadium in Sangam-dong. In order to execute the project, the millennium commission is planning to set up subcommittees to be responsible for various aspects and a separate construction committee. The concept of the 12 gates is explained as follows by commission head Lee: "There are few structures of national significance in Korea. Where would we be without Sokkuram Grotto and the Tabot'ap and Sokkat'ap pagodas? If Âˇwe don't construct the 12 gates of peace now, where will our descendents be a thousand years later as they meet the next new millennium. Think about a 'Gate of Promise' built on happiness. The 12 gates of peace, built not by the government but by the will of the people and inscribed with their names, prayers and wishes, the people whose grandchildren will watch over the project for the next 100 years. The tendency to do things 'quickly, quickly,' which has been called the Korean 'disease,' has resulted in the collapse of a department store and bridge. In this sense, the mere fact that the 12 gates

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The "Twelve Gates Leading to Peace and Happiness" page of The Presidential Commission for the New Millennium's Internet site and a rendering of the Park of Peace (left).

will be constructed over a period of 100 years is meaningful in itself. If the gates are completed, this will be a sure sign of a bright new millennium for Korea. It means the opening of an era of peace and happiness."

Of all the new millennium projects, the biggest in scale and therefore the one which is drawing the most media attention, is the project to

The Meteorological Observatory of Peace In front of the "Twelve Gates Leading to Peace and Happiness" there will be a meteorological observatory built in the shape of the earth, scheduled for completion by January 1, 2000. The idea behind this is not only to monitor weather conditions, but also the conditions for peace around the world. In cooperation with domestic media organizations, the observatory will produce an index of peace in 150 countries, to be announced on every January 1. A daily peace index will also be posted on the Internet as a way to proclaim to the world the Korean people's love of peace. This peace index will be the only one of its kind in the world. Around the observatory there will be "Columns of Peace" erected for each country. A flame, not a real flame but a symbolic representation of optical fiber, will sit atop each column. The height of the column and intensity of the flame will be adjusted to form a visual index of peace of the countries around the world. For example, if a mass shooting takes place somewhere in the United States or an IRA terrorist incident occurs in England, the peace index of the subject country will be reduced. For countries at war or those that are divided, their flame will be unlit. The idea is to promote the observatory as a living record of world peace and an international tourist attraction. Park of Peace A "Park of Peace" will be created around the Twelve Gates Leading to Peace and Happiness. It is scheduled to be dedicated in a ceremony at 12:20 34

construct "Twelve Gates Leading to Peace and Happiness."

Individual TFT-LCD TVs will be held by 2,000 people in Paik Nam-june's "Television Section" event. Opposite page: To celebrate the sunset of December 31,1999 and the sunrise of January 1, 2000, various events are being held at a number of places and will comprise a variety of performances including a shaman ritual to pray for peace and happiness as well as traditional dance.

a.m. January 1, 2000. Trees, stones and soil from the major war zones of the world will be gathered and combined with the soil of Korea, in which native flowers of the war zones will be planted. It will be a symbolic site where the spirit of war-dead can be revived in the flowers as a gesture to appease the souls of those who have suffered from war and a prayer for peace. Sunrise and Sunset Events Another major project underway is the organization of a variety of events to celebrate the sunset of December

31, 1999 and the sunrise of January 1, 2000. An officially sponsored sunset event will take place on the Py6nsan Peninsula with five separate sunrise events being held at Seoul (Mt. Namsan), Ulsan, Ch6ngdongjin, P'ohang and Pusan. The events will comprise a wide variety of performances, including a shikkim kut, a shaman ritual to pray for peace and happiness, as well as traditional dance. The main event at New Year's Eve midnight will be the performance of a millennium song, composed from a refrain of traditional music. It will be performed at Kwanghwamun in the international language of humming. At the same time, world-famous video artist Paik Nam-june will present a video shikkim kut at the DMZ and broadcast a message of peace to all the world. A South-North art festival will also be held at P'anmunj6m. The thought behind the sunset events is to unify all the people of Korea at the moment the year 1999 ends and then meet the new millennium together. The broader idea is to unify not just the 40 million people of South Korea but the 70 million people of both the South and North. The president's landmark peace declaration and Paik Nam-june's "Television Section" event are also rousing great expectations. The "Television Section" event will bring together tiny TVs with 3-centimeter screens, currently under development, and 2,000 chumuni, young people aged 20, from all over the country. The television was invented in America while Japan has made the most money from its production. But it was the Korean Paik Nam-june who elevated the television from technology to art form . The only countries with the capability to use TVs as art are Korea and Japan. Saying that Korea has the world rights to the first "Television Art Show" in the world, millennium commission chief Lee asked reporters to play up this point, which

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Internet sites for some of the events planned by The Presidential Commission for the New Millennium (from the top): (http:/ /www .kmc.go.kr); (http:/ / www.postdream.org); (http:/ / www.peaceclick.org)

indicates that the planned event will be something to talk about. If Korean history in the 20th century was characterized by negative film, the new century should unfold on positive film, creating a beautiful, brightly colored print on a blank piece of white paper, Lee says. Another of the commission's ambitious plans is to spread the Korean language as a form of written expression to peoples such as the Eskimos, Inuits and American Indians who have no form of writing of their own. This project is planned to be carried out in conjunction with the Sejong Research Institute at New York State University (Buffalo) as a way to promote the Korean writing system, han-gul, as the world's most scientific method of expressing sounds in writing. From Januar y 1, 2000, all local autonomous governments and government offices will be required to have all official records in digital format, while private organizations and individuals will be encouraged to do the same. Information on cultural properties will be stored in digital format, either in motion picture or virtual reality so that our descendents will be able to experience these treasures for themselves. All manner of digital records will be stored at the Twelve Gates Leading to Peace and Happiness. Plans are currently underwa y to transform 3,000 post offices and 2,000 ward offices across the country into information, culture, health and sports centers. Consultations have been held with the Ministry of Information and Communication with regard to changing the name and function of existing post offices, which is proceed ing rapidly. In cooperation w ith the Korean Language Research Institute, the term chumunhae tongi has been coined for any baby born on the first day of the millennium while the idea of changing the names of apartments and streets from the year 2000 is also being considered.

Another millennium project to be carried out for the promotion of environmental protection is an expansion of the "Firefly Village" concept across the country. Under the plan, a special system will be implemented where fruits and vegetables produced in areas that are clean enough for the firefly to thrive will be awarded a "firefly " mark and sold for a higher price. From Sunlight into Eternal Flame Millennium commission head Lee is widely known as a man of ideas. One of his most unique ideas for the millennium is to capture the final sunlight of 1999 and the first sunlight of 2000 for a torchlighting ceremony. When asked just how he intends to turn sunlight into flame, he answers that it can be easily done by igniting the sunlight with a special apparatus. Plans call for a fishing vessel to be waiting near the international date line in the waters of Western Samoa in order to collect the first light of the year in the form of fire and then bring it to Korea. The last light of 1999 will be caught at the Pyonsan Peninsula and brought to Homi in P'ohang where it will be combined with the first light of 2000 to create an "Eternal Flame" which will burn continuously at tpe 12 gates. When asked what would happen to this plan if the day turned out to be rainy or overcast, Lee seemed to relish the question, answering that there was a high probability the sun would not be visible that day. "But we've got it covered," he said smiling. "With the help of our military, especially the navy and air force, we will light our torch from the sun on the last day of 1999 and the first day of 2000, even if it means flying above the clouds to do it." Lee revealed that the Dongwon Group had agreed to sponsor the catching of the first light in Western Samoa, with the planes being provid-

ed courtesy of the air force. "We have no money to spend," he said. "No other country has come up with an idea like this. The torch that we light from the first sunlight of the new millennium can be provided for free to light the torches of the Olympics and all sorts of other sporting events around the world," he added gleefully. Time is the Essence The essence of the various millennium events is time. "We have been preoccupied with the concept of protecting our space and have not been aware of the robbing of our time," Lee said. "The Chason Dynasty adopted Chinese names for an e ra of time , while Japanese names were used during the colonial period. This is nothing short of losing our time as well as our territory to another country. 'Before Christ' was originally a Christian te rm , but now it is the global standard. Now we are entering a time of international competition. Those who do not meet the new millennium for what it is but treat it simply as the first day of the 13th month of 1999 will forever remain the defeated. Under Japanese colonization, we lost our country for 36 years. If we do not make plans to face the new millennium properly, we will remain losers for another 1,000 years. With the strength that allowed us to overcome financial crisis and the legitimacy of our government, there has never been a better time for our people to do something victorious." To enter the new millennium wisely, Lee detailed the specifics of his thoughts and ideas: "With o ne hand we need to grasp the idea of globalism and with the other get a grip on the new concept of 'millenniumism."' "Globalism gave rise to the expansion of territory, and thus war, and through economic strength created the free market, while science and technology gave birth to cyber space such as the Internet. The common factor

running through all these phenomena is the disruption of time. This means the destruction of traditional and unique cultures. The only thing that can put the brakes on this trend is the axis o f time that is the millennium. Th e millennium (Y2K) bug is the result of being unable to see even 20 to 30 years ahead, but now humankind has come to an awareness of the need for a new consciousness of time that will enable foresight into life and the global community 1,000 years into the future. "The emphasis on tradition has the disadvantage of closing out the rest of the world, and in spatial terms this means the disruption of time. That is why we must pursue globalization, space, and 'millenniumism,' or time, simultaneously. Humans have never been completely happy in any period of time. Here it must be m entioned that Koreans h ave always looke d ahead to the futur e . In Buddhism , Koreans worshipped not the living Buddha but th e Sakayamuni, th e Historic Buddha, w ho was to be reincarnated as the Maitreya millions of years later. What we need now is to recover this kind of consciousness of time, w hich also represents a merger of Buddhism and Christianity." +

The 12 gates represent a longterm construction project to be carried out over a period of 100 years. The intent is to create an architectural work that will be comparable to the Sagrada Familia cathedral in Barcelona, which has been under construction for more than 100 years already and still remains unfinished. The idea is to create a "Zone of Peace" that will serve as a lesson on the history of war over the past 1,000 years while embodying the desire for Korea to become a birthplace of world peace.

One of the last events of 1999, "1999 Kites for Peace"

THE 20TH CENTURY IN RETROSPECT

Years ofKorean Culture Kim Hyung-kook Professor, Graduate School of Environment, Seoul National University

t would be logical to study the distinct characteristics of Korean culture of the past half-century from within a framework of modernity. If the modern culture of Western society is the product of having spent the time gained from escaping basic survival on enjoying a comfortable life, then Korea's modern culture is one that began after industrial modernization-the primary symbol of modernity- while accomplishing remarkable results since the early 1960s. Even before industrial modernization, Korean arts took root and continued amid social upheaval, such as the division of the Korean peninsula in 1945. It was only natural for traditional and folk culture to maintain their existence in a country with such an ancient history. As exemplified by artists such as Lee ]oong-sup and Park Soo-keun who refused to give up painting even as they were suffering from severe hunger, the social trend of pursuing art despite abject poverty continued, albeit feebly, throughout the Korean War (1950-1953) and its aftermath. Nevertheless, this article reviews Korean arts only within the framework of modernity, because modernity is an inevitable development of human civilization, and it also generated significant changes in art, including the supply of and demand for art. Such an influence can be confirmed

FASCINATION WITH WESTERN SOC/ETY RESULTED IN A SERIES OF FARREACHING CONSEQUENCES, INCLUDlNG THE EMERGENCE OF NUMEROUS SUCCESSFUL ARTISTS IN THE GLOBAL ART COMMUNITY, SUCH AS THE INTERNATIONALLY ACCLAIMED VIDEO ARTIST PAIK NAM-JUNE.

Grandfather and Grandson,

Park SooÂˇkeun

in the utmost importance placed on the self-awareness of artists. For instance, an artist's subjective perspective of reinterpreting and re-creating nature has increasingly gained weight, rather than Western landscapes or Oriental paintings of mountains and rivers, which emulate nature. This allowed such elements of modernism as expressionism-in which intense expressions, clear structural perceptions of objects, and frank conciseness of technique comprise the core-to become a part of Korea's contemporary art. The wide dissemination of selfawareness as part of modernity was possible largely thanks to the "educational revolution" of providing mandatory. public education to every Korean and also the fully resumed usage of the Korean language, after its suppression during the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945). Aside from awakening to such endogenous aspects of modernity, another key factor was the fascination with the modernity of other countries as part of a newly developing nation's fervent desire to achieve self-reliance by reaping the same political and economic fruits realized by Europe and the United States. Admiration of foreign modernity was particularly noted in music and art, two areas known for their universality. By the time the Korean War ended and the nation entered a period

of rehabilitation, Paris epitomized an ideal world sought by artists as the mecca of world art. The first letter that Korean artists-who had admired modern abstract painting only through books-sent home upon their arrival in France in the late 1950s usually began with the sentence: "I am finally in Paris!" This fascination with Western society resulted in a series of far-reaching consequences, including the emergence of numerous successful artists in the global art community, such as the internationally acclaimed video artist Paik Nam-june. "Country of Song and Dance" Koreans Âˇ also showed a great longing to study Western music. From the ancient past, China has been known as the "country of poetry and prose," Japan "country of forms" and Korea "country of song and dance," in reference to the distinct artistic inclinations of the three Northeast Asian countries within the Confucian cultural sphere. Perhaps this is why Koreans' admiration of Western music almost bordered on fanaticism. Talented young Koreans made a beeline to the United States,

a gallery (top) showing other works by Paik (above).

Germany and o ther European countries to learn the finer points of performing techniques in such droves, this w as not unlike the waves of you ng Am e ri ca n artists, inclu ding Geo rge Gershw in, w ho were lured to Paris in the early 20th century. Two factors were behind the motivation of Korean artists to study in the West fo r th e adva ncement of their careers. The first w as that the young mu sic ians seem ed to th rive o n th e p ain staking and rigoro u s dem an ds required to perfect their talent due to their being from a developing nation w hose initial stage of industrialization relied on a labor-intensive and self-sacrificing w o rkforce. Th e second was that attaining the status of a virtuososo greatly admired by the music lovers devoted to Western classical music for w h o m reco rd ings we re th e o nl y means of access- was a great challenge for such aspiring young musicians. Just as the Korean economy's laborintensive industries including textile, plywood and shipbuilding had provid40

eel the foundation for its development into an industrialized natio n, ma n y musicians gained recognition on the world stage by w inning international co mpetitio ns on the strength of the tech niqu es th ey perfec ted at prestigio us overseas music institutes. This trend still continues today, including su ch highl y acclaim ed musicians as violinist Chung Kyung-w ha, conductor Chung Myung-w hun, and cellist Chang Han-na.

Invigoration of Korean Literature As previously mentioned, China has been historically referred to as a "country of poetry and prose." As part of China's cultural sphere, Korea had a lo ng-sta n di ng cultur al tr adi tio n o f revering letters and was thus known as a "country of writing brushes," in marked contrast to Japan's reference as a "nation of sw ords." The freedom to use the Korean language, w hich w as prohibited d uring the Japanese colonial period, and the fratricidal Korean War, paradoxically, contributed significantly

toward reinvigorating Korean literature. Since the Korean War and the destructio n it wro ug h t were so e xtrem ely d evas ta ting, Ko rea n s d esp e ra te ly longed for dreams, ideals and paradise at the opposite end of the spectrum. Against this backdrop, literature provided th e means fo r instantly transcending the grim reality to reach a paradise of tranquility. Follow ing the Korean War, anti-communism became a national credo under w hich artists suspected of being pro-North Korean or communist, as well as their family members, suffered greatly. As a counteraction to this repression, however, w riters such as Park Kyong-li, Yi Munyol, Jo Jung-rae, and Lee Mun-ku succeeded in producing works of monumental significance in the 50-year history of Korea's contemporary literature. Just as ideological clashes provided a co nt ext fo r exceptio n a l li te ratur e, Korea's moderniza tion process, w hich foc used narrow ly on industrialization at the expense of political modernization, or democratization, provided fer-

tile ground for motivating the literary spirit to participate in the real world by protesting the repression of spiritual freedom. Placing greater value on reality-based literature while denouncing "literature for the sake of literature" and refuting the need for art when so many people were suffering under repression, this helped to promote a social consciousness toward democratization. Poets such as Kim Chi-ha and Ko Eun, w ho wrote poems denouncing the destructive reality at the pain of imprisonment, contributed greatly to the flourishing of an active literary consciousness. The general public responded enthusiastically as well-the number and types of monthly and quarterly literary magazines published in Korea su rpassed those of Japan, which is widely known for its public's zeal for reading. The writers' w illingness to endure personal hardship for spiritual freedom played a not-to-beforgotten role in the foreign media's positive eva luation of Korea as an underdeveloped country that accomplished industrialization and ultimately democratization in the 1990s after a mere 30 years - an unprecedented achievement. The consumption of high-quality art did not spread widely, however, although the absolute quantity did increase. Time and effort are required to appreciate and indulge in high-quality art. The industrialization process led to an era in which people were evaluated primarily on their productivity. Accordingly, modern Korea placed little educational importance on understanding and appreciating high-quality art as a meaningful way to spend leisure time. The same was true of the United States and Europe at the initial stage of their respective industrialization. Although the consumption of highquality art remained rather stagnant, it cannot be denied that its consumption gained popularity through Korea's sec-

ularization of high-quality culture during the past 30 years. This resulted from the mass production and propagation of inexpensive media of culture. Moreover, economic advancement expanded the pool of people with the means to enjoy culture. Expanded secondary ed u cation a lso helped to heighten public demand for high-quality culture. Newspapers allocated space for the introduction of noteworthy books, though sporadically, while classical music programs on the radio rose sharply. Art dealers who advised the wealthy on collecting works of art enjoyed a thriving business, as even the middle class began to indulge in art appreciation through the prints supplied by art dealers.

