Koreana Winter 2000 (English)

S~

Simply thebe-all and end-all. Samsung Digital I. We spell it differently because

everyone's invited,

we do it differently. Introducing a new language of advanced products, all

designed to make your life easier, richer and more enjoyable every day. Watch the best TV picture. High definition. High style. Down load the newest music from your computer and take it with you . Receive web data and e-mail on a wire less phone. Connect and create on an ultra-thin flat screen monitor. All-enabling.

All-connecting .AII-inviting. Come in to Samsung. www.samsung.com. Everyone's invited.

MP3 PLAYER

TFT FLAT SCREEN

WIR ELESS PHONES

HDTV

Leading-edge internet music

MONITOR

Voice-activated, data

the ultimate p icture and

downloading technology

Ultra-light , ultra -resolut ion

access, web capabi lity

sound exper ience

$1:J:l&JIUI>

BEAUN OF KOREA

Amisan Chimneys at Gyeongbokgung Palace

Chimneys have been in use since prehistoric times. Apparently they were created out of the need to draw smoke out of a dwelling through some sott of hole leading to the outside. Aside from this practical function, chimneys have since taken on a decorative role as well. The Amisan chimneys in the back gar·den of Gyotaejeon at Gyeongbokgung Palace ar·e exceptional examples of a functional yet ornately decorated chimney.

The Amisan chimneys ar·e a freestanding type of chinmey that was widely used in middle- and upper-class homes as well as palaces and Buddhist temples. They are fine works of art, which well fulfilled their practical as well as decorative ftmctions.

The chimneys were built by laying bricks atop a granite foundation in the shape of a hexagon They include a roof-like structure made of clay tiles through which the smoke escaped. The lar·ger sur-

faces of the chimneys are decorated with various patterns made of clay whereas the smaller surfaces ar·e decorated with brick tiles. The chimneys feature an attractive shape and sophisticated composition, malting them lovely decorations for the garden.

Each side of the chimneys is decorated with five different kinds of patterns representing prayers and wishes for the five blessings and longevity along with symbols to war·d off evil spirits. This provides a glimpse of how the women of the coutt would pray for the well-being and health of the royal family.

The original Amisan chimneys were lost in a fire that destroyed Gyeongbokgung Palace during the 1592-1598 japanese invasions led by the war·lord Hideyoshi. They were later rebuilt in 1865 during the second year of the reign of King Gojong (r. 1863-1907) . +

KOREAN ART & CULTURE Cover: The traditional martial arts that have contlibuted so much to the. sound development of the mind and body of Koreans have a long history. The martial arts depicted in Goguryeo (37 B.C.-A.D. 668) tomb paintings are now practiced and studied in the form of ssireum, taekgyeon, and archery. This issue of KOREANA takes an in-depth look at taekwondo, taekgyeon, subyeokchigi and other native Korean martial arts. On the cover is a painting of Daekwaedo by Yu Sook, depicting ssireum and taekgyeon

c 0 N

.

Traditional Martial Arts

T

4 E

Traditional Korean Martial Arts .Documented in Muyedobotongji

N

Sim Woo-sung

T

s

8 Taekwondo's Philosophy and Aesthetics · Lim Il-h yeok Taekwondo Past, Present and ~utre: An American Perspective Kyung Ho (Ken) Min Taekwondo on the World Stage· Lee Kyong-myong Subyeokchigi · Yook Tae-an Taekgyeon · Jeong Gyeong-hwa

KOREANA Internet Website With the inauguration of the Korea Foundation's home page on the World Wide Web, on-line access to fts publications is possible with abstJacts of KOREANA features along with photographs.

Please visit our Internet website at:

38 FOCUS

Rediscovering the Cultural Treasures of North Korea Youn Bum-mo

htpi~.klor<ean/dxm

© 17Je Korea Foundation 2000 All rigbts reserved No part of tbis publication may be reproduced in any form witbout tbe prior permission of tbe Korea Foundation.