Fro m th e top : Prominent Korean Writers Park Kyong-li, JoJun g-rae, Yi Mun-yol Oppo site page: A number of Korean m usicians including the Chun g Tr io have become highly acclaimed on the world stage.

Popular Culture Comes to the Fore The secu larization of high-quality art is a unique phenomenon of the current era, but its more notable characteristic is the widespread propagation of popular culture. The incredible advancement of technology, particularly mass media such as newspapers, periodicals, radio and TV, was instrumental in stimu lating the production and propagation of popular culture. No particular training is necessary to enjoy popular culture, such as popular novels, music, cartoons, sightseeing and TV viewing. This includes individual preferences related to such products as furniture, clothing, daily necessities and automobiles, as well as aesthetic values such as design. Popular culture as an ordinary culture enjoyed by the masses helps regular people to express their individuality and creativity. It is also true, however, that there is a deeply entrenched critiCal view of popular culture for stereotyping individual choice and hindering genuine creativity of high-quality culture. Highquality culture is compared to "a spring whose freshness never dries up ," whereas popular culture is regarded as repetitive, mundane and tedious. TV programming, the standard-bearer of 41

popular culture, is often denounced for creating a "passive audience" who merely accept what the networks broadcast. A cultural relativity under which each different culture is regarded as unique, thus making comparisons of superiority impossible, is gaining wider acceptance today, while causing the condescending attitude toward popular culture to lose ground. It is now quite justifiable to chide those unable to perceive the pleasures of popular culture, such as historical and serial dramas, as failing to properly understand the diverse joys of life. Still, people have pointed out that the introduction of color TV broadcasting and professional baseball, which occurred in the early 1980s when Korea was ruled by a military dictatorship, were mainly political mechanisms for mollifying the public's negative sentiments toward the nondemocratic political reality. The United States has wielded far-reaching influence on the popular culture of the entire world. Beginning with its participation in the recovery process after World War II, American popular culture spread rapidly to Europe and then to developing countries. People of developing countries even came to believe that American popular culture- regarded as a symbol of prosperity and modernism-offered the hope for overcoming their tradition-oriented fatalism. Coca-Cola, an icon of American popular culture currently seen practically everywhere, is consumed by people around the world as if it were a prescription for quenching their spiritual thirst for development and modernization. Modern Korea's affinity with American popular culture is significant as well, in that the United States was at 42

The secularization of high-quality art is a unique phenomenon of the current era, but its more notable characteristic is the widespread propagation of popular culture. The incredible advancement of technology was instrumental in stimulating the production and propagation of popular culture.

The Korean singing group "Koreana"

the forefront of the U.N. forces dispatched to protect the South Korean people during the Korean War. Whereas Japan was the primary vehicle for transmitting foreign influences in the early 20th century, the United States became the main conduit of dissemination after Korea's liberation from Japanese rule.

Industrialization of Culture Because popular culture relies on a principle of mass consumption, its very existence depends on commercialism. Popular culture, characterized by com-

mercialism, profitability, mass production and customer-orientation, takes after the production principles of the manufacturing industry-the natural outgrowth of industrialization. In essence, mass production that signifies reduction of production costs, and mass consumption that entails largescale markets, is the modus operandi behind industrialization. In view of human behavior to think of leisure only after hunger has been sated, the rationale behind the existence of industry and culture are naturally different. Yet, the industrialization of culture is becoming a reality today due to the widespread propagation of popular culture as well as the secularization of high-quality culture. The number of people and businesses engaged in movie production, design, publishing, cultural event planning and fashion are increasing daily, with TV and radio broadcasting topping the list. The industrialization of culture is indicative of the ever-growing importance assumed by culture-related indus tries. The cultural industry is now emerging as a strategic industry in Korea whose major national priorities include joining the ranks of advanced nations. As can be confirmed in the production of automobiles-a key symbol of full-fledged industrialization-the level of technology in industrial products is converging and becoming standardized worldwide. Under such circumstances, the industrialization of culture, the source of creativity and individuality, is the very means necessary for enhancing national competitiveness in the global market. Kim Ku, among the best-known independence fighters of the Japanese resistance, wrote in his autobiography: "I ardently wish for my country to become a cultural superpower, not a military superpower." In

a similar vein, both the Korean government and people agree to the rationale for fostering the cultural industry, in that the promotion of high valueadded industries serve as a gauge for measuring the maturity of a people's cultural tastes. As the proposition "the most ethnic is the most global" gains in currency, folk culture related to a specific region and place is becoming ever more significant as a localization strategy for fostering the cultural industry at a time when the rapid process of globalization is bringing down national boundaries. Folk culture used to be regarded as a symbol of backwardness when, before the advent of globalization, Korea concentrated solely on industrial modernization. This viewpoint has changed greatly, however. As the basis for re-discovering national identity after bowing to the criticism that modernization was no more than a unilateral transplantation of foreign cultures, and also as a means of protest employed by university students to resist policies of industrial modernization that suppressed democracy, folk culture such as mask dances and p'ansori, previously enjoyed by a limited segment of mainly non-mainstream people, began to be perceived differently and is now enjoying a renaissance. As an extension of this phenomenon, popular art also emerged as a mode of denouncing society. While TV musical programs pia ying to Koreans' inherent fondness for song and dance increased and karaoke .enjoyed a surge in popularity, several songs defying the establishment were released to rouse the public's social consciousness. "Morning Dew," written and composed by Kim Min-kee, is the creme de Ia creme of such songs yearning for democratization. The reason for the song's popularity must have been in part due to the Oriental ideology of valuing truth above life as evidenced in the saying: "It doesn't

matter if I were to die in the evening if I attained the truth in the morning." In the Korean language, "morning dew" epitomizes the willingness to die for a worthy cause. Singing, "Like the morning dew more beautiful than pearls, collected on grass after the long night. . .. the sun burns brilliantly on graves, and the sweltering heat of the day will be my trial. .. I am now going, to the harsh and desolate wilderness, leaving behind all pains, I am now going," many university students cried out for freedom while sacrificing themselves at the altar of democracy. An expanded supply of cultural media and growing number of people who appreciate culture are the most notable characteristics of Korean culture over the last 50 years of this century. Another noteworthy factor is that the channels of cultural interaction, long dependent on the United States and Japan, diversified greatly after Seoul hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics. Korea takes after the United States particularly in its ways of enjoying culture, albeit with a time difference. For example, the preference of Americans centered around "lowbrow culture" until the 1950s, in which even the term "culture" was rejected as something "useless, immoral and sinful. " This then developed into a "lower-middle taste culture," while the American public, although still not particularly interested in "culture" itself, began to show interest in welldesigned durable consumer goods. In this state, people are not interested in learning anything about the director or the writer of TV dramas, only in the actors. They also enjoy easy-toread publications such as Reader's Digest and instruction books offering practical advice on home maintenance and automobile repair. They shunned documentaries, preferring romantic movies instead. The cultural preferences of Koreans at the end of the 20th century are similar to those of

Americans during the 1940s and 1950s. Despite all this, Korea underwent transformation from an underdeveloped country into a developing nation and then a newly industrialized economy in a mere 50 years. Korea is proclaiming the coming millennium as "the century of culture" as it aspires to join the ranks of advanced nations. There are as many problems as there are achievements, however. The problems are particularly associated with cultural industrialization, a subject now being discussed on a national level. First, there is the task of overcoming the uniformity inherent to cultural industrialization. Because cultural production adopts the typical mass production methods prevalent in an industrialized society, cultural products can easily become standardized and uniform. Uniform cultural produc;ts are ultimately antithetical to the cultural aspiration for unique expression of self and individuality. Second, mass-produced popular culture can become vulgar and tasteless while easily losing their appeal among the general public through repetition. Third, cultural industrialization, which depends heavily on the mass media due to the centralization of communications, has the potential of becoming even more centralized in the future. Diversity is the very lif~bod of culture, however, the centralized nature of cultural industrialization curtails cultural uniqueness. For this reason, transplanting the local culture of Seoul onto other regional cultures will remain a difficult task to overcome. Fourth, there is the fact that methods of cultural appreciation in Korea are slowly converging under the dynamics of global cultural colonialism. The world's popular culture is currently dominated by American culture, and because Korea has long lived under its influence, preserving the uniqueness of Korean culture amid the universality of global culture is among the tasks that must be resolved in the 21st century. + 43

CLOSE-UP

TRUMPET SHELL

roe World of Cho Byung-hwa Kevin O'Rourke Professor of English Language and Literature Kyunghee University

ho Byung-hwa is one of the most prolific and popular poets in Korea today. Indeed, he might be called a poet of the man in the street. In simple, rhythmic, elegant verse he writes of man's lonely journey to a "far-off, unseen tomorrow," bringing the most fundamental aspirations of man into the shops, streets, and taverns of Seoul. He is a lyrical, romantic voice, easy in the sense that he uses simple language, but difficult in that he deals with deep philosophical themes. He continues to be extremely popular in the bookstores, especially among younger readers, testimony perhaps to the universal appeal of the poet's lonely quest for meaning in creativity. Though Cho Byung-hwa is largely ignored by the critics, he has won more than his share of the premier literary awards, while his peers have made him chairman of the Korea Academy of Arts, proof, if it is required, of the continuing gap in Korea between artist and critic. At the same time, it is noteworthy that he has attracted more translators than any other contemporary poet. In the old days, the personality of the man exerted the gravity pull; nowadays he is more or less retired, so it has to be conceded that the pull

CHO BYUIVG-HWA IS A LYRICAL,

ROMANTIC VOICE, EASY /IV THE

SENSE THAT HE USES SIMPLE

LANGUAGE, BUT DIFFICULT ltv

THAT HE DEALS WITH DEEP

PHILOSOPHICAL THEMES.

is in the poems. He has been published in English (by several hands), French, German, Spanish, Chinese and Japanese. Today, he continues to fascinate aspiring translators. Swedes, Russians, East Europeans, who usually first meet him in translation, continue to be fascinated. The basis of Cho Byung-hwa's appeal is a combination of ordinariness and universality: the ordinariness of the man in the street; the universality of the quest for meaning in a world that often seems arbitrary. This same search for meaning brings many foreigners to Korea. They feel an instant bonding. Cho Byung-hwa fills the mystery of life with tender dignity. Human loneliness, the unique individuality of man, the race between time and the search for meaning, the sense of mystery which keeps driving man toward that unseen tomorrowthese are the themes that keep recurring in his poems, the themes that bind the poet to his readers. The ne arest Cho Byung-hwa comes to presenting an overview of his philosophy of life is in the foreword to The Road (1974). "The most beautiful things are saddest" is a thought that is always

in my mind as I paint. Because things disappear, because they change. But the mutability of things is something we must live. In living this mutability I have come to know primeval loneliness and primeval emptiness. I am within them, my poetry is within them, my consolation is within them. And I have learned that the philosophy that supports me is within them. This philosophy has taught me that the freedom of my spirit lies in the affirmation and denial of all things. With this freedom I have depicted a lonely self. Ceaselessly. The view of life expressed here is Zen Buddhist, testimony, if any were necessary, to the enormous influence exerted on the poet by his devout mother. He identifies life and death as one continuous process and sees time as unchanging and eternal. However, this concept of unchanging time poses a problem when the poet co mes to living the individual moments of ordinary time, leading him to an overwhelming awareness of the transitory nature of all things. In "Spring" he writes: The most beautifu l things are saddest,

sadness that soaks deep in the heart. I've sung the primeval emptiness and loneliness of life. Ah, this is the pattern of the days, living with parting. The transitory nature of human existence compels the poet to practice detachment, the only rational attitude for man in a transitory world. He sums up his entire philosophy in a love ly early lyric, "Portrait of a Trumpet Shell": You may live with the wisdom of the world, but I, in my own way, have found that clothes that fit me. In four lines the poet gives us a complete formula for transcendence; he presents an integral philosophy of life in langu age that anyone can understand, the power of the poem coming from the vital imagination, which sees man in terms of a lonely soul imprisoned in the trumpet shell of existence at the mercy of the tide. In man's lonely pilgrimage through life, true detachment is a daily conflict, ground gained, ground lost; the snÂˇuggle is never complete. The poet tells us in ''Evening: Self-Portrait":

I've cast off in life what may be cast off; I've cast off in life what may not be cast off, and here I am just as you see me. Ultimately, it is the honesty that impresses; the ability to acknowledge the casting off of the essential with the inessential. The poet knows that there is an enormous gap between real and ideal. The problem is underscored by "House of Clouds," where the implication is that the poet has not been completely successful in his endeavor to attain complete detachmen~ but is resolved to continue the struggle: I will not build my house where all is seen today I will not build my house where snows come and go I will not build my house wherever man's voice is heard I will not build my house in this empty world too busy w ith parting I will not build my house while I live in this world

As long as I can cling to one spot, one thought in the sky I will float aloft

The basis of Cho Byunghwa's appeal is a combination of ordinariness and

Waiting my turn here, a turn which no man owns, lightly will I leave it Seated in time I will not build my house where all is seen today I will not build my house where snows come and go I will not build my house wherever man's voice is heard The ideal of detachment dramatized in ''House of Clouds" is not very easily attained. The poet himself would be the first to admit that most of us fail. The importance of detachment is that it is essential for the realization of freedom, which in turn is synonymous with the full expression of personal creativity. The progression is from detachment to freedom to creativity. This unending yearning for freedom and creativity is the theme of "The Hawk": I long to live in the sky In the wind I long to float On wings, on wings, I long to float on high Swept by the wind through the sky More desolate than man in places unseen More desolate than tears Cold in heaven's depths More desolate than loneliness

universality: the ordinariness of the man in the street; the universality of the quest for meaning in a world that often seems arbitrary. Swept by the wind Swept by the wind As if on wings I long to live It is the casting aside of self that enables the hawk to soar in the sky, to be free, to be creative. Or as the poet expresses it in another poem, it is the discarding of all attachment that enables the trumpet shell to drift "at the mercy of the tide." The trumpet shell, awake as always, casts self aside, drifts at the mercy of the tide. The hawk and the trumpet shell are two of the poet's favorite symbols of the freedom that gives us control over our destinies. There is ambivalence in both symbols, which gives them extra poetic power: the shell is at the mercy of the tide; the hawk while seeming to be lord of nature is insignificant in the overall pattern; a predator all its life, it ends up as nature's prey. So when the poet tells us in "Snowy Mountain Road" that Each man has his universe but only he who rules rises to the towering places

the places of his towering desire. we feel there is ambivalence here too. Cho Byung-hwa is a painter as well as a poet and the painter's eye is very evident in the vivid presentation of detail that characterizes his shorter pieces in particular, many of which are actually miniature word paintings. "Seashore," for example: Two waterfowl, a haloed moon, and a lamp twinkling on a sleeping sea. Image and mood form a perfect unity. Or, consider how he achieves his effects in "Near the End of Hibernation": Winter, unable to endure, finally spews out the spring. Colors pop in earth, tree, and sky. ... like pimples. The poet paints a delightful portrait of spring in terms of one of the characteristic pains of adolescence. He catches superbly the bursting forth of youthful energy from the land, in a style that recalls the vitality of William Carlos Williams. This is the sort of energy, always renewing itself that prompts the poet to the pursuit of creativity, what life is ultimately all about. He writes in "The Lark": I am the solitary flame that floats in your sky burning an immortal you with mortal life The solitary flame is love, or life's energy, freedom, poetry, painting, the entire creative ex perience of the poet's life. +

TRADITIONAL ARTISAN

Lee Yong-hee RE-CREAI'ING A 1,000-YEAR-OLD ENIGMA: KORYO CH'ONGJA Lee Hyoung-kwon Head, Cultural Properties Research Institute

eyond the fields of Naju and the peaks of Mt. W olch'ulsan in Chollanam-do province, lies Kangjin, a land where the generous hospitality of its residents is legendary and the food is plentiful and savory. The mountains, fields and sea create a natural landscape that has the true feeling of one's hometown while never failing to soothe the body and spirit. It is an area where a strong sense of history is evident, making it an ideal place from which to explore the history of the Chollanam-do region. It was here that the great Korean scholar ChOng Yak-yong (pen name: Tasan) spent 18 years in exile and wrote one of his greatest works, Mokmin Shims6 (Design

WHEN TALKING ABOUT

THE HISTORY OF KANGJIN,

THE FIRST AND FOREMOST THING

THAT COMES TO MIND IS KORYO

CH'ONGJA. CH'ONGJA, OR

CELADON, IS A KOREAN ART

FORM THAT IS RENOWNED

AROUND THE WORLD.

for Good Government). It is also home

to poet Kim Yong-rang, who wrote such classic works as ''Until the Peony Blooms," where his spirit still seems to be alive even today. The ancient. temples, which have withstood the test of time for over 1,000 years, have maintained an aura of virtue and simplicity. But when talking about the history of Kangjin, the first and foremost thing that comes to mind is Kory6 ch'ongja. Ch '6ngja, or celadon, is a Korean art form that is renowned around the world. Even the Chinese, who were the undisputed leaders of ceramic art at the time, revered the "jade color" of Kory6 ch'ongja, which takes its rightful place among t(te rare and precious art forms of the world. A celadon roof-end tile with peony design and lotus and arabesque designs in relief excavated from the fron t garden of Lee Y ong-hee's house.

Produced in 1978, these pieces are Lee's first works that could be called Koryo ch'ongja.

There are 400 documented ch'ongja kiln sites across 35 regions in Kot:ea that date back to the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392). Kangjin, Koch'ang and Puan in Chollabuk-do province are among the major production sites. In the Kangjin area alone there are 180 kiln sites scattered about the villages of Yongun-ri, Kyeyul-ri, Sudong-ri and Sadang-ri, an area encompassing 594,000 square meters. This is proof enough that the region was one of the most significant areas of ch'ongja production in the country.

Kangjin: Center of Koryo Ch'ongja The rapid development of ch'ongja art in Kangjin was thanks to the advances in sea transport which facilitated the timely introduction of celadon techniques into Korea from China. With its favorable climate, right kind of clay and water as well as the availability of fuel and shipping services, Kangjin boasted one of the most optimal environments for ceramics production in the country. Kangjin was famous as the country's leading ch'ongja producer from the 9th to the 14th century. But with the pillaging of Japanese pirates at the end of the Koryo Dynasty, the ch'ongja kilns were left in ruins and the potters scattered all over the country like wind-blown pollen. Thus the history of ch'ongja48

making came to an abrupt halt, not to be revived for more than 600 years. In 1914, the Japanese colonial authorities conducted an investigation and discovered that Kangjin had been an important kiln site. In 1964, this finding was confirmed by an investigation team from the National Museum that sought to reconstruct the historical background of Kangjin's ceramic-making. Then in 1977, production of ch'ongja in Kangjin was resumed with the inauguration of the Foundation for the Recreation of Koryo Ch'ongja. The rebirth of ch'ongja at Kangjin was made possible mainly through the dedicated efforts of one individual, ch 'ongja devotee Lee Y ong-hee, 60, who is currently the research director of the government-operated Kangjingun Koryo Celadon Kiln Sites. As it turns out, Lee was born at a ch'ongja kiln site located in Kangjin-gun, Taegumyon, Saclang-ri, which has since been designated National Historical Site No. 68. From a very young age, Lee showed an extraordinary interest in the fragments of pottery that were so easily found around his house. Unaware that they were pieces of ch'ongja, he nevertheless regarded them as something special that he gathered in a wicker basket. This must have been a case of destiny. Since the clay of his birth, Lee has never left the kiln site where he was

The rapid development of ch'ongja art in Kangjin was possible thanks to the advances in sea transport which facilitated the timely introduction of celadon techniques into Korea from China. With its favorable climate, right kind of clay and water, Kangjin boasted one of the most optimal environments for ceramics production in the country.

born and to this day remains there working on the reproduction of ch'6ngja ware.

Excavation Work Yields Significant Findings Lee's interest in ch'ongja reached a turning point in 1964 when a team from the National Museum came to Kangjin to investigate the site on which his home stood. He was 26 at the time. He had just finished his military service and was helping out on the family farm. What most impressed Lee was the painstaking care of the investigation team members in handling the fragments of pottery that were so common there, as if they were invaluable treasures while piecing them together one by one to re-create their original form. Totally fascinated , Lee started doing odd jobs for the investigation team and in the process came to realize the historical value of ch'ongja and the significance of the excavation efforts. Later, the then head of the National Museum, Choi Sun-u, asked for the cooperation of Lee's family in excavating the site on which their home was situated as it had been pinpointed as the major kiln site for ch'6ngja production during the Kory6 Dynasty. Lee agreed without hesitation and the next day the excavation work

began. As the investigation team had expected, countless fragments of ch'ongja pottery were discovered in what was the Lees' garden area, including celadon roof-end tiles. It was an incredible finding that amazed academic circles while yielding enough information to re-create the original structure of a ch'ongja kiln from 600 years ago. It was later confirmed that this kiln was the production site for the celadon roof-end tiles that were used on Yangijong Pavilion during the reign of the 18th Kory6 king, Uijong (r. 1146-1170), once again astounding scholars. During the excavation, Lee, who had become totally enthralled with the mysterious beauty of Kory6 ch'ongja, persistently asked questions about the pottery to the point of becoming a nuisance. He wrote down everything he learned and began his own serious study of ch'ongja. When the excavation ended, Lee continued the work on his own. He confirmed the existence of some 80 kiln sites around the neighborhood and drew up a map of their locations. In 1967, he discovered another ch'6ngja kiln site in his own fields, a fortuitous discovery which provided revolutionary new information on the history and development of Kory6 ch'ongja. According to the investigation find-

ings, Kory6 celadon was first made around the ninth century. By the end of the 11th century, it had developed to a stage where it featured very distinctive characteristics in terms of shape, pattern and production technique. Âˇ Kory6 celadon reached its peak in the 12th century with pure celadon and sanggam ch '6ngja, celadon inlaid with ornate designs. The subtle and unique pale jade color of inlaid celadon is highly acclaimed the world over, and it has been proven that the greatest masterpieces were created in Sadang-ri. Lee, who had become completely immersed in the world of ch'6ngja, began asking himself a question that eventually changed the course of his life. "Why did the production of Kory6 celadon stop and would it be possible to create it again?" He would ask himself this time and time again. Without consciously realizing it, this thought had become a sort of obsession with him. The villagers thought Lee was crazy. ''He should worry about making a living. Who is he to meddle with the pottery found in other people's houses?" they said. But defying such criticism and taking no heed of the opinions of other people, Lee became ever more captivated by the world of ch'ongja. Lee began to nurture an ambitious dream of bringing back to life the

Above: The Kangjin Ch'ongja Museum (left). Once the p r oducer of fine Koryo ch'on gja, Kiln Site No. 4 in Sadan gÂˇri is now a comprehenÂˇ sive educational center focusing on ch'ongja (right). Below: This is the site of a kiln that produced celadon during the Koryo Dynasty that was d iscovered in Lee's garden. Its excavation is what made him become a potter and celadon specialist.

Kory6 ch'6ngja which so suddenly disappeared over 600 years ago. And to this end he took up pottery lessons. His first lesson was in handling the wheel and with an open catalogue before him, Lee attempted to re-create the forms of Kory6 celadon. He built his own kiln and fired the pottery pieces himself. Lee had always possessed a particular talent with his hands, carving seals and such, and so it did not take him long to master the basic techniques of making pottery. But it was an entirely different matter to re-create the harmonious balance of ch '6ngja's distinctive color, exquisite beauty and elegant forms . Duplicating the color proved to be an especially difficult undertaking. Re-creating Celadon's Unique Color The difficulty of mastering the color of celadon was due to the fact that the method involved was simply "a big secret." Being the long-lost secret of ancient Koreans, it was not something that Lee could learn by asking someone for help. The only way to re-create the right color was to keep studying and find out how for himself. For a simple farmer like Lee, it was hard 50

enough to get a hold of books on ceramics but it was harder yet to decipher the terminology used. He busied himself in translating foreign books, with his previous study of Chinese classics when young proving to be the key to deciphering books written in Chines e characte rs. He worked by day and studied by night

while those around him sniped that his madness for celadon had finally driven him insane. Perhaps it was related to Lee's allconsuming passion, but gradually the residents of the region became prideful of Kangjin being confirmed as the center of Kory6 ch'6ngja production. Some people began to say that it was the duty of Kangjin to reproduce traditional ceramics. In 1974, a committee for the

re-creation of Kory6 ch'6ngja was finally formed. Lee naturally assumed the role of secretary-general and thus began his life-long mission to re-create ch'6ngja. With ch '6ngja constantly on his mind, Lee would often become so engrossed in his studies that he would study all through the night without even sleeping. Whenever he found some unusual soil or stones, he collected them to throw into the kiln to experiment on ways to fire the pottery. After much trial and error requiring extreme perseverance and effort, Lee was finally rewarded with the creation of a ceramic piece that could be called Kory6 ch'6ngja on February 3, 1978. In doing so, Lee was able to reconnect a thread o f history that had been severed for over 600 years . Having waited and wondered for so long if he would ever be able to re-create the exact color he dreamed of, the realization of his cherished dream was an overwhelmingly emotion a l moment. When Lee removed from the kiln a jade-colored vase with a carved arabesque pattern that had been fired at a temperature of over 1,300Â°C for

From the top: A laboratory f or studying Koryo ch'ongja; a reproduction of a Koryo ch'ongja kiln; a laboratory for studying inlaid Koryo ch'ongja

over 40 hours, he drew a deep breath and then shouted for joy while those around him let out cheers and exclamations. It was as if the beautiful Kory6 celadon vase had somehow traversed 600 years of time and miraculously appeared in Sadang-ri. Lee says that he will never forget the rapture he felt at the time. Thereafter, the Kory6 celadon produced in Kangjin attracted the attention of people from around the country. Kangjin is currently operating Korea's only national kiln at Sadang-ri, which includes a comprehensive educational center designed for the production, distribution and education of Kory6 ch'ongja and Korean ceramics overall. It is a place where the brilliant history of Kory6 ch'ongja is brought to life. The re-creation of Kory6 celadon is the result of Lee's supreme self-sacrifice, showing how a young boy's curiosity in pottery shards led to such a noteworthy achievement. The art of ch'ongja is not something that has been in his family for generations nor is it a skill that was passed on to him by a master artisan. Lee's success is purely the result of dedicating his life to rediscovering the history of the land on which he was born. This is why the celadon works made by Lee have a purity of color that is like clouds gently flowing across the sky. + 51

f your travel destination happens to be Kangjin, the beautiful port city on the southern tip of the Korean peninsula in Chollanamdo province, it won't do to simply pack up and leave home. And even if you have passed through Kangjin several times, you had better think twice if you believe you're a connoisseur of the city. Kangjin is not a simple place; it is endowed with many surprising and appealing attractions found in unexpected places. If you return from a trip to Kangjin without having discovered its myriad secrets, your visit will have been superficial at best. Before departing, you should first make an effort to research Kangjin to gather background information. If you leave without any prior knowledge, you will no doubt return without having seen the true Kangjin, while merely groping your way around. Kangjin is a treasure trove of cultural relics, and background information is necessary for their proper appreciation. After doing your homework on Kangjin, enough to do it justice, you should get started early in the day. It is quite a way and out of easy reach from

Downtown Kangjin (top);shortnecked clams, a Kangjin specialty (above); a table laden with more than 28 dishes at the Haet'ae Reastaurant, a popular eatery in Kangjin (below)

nearly everywhere in Korea. From Seoul, it takes more than five hours by train or bus. If by some lucky coincidence you should share a seat with a resident of Kangjin, your trip will be all the more enjoyable because you will be able to pick up useful and not-readilyavailable information about the Kangjin area. It was thanks to such good fortune I learned from a local resident that Kangjin had been popular for its seasonal fish markets in the past, and that every visitor should stop by at the Haet'ae Restaurant in town. Since it was lunchtime when I arrived, I decided to visit the restaurant, to satisfy my curiosity. Everyone I met in town knew its location. The restaurant, hidden in a small alley, was rather dilapidated, but I was amazed to count 28 side dishes arranged on the table. Among them, the sliced raw fish, -spicy fish stew, and pickled local fish including t'oha, a kind of freshwater shrimp, were inimitable delicacies. I finally embarked on my exploration of Kangjin after having sated myself. I was in no hurry as I had planned on a three-day visit. My first destination was the traditional open-air

market that takes place every five days. The market area is located across the street from the permanent local market, with the entrance to the fish market lined with women selling shellfish. The thin-shelled surf clams, turban shells, and white shells offered for sale were all harvested from the Ando tidal flat. There were several tidal flats in Kangjin in the past, but with the reclamation of the Mand6k and Sanae tidal flats now only a small area remains in a place called Kuro in Maryang-my6n. The open-air market takes up the entire area beyond the street, but the throng of shoppers has thinned noticeably since modern shopping centers began operations in Kangjin. In the past, however, the seasonal fish market used to be renowned throughout surrounding regions. Route 23 unravels along the eastern edge of Kangjinman Bay, passing through Kangjin-up and continuing to Maryang alongside the sea where Kogumdo Island is visible on the distant horizon. The highway is well-known for its beautiful scenery, the likes of which are not seen in other parts of the country. Beyond the calm seas on the right side of the road, the shores of Toam-my6n come into view, much like a small island. In the past, countless fishing boats used to operate in these seas, with the lights from the boats reflecting on the water being counted among the eight beautiful scenes of Kangjin.

Ch'ilyang Pottery: Indispensible for Fermented Foodstuff The seasonal fish market attracted great crowds not only because of its abundance of fish and marine products, but its prized Ch'ilyang pottery as well. However, today there is only one remaining kiln in Kangjin which specializes in Ch'ilyang pottery. This traditional crockery is unrivaled in its ability to preserve fermented food such as kimchi, red pepper paste, soybean paste and soy sauce. Ch'ilyang pottery is designed to actually breathe, and thus is highly

sought in Korea where fermented foodstuff are so ubiquitous. Ponghwang-ri, Ch'ilyang-my6n at the eastern end of Kangjinman Bay is the birthplace of Ch'ilyang pottery. In the past, each household produced its own pottery, which is why the village was also known as Tokj6m, another name for pottery shop. The pottery produced in the village was sold not only in nearby areas along the south coast, but also in the Ch'ungch'6ng-do and Hwanghae-do provinces on the west coast, and as far north as Kangnung on the east coast. Ch'ilyang became recognized for its pottery due to the area's abundance of ideal clay, along with the well-developed sea routes which facilitated their wide distribution. In addition, lead is not used in the glazes for Ch'ilyang pottery. A natural glaze obtained from lye is applied to the earthenware which enables the utilitarian vessels to breathe. Because it is fired at high temperatures of over l,OOOoCelsius, Ch'ilyang pottery is durable and free of impurities. When stored in Ch'ilyang pottery, the taste of food items, such as kimchi, soy sauce and red pepper paste, remains flavorful, or improves with aging. Today, only one family is continuing the tradition of making pottery at its own kiln in Ponghwang village, since the demand for pottery has plummeted with. the availability of cheap and easyto-handle plastic containers. The kiln operator does not make a living exclusively from pottery, but supplements this income by selling seashells. Kangjin residents have been noted for their superior pottery skills since as far back as the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392), especially renowned for its ch'6ngja, celadon. Even in China, where potters were at the forefront of celadon culture at the time, Kory6 celadon was highly revered while being ranked among the world's greatest artistic achievements.