The opinions expressed by the authors do not necess.1rily represent those of the editors of KOREAN A or The Korea Foundation KOREAN A, registered as a quaiterly magazine with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Registration No. Ba-1033, dated Aug 8, 1987), is also published in Chinese

46 INTERVIEW

Yi Gyeom-ro: Proprietor ofTongmungwan Yu Hong-june

52 TRADITIONAL ARTISAN

Yi Gi-nam, the Gochujang Grandma ofSunchang Lee Hyoung-kwon

56 ON THE ROAD

Dumangang River Kimjoo-young

64

KOREAN A

MARKETS

Geumsan Ginseng and Herbal Market Kim Mi-ok

Published quarterly by The Korea Foundation 1376-1 Seocho 2-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul137-072, Korea PUBLISHER

70

Lee In-ho

CUISINE

EDITORIAL DIRECTOR

Sujeonggwa, Persimmon Punch

Chung Jong-moon EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Koo Chun-sur

Park Jeong-yeop ART DIRECTOR

72

.-

Park Seung-u

LIVING

ASSOCIATE EDITOR

Traditional,..Charcoal Used in Daily Life

Kim Young-uk EDITORIAL BOARD

Cho Tae-soo

Han Myung-hee,John Holstein, Kim Hwa-young, Kim Moon-hwan, Lee Chong-suk, Shim Jae-ryong, Yu Hong-june

78 DISCOVERING KOREA

Wtldfires on the East Coast and Restoration of Plant Life

SUBSCRIPTIONS

Price for annual subscription: Korea Wl8,000, overseas US$30, Asia by air US$37, elsewhere by air US$39.

Price per issue in Korea W4,500

Lim joo-hoon

85

Subscription/ Circulation Correspondence:

NATIONAL TREASURE

Overseas

The Bell ofSangwonsa Temple

The Korea Foundation 1376-1 Seocho 2-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul137-072, Korea Tel: (02) 3463-5684 Fax: (02) 3463-6086

Lee Young-bae

88

Domestic

ART REVIEW

Interpreting Paik NamJune in a New Light Kim Young-jai

Myung-Hwa Sa C.P.O. Box 7852, Seoul Tel: (02) 2274-5443 Fax: (02) 2274-7822 ADVERTISING

AD DAEHAN MAEIL CO. Room #330, Seoul Bldg, 6-11 Hoehyeon-dong, 2-ga, Chung-gu, Seoul Tel: (02) 776-7450 - 1 Fax: (02) 756-7450 LAYOUT & DESIGN

Art Space Korea Co., Ltd. 31 Shingyo-dong, Chongno-gu, Seoul Tel: (02) 734-7184 Fax: (02) 737-9377

l Audacity 91 Yi Sangs Perpetua Walter K. LeW ..

Poet Literary CntJC

,

non

aeeorcl ol a eonsumma

By YiSang

Printed in December 2000 by Samsung Moonwha Printing Co. 167-29, Hwayang-dong, Songdong-gu, Seoul Tel: (02) 468-0361/5

Traditional Koreati Martial Arts

Documented in Muyedobotongji Sim Woo-sung Director, Gongju Folk Drama Museum

efore discussing the subject of traditional Korean mattial arts, it would be helpful to first examine the concepts of "tradition" and "martial arts" separately. Traditio!} relates to that which has continued from the past to the presn~ including the customs, behavior, skills and technology of a people that have been passed down from generation to generation. "Mattia! arts" relates to the act of defending oneself using such weapons as a bow and arrow, sword, or spear. Moreover, it involves training in fighting techniques and the use of weapons while incorporating mental discipline as well.

Based on the foregoing, traditional mmtial arts can be defined as "fighting techniques that have been handed down from generation to generation to the present day, while being studied and developed over time and adapted to contemporary usage."