Home to Koryo Celadon Many celadon kilns are found in the vicinity of Yong-un-ri, Kyeyul-ri, Sadang-

ri, and Sudong-ri in Taegu-myon, Kangjin-gun. A signboard announcing Sadang-ri Kory6 Celadon Kiln stands alongside Route 23, about 8 kilometers toward Maryang from the Ponghwangri village entrance. Kangjin, Haenam, and Yuch'on-ri in Poan-myon, Ch6llabuk-do province were among the hubs of celadon production during the Kory6 Dynasty. About 400 kiln sites have been discovered in these areas, about 180 of them concentrated in the vicinity of Taegu-myon, Kangjin. This clearly proves that Kangjin was once the focal point of Kory6 celadon production. 1n particular, Sadang-ri was the bustling center of celadon manufacture when Kory6 celadon technology reached its peak. More than 80 percent of the national-treasure class Kory6 celadon artifacts were created in Sadang-ri. The kiln sites are concentrated along the Yongmun Stream near Chongsusa Temple. Many pieces of Kory6 celadon have been excavated from these sites, allowing a close study of its diverse techniques, forms and colors, from the time Kory6 celadon was first produced to its glorious heyday and its eventual decline. Celadon production became highly developed in the area near Taegu-myon because of the readily available firewood for the kilns as well as an abundance of high-quality clay. There were also gently sloping areas ideal for building kilns along with boats nearby for transporting finished prod-

This museum, which is located in Sadang-ri, includes a kiln and a laboratory dedicated to the re-creation of Koryo ch'ongja.

ucts. As the Kory6 Dynasty neared its end, it ·suffered from frequent foreign invasions, which rendered the areas within 50-Ii of the coast unsafe for residents. Thus the celadon kilns located along coastal areas were abandoned, while the potters dispersed to various corners of the country. The secret to Kory6 celadon remained lost for nearly 600 years thereafter. Fortunately, modern-day Kangjin potters have succeeded in reproducing the exquisite bluish-green hue of ancient Kory6 celadon. All the work involved is carried out by hand as in the past, with the traditional kingfisher-blue color being reproduced by applying a natural glaze and firing the celadon at temperatures of between 1,200° and 1,300°

Celsius. When drinking water is placed in celadon pieces, it will remain fresh even after a year. An entire afternoon should be spent to closely examine the celadon kilns and other kiln sites scattered around Taegu-myon. After a thorough inspection , I returned to Kangjin, went through the closed market now empty of vendors, and finally unpacked at Namdojang Inn. It was embarrassing and tedious to watch the TV set talking to itself, alone in an empty room, however. In addition to Kory6 celadon, Kangjin is noted for dried sea laver and ark shells, as well as for sumptuous local favorites: roasted eel, pickled t'oha and pickled octopus. It seemed a good idea to locate a roasted eel restaurant and relax with a bottle of soju. As for pickled fish, it would be best to buy some on your last day in Kangjin, pack it with your belongings, and take it home with you. This way, you can remember the flavors of Kangjin for awhile, and for once your spouse might even compliment you. I set out early on the following day to visit three places: Tasan Ch'odang, Paengnyonsa Temple and Muwisa Temple. The road along Mt. Mandoksan leading to Paengnyonsa from Tasan Ch'odang is a pleasant walk from which the entire village of Kugangp'o can be admired. To enjoy the vista, it seemed logical to visit Tasan Ch'odang first as it is farther away than Paengnyonsa. 55

A bronze statue of scholar Chong Yag-yong, whosepen namewasTasan(top)and Tasan Ch'odang, the house where he and other schola rs met to enjoy tea and scholarly d iscussions (right). Opposite page: The building's nam eplate bearing the words "Tasan Ch'odan g" in Chinese characters.

About 400 kiln sites have been discovered in these areas, about 180 of them concentrated in the vicinity of Taegu-myon, Kangjin. This clearly proves that Kangjin was once the focal point of Koryo celadon production.

ChOng Yag-yong Tasan Ch'odang is located in Kyuldong village in Mandok-r~ Toam-myon, which can be reached by going southwest from Kangjin-up and rounding the western corner of Kugangp'o. Behind the village lies the modest Tasan Ch'odang, the place of exile of ChOng Yag-yong (pen name Tasan, 1762-1836) and the home of the Tasan School he founded. Chong Yag-yong had been exiled to Kangjin along with his brother Chong Yag-ch6n, when they were charged with being associated with Roman Catholicism. The persecution of Catholics peaked toward 56

the later years of the Chason Dynasty with anyone suspected of being Catholic being subject to execution. Though his life was spared, Chong Yag-yong lost his official position and was sent into exile in the 11th month of 1801. Of his 18 years in exile, ChOng spent 10 of them at Tasan Ch'odang where he devoted himself to writing. During the 18 years of exile he developed into a profound philosopher, while writing many books regarded as masterpieces today. Thus the brilliance of Kangjin glows even more brightly with the tragic legacy of Chong Yag-yong.

Bamboo trees, camellias and pine trees grow densely along the small road leading to Tasan Ch'odang, making it foreboding even in daylight. Shaded by trees, Tasan Ch'odang cottage was blanketed with dampness. Sitting alone on the elevated wooden floor to catch my breath, I could easily imagine the intense loneliness Chong must have experienced, living alone in total isolation for 10 years. Even those unfamiliar with a sense of solitude can readily grasp its essence while sitting quietly on the wooden floor of Tasan Ch'odang. The humble, damp cottage; the large

rock in the yard where ChOng is said to have brewed tea; the small spring behind the house; a rock carving made by ChOng beyond the spring; Ch'onilgak Pavilion at the edge of a precipice looking out toward Huksando where his brother Yag-chOn was also in exile-the pain of loneliness is palpable in all these. However, Ch'onilgak was not built during the time of ChOng's exile. There is only legend that ChOng used to sit on the rock where the pavilion now stands and gaze toward the faraway Huksando Island to soothe his anguish. Paengnyonsa, built in 839, is located on Mandoksan Peak The temple's Mangyongnu Pavilion looks out toward the magnificent vista of Kugangp'o. Exuding little warmth, it has the presence of a physically imposing person. But even this temple was vacated when frequent foreign invasions made coastal areas too dangerous for everyday living. It was later reopened during th e Choson Dynasty. About 1,500 camellias grow around Paengnyonsa. Nutmeg trees and silver magnolias as well as rare tree species stand among the camellias, along with tea trees at lower levels. 58

exchange, but I had a long way to go because I had to hurry to S6ngj6n-my6n at the northern tip of Kangjin-gun to visit Muwisa Temple.

The main hall of Paengnyonsa (top), a temple on Mandoksan Peak, and some of the more than 1,500 camellias that grow around the temple (above). Opposite page: The beautiful Muwisa Temple has a certain frugal and secluded feeling about it (above); a late Shilla monument to Monk Son-gak-taesa in the temple's front courtyard (right); and, a monument bearing a poem by Kim Yunshik that is always included on student field trips to Kangjin (below).

Leaving the temple behind, I glanced toward Man-gyongnu. I could make out the outline of two people whom I had not seen when I entered the temple. A Buddhist monk with a cleanly shaven head and a young woman were sitting facing each other, deeply immersed in conversation. I was curious about the s ubject of th e ir seemingly serious

Muwisa Temple Without exce ption, VISitors to Muwisa are overcome with awe at the sight of such a secluded, frugal and elegant splendor. The extraordinary architectural bea ut y of Kungnakbojo n (Sukhavati Treasure Hall), built during the 1=arly years of Choson, cannot be admired and lauded enough. The building, modeled after the Koryo Dynasty architectural sty les featur ed in the Taeungjon (Main Hall) of Sudoksa Temple in Yesan, the Ki:'10gnakj6n (Paradise Hall) of Pongjongsa Temple in Andong and the Chosadang (Founding Monk Hall) of Pusoksa Temp le in Yongju, still remains intact, enabling me to instantly shrug off the fatigue from the tiring journey. Observing one of the lateral walls of Ki:'mgnakbojon, I could discern the guileless mind of the builder, which made my heart pound as if I was facing this individual in person. There are a number of murals in Kungnakbojon, but they are all in a state

of dilapidation, being faded and worn with time. However, the sense of loss was more than compensated for by the fact of Kungnakboj6n's very existence. Kangjin's artistic and historical values are expounded in a poem by Kim Yunshik (pen name Yongnang), exhibited beside the County Office in downtown Kangjin. The poem tells of the utter sense of loss and frustration that Koreans suffered in the 1930s under Japanese colonial rule. Kim Yun-shik, who is well-known for his lucid lyri-

cism and ability to convey heartfelt sentiments, was so effective in depicting the desperate sense of loss of the Korean people during this time that readers are known to weep whenever they read his poems. I decided to postpone my visit to the house where this poet used to live, located in the center of the city, to the morning of my last day in Kangjin. On my trip home, I wanted to ruminate over the pain and frustration the entire Korean people suffered. +

MARKETS

Sorae Yoo Yeon-tae Travel Writer 60

well-known poet friend of mine is so fond of ch6tkal, or pickled fish, that he refuses to eat unless there is ch6tkal on the table. The poet's hometown is Mokp'o, Ch6llanamdo province, a coastal area renowned for ch6tkal. Because he has eaten so many kinds of pickled fish including shrimp and yellow croaker since childhood, his dietary habit is quite understandable. Ch6tkal, together with kimchi, is a side dish that is almost always part of a Korean meal The origin of ch6tkal is not clear, but it was developed in Asia as a type of

preserved food from antiquity. In Korea, in particular, chotkal came to be highly developed with today there being more than 30 varieties available. Among the most popular are shrimp, anchovy, oyster, yellow croaker, pollack innards, pollack caviar, clam, squid and octopus, to name a few. So rae Port in Inch'on, Kwangch'on and Nonsan in Ch'ungch'ongnam-do province, Komso Port in Puan, Chollabuk-do province, Mokp'o, and Taebyon Harbor in Pusan are some of the best known chotkal markets in Korea. Of these, Sorae is the nearest to Seoul, and naturally it bustles with cus-

tamers all year-round. The recent completion of several access roads including the West Coast Highway, the Kyongin Highway and Seoul Expressway have made visiting the Sorae market much easier. Until a few years ago, visitors to Sorae Port had to use both the subway and bus, and then pass through the Namdong Industrial Complex, or use the narrow-gauge railway linking Suwon and Inch'on. Sorae is located in Nonhyon-dong, Namdong-gu, at the southernmost tip of Inch'on. It developed into a port after the Korean War when refugees started building wooden boats at a corner of

the unused inlet as a means of earning a livelihood. At the same time, an increasing number of street peddlers began to set up stalls on both sides of the port to sell salted fish, shrimp, crab and shellfish. During its heyday, more than 250 boats used to be based at Sorae, which prospered as a growing number of people from Seoul began to shop at the port for shrimp and crab chotkal. The number of fishing boats operating from Sorae has since dwindled to about 100 because the catch in nearby waters has noticeably dropped, forcing fishermen to go as far as the special fishing zones along the bound61

aries of China. The steadily diminishing tidewater channel of the Sorae inlet has also been a factor. Sorae Port is. generally divided into two sections. The southern side where a narrow-gauge railway used to operate is crowded with shops selling live fish and restaurants specializing in raw fish. Ch6tkal stalls are lined up along the northern side that is separated into three areas. There are about 40 vendors specializing exclusively in ch6tkal. Except during winter, the chotkal market is always packed with shoppers. It is especially crowded in late fall, just before families prepare winter kimchi, when people from not only the greater Seoul metropolitan area but also from as far away as the Kangwondo and Ch'ungch'ong-do provinces come to the market in search of fresh ch6tkal as a vital ingredient for their kim chi. Only the Freshest Ingredients Will Do

A ch6tkal vendor and member of the Sorae Port Merchants Association, explained the fame of the Sorae chotkal market: "Sorae is famous because all the ingredients are exceedingly fresh. Take shrimp ch6tkal, for example. It is exceptionally fresh because shrimp just off the boats are used for pickling. Moreover, prices here are lower than at other places because the ch6tkal is sold directly to customers without going through several distributors. Shoppers can also enjoy the added bonus of the vibrant ambiance of an open-air market." True to his words, Sorae Port is always bustling with activity. Merchants say that anyone who is weary of life and thinking of committing suicide by jumping into the Han-gang River should come to Sorae Port instead. Such a person would soon enough regain the motivation to navigate through life's twists and turns upon seeing and hearing the haggling between merchants and customers, acrid quarrels among shopkeepers, and laughter and

tears of joys and sorrows flowing from every corner of the market. So, how and where is the chotkal sold in the Sorae market prepared? The unique flavor of ch6tkal is attained only after the sea products are salted and allowed to ferment for more than five months at about 15Â°C while avoiding contact with fresh air. Nutritionist Dr. Yoo Tae-jong explains: "Ch6tkal is rich in protein. During fermentation, much glutamic acids, nucleic acids and flavorenhancing ingredients are produced that help create the flavor unique to chotkal and increase its nutritional value." The chOtkal ingredients brought into Sorae are first salted and then stored in caves in nearby Pup'yong and Anyang to ferment. The Hwarang Farm near the Paekun Subway Station in Pup'yong has eight large caves that were used for storing army munitions during the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945). Two lines of large barrels are arranged along both sides of the caves, leaving enough room in the middle for a wheelbarrow to pass through. The ceilings are high, thus allowing workers to stand naturally. The temperature inside the caves is maintained at 13Â° to WC at all times, lower than the temperature of 15Â° to 16oc at KwangchUn. Between 1,000 to 1,500 barrels with pickled fish are housed in each of the caves, attesting to the huge scale of the pickling operation. The cave in Pakdal-dong, Anyang is a former copper mine that is three or four times larger than the caves in Pupy'ong. Once the ch6tkal is properly fermented it is transported from the caves to Sorae Port to be sold to consumers. There is a modern warehouse at the port so that the chOtkal can be stored at low temperatures to keep it as fresh as if it were just brought out of the caves. Something for Everyone

The Sorae market offers ch6tkal of various grades, from premium to low quality and from expensive to cheap, to

. . __ ::_ ~

accommodate the varied needs of all consumers. Th e market also sells imported pickled shrimp from China because the shrimp catch from Korean seas is insufficient to meet domestic demand. The ever-worsening pollution of the Yellow Sea has caused all sorts of marine resources to disappear and the tidal flats to diminish, which in turn has led to a steady decline in the number of fishing boats. There is a live fish market in Sorae, which shares a temporary building with the chotkal market The raw fish restaurants sport signboards featuring regional names of every province in Korea-Honam Restaurn~ Ch'ungch'ongdo Restaurant, Ongjin Restaurant, Pusan Restaurant and so on- under a long tent where they vie intensely for customers. There are more than 300 shops operating inside the tent. Although each shop is only some 65 square meters in area, they offer a source of stable livelihood to the merchants of Sorae. Shoppers usually buy sliced raw fish from the shops and enjoy it at an outdoor seating area along the wharf, while those with more means go to shops selling condiments to eat with the fish. A merchant admitted that Sorae merchants are better off compared to those of other ports, even after the narrow-

gauge trains ceased operations and despite Korea's recent economic difficulties. Customers continue to visit the market in such great numbers that there are no parking spaces on weekends. "The raw fish is sliced from freshly caught fish just off the boats. Sorae offers the freshest fish in all of Korea and at a bargain price. About 35,000 won will buy enough raw fish for five people to enjoy," a merchant explained. Won Jong-sung, 49, secretary of the Sorae Port Merchants Association, noted: "The merchants are most unhappy with the narrow access road which cannot accommodate all the visitors from other areas," while voicing the hope that the So rae Bridge linking Sorae with W olgot will be completed soon. He also stressed: "It is difficult for the boats to navigate through the water because the tidal flats keep diminishing. We have to construct an artificial tidal flat like the one at W olgot Port." Climbing atop the 120-meter-long, 25meter-wide Sorae Railway Bridge over which the Suwon-Inch'on trains used to pass, the entire port can be viewed. Boats continuously return to the port during the rising tide. The Sorae Railway Bridge has now become a pedestrian overpass, but it will soon

Pedestrians now use the bridge once used by a narrow-gauge railway. Opposite page, from the top: The trac~s of the old narrow-gauge railway are now lined with shops selling live fish and live fish restaurants; the chotkal market; a shop selling sliced raw fish to go: vendors selling a great variety of shrimp chotkal.

Sorae developed into a port after the Korean War when refugees started building wooden boats at a corner of the unused inlet as a means of earning a livelihood. At the same time, an increasing number of street peddlers began to

set up stalls on both sides of the port to sell salted fish, shrimp, crab and shellfish. return to its original purpose. The merchants are especially happy with the news that the Suwon-Inch'on narrowgauge train will resume operations. Heavy construction equipment is already crowding into the once empty Sorae Station. + 63

he Ginza was once the heart of Tokyo, but it has been supplanted by Shinjuku since the end of World War II. The imposing skyscrapers of Shinjuku boast their presence as the center of Tokyo-indeed, Japan, and furthermore , the hub of the Asian economy. Come evening, an astonishing transformation takes place in the back alleys of the main streets: the dazzling neon signboards of restaurants lined along both sides create a pulsat64

ing fantasy land. In Asia, especially in Japan and Korea, signboards tend to be exceptionally large compared to the size of the shops. But it is in the evening that one truly begins to realize how large they really are. Among the myriad signboards along the streets of Japan there are many advertising yakiniku. In certain areas, every two or three signboards reads yakiniku, or roasted beef. Why are there so many restaurants specializing in this dish? The origin of yakiniku

is none other than pulgogi, marinated barbecued beef, which was introduced from Korea. Most Japanese did not eat the meat of four-legged animals for over a thousand years, only beginning to consume meat in small quantities during the Meiji period about 100 years ago. In the Middle Ages, envoys from Korea who visited Japan were cordially received and entertained lav ish ly. Their

Japanese hosts would treat them to their favorite dish, beef, but they did not bring in the meat openly through the main door, but furtively through a "secret" door. With Buddhism essentially the state religion of Japan at the time, slaughtering cows for consumption was very much frowned upon. The Japanese, therefore, built a special door expressly for smuggling in the forbidden meat. It was only in the 1960s that the Japanese acquired a genuine taste for meat. Then how did pulgogi win over the Japanese palates?

piece of meat is especially valued and cherished. And, it can be extravagant to serve every person at a meal a large piece of the most prime cut of beef, as in the United States, Argentina, Canada or Australia where meat is readily available at reasonable prices. Therefore, sirloin or the lean meat of short ribs which are best for pulgogi is thinly sliced, which makes it easy to eat the bite-sized pieces. It can be also shared among several people in varying quantities, and various cuts of beef can be used.

Characteristics of Pulgogi

Origin of Pulgogi

Pulgogi is barbecued on a grill directly over a charcoal fire. Usually each diner personally roasts the marinated slices of beef to cook the meat according to their personal preference. Because chopsticks are used to handle the slices of meat, the cooking is safe and easy. Since meat is an important part of the Western diet, many Westerners prefer it somewhat undercooked, especially thick steaks with the outside done and the inside rather rare. People who do not frequently eat meat, however, tend to find the sight of blood-rare meat quite unappealing. But as meat tends to get tough when overcooked, it is desirable to eat it at the exact instant when it is cooked just right and still tender. Another characteristic of pulgogi is that it is marinated in a variety of spices-ground garlic, wine, sugar and sesame oil-overnight before cooking. This seasoning process helps to eliminate the meat smell and also has a tenderizing effect. Garlic is conducive to counteracting toxic substances as well as to accelerating the digestive process, while further enhancing the flavor of meat. It is said that Japan has the world's most expensive beef prices, followed by Korea. Under such circumstances, each

The ancestors of the Korean people were nomads who lived in Central Asia and later moved eastward: the Maek tribe of Tung-i (Tong-i in Korean), as referred to by the Chinese. Given that they raised livestock, it is reasonable to surmise that their diet included meat. Maekj6k, skewered beef roasted over fire, is an ancient Korean dish. Compared to Chinese beef dishes, which are not seasoned beforehand but dipped in spices e ~ :;. :;a_,c. ÂˇiE.If : .... -:_,:...:....

tal of Kory6, which evolved into n6biani, or broadly sliced barbecued meat consumed at the royal palace-or today's pulgogi. Pulgogi Eaten with Vegetables, Bean Paste and Kimchi

Ssam, rice or meat wrapped in vegetables such as lettuce and sesame leaves, is a popular way of eating pulgogi. This custom is quite rare in the world, however. In Greece and Israel, fried rice is wrapped in grape leaves, while in Vietnam, people use thin rice paper to wrap vegetables, but I have never seen anyone eating rice wrapped in raw vegetables during my travels through some 40 countries around the globe. When Koreans eat rice with meat, they usually wrap the meat in vegetable leaves and add fermented bean paste, which creates a savory combination. Rice, meat, vegetables and bean paste not only serve to provide diverse

=...= -~:_;

after being roasted or boiled, maej6k is seasoned before cooking. Maekj6k is thus thought to be the origin of pulgogi. Due to the influence of Buddhism during the lengthy rule of Shilla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935) and Paekche (18 B.C.-A.D. 660), however, the consumption of meat came to be prohibited, causing maekj6k to disappear from the diet of Koreans. According to food historians, it was not until after the Mongol invasions during the Kory6 Dynasty (918-1392) that meat consumption regained its popularity with a revival of maekj6k. After official ties were established with Mongolia, the traditional meat dish was re-introduced under a new name, s6lham y6k, in Kaes6ng, the then capi-

e _:,

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nutrients and vitamins, but also help to break down animal fat. Bean paste also eliminates the need to add herbs or pepper, as is customary in the West when cooking meat. Recently, even colorful flowers have been included in the diverse vegetables consumed as ssam, further adding to the food's visual appeal. Ssam alone, however, does not complete pulgogi. Kimchi, fermented vegetables, invariably accompanies pulgogi almost without exception. After having eaten meat, Western Europeans usually have coffee, tea or a beverage, and the Chinese and Japanese, tea, but many Koreans do not need such drinks. This is because the refreshingly crisp kimchi eliminates any greasy aftertaste that might remain after eating meat. + 65

LIVING

Onggi LIVING AND BREATHING CROCKERY FROM THE CHOS6N DYNASTY Lee Young-ja Director, Onggi Folk Museum

hen traveling around countryside, it ts not uncommon to see dark-colored ceramic crocks sitting in a sunny spot of a yard or on a terrace. These crocks are called onggi and they are used to store soy sauce, soybean paste, red pepper paste, kimchi and ch6tkal, or fermented fish preserves, the foods which stimulate Koreans' taste buds. Korea has several notable ceramic traditions which are representative of certain periods in history; for

W ~orea's

example, the jade-colored ch'6ngja, or celadon, of Kory6 (918-1392), the earthy punch'6ng (slip-decorated wares) and the pure white porcelain paekcha of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910). On a different level is onggi, the ceramic crocks which have a history as long as the fermented foods that they store. In general, the term tojagi (pottery) refers to vessels made from clay and fired with a glaze. It is a combination of the words togi (ceramics) and jagi (porcelain), with onggi belonging to the togi group. According to the dictio-

nary definition, onggi can be divided into two major categories: glazed and unglazed. But in fact onggi can be divided into more specific types, depending on their method of production. Unglazed onggi are called chil. They have a dark gray color that comes from absorbing the smoke produced during the firing process. Glazed onggi are known as oji. There are jars similar to chil, which are covered with soot and then salt glazed (salt is thrown into the firebox when the firing temperature reaches a certain level

and the vapors produced by the salt mix with chemicals in the clay body and soot to produce a glass-like glaze), and oji jars made from a colored clay covered in a glaze containing soot or china clay coated with a glaze. The most commonly used onggi today are made from earth-colored clay and covered with a sooty glaze. Ventilation: The Secret to Onggi

Onggi and Korea's food culture go hand in hand. This is why the most essential features of onggi are their capacity for storage, ventilation, insulation, and preservation, in addition to adjusting to climatic changes. Its most vital function is the preservation of food. While the foods which are most commonly associated with onggi, such as kimchi and soybean paste, taste so much better and stay fresh longer when stored in onggi rather than plastic or stainless steel containers. The superior taste is due to the ventilation which onggi allow. Perhaps it seems nonsensical to say that inanimate objects such as onggi can breathe, but there is no doubt that onggi have the capacity to regulate the activity of microorganisms, thereby aiding in the process of fermentation and enabling preservation over extended periods of time. Onggi have been cherished and used by the common people. In contrast to ch'ongja or paekcha, which are made from high-quality clay, onggi are made from clay containing impurities such as minute particles of organic matter. When fired, the impurities melt away or evaporate, leaving microscopic holes which enable ventilation. The mouth of the onggi functioned to control the amount of sunlight passing through while the tiny holes facilitated the flow of air in and out of the vessel. The crusted salt that can sometimes be seen on the surface of an onggi containing soy sauce is the result of salt seeping through the tiny holes. It is because of this "breathing" that onggi are able to preserve foods for such a long time.

It is unknown exactly when onggi first came into existence, but as the techniques for making crockery became increasingly refined after the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century), earthenware gradually became stronger and lighter while being used to store and preserve foods and grains of the kind eaten today. Although new types of ceramics such as ch'ongja, paekcha and punch'ong were developed throughout the Koryo and Chason dynasties, onggi remained an integral aspect of everyday life. The excavation of kiln sites has revealed much about ch'ongja and paekcha, such as their methods of production and changes in form and pattern. But considering their functional importance in the history of ceramics, relatively little research has been conducted on onggi. As such, onggi can only be appreciated from a limited perspective today. Tracing the Roots of Onggi

For the most part, the history of onggi can be traced only through literary documents and paintings. Literary documents from as early as the Three Kingdoms period provide evidence that the vessels used to store fermented foods were onggi. In Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) there are references to the prohibition of alcohol-brewing during a year of poor harvest in the Paekche Kingdom (18 B.C.-A.D. 660), and King Shinmun of the Shilla Kingdom sending wine, soybean paste and ch6tkal as marriage gifts to his queen. It is assumed that the vessels used to store these foodstuffs were onggi, or something similar to them. In Kory6 Toky6ng, the written account of a Sung .. China envoy's trip to Korea, it is recorded that rice, soybean paste, water and vinegar were stored in earthenware called ong, while there was a type of onggi called

suong with a narrow neck and protruding midsection, measuring 6 ch '6 k

(one ch'ok equals about 303 em) high and 4.5 ch'ok wide. Literary records from the Chason Dynasty also indicate that onggi, mainly used for storage, were an important part of everyday life. In the early Chason book Yongjech 'ongwha the author Song Hyun wrote that onggi were produced at several sites including Map 'o and Noryangjin. In Imwon Ky6ngjeji from the late Chason Dynasty, So Yu-ku recorded that large ceramic vessels were most often used, with those used to store alcohol or pickled vegetables being called ong or eng. Other vessels were called by different names according to their size. Paintings in which a variety of crocks, jars, jugs and wine bottles are depicted have proved to be m.ore enlightening than literary documents in tracing the original roots of onggi. But with most of these pictorial records being genre paintings from the 18th and 19th centuries, they too are of limited use in shedding further light on the history of onggi. Of the known Koguryo (37 B.C.-A.D. 668) tomb paintings, the ones in Anak Tomb No. 3 (3rd-4th century)

portray jars and earthenware tubs that were probably used for transporting water from a well (Plate 1). It is commonly known that earthenware was used in the early Three Kingdoms period while the jars and tubs depicted in the paintings are assumed to be sturdy earthenware vessels. Although their shape and usage appear to be similar to the onggi of today, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that they are definitely onggi. Evidence directly related to onggi can be found in Choson Dynasty paintings. The earliest example of a painting showing onggi is Kungjung sungbul-do, a 16th-century work It is a pictorial account of a Buddhist ceremony being held in the royal Âˇ palace which shows scores of jars and crocks lined up in the courtyard, ready for preparing the food for the ceremony (Plate 2). Some of the jars bulge out at their neck and others their main body. They are black in color, indicating that they were fired at a very high temperature. Genre paintings from the 18th and 19th centuries feature a greater variety of onggi. These paintings of everyday life in the late Choson period are filled with onggi. Most commonly seen in the paintings is the changtokdae, the terrace where a family's sauce jars are

stored and thus the key to the taste of the food of that household. For this reason, housewives would take fastidious care of this area, cleaning it several times a day while opening and closing the lids of the crocks and jars as necessary. The genre paintings show commoners' changtokdae with one or two onggi alongside their thatched roof houses, aristocrats' changtokdae, and the changtokdae in the royal palace with scores of onggi (Plate 3). The onggi in these paintings appear to be no diffe rent from the onggi used today. A careful look at one painting in particular, S6dang (School for Chinese classics), reveals patterns on the surface of the onggi (Plate 4). It is not known whether the pattern was carved in intaglio or drawn before it was glazed, but this painting is evidence that the onggi of that time were decorated. Now, the only thing left to determine is whether the onggi in the genre paintings are identical to the glazed, brown-colored onggi produced today. The onggi in the painting are gray, black or yellow, but it is hard to tell from this alone whether they were glazed or not. Fortunately, fragments of pottery showing the use of a gray glaze have been found at several kiln sites. At a paekcha kiln site in Chongsaeng-

dong, Taejon, pieces of glazed crocks and jars dating to the late 16th century have been found alongside fragments of paekcha with inlaid iron designs. Research has found that glaze was first used on onggi from at least as early as the late 16th century and was in common use by the 18th century. But further research is likely to reveal that the use of glaze dates back even earlier. The genre paintings reveal many different kinds of onggi, including crocks for chotkal, jars for water called muldongi, earthenware tubs chabegi and bottles for rice wine makk61li. Onggi Production

In a 1886 album of genre paintings by 19th century artist Kim Chun-kun, there are two paintings of onggi craftsmen at work. Tokj6m (Crockery Workshop) portrays an onggi workplace (Plate 5). On the left side of the picture is a large kiln alongside a mountain ridge. The kiln is unenclosed at the back and front, similar to those still used today. Sitting in front of the kiln is a man who is responsible for looking after the fire, the pultaejang. Beside the kiln is a craftsman, the taejang, shaping a vessel on a potter's wheel while a traveling jar salesman relaxes against his A-frame carrier. From this one painting alone it is easy to discern that a clear division of labor was practiced at an onggi kiln with different persons being responsible for the fire, forming the vessels and selling the finished products. The second picture, Crock Maker, depicts an onggi craftsman at work (Plate 6). The taejang is pictured shaping a large vessel on a potter's wheel with the help of a small mallet, in just the same manner as onggi craftsmen of today. There is a long string inside the crock with a piece of charcoal tied to the end, a device used to help keep the clay pliable. This kind of scene was common at onggi kilns during the 1960s and 1970s. Although such pictorial records fall

short of being satisfactory, it is still possible to discern various physical characteristics of onggi from the past. Onggi have been developed over thousands of years in line with the evolution of Korea's food culture. But with the changes in both eating habits and lifestyles brought about by modernization, the vital role of onggi in daily life has been drastically reduced. These days, kimchi and soybean paste are typically refrigerated or stored in plastic or stainless steel containers. But before plastic or stainless steel, storage vessels made of wood and clay were the norm. To regard onggi simply as a collection of crocks or jars is to misunderstand the range of items covered by this term. The various types Âˇ of onggi are distinguished according to whether they were used in the kitchen, storeroom or changtokdae, or they can be categorized based on their specific function. The representative onggi for storage are the crock, called tok, and jar, called hangari (Plate 7). In terms of size, the tok is the largest, followed by chungduri, hangari and tanji. Of the crocks used to store the fermented fish preserves called chotkal, the one used for shrimp chotkal is the largest, followed

~Âˇ-

by those for clam and anchovy chotkal. They range in height from 30 centimeters to 1 meter. Diverse Applications