In reference to the martial arts of China, Japan and Korea, China is associated with the spear, Japan with the sword and Korea with the bow and arrow.

Since ancient times, the three countries have experienced relationships that have alternated between confrontation and friendship while exchanging and absorbing many aspects of each othetJs cultures.

Nonetheless, the use of the spear by

B

4

China, the sword by Japan, and the bow and armw by Korea, are all rooted in the char¡act.er of each country's people.

As for the background of Korean mal'tial arts, according to Sin Chae-ho's

joseonsanggosa (The Eaily History of ]oseo.n), in ancient times bands of warliar youths were selected for training in swordsmanship, archery, horsemanship, taekgyeon, and swimming, which they learned while roaming about the countryside and patticipating in regular-ly held competitions to show off their prowess during such heaven-worshipping ceremonies as Goguryeo's Dongmaeng, Buyeo's Yeonggo and Ye's Mucheon.

Institutions were later established where these youths were trained in the five righteous virtues (loyalty, fidelity, faith, courage and humanity), and instructed in the six social graces (literature and archery, horsemanship, etiquette, music and song, fist fighting and swordsmanship). This training in martial arts and swordsmanship, including horsemanship and archery, combined with instruction in etiquette was mandatory education for youth in ancient times. This is reflected in the wall paintings found in Gogmyeo (37 B.C.-A.D. 668) tombs such as Samsilchong, Ssangyeongchong, Muyongchong and Gakjeochong that depict scenes of horse-mounted troops engaged in battle as well as taekgyeon

and ssireum (traditional wrestling). At that lime, martial arts training was especially comprehensive, incorporating ssireum, taekgyeon and archery, while taking the form of combat with elements of sport and dance as well However, as the authority of the military government deteriorated at the ¡end of the Gory eo Dynasty (918-1392) along with the Mongol defeat of the Sambyeolcho, the Three Elite Patrols, traditional Korean martial arts essentially disappear-ed from everyday life though they continued to be practiced underground. Outwardly, only the sport aspects of the martial arts survived in the form of ssireum and taekgyeon, which became widely popular with commoners as folk games.

Muyedobotongji, a comprehensive illustrated manual of Korean martial arts published during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), is an especially significant record in that it includes not only information about Korean martial arts but also describes how the martial arts and fighting techniques of other countries had come to be known in Korea. It served to expand the application of martial arts using the bow and arrow and the sword for military purposes rather than personal endeavors.

Muyedobotongji was commissioned

by King Jeongjo (r. 1776-1800) and published in four volumes in 1790, the 14th year of Jeongjo's reign It was compiled

by Yi Deok-mu (1741-1793) and BakJe-ga

(1750--1805) based on the actual state of military affairs at the time. There is an additional volume in which the original Chinese characters are presented in the Korean scrip~ Hangeul.

The motivation for this major publication related to the foreign invasions of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty, in particular the J~panes invasions led by the warlord Hideyoshi and the Byeongja Horan, an offensive by Qing China.

These invasions shattered the peace of the first 200 years of the Joseon Dynasty, thus arousing in the king and commoners alike the need to revive Korea's martial arts.

As previously mentioned, Muyedobotongji explains how elements of Chinese and Japanese martial arts were

Training in martial arts, including swordsmanship, horsemanship, and archery combined with insttuction in etiquette, were mandatory education for youth in ancient times. A hunting scene from a wall painting in Muyongchong, the Tomb ofDancers, of Gogucyeo (37 B.C.-A.D. 668)

incorporated into Korean martial arts.

In particular, the recording of Japanese swordsmanship, or waegeom, demonstrates the importance that Koreans placed on knowing their enemies well in order to devise defensive countermeasures.

The book is divided into 24 chapters, dealing with a variety of martial art forms. The first volume is devoted to

I /¡

spear fighting with six chapters on different spear-fighting techniques. The . second volume covers sword fighting with two chapters on tradi ~ nal Korean techniques and one chapter on Japanese swordsmanship. The third volume contains eight chapters describing various types of sword fighting, while the fourth volume is dedicated to six different types of martial arts including the "fist method," gwonbeop, and various horse-mounted martial arts. At the end of the book is an appendix that pro-

Archery skills were an important part of ancient martial arts training.

A genre painting of the late Joseon Dynasty showing an archery lesson.

vides detailed illustrations of the kind of clothing worn in four different types of martial arts and is thus a valuable reference for the study of ancient clothing.

The following is a brief introduction to five martial arts included in Muyedobotongji, including four indigenous martial arts and Japanese swordsmanship.

Bongukgeom T~e most typical Korean style of swor~manhip is singeom. At the time Muyedobotongji was published, Joseonstyle sword fighting was different from that of early Joseon as described in Mubiji, (A Record of Military Affairs) a 6

book by China's Mao Yuany4 while the term singeom, literally meaning "new sword method," indicates a combination of the old and new styles.

In ancient times, the sword was revered in both the East and the West In later times, with a growing preference for the dagger or knife, the term geombeop (sword method) was commonly used to refer to fighting with either a sword or knife.

Bongukgeom combines the advantages of both sword and knife fighting, harmonizing both strength and technique. Of note, the name bongukgeom reflects Joseon's philosophy of practical learning, Silhak, which focused on independent and progressive thought.while advocating the creation of things uniquely Korean.

Yedo Yedo is among Asia's oldest techniques of swordsmanship. According to Mubiji, .it was originally called ]oseon sebeop. The book contains illustrations and explanations of the basic techniques of 24 different methods of sword fighting. In theory, it seems that yedo served as the model for a variety of sword-fighting methods developed in Korea, China and Japan.

In addition, Muyedobotongji contains illustrations and explanations of 28 basic techniques of yedo including all related movements and actions, making it a valuable record for the study and revival ofyedo.

Gichang Muyedobotongji describes four different methods of spear fighting: jangchang (long spear), gichang (spear used by the cavalry), jukjangchang (long bamboo spear) and another kind of gichang with a small flag or banner attached to the end, which is not mentioned in other records.

In ancient times, before the invention of firearms, the spear was regarded as the most effective of all weapons. The long spear, jangchang, was particularly

effective when attacking from a distance, but in close combat, its very length became a disadvantage.

Because of its length, the gichang was also called danchang, "short spear." With its shaft decorated with a fancy flag or banner, it could be freely wielded in all manner of combat. It was mainly used by sentries or for ceremonial purposes.

Masang ssanggeom

Masang ssanggeom refers to the use of ssanggeom, or twin swords, while on horseback No references to this method can be found in any martial arts records other than Muyedobotongji. Twin swords were originally used for personal protection. They were too cumberiiOme for regular soldiers to use in battle; moreover, they were less effective than other weapons. Therefore, masang ssanggeom was mostly a demonstration art to show off one's fighting skill.

Masang pyeongon The Muyedobotongji also describes six types of martial arts performed on horseback that are not recorded anywhere else. Masang pyeongon is a club with a ball and chain attached that was used to flail the enemy. It was a weapon capable of inflicting much damage, especially when used in conjunction with a spear.

Waegeom The three Asian countries of China, Korea and Japan exchanged and absorbed many aspects of each other's cultures, including mattial atts-related elements, which often occurred during times of wat¡. Good examples of this at¡e waegeom, or Japanese swordsmanship, and waegeomgyojeon, Japanese sword fighting, that were introduced to Korea as a result of the Hideyoshi invasions, during which Koreans suffered greatly

from Japanese waegeom attacks.

Consequently, a comprehensive study, analysis and documentation of Japanese swordsmanship was undertaken in an effort to thoroughly understand the enemy's att of fighting so that improved defenses could be developed Muyedobotongji contains detailed drawings and explanations of the movements of each school of Japanese swordsmanship and includes a chapter on Japanese sword fighting, making it a truly rare qocument the likes of which cannot be found even in Japan There are illustrations of all the movements of both waegeom and waegeomgyojeon.