Some unusual and interesting types of storage onggi include hangari with projecting ridges, small rice crocks known as chomdori ssaltok, vessels for spices and seasonings, and rice containers. The hangari with a projecting ridge was used to store shikhye, a sweet rice drink The ridge on the outside was filled with water to keep the contents inside cool (Plate 8). The small rice crock had a narrow mouth where women would occasionally stash a handful of rice for a special occasion. The spices and seasoning vessels stored such things as salt and red pepper powder. These were occasionally used alone but most often in sets of two to five joined together (Plate 9). The most common tools used to grind garlic and pepper were the hwak and hwaktok (Plate 10). Although usually made of stone, they were also made in the form of onggi for easy carrying. Cooked rice was placed in an onggi container to prevent moisture from forming and maintain its gloss and flavor. Another important type of onggi is a steamer used for making steamed rice cake, tt6k. There are two types of steamers, earthen ware and onggi. Although not commonly available, there were also steamers used for preparing herbal medicine and growing bean sprouts. Sojutkori was a glazed earthenware jar used in the making of distilled liquor. Brewed liquor was placed in a cauldron, over which the sojutkori was placed. The liquid was first heated and when steam formed, cold water was poured over the sojutkori such that distilled liquor would drip from the spout (Plate 11). 70

In the days when most people used a communal well, the most common onggi was the water jar, muldongi. Young girls would be assigned the task of fetching water at around the age of six or seven. Changgun, a type of onggi used for conveyance, was used to dispose of human excrement. There were two types of changgun: a cannon-shaped type laid sideways for carrying on an A-frame; another for carrying directly on the back. There were also onggi with spouts, called somaet'ong. The small kind were used for soy sauce or oil whereas the larger ones were used to pour urine on the fields. Of the onggi that were part of the house, there was the chimney onggi and the decorative tile that sits atop the chimney, called y6nga (Plate 12). The yonga was usually in the shape of a bird, turtle, toad or flower while there were other sorts of onggi tiles. Indoors, onggi lamp oil containers of various shapes were used. Onggi were not only used in the home. Their application varied from

musical instruments to medical uses and sanctums for folk deities. The representative onggi instrument is the water gourd called mulbak. An earthenware tub was filled with water and a gourd floated on the surface. The gourd was then struck with a long bamboo rod in time with the beat of the music. This water gourd is still used today in the folk games of the Milyang region (Plate 13). Other onggi instruments include the pu and the hun. For medicinal purposes, the mouth of an onggi vessel would be stuffed with pine needles and placed in a chamber pot. When removed a month later it would be filled with a greenish liquid, which served as an herbal remedy for internal injuries or bruises (Plate 14). For stomachaches, a heated onggi block was rubbed on the midsection area. In the past, most Korean households venerated numerous deities who were usually enshrined in some kind of onggi. Different types of onggi were found all around the house, chowang-danji in the kitchen for the

kitchen god, songju-danji in the main room, and op-danji in the storeroom (Plate 15). Accordingly, it is clear that onggi were not simply used to store and preserve food, but were also used for a great variety of other purposes, from the preparation of food such as rice cakes and alcohol and the growing of bean sprouts to carrying water, preparing medicine, and enshrining folk deities. The history of onggi thus far has been traced through literary and pictorial records. As most of the onggirelated materials still in existence today are from the Chason Dynasty, there has been a natural focus on onggi from that period. According to literary records, the types of onggi from the Choson Dynasty include the tok, chungduri, hangari, shiru (steamer), soraegi and tongi, names which have survived to the present

day. The main types of onggi seen in the pictorial records are the tok, chabegi and pyong (bottle). In shape and usage, these onggi have remained almost unchanged through the 16th to 18th centuries and are still much the same today. In conclusion, it is evident that onggi have been intimately related to the everyday life and food culture of the Korean people. Onggi have been a part of the country's history over thousands of years but advances in science and human civilization have brought about changes in eating habits and lifestyles. The onggi tradition, which was in danger of being lost during the years of rapid change, must be preserved through the rebuilding of crockery terraces and placing onggi crockery back on the kitchen table. The onggi are living and breathing objects and it is hoped that this aspect of Korea's indigenous culture will remain alive and well. + 71

DISCOVERING KOREA

KimChu-yun Professor of Geography, ult;U~

n Korea, the earth's crust is relatively stable, having few folds and faults and thus only limited earthquake and volcanic activity. And because the Korean peninsula was never covered by glacial ice, it does not have many large naturally formed lakes but there are about 100 smaller ones. The lakes in Korea can be largely divided into four types. First, there are the volcanic lakes, which were created

I 72

when water collected in craters and calderas left by volcanoes or in mountain valleys that became blocked off by lava flows. The best-known volcanic lakes in Korea include Ch'6nji Lake on Mt. Paektusan, Paeknokdam Lake atop Mt. Hallasan on Chejudo Island, and the 6sl'JOgsaeng-ak, K6m un orum and Samjiy6n lakes in the Kaema Heights. Second, are lagoons, shallow bodies of water separated from the sea by a

narrow strip of land. There are many along the East Coast, from Hamgy6ngbuk-do province to Ky6ngsangnam-do province. They were created when parts of the East Coast became submerged due to the rising ocean level during the post-glacial age, which caused river valleys and lowland areas to be transformed into the mouths of small bays. Sandbars and debris then blocked the bay entrances,

form behind these levees. Wup'o Lake in Ch'angny6ng-gun, Ky6ngsangnam-do and the Mokp'o, Sajip'o, Samolp'o, Y6nho and W 6lp'oji lakes are some of the back-swamp lakes in Korea. Fourth are crescent or oxbow lakes created by abrupt changes in river channels. Many are found along the lower estuaries of the Tuman-gang River in Hamgy6ngbukdo province and the mid-stream area of the Naktonggang. Abrupt shifts in the river channels of meandering rivers caused point bars to develop on one side of the river channel, pushing up the deepest river base

Ch'o nji Lake atop Mt. Paektusan is the deepest mountain lake in the w orld (left). Alth ough the lake is frozen and covered with snow, all arou nd it is a blo om w ith flo wers (above).

resulting in the creation of lakes. Some of the lagoons in North Korea include the Tongb6np'o, S6b6np'o, Samilp'o, Manp'o, Changny6n, Mukye, Kwangp'o and Shijung lakes. In South Korea, there are the Y6ngnang, Ky6ngp'o, Ch'6ngch'o, Hwajinp'o and Songjiho lakes. Third, there are back-swamp lakes. These are concentrated in the middle reaches of the Naktonggang River near the vicinity of Namji-up, Ky6ngsang-

nam-do. Swamp lakes came into being in the post-ice age when the rising sea left behind alluvium in valleys that were formed during the ice age. In other words, backmarsh or backswamp lakes were created when the surface of the land rose rapidly due to the accumulation of earth and sand on both sides of the Naktonggang that led to the formation of natural levees. As the flow of water decreased, swamps began to

line against the opposite riverbank This in turn caused the pushed-up bank to erode and retreat, and the curve of the deepest river base line to enlarge, ultimately resulting in the formation of a channel that grew gradually rounder. As a result, the narrow section resembling a neck between the channels was severed, isolating a portion of the former channel. Water collected in the remaining channel, which developed 73

into a crescent-shaped lake. The Sokch'on Lake in Seoul, P'adaeji Lake in Yongyang-up, and the Yonji and Ch6kji lakes in Kyonghung are examples of crescent lakes in Korea. Ch'onji Lak e on M t . Paektusan, Sacred M ountain of the Korean People

Paektusan (2,744 meters) is revered as a spiritual mountain by all the 70 million Korean people. Paektusan is the sacred mountain of the Korean people from which Korean ancestors aspired to achieve their noble dreams throughout their 5,000-year history. From long ago, the volcanic mountain Paektusan has been called by various names including T'aekbaeksan, Pulhamsan, Kaemadaesan, Tot'aesan, Chongt'aesan, Paeksan and Changpaeksan. The Veritable Records of the Chason

Dynasty (Chason wangjo-shillok) reveals that Paektusan erupted in 1597, the 30th year of the reign of King Sonjo, and in 1668, the 9th year of the reign of King Hyonjong. This indicates that Paektusan was likely active until the ~ 18th century. Paektusan is covered with snow all ~ year-round, as well as with white e: pumice, hence the name Paektusan, or White Head. A caldera formed on its summit during a volcanic explosion and subsequent cave-in which eventually became filled with water and is now known as Ch'onji Lake. Ch'onji Lake, meaning "an ethereal lake containing the mystery behind the creation of heaven and earth," has also been called Yongwangdam, Ch'onsangji, Yonggungji, Taeji and Taet'aek. Its waters are 384 meters deep, making it the deepest mountain lake in the world. It encompasses an area of 9.165 square kilometers, along with a circumference of 14.4 kilometers, and water volume of some 1.95 billion cubic meters. The water level rises a maximum of 50 centimeters, above which it flows off into the Sungch'aha Valley through Talmun, a gate to the valley created when a 74

crater wall collapsed. Talmun, about 30 meters wide, is the lake's only outlet. The water from Talmun flows downstream for about 900 meters to the famed Changbaek Waterfall (64 meters), eventually joining the Idopaekha Stream, one of the tributaries of the Sunghwa River in Manchuria. About 500 meters downstream from the Changbaek Waterfall is an outdoor sulfur hot springs with a temperature of 82oC. There are about 16 mountain peaks around Ch'onji Lake. These include Changgun Peak (2,744 meters above sea level), the highest peak in Korea, as well as Mangch'onhu in the shape of an angry lion sticking its tongue out and roaring at the sky, Piryu Peak in the shape of rippling waves, and the Ch'ung-amsan, Paek-amsan, and Ch'ail peaks. The water in Ch'onji Lake is composed of about 70 percent rainwater and 30 percent mineral water and hot spring water that gushes forth from the

floor of the lake. It is ideal for drinking as it contains more than 2,000 milligrams of calcium, kalium, magnesium and other minerals per liter. The water is exceptionally clean and clear, with a transparency range of 14 meters. The average water temperature in July is only 9.4Â°C, with the temperature dropping to as low as 4oC below the surface. Accordingly, the lake supports few living organisms. The lake remains frozen from mid-October until mid:June with the ice usually being 3 meters thick and covered with 3 meters of snow. Ch'onji Lake remains veiled in clouds, fog and wind for about 270 days out of the year. In summer, when it rains frequently there, a clear day is especially ideal to climb up to the summit. Chinese operators run jeeps that go almost up to the lake, thus making it easy for anyone, regardless of age or gender, to admire the lake from the summit of towering Paektusan. According to a legend, 99 celestial nymphs used to descend from heaven

to bathe in the lake. It is a natural habitat for about 2,343 species of plants including rhododendrons with blossoms that contrast beautifully against the snow. In 1980, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated the vicinity of Paektusan as an international protection zone. Paektusan is recognized as one of the most beautiful sites in the world with its stunning vista being further enhanced by Ch'onji Lake at its summit. The water is so crystal clear and transparent that it appears to be light blue while the surface of the lake exudes a mysterious aura by resembling all manner of forms and figures, depending on passing clouds, fog and the sun. Paeknokdam Lake on Mt. Hallasan, the Highest Mountain in South Korea

Chejudo is an island 96 miles south of Mokp'o. Previously called T'amra, it came to be named Chejudo during the

reign of King Kojong (r. 1213-1259) of the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392). It is an oval-shaped volcanic island measuring 74 kilometers from east to west and 40 kilometers from north to south. The 1,950-meter-high Hallasan, the highest mountain in South Korea, rises up from its center. Chejudo has been subject to volcanic explosions since the eruption of basalt lava at the end of the third period of the Pliocene epoch until about one thousand years ago. Now an extinct volcano, Hallasan erupted once during the reign of King T'alhae-wang of Shilla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935) in A.D. 63. In the "Ancient Records of Cheju" chapter of the 38th volume of Tongguk y6jisungnam, it is noted that there was a volcanic ex plosion on Piyangdo Island in the fifth year of the reign of King Mokjong of Koryo, 1002, and another in Kunsan, northeast of today's MostHp'o, five years later in 1007. Hallasan became an aspite volcano when trachytes blasted forth from the

sea bottom at the end of the Pliocene era to create a tholoide, whose surroundings later came to be covered with basalt. After its final eruption, water collected in the summit's crater which became Paeknokdam Lake, measuring 600 meters from east to west, and 500 meters from south to north. Its circumference is 1.72 kilometers and its depth is 150 meters. Its volume is estimated to be 10,000 cubic meters with the total surface area of the lake being 033 square kilometers. During heavy rainfall, the 330,000square-meter Paeknokdam crater fills up completely with water, creating a breathtaking spectacle. At the moment, the lake and its surroundings are closed to the public, except for designated periods, in order to protect the severely damaged natural landscape, including its rare plants and ancient trees, which have suffered much at the hands of indiscriminate visitors. About 2 to 3 meters of soil have accumulated on the bottom of the lake, with the

Except when there has been a typhoon or other heavy rainfall, Paeknokdam usually has little or no water (left). There are anu m ber of ancient plants native to Paeknokdam that add to its sense of refinement (above).

bed exposed throughout the yea r, except during the rain y seaso n. Currently, the lake resembles a silkworm cocoon as it comprises two round shallow lakes connected by a narrow channel of water. Because there are no outlets, the lake swells during rainfall and shrinks as water seeps out and evaporates. The western half of the lake's crater wall is a 100-meter-high cliff made up of white alkali trachyte that was formed during volcanic eruptions and has eroded due to weathering. The eastern half of the crater's wall is made of black basalt that was created during eruptions in the late Pleistocene epoch. As such, there is a distinct difference in the geological structure between the eastern and western walls, a unique geological phenomenon. Moreover, the western side of the mountain resembles a bell whereas the eastern side is round. In addition to Paeknokdam, Chejudo is also home to a number of smaller volcanic lakes such as Saraorum, Muljangol and Komun orl:1m, which were created when water collected in the craters of parasitic cones. As a mountain cradling Paeknokdam, Hallasan has been called by many 76

names from antiquity. According to Tongguk y6jisilngnam, it came to be called Hallasan because it was thought to be pulling (la-in) the universe (unhan). Hallasan has also been called Tumu-ak (headless rock) as "all its peaks are flat," and Wonsan for being "round as a half-moon." It was also referred to as Nahansa n based on a belief that Nahan (Arhat) who resided there were responsible for its majestic appearance. Other names for the mountain include Tansan, Chinsan, S6nsan, Won-gyosan, Purasan, Yongmangbong and y ojanggun. It is said that Paeknokdam Lake came to be so named because Taoist Immortals used to spend time near the lake, drinking paeknokju, a type of liquor made from paeknok, or w hite deer. According to other folklore, a hunter shot at a deer, but the arrow missed and instead hit a mountain spirit on his buttocks. The enraged mountain spirit scooped up a handful of dirt and flung it away. The place where the dirt was scooped out became toda y's Paeknokclam while the dirt landed and created Sanbangsa n . Ancient Koreans greatly venerated deer for their sage-like appearance,

noble character, beauty and longevity. Yi Chung-hwan wrote in T'aengni chi (Ecological Guide to Korea), a geographical treatise of the Chos6n Dynasty: "Hallasan on Chejudo is Y6nggusan. There is a great lake on the mountaintop, which becomes veiled in dense clouds and fog when people. become too noisy. Sometimes, the sounds of a flute and p'iri (bamboo oboe) are heard but nobody knows of their source." There are a number of ancient plants native to Paeknokdam such as Korean fir tre~s, Chinese junipers, and royal azaleas, which add to an overall sense of refinement. The snow that accumulates in winter remains until early summer, offering climbers a refreshing sight. Climbing up Hallasan to Paeknokdam on a dazzling spring clay resplendent with red royal azaleas or on a snowcovered winter day would surely mean a lasting memory. Aside from Paeknokdam, there are a number of other hidden scenic attractions including ChOng bang Waterfall, S6ngsanbong (Sunrise Peak), Chungmun Tourism Complex, Hy6pjae Beach, Pijarim Natural Habitat and Marado Island, concealed among the skirts of Hallasan.