Waegeom is different from the traditional sword techniques of geomdo, or kendo in Japanese, which was forcibly transplanted to Korea during Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945).

All of these martial arts continued

A painting by Han Si-ga.k depicts the state militaty service examination during the Joseon period.

to be practiced until the end of the Joseon Dynasty, but with the introduction of Western culture and modern firearms, they lost their original purpose. Nevertheless, they continued to survive by developing in a different direction. Though this might not be evident in such martial arts as taekgyeon and archery, it can be seen in the movements of traditional masked dances and shaman dances that are similar to martial arts movements in regard to gi, or natural energy, which is generated and subsequently released. The current effort to revive traditional martial arts is a most welcome development. +

Taekwondo's

Philosophy and Aesthetics Lim 11-hyeok Professor, Department of Taekwondo, Tamna University

aekwondo is part of Korea's cultural heritage through which Koreans can proudly display their physical prowess and philosophical essence to the people of the world.

Accordingly, it would not be an overstatement to say that taekwondo is one of the most significant cultural media at the forefront of efforts to globalize Korean culture. To keep in step with

the latest trends, in-depth research on taekwondo should be systematically conducted in order to solidify Korea's standing as the world's leading taekwondo nation. Unfortunately, little attention is being paid to this. Although much success has been attained in popularizing taekwondo and developing it as a competitive sport, not enough is being done in regard to making known its philosophical aspects. Therefore, I

would like , to present a philosophical approach to taekwondo, so as to expand the realm of its "human activity" beyond the typical and limited perspective while also highlighting the aesthetics of taekwondo.

Understanding Taekwondo's Philosophy Kim Yeong-seon, who is a taekwondo instructor at Yonsei University in

The color of the belt indicates the taekwondo ranking the wearer has achieved. Black is for the highest level.

Seoul, noted that: "The philosophy of taekwondo is not limited to an investigation of essence and fundamental principles: it is the living philosophy of taekwondo practitioners." Thus, without a proper consciousness, our actions 9

1 I..

will also tend to be distorted. Anyone but an extreme pacifist would argue that when confronted with potential ¡ violence, it is natural to defend oneself.

As such, the matter of what action one should take in response to such circumstances is an important question. In such situations, one is often compelled to take a course of action dictated by the relevant circumstances. In light of this, a person who has devoted himself to training for the purpose of improving the effectiveness of his actions will have an improved ability to react.

If you look into the deep and profound mental elements of taekwondo, a clear relationship with Zen thought can be detected Zen consistently recognizes the significance of human actions themselves, while stressing the flow from one movement to another. Taekwondo, like Zen, rejects the need to pause within a situation for reflection, regarding this as an effete distraction.

The goal of Zen practitioners is attaining a state of non-self. When this condition is achieved, the duality of self and opponent as well as that between consciousness and action can be overcome. In such state, there is only oneself as one becomes an integral part of the overall situation so as to discern the situation as it actually is.

For example, when in a match, if you focus exclusively on a certain movement of your opponent, you will tend to lose your concentration regarding the situation as a whole. On the other hand, if you strive to realize self-consciousness, you can better react to any movement by your opponent. Without any awareness, one can intuitively sense any movement within the sphere of action so as to always be prepared to fend off one's opponent.

Among taekwondo practitioners, only those who genuinely learn the finer points of the art will realize its philosophical essence. Those who practice taekwondo or some other martial art as a hobby during their spare time, 10

for exercise or as a means of selfdefense, will gain a certain level of benefit through such training, but taekwondo offers a mental fulfillment that goes far beyond its physical nature. Such advanced learning cannot be achieved practicing taekwondo on one's own. One can acquire a proper orientation only by learning from a great teacher while adhering to the tra-

Unlike other martial arts and sports, in taekwondo the emphasis is centered on mental training rather than physical technique.

Taekwondo is not characterized by a sports-like focus on offense and defense, but rather it is in the quiet beauty of the forms and movements themselves that greater value and meaning can be found.

ditions and rules of the training center, under the influence of one's fellow senior and junior members. Moreover, it is possible to obtain profound wisdom about life from an ancient value system, and understanding of the unique philosophy of taekwondo. Such a philosophy is easier to understand than to carry out in one's daily life, since this could well require years of practice.

White Outfit and Belts Taekwondo, the traditional martial art of Korea, is performed wearing a

white jacket and trousers with a belt around the waist. White was the color of Korean clothing in ancient times, as evidenced by the fact that Koreans were called the "white-clad" people.

Taekwondo practice attire, consisting of trousers, jacket and belt, represents the three "ultimates" in East Asian thought-Heaven, Earth and Man, collectively referred to as han or hanbeol. The taekwondo outfit, called dobok, bears several similarities with the traditional Korean costume hanbok, but it is not known who first created the outfit.

Among the basic forms of Korean attire, the jacket (jeogon) is worn by both men and women (In Silla, male and female jackets were known as wihae, and later utae, uchi and utot.).

During the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century), the jacket was called yu (som jeogori, gyeopjeogori). As for the men's jacket, it comes down to the buttocks in the back with long sleeves and lines defining the lapels, front and sleeve openings. In particular, the jacket is brought together and tied like a caftan. In ancient times, the front was fastened with the left or the right side being underneath at different times until it was apparently determined that the right side should overlap the left around the sixth century, as seen in paintings of figures on the walls of Goguryeo tombs.

The trousers, an essential garment of northern nomadic people, were worn since before the Three Kingdoms period. References to the Buyeo people in the "Tong+zhuan" section of the San¡guo-zhi attest to the long history of trousers as it notes: "The Buyeo people wore trousers of white cloth and straw shoes."

The dobok's white color is meant to signify that according to the indigenous philosophy of the Korean people, since the essence of the universe and the source of all things are white, we all essentially derived from one (han,

or hana). Han, which also means white, symbolizes the essence of the universe.

The change in the modern lapel to an inverted triangle is an innGvation related to taekwondo's internationalization.

In this form, the collars have a more attractive look and there is no need to adjust them when training.

Along with the jacket and pants, the belt completes the taekwondo uniform. Belts with a horse insignia recovered from Bronze Age historical sites suggest that the belt originated as part of a tribal outfit.

During Goguryeo times, the aristocracy wore wide belts made of hemp or silk, whereas commoners wore belts of a narrow width and the lower class

England's Queen Elizabeth II attends a demonstration by the taekwondo team of Midong Elementaty School during her visit to Korea in April1999.

wore braided rope belts. During the mid-Joseon period, belts were usually worn with outer garments such as overcoats. Today, there are white, yellow, blue, red and black taekwondo belts, which are sometimes worn differently.

Tying the belt over the jacket highlights the beauty of a curved line as the loose end of the belt sways freely during a match. When taken off, it is straight, when worn on the waist, circular, and when tied, its ends curve. In addition to the aesthetics of a curved line, the belt also can be seen as an expression of the Five Elements. That is to say, it represents the primal Supreme Ultimate, with the area above the waist being yang and that below yin.

Aesthetics of Taekwondo The aesthetics of taekwondo can be divided into the categories of passive and dynamic aspects. The passive aes-

thetics of taekwondo is apparent in the static, unmoving, tranquility of its mental training as expressed in meditation and the way mind and body become one through internal contemplation of (meditation on) the activities of external training. The dynamic aesthetics are seen in the vitality and strength of movement during periods of training.

Passive Aesthetics Unlike other martial arts and sports, in taekwondo the emphasis is centered on mental training rather than physical technique. Taekwondo is not characterized by a sports-like focus on offense and defense, but rather it is in the quiet beauty of the forms and movements themsel ves that greater value and meaning can be found. The essence of the forms and movements of taekwondo is that the mind and body should move together. This includes not only visible physical movements but also

12 .