Kyongp'o Lake, Known for Its Exquisite Moonrise

Kyongp'o Lake, designated Kangwondo's Regional Monument No. 2, is a lagoon that was created when a long sandbar blocked off the mouth of a small bay on the East Coast. Kyongp'o Lake is located about 6 kilometers northwest of the center of Kangni:'mg City. Fresh water and sea water ebb in and out at the Kangmun Bridge located along the coast and the Kyongho Bridge nearby Kyongp'o Lake, resulting in a brackish lake. From the past, the lake has been called Kyongp'o for its "water as smooth as a mirror," and also Kunja Lake for "offering benefits to people." It is 0.896 square kilometers in area, with a length measuring 25 kilometers, width of 0.8 kilometers at its narrowest and a circumference of 3.4 kilometers. Its circumference has been reduced to a half because portions of the lake have been filled in with earth and sand. In his T'aengni chi, Yi Chung-hwan noted that Samilp'o in Kosong, Shijungdae in Hupkok, Ch'ongsokjong in T'ongch'on, Ch'onkanjong in Kansong, Naksansa in Yangyang, Kyongp'odae in Kangnung, Chuksoru in Samch'ok and

Mangyangjong in Uljin are the eight most beautiful scen ic locations in Korea. He also wrote: "Kyongp'odae sits on a small mountain ridge that rises toward the east. Twenty ri (8 kilometers) away, there is a lake that small boats can navigate because the water level comes up to a person's waist. To the east of the lake is the Kangmun Bridge and beyond the bridge is a bank of white sand. The lake is connected to the sea while the blue sea beyond the bank appears to be touching the sky." Alongside the lake are some 2,000 black pines that spread out like a screen over a distance of 4 kilometers. In spring, the area is radiant with the red blossoms of sweet briers. The lake is also located adjacent to the Kyongp'odae Beach that boasts silvery sand, and is thus considered the most beautiful of all the lakes on the East Coast. Also nearby are Kyongp'odae, Ktunranjong, Panghaejong, Hohaejong, S6kranj6ng and Hae-unjong. From the past, many literati used to climb up to a pavilion overlooking the lake and exclaim in admiration: "A full moon is seemingly embroidered on silver silk" ChOng Ch'ol, one of the most noted scholars of the Choson Dynasty, also

compared the beauty of Kyongp'o Lake to "silk as white as ice shining among ancient pines" in his poem, K wandong Py61kok. The sight of migratory birds in flight above Kyongp'o Lake and the moon rising from Kyongp'odae forever fill observers with a profound sense of solemnity and awe of nature. The lake was designated a provincial park in 1982. Visitors can experience the delight of eating slices of raw carp freshly caught from Kyongp'o dipped in soy sauce mixed with vinegar, as well as Ch'odang tofu made with sea brine, two local specialties of Kangnung. Nearby the lake is Tonghae Harbor from where the cruise liners to Mt. Ktungangsan in North Korea set sail. Along the East Coast is a number of other tourist destinations including Mt. Soraksan in Sokch'o, Naksansa Temple in Yangyang, Chuksoru in Samch'ok and the Unification Observatory in Kosong. +

Opposite page: One can enjoy the beautiful scenery of Kyongp'o Lake from the lakeside Kyongp'o Pavilion. Below: From the past, the lake has been called Kyongp'o for its water as smooth as a mirror.

NATIONAL TREASURE

Decorative

TllESo PAEKCHE Kim Seong-goo Director, Kwangju National Museum

h6n are architectural elements fashioned out of clay and fired at high temperatures. Decorated with symbols of good fortune and for protection against evil spirits, they were widely used long ago in underground tombs as well as buildings and other structures. Featuring various patterns and designs, chon are recognized for their decorative nature and artistic value, while today considered important artifacts to the study of ancient cultures on the Korean peninsula. Chon from the Paekche Kingdom (18 B.C-A.D. 660) can be categorized according to their function, design and shape. Of note, those excavated from an archaeological site in W oeri village, in the township of Kyuam in Puyo county, Ch'ungch'ongnam-do province, are the most significant Excavations of the W oeri site, first discovered in 1937, have yielded such architectural elements from the Paekche Kingdom as chOn, roof tiles and pieces of pottery. The chon of W oeri, which have been designated National Treasure No. 343, can be divided into eight types according to design: mountain landscape and demon or ghost (both of which can be further subdivided into two different classes), phoenix, half-dragon, cloud, and lotus flower. There are two types of mountain landscape chOn (Plates. 1 and 2), both of which feature depictions of mountains, trees, water, rocks and clouds reminiscent of sansuh wa, or mountain and water ink paintings. Although the subject matter and techniques of the two sub-types are quite similar, there are subtle differences. One example (Plate. 1) portrays a mountain landscape, with a placidly flowing stream. A rock cliff towers above the stream and is set against mountains artfully arranged in layers, imparting grace and beauty. Deep in the recesses of the mountains are a small temple and a monk. Most striking of all, however, is the unique use of perspective, with the back-

ground cleverly distinguished from the foreground. The composition and rendering of the mountainscape are also highly stylized and schematic, but this does not detract from the overall sense of harmony so characteristic of Paekche art. In the other type of mountain landscape chon (Plate. 2), the front is divided in half. The top half shows a phoenix and clouds, while a simplified mountain landscape is inscribed on the bottom. The phoenix, a good luck symbol, soars proudly in the center at the top, facing forward. To the left is a cloud, another auspicious symbol. The mountain range in the bottom is simply drawn, slightly different from the mountain landscape of Plate. 1, with a two-story building and a boulder on the left. The subject of this chon is a natural landscape, and yet the style of rendering is also schematized. The left-right axis of the composition contributes to a sense of stability, with the various elements-mountains, clouds, water and rocks-arranged in a balanced layout. The resulting harmony is, once again, typical of Paekche paintings. There are basically two types of ghost or demon chon (Plates. 3 and 4). In both, ghosts, either in the form of monsters or spirits, are portrayed as statues on a pedestal of stone or lotus flowers. The ghost or demon faces forward, unclothed with its arms stretched out, muscles taut, and its mouth wide open, teeth exposed. The demon's glar-

FEATURING VARIOUS PATTERNS

AND DESIGNS, CHON ARE

RECOGNIZED FOR THEIR

DECORATIVE NATURE AND

ARTISTIC VALUE, WHILE TODAY

CONSIDERED IMPORTANT

ARTIFACTS TO THE STUDY OF

ANCIENT CULTURES ON THE

KOREAN PENINSULA.

Plate2

Plate3

Plate4

Plate5

ing eyes and upturned nostrils create a menacing appearance. A fiery mane streams above its shoulders, while around its waist is a belt, from the center of which dangles a medallion, that seems to split the massive body in half. The demon is portrayed in such an intimidating manner because it is intended to vanquish evil spirits. The ghost or demon stands on a pedestal of rock carved in the shape of flames, or in the other sub-type, an ellipse formed of lotus flowers. The ghost or demon motif was used from the Three

Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century) and thereafter as a symbol of shamanic power and ritual to ward off evil spirits. There is only one type each of the half-dragon chon (Plate. 5) and the phoenix chOn (Plate. 6). A beaded border frames a dragon or a phoenix in profile, contributing to a rhythmic sense. The half-dragon, so called because it is not quite a full dragon yet, crouches with its head about to pierce through the clouds to heaven at any moment. The dragon is a figure of

Plate6

pent-up energy, ready to unleash. The phoenix, too, is a figure in motion with its wings outstretched in flight. The effect is different from that of the dragon, however, as it is softened by the circular form of the phoenix rotating to the right. According to lore, the dragon and the phoenix are divine, along with other symbols of longevity such as the giraffe and the tortoise. As represented in Paekche chon, however, they are more likely symbols of good luck, as was the fashion of the time. Finally, there is the cloud chOn and the lotus flower chon (Plates. 7 and 8). Both feature bead-like borders, but they differ from the other types in that their ornamentation and splendor are due to the artful arrangement of lotus flowers or small decorative leaves. In the former, eight propitious clouds in a ring revolve to the right. The composition is so skillful as to suggest actual motion. The latter features a bas-relief of a lotus flower with 10 petals. Moreover, within each petal is inscribed a tiny leaf, an exquisite example of the decorative techniques unique to Paekche art of the first half of the seventh century. As with the dragon and phoenix chon, the small leaves are divided into four parts, each facing a different direction, such that the chon could be used in any position. When the chon were first excavated, they were found on the ground in pieces that did not match, with some of the fragments lying upside down. Because researchers did not pursue a

Plate7

full-scale study into the nature of the chon, it was never determined whether the site had been a temple or some other building. What is known is that chon are square in shape, measuring approximately 29 centimeters along each side and 4 centimeters in depth. Furthermore, each of the four sides included a groove, which enabled the chOn to be linked together. As has been mentioned, many different types of chon were excavated from Woeri, which are unique in their

beauty and style. However, they are significant not only as decorative elements, but as symbols of good fortune and protection, they are keys to understanding the culture of Paekche. Indeed, chon serve as an invaluable aid to the study of Paekche painting, religion and philosophy. But more specifically, tbe energy, movement and rhythm apparent in the chon embody the values of Paekche's artistic traditions in the early seventh century, the beginning of its golden age. +

LITERATURE

Steady EHorts to Globalize Korean Literature Ch'oe Yun Novelist Professor of French Culture, Sogang University

Before a trip to a foreign country I have never visited, I would buy two books. Naturally, the first is a travel guide; the second is a literary work of that country. This is not only because I am a student of literature, but also I have found that a literary work can reveal much about a people's way of life and culture in a more tangible and comprehensive manner. Whereas the choice of a travel guide may be easy, selecting the second book, a major passageway to understanding a country in my own way, is often not. It is simple enough when it comes to well-known Western countries, because of the familiarity of many of their authors and their works. However, when traveling to non-Western countries or countries that are not included in the ranks of the powerful, for example Turkey or Egypt, my range of choices shrinks noticeably. Yet, I have discovered that because of their geopolitical proximity to the West, books on their culture and literature have been translated to a certain extent. However, it is much more difficult if I want to select a literary work from Malaysia or Pakistan, for example. This does not necessarily mean that com pared to Western countries they have fewer authors or the quantity of their works is any less. Their literature has not been more widely distributed because they are countries in the periphery, far removed from the West, and because their languages are in the minority, this impedes the dissemination of their literary works. Korean literature's situation is not very different. Korea is a non-Western country that is not powerful, and Korean is a minor language. Until recently, Korean literature might have struck for82

eigners wanting to get to know Korea as something rare or non-existent. Of course, things differed from country to country, depending on their political, economic and cultural relationship with Korea, but I can say that the overall situation was similar, for those in Europe, the Americas, or even in the close neighborhood of Korea. Since about 10 years ago, Korean literature has been increasingly translated into major Western languages. Consequently, Korean literature is no longer described as simply one of the faraway Asian literatures in a single swoop or compressed into a literature similar to that of Japan or China, but rather has emerged as an individual literature with its own distinctive characteristics. This means that it has advanced out of an initial stage of mainly introducing Korean literature abroad as something exotic. The introduction of Korean literature abroad has progressed in different ways in different countries, and it is beyond my capability to examine them all. Therefore, I will limit my observations to Europe, France in particular with which I have some personal experience. Among the various projects that have helped to spur the dissemination of Korean literature overseas, the one project that stands out involves a Korean literature series launched by Actes Sud in 1990. This marked the first time that Korean literature had been published continuously iri the form of a series by a foreign publisher since the debut of Korean literature in foreign countries. Unlike the trend frequently seen in the United States whereby university presses and non-commercial publishers often target a small number of readers specializing in Korean studies, the publishing project undertaken by Actes Sud, a specialized publisher of literature, succeeded in introducing Korean literature to general readers. The series focused on introducing modern Korean writers

such as Kim Seung-ok, Pak Wan-so, Yi Ch'ongjun, Yi Mun-yol, Ch'oe In-hun, and Cho Se-hUi by providing translations of their novels. As the French press and critics took note of the belated discovery of the particularities of Korean literature through a considerable number of articles, Korean literature began to "exist" in France, which is relatively open to foreign literatures. This was evident from the designation of 1995 as the "Year of Korean Literature" and the invitation of more than 10 Korean authors to participate in various events of Les Belles Etrangeres, a project that invites literary figures from one or two countries to France each year under the sponsorship of the French Ministry of Culture. To date, Actes Sud has published French translations of more than 30 Korean literary works, with each publication being noted by the news media. Such reactions are important because of the waves they can create. Such waves are of twofold importance: one is the interest they create among other publishers in France; another is the heightened awareness of publishers in neighboring European countries as well as countries influenced by European literature. These two influences, which occur simultaneously, result in a noticeable synergy and boosted enthusiasm for Korean literature. Many French publishers have taken note of the fast-growing interest in Korean literature and begun to publish translations of Korean literary works. For example, an anthology of poems by Shin Kyung-rim and Tale of Hong Kil-tong has been published by Gullimard; works by Kim W on-il and 0 ChOng-hUi by Picquier; Pak Kyong-li's Land by Belsfond; Hwang Sun-won's collection of short stories by Zulma; a special issue on Korean poetry by Po&sie; and works of Su Chung-in and Yi Ch'ong-jun and plays by Ch'oe In-hun, Yi Kang-paek and other playwrights by Racine. Most of the publishers who have shown an interest in Korean literature will consider quality translated works of any genre for publication, with their number expected to increase over time. In fact, the mutual influences of Western literary establishments are historically very significant. It is almost a natural phenomenon that a work acclaimed in one country is translated into the languages of other countries.

Unlike the agent system of the United States and the United Kingdom , the customary European practice is for a publisher to assume the role of an agent. Accordingly, Actes Sud signed contracts with various authors, and then began to actively represent them to publishers in other countries. During this period, Yi Mun-yol's works, such as Kumshijo and Poet, were published by Harville of England, Junti of Italy, and publishers in Austria, Spain, and the Netherlands. Meanwhile, Yi Ch'ong-jun's "Iodo" and "The Prophet" have been published in a collection of short stories by 10/18, a widely popular paperback series, in addition to being translated and published in Colombia and Turkey. The efforts over these five years provided a unique opportunity for finding new readers in European countries. This was because the European publishers contacted by Actes Sud are literary specialists with their own readership pools. Compared to past efforts to introduce Korean literature abroad, such noteworthy achievements are indeed much more meaningful. In particular, a new group of readers has been formed, albeit small in number, which recognizes the uniqueness of Korean literature, while the literary community in such countries has come to appreciate the existence of Korean literature. It is often said that "well begun is half done," but this does not necessarily apply to Korean literature's advancement throughout the world. It will not be possible to maintain a growing and continuous interest in Korean lit-. erature in foreign countries without an overall maturing of Korean literature. Since we are particularly sensitive to quantitative benchmarks, putting much importance on the views of foreign countries, while hungry for their attention, we tend to emphasize hasty quantitative expansion without considering carefully the quality of works and translations as well as the receptiveness of a particular country, thus undermining the effectiveness of this process. In order to expand the interest in Korean literature overseas, despite its relatively small scale, it is more important to advance steadily through a focus on qualitative superiority rather than mere quantity, while understanding what the overseas introduction of Korean literature truly means and involves. + 83

!Art Review 1

Leeju-hyun Reporter, The Hankyoreh

he season of musicals is here. This year, musical enthusiasts can enjoy a diverse range of productions introducing experimental elements to the basic framework of the conventional musical. In line with this, the Hyundae Theater Company (Kim Eui-kyung, president) staged Tripitaka Koreana at the Opera House of the Seoul Arts Center from November 8-14. A "classical musical" featuring magnificent lyrics and music, Tripitaka Koreana is an epic based on an event in Korean history that continues in the tradition of ACom's The Last Empress and The Dream of Chang Pogo, which the Hyundae Theater Company staged last year. The unusual emphasis on the singing of Tripitaka Koreana is evident in its casting. The three main characters are all voice majors with experience in opera: Kim Won-jung who played Queen Min in the hit musical The Last Empress, along with baritones Yeo Hyun-koo and Hyun Kwangwon, both renowned opera singers, the latter having studied in Italy. The Hyundae Theater Company sought to present beautiful arias delivered by talented opera singers with dynamic voices, in proceeding with the relatively experimental casting. To dispel any doubts about the opera singers' acting ability, the company announced confidently at the opening presentation that 84

the "lead actors underwent several months of intensive training to work on their articulation and delivery." Producer Lee Chong-hun (president, Seoul Municipal Musical Company) also promised an impressive and inspiring production, created by merging Broadway-style musical scores with the stage lighting of Italian operas as well as the acting and singing of accomplished performers. Although its underlying theme centers on patriotism, Tripitaka Koreana is basically a love story that takes place amid domestic adversity, similar to The Dream of Chang Pogo that the Hyundae Theater Company presented last year. The story is set in the 13th century when the Koryo Dynasty suffered from frequent Mongolian invasions. In the first act, the lead character Pi-su (played by Hyun Kwang-won) and his blind sister Yun-yi (played by Yim Yu-jin), who have lost their parents, are separated in the wake of havoc wrought by the Mongols who left ravaged fields littered with dead bodies. Ten years pass by and Pi-su has become a skillful carver, following in the footsteps of his father who worked as a carpenter at a Buddhist temple. By chance, the Great Monk Suki, who was overseeing the carving of the Buddhist canon Tripitaka Koreana on wooden printing blocks, notices Pi-su's excellent carving skills.