. ~

~

control of the emotions and breath which flow from the mind. Through this control, the mind becomes clear while the flowing movement of the body is enhanced. When the body and mind move together, movement that is neither moving nor stationary can be understood. This is an extremely calm and flowing state of mind in which consciousness of the movements themselves disappears.

The forms and movements of taekwondo are, therefore, not merely the flow and movement of the body but also include the internal movement of the Tao, that rarefied principle of the universe. Tao attained from taekwondo training is Tao realized through the world of the subconscious. Only when this subconscious Tao can be expressed through the body is the activity of the practitioner at one with nature and the universe, with the movement being an expression of ultimate beauty and the zenith of the art. This is more than an external expression of aesthetics, it is a mental pursuit of tranquility which

vividly demonstrates the uniquely intellectual character of taekwondo. The time and place in which the performance occurs create a world free of common concerns and anxieties and it is this reverent state of mind which is the noble and lofty goal of taekwondo.

The art's passive aesthetics are not the beauty of non-moving states themselves but the stillness inherent in taekwondo movements; a stillness within which the practitioner and the wondrous natural world are visibly joined together.

In order to understand the fundamental philosophy and ideology of taekwondo one must learn the theoretical principles upon which its movements are based. The art is a practical application of these principles as expressed in the taegeuk, the yin and yang symbol, representing the negative and positive aspects of universal life.

Consequently, the lines of movement are a complete and practical expression of the principles of the yin-yang lines of the eight trigrams: offense and

Jireugi, a basic offensive technique using the fist (above left) Jjigeochagi, a downward kicking movement with a leg raised overhead (above)

defense, retreat and advance, gentleness and strength, and fast and slow.

During training, the body's extension and retraction, breathing rate, strength and weakness must all be controlled. The actual lines of movement in the forms and activities of taekwondo are designed as expressions of the yin-yang lines of the eight trigrams, each representing a fundamental principle of the universe. As such, breathing, the feel of a movement, and the movement's speed are performed with a high degree of control, so that each aspect is an application of the cosmology of the taegeuk.

The philosophical foundation of the forms and movements of taekwondo is thus established in this manner. The many hours of repetitive kicking, strik13

ing, and blocking movements willingly undertaken by the practitioner are not simply mindless repetitions; they are intended to reinforce the importance and meaning of postures, positioning of the feet and hands, directions, control of breathing and muscles, and the fine points and mental discipline associated with the art.

During periods of training when in the ready position or when the muscles are relaxed, the practitioner is waiting for the right moment when all of the body's energy will be concentrated on one point for an attack This type of repetitive training can be viewed as a non-aggressive practice, with the mental concentration being a form of meditative discipline.

Meditation is pursued to realize liberation, while at this stage it becomes possible to understand the basic principles of worldly matters and thus a profound understanding of special movements is possible as well. For example, an experienced professional tennis player anticipates the direction from which a ball will be returned and then he or she prepares for such a situation.

The difference in taekwondo is that mental concentration is even more important while taekwondo training is conducted in a systematic and organized manner, the tangible expression of which is manifested in the forms and movements that make up the essence of the art. In this way, practicing the forms and movements of the art makes the human impulses and instincts sublime.

This process of sublimation is the mental state of transcendence, a state of absence. In this state the practitioner is unaware of the enemy in front, the emotions associated with victory and defeat, bravery and fear, and even negative thoughts, and desires such as revenge and ambition are absent from the mind. Ultimately, taekwondo becomes a way of controlling the manner in which one expresses onself and one's aggression while being a highly 14

effective means of controlling violent tendencies.

Dynamic Aesthetics As with dance which is expressed through the body's movements, so too taekwondo expresses its spirit and ideology through physical movements.