Pi-su then relocates to Kanghwado Island to work on the carving of the printing blocks that is being carried out as a national project to conjure Buddha's blessing in overcoming the national crisis. Myo-hwa (played by Kim W on-jung), a beautiful woman of noble birth, goes to the ferry to greet Great Monk Suki and his group, when she and Pi-su fall in love at first sight. Love which disregards social classes carries a heavy price, however. Manjon (played by Yo Hyon-ku), a prince in love with Myo-hwa, is consumed by jealousy when he realizes Myohwa and Pi-su are in love. On New Year's Eve during a traditional mask dance, Pi-su and Myo-hwa confess their love for each other, but Man-jon tricks Myo-hwa into being alone with him and rapes her. Filled with despair, Myo-hwa decides to sever all ties with the world and becomes a Buddhist nun. Another ten years go by before Myo-hwa and Pi-su meet again. By this time, the Mongols, fearing the mysterious power of the Tripitaka Koreana, are planning to attack Kanghwado. Meanwhile, Pi-su's long-lost sister Yunyi decides to go the island and boards a ship where she meets Myo-hwa and the two women learn of their strangely intertwined fate. By coincidence, Man-jon is also on the ship, transporting the last shipment of the wood blocks to Kanghwado.

IArt Re v ie w The ship finally does reach the island but only after much mishap. Pi-su is joyfully reunited with his sister, but fails to meet Myo-hwa, who, during the voyage to Kanghwado, promised to marry Man-jon. Mongols invade the island during the ceremony to dedicate the wood-printing blocks. During the invasion, a Mongol invader tries to stab Man-jon, but Myo-hwa shields him, taking the knife instead. At the same time, the depository of the Tripitaka Koreana wood blocks catches fire. Pi-su finds the dying Myo-hwa and carries her body into the burning building to die with his beloved. Perhaps the two lovers' ill-fated love moves Heaven, as rain suddenly pours down, extinguishing the fire. Thus the Tripitaka Koreana, the product of the

Koryo people's love for their country, is saved. Befitting such a passionate and tragic story, the stage is majestic and splendid. Through the use of a revolving stage, each scene continues without pause. However, the scenes are not as animated and vibrant as compared to a typical musical. The musical score is also generally passive, at times featuring traditional ritual dances such as parach'um, a Buddhist cymbal dance, while contrasting with the latest trend of using techno and rap music in musical plays. A sense of purpose is maintained throughout the play, however, thanks to the outstanding musical prowess of the performers. The show's composer and arranger claim that the actors'

exceptional musical talent allowed Âˇ them to freely incorporate any musical element deemed necessary for the desired effect. Professor Kim Sun-ha of Hansuh University composed the music, while American Joseph Baker, a veteran of Broadway, arranged the music. David Lynd, another Broadway veteran who was responsible for the sound effects of the Broadway musical jesus Christ Superstar, was in charge of sound, with Italian light designer Franco Marri handling the lighting. All of them contributed to the staging of a genuine "musical drama" involving 650 million won of production costs. Tripitaka Koreana demonstrated the tremendous potential of Korean musicals in their efforts to match the standards of Broadway .. +

Scene from Tripitaka K orean a

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

ON THE STRENGTH OF HIS

17 ACTIVE YEARS ALONE, KIM REMAINS THE

WRITER WHO HAS EXERTED THE GREATEST INFLUENCE ON YOUNGER KOREAN

WRITERS WITH HIS SENSfnVE LITERARY STYLE, VIVID IMAGERY,

INTELLECTUAL EXPRESSION, AND WELL-KNIT STRUCTURE.

Despair of Modernism and Vision for Anti-modernism Kim Jeong-ran Poet, Professor, Sangji University

truggle with Materialistic Modernism The name Kim Seung-ok is synonymous with Korean literature of the 1970s. After a writing career of 17 years, he quietly entered a world of silence. In 1981, he converted to Christianity after seeing a vision of the "white hand of God." Since then there have been various rumors about his starting this new work or that. But in fa~t he has not produced a single work since assuming his self-imposed silence. But on the strength of his 17 active years alone, Kim remains the writer who has exerted the greatest influence on younger Korean writers with his sensitive literary style, vivid imagery, intellectual expression, and well-knit structure. In one sense, if we sweep aside the maelstrom of arrogant realism that marked the 1980s, it seems that Korean literature is still centered around Kim's works of the 1970s. There are a few exceptions, such as Pak Sang-ryong, who made his name in the 1960s, along with Yi In-sung and Ch'oe Su-chol, who were very active in the 1980s, but on the whole, Korean modernist writ-

ers have been following a wide but superficially thin road. This is a reflection of the level of modernism attained in Korean society. Modernism was achieved in Korea over a very brief time frame and based on little accumulated experience. The country thus had no time for learning what modernism actually involved or signi-

fied. The same applies to literature. Although literature remained mired in a modernism focused on superficial and materialistic pursuits, anti-modernist elements began to emerge in literature with writers wasting no time in incorporating the ironies of antimodernism in their work. Today, those writers engaged in seeking out the deeper meaning of modernism demanded by Korean society are not novelists but poets.

It is from this perspective that Kim Seung-ok is of such significance. Kim started writing in the 1970s, at a time when Korea was entering a period of industrialization while his work represents a struggle against the hollow materialism that grew out of the economy-first mind-set of Korean society at that time. It could be said that he chose literature as a weapon to resist the materialism of modernism. From his early works, which reveal the influence of French existentialism, to his later works, which depict various aspects of social degeneration (particularly sexual degradation) , Kim vehemently lashed out at bourgeoisie modernism. As such, it is not hard to surmise the meaning of the "white hand of God" that appeared before Kim. It seems Kim had determined that the only way to overcome the self-righteousness of materialistic modernism was to reestablish the truth of God, which had been pushed aside by the modern world, as the standard for humankind. This illustrates that Kim, in his radical ways, was a true pioneer and prophet of anti-modernism. 87

Visionary Honesty

The author who appears in Kim's work as the protagonist is depicted as the typical modern man. He is an urban intellectual. Of note is the way that Kim portrays him as a kind of traitor. This probably stems from the fact that the author is an intellectual from the country, whereby upon his obtainment of knowledgeable ways, he becomes assimilated into urban society, while his comfort there leads to a betrayal of the premodern community. Kim's characters cannot simply adapt to modern society and roam around aimlessly. The author in the story worries anxiously about the premodern society he has left behind and, though he remembers it fondly, he does nothing to save it. Tormented by a sense of self-loathing, he remains in modern society, while condemning himself for his wickedness and sardonic outlook Kim's characters are seriously conflicted. They are people who are afraid of the modern world as well as captivated by its allure. They could be classified as urban social misfits. This kind of unease with modern life runs all through Kim's works. The confronta88

K1m started wr1ting m the 970s, at

t1m

wh n Korea

was entermg a per1od of industrialization while his work represents a struggle agamst th

hollow

materialism that gr w out of the conomy first mind set of Korean society at that time. It could be said that he chose literature as a weapon to res1st the materialism of modernism. tion between the modern and premodern is particularly evident in "The Strongman." The protagonist moves from the slums of Changshin-dong to a clean Western-style house but he finds it hard to fit in while suffering from a sense of disorientation. The room is depicted as clean as a hospital ward.

There is a shift from the disorder of the premodern to the order of the modern. In the end, the protagonist, who cannot come to terms with the order, as a desperate gesture of destruction, secretly adds a stimulant to the food eaten by the family of the house where he is staying, but they are not affected in any way. While suffering from insecurity in the house, he thinks about the strongman, Mr. So, who steals into Tongdaemun in the dead of night to lift a stone the size and weight of a large safe. In the novel, So exists to provide a vicarious escape from modern society that the protagonist dreams about. The depiction of So is intriguing. So is described as "a person of mixed blood, born from a Chinese father and Korean mother." His ancestors have been known as strongmen from generation to generation. During the day he is a laborer. He chooses the dead of night, a time when no one is about, to climb up Tongdaemun and lift the stone, thereby showing his ancestors that their strength has been preserved. Through this character, Kim gives expression to the premodern power that the protagonist has betrayed.

However, the fact that this power ~an only be revealed at night (Kim calls t!tis phenomenon the "visionary meaning of honesty") means that the power is, in effect, futile. With the power being derived from a foreign bloodline, Kim suggests a lack of will to internalize such power. The power belongs in the territory of another, somewhere out of reach. But in having the power continued through a Korean woman, it indicates that the author holds out some hope for the power to be revived through women.

In Search of the Clean Speech In Kim's works no reconciliation is possible between the modern and premodern. This chasm can be seen in the contrast between the "good sister," who loses her ability to speak in the city, and the "arrogant author," in the novel Understanding Big Siste1: Although the author protagonist and the character Hwaja are separate identities in the novel, in the end they are both incarnations of the author. They represent the author caught between the sister, who stands for nature, the premodern and silence, and the author-molester, who represents the city, the modern and speech. Sister goes to the city but returns two years later having lost the ability to speak "Sister went to the city. Mother and I sent her there. But a few days ago, after two years, she suddenly returned. During those two years Sister was gone I had prayed so hard to the natural forces controlling this earth for the peace and comfort of my sister. But it seems that things kept going wrong in the city. What forces left those scars on her, what was it that sucked the blood out of her, what was it that tore at her and what happened to lock her up in a world of silence? Though Mother and I have begged her to talk about her life in the city, Sister does not say a word." Hwaja interprets Sister's silence as "resistance against the city." This silence represents the speech lost by the writer

in the degradation of the city, the deep private speech of the soul. The reader comes to learn that the "Sister's two years of silence" subtly overlap with the speech of the "molester." The arrogant author goes with Hwaja to a girl's school and there steals students' letters from a mailbox. One of the letters contains 200 won sent up from the country. He takes this money and uses it to get blind drunk The "two" in "two" years of Sister's silence and the "two" hundred stolen won is not a coincidence. The number two is a symbolic device through which the author and Sister are bound together as a couple. It represents Sister's silence being the result of the molester's destruction of the speech of a girl. That speech is the speech of the country, the pure speech lost by the author, the language of nature. Through his writing, Kim seeks to create a fable out of the language of nature. That is, he sought to transform the premodern, direct and non-violent language that is nature into a violent language by sending it through the circuit of indirect, modern language. It should be noted that the author acknowledges that the language of nature itself cannot form a foundation of permanence. Instead of being satisfied at stopping with a perceptive depiction of the state of nature, he wanted to use reason as a way to develop a debate or logic for the fable of nature. It is interesting that the author thought it was impossible to tell that fable through the male temperament. So he entrusts the pursuit of speech to the women. In the novel Understanding Big Siste1; it is Sister who is given this role, of course. However, Sister returns from the city in despair. This is a despair that really belongs to the author. Sister does not destroy the sacredness of nature and at the same time she is not able to find a way of translating the meaning of this into modern intellectualism. The two opposing forces remain in an antagonistic

relationship. But through the news of Sister's delivery of a baby, we are given the hope that the language of the spirit may be revived. In Kim's works the modern world acts only as a symbol of despair. Kim has no positive perspective toward the modern. In the novel Moonlight in Seoul, the work which most fully conveys Kim's disillusionment with the modern world, there can be different interpretations to the theme of "0" (zero) that runs throughout the book But first here are the thoughts of Kim himself. When I was writing the novel

Moonlight in Seoul, I wrote a 150page prologue, which I called Chapter 0. The title was just Moonlight in Seoul. Seeing this, Lee 0-young said: "It would be foolish to expect Chapter 1 from Kim Seung-ok Chapter 0 alone has the perfection of a short story..." So, the 0, which should have been at the very beginning of the main text, was stuck at the bottom of the title. Although this "0" was a coincidental choice, it seems to be a very meaningful coincidence. If it had been a normal preface, it should have been called Chapter 1, not Chapter 0. Perhaps it reflects the unconscious intent of the writer, something of which even the writer is not fully aware. To me this "0" theme represents "an empty modernism." Through this symbol, the author reveals that he has no positive recognition or vision for the modern world. This absence of vision means a loss of direction for literature as well. Having lost the power of speech, Sister returns from the city in silence. This silence is the absent tongue or the white hand of God. After writing Moonlight in Seoul, Kim began a long period of silence of his own. The new work that we are waiting for is yet to be written, existing only as white paper, or as Chapter 0. + 89

The Korea Foundation Fellowship Programs FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN STUDIES

The Korea Foundation offers fellowships for Korean studies in the fields of humanities, social sciences and arts. The program is intended to provide scholars and other qualified professionals overseas with an opportunity to carry ~;. ......~ out in-depth research in Korea for a period of Âˇ three to twelve months. Each successful applicant will be provided with round-trip airfare to Korea and a monthly stipend during the grant period. Applicants should complete the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Studies application form and submit their academic research proposals to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 31 of the same year.

Support for Korean Studies Programs Abroad The Korea Foundation offers financial assistance to universities, research institutes and libraries abroad in their efforts to promote the study and understanding of subjects related to Korea. Projects submitted for consideration must be in the fields of humanities, social sciences or arts and within the categories listed below: 1) Establishment and expansion of Korea-related courses and faculty positions, 2) Fellowships for graduate students or research grants for faculty members, \lnd 3) Library acquisitions and cataloging. Applications must be submitted to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by November 30 of the same year. For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

FEllOWSHIP FOR KOREAN LANGUAGE TRAINING

Korean Studies Support Team The Korea Foundation

The Korea Foundation offers grants for Korean language training to graduate students, scholars and other qualified professionals overseas who wish to learn the Korean language at a Korean university language institute for a period of six to twelve months. Each successful applicant will be assigned to a Korean language course at a major Korean university, and will be provided with tuition and a monthly allowance during the grant period. Applicants should complete and submit the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Language Training application form to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 31 of the same year. For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

Seocho PO Box 227 Seoul. Korea Tel82-2-3463-56l2 Fox. 82-2-3463-6075.6076

Personnel Exchange Team The Korea Foundation Seocho PO Box 227 Seoul. Ko rea Tel 82-2-3463-56l3 Fox. 82-2-3463-6075. 6076

KOREA FOCUS A BIMONTHLY ON CURRENT KOREAN AFFAIRS

In addition to KOREANA, the Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of globalization. KOREA FOCUS offers a comprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korea's current affairs. In this bimonthly, you will find timely essays and commenFOCUS~ taries on Korea's politics, economy, society and culture, opinions on world affairs, and a chronology of recent events in Korea. Its articles are selected from leading publications in Korea, including major daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals.

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To succeed in global business today, you need to respect power, be flex ible to change and stay ahead of the flow. These are principles that SK, previously known as Sunkyong, has been applying to all our business for nearly five decades. These are also lessons that business students learn as they train to become future leaders of Asian business. SK is proud to rainforce this training by sponsoring The Asian Wall Street Journal" s Educational Service Program to universities across the region.

SK is today Korea' s 5th largest conglomerate, enjoying revenues exceeding $40 billion and trading more than 2,000 products with over 130 countries across six continents. Our SK Corporation (formerly Yukong Limited) is KoreaÂˇ s number one energy and chemical corporation. And Wall Street knows SK Telecom, the world' s first telecommunications company to commercialize digital COMA cellular service.

Thanks to our partner companies, we strive to meet the changing needs in many locales and cultures. If you' d like to learn more about us and our global business opportunities, visit our web site or e-mail us at qanda@ocmp.com

Come grow with us www.sk.co.kr

Energy & Chemicals . Telecommunications. Finance . Logistics & Services THEASIAN WALL STREET JOURNAL Educat ional Service Program