The principles of dance and taekwondo have much in common.

Taekwondo is an art based on movements.

Its movements and forms feature the beautiful curved lines so revered in Korean tradition with their essence being the basic forms of traditional Korean dance.

This is true of the many forms of movement in taekwondo that require complex positioning and techniques similar in style to those of Balinese dance. The forms and movements which are at the heart of taekwondo are also considered to be similar to traditional Korean dance and music. The taekwondo movements rely on flexibility and precision. This is especially true when a taekwondo practitioner raises his foot, up above his head or in highly technical kicks (flying reverse spinning kick), which can be used simultaneously for attack and defense. In ballet, with its elevated kicks, turns, jumps and soft landings, and in forms of dance which use the entire body, can be seen the similarities between taekwondo and dance. As with dance and other performing arts, taekwondo includes distinctive artistic elements.

Taekwondo is an art based on movements while at the core of all of these movements is the distinctive curved lines of traditional Korean aesthetics. The movements and forms of taekwondo feature beautiful curved lines so revered in Korean tradition with their essence being the basic forms of traditional Korean dance.

Among the curved lines integrated in taekwondo movements, the themes of tranquility, gravity, and movement are most prominent. Amid the tranquility of taekwondo movements there is a profound expression of the universal energy gi, which gathers within the body, while through such movement energy and tranquility are maintained in equilibrium. The essence of the themes of tranquility, gravity, and action is reflected in each step and hand movement of taekwondo.

The aesthetic consciousness of taekwondo is similar to that of the performing arts, with a deliberate eff01t through a process of training being required to understand its true beauty. Instances of outwardly embellished taekwondo movements are a product of such efforts whereas the mainly physical aesthetic experience of objective observers can perhaps be attributed to these efforts as well. The appreciation of the beauty of the outward expressions of taekwondo movements comes from one's inner feelings. These feelings are interactive and subjective. However, because objective and subjective thoughts are related, taekwondo can become a dynamic expression of performing aesthetics.

Taekwondo movements are supreme forms that result from dynamic and skillful engagement of the art, and it is within this structured framework that the practitioner replicates the forms and movements of the art. Repetition is an expression of one element of the training. It is a type of training that embodies the goals of the ar~ while being a period of adjustment lasting until the beauty of the art can be refined Only when the harmony and artistic grace of the move-

ments are united through the process of repetitive training can the true elegance of taekwondo be achieved In such training, all movements are expressions of the essential nature of the art, with the basic principles of these movements being strength, precision, and speed. In these movements each joint is used with the utmost vigor and precision.

The forms and movements of taekwondo training require more upper body than lower body strength with rapid continuous refined movements symbolizing the dynamic aesthetics sought after in the practice of taekwondo. The symbolic meaning of the structure of the forms and movements of taekwondo can be seen as an expression of the concept of an internal world with the forms and movements of the art in the external world being symbols of existence.

Much like dance, taekwondo includes distinctive artistic elements (above).

Attack and defense movements are executed simultaneously as in the overhead kick or the pivot-jump and kick that involve much technique (left).

The artistic elements of the discipline of taekwondo, those well-honed movements of the art which combine elegance and subtlety expressed through bodily movements create instances of beauty and a tangible realization of these outward expressions of beauty.

In order to advance the artistic value of taekwondo, a systematic restructuring of the art's theory and ideology must be undertaken, along with continuing research to firmly establish the relationship between taekwondo and aesthetic study. + 15

.. ~

~

Taekwondo PaSt, Present and Future: An American Perspective Kyung Ho (Ken) Min Technical Director, Martial Arts Program, the University of California at Berkeley

hat an awesome experience the Sydney Olympics were! Fourteen days which began with the colorful Opening Ceremony and the historic march of South Korean and North Korean Olympic Teams, hand-in-hand in a symbolic effort to bring peace to the Korean peninsula through the Olympic movement, followed by the taekwondo official medal competition, a sport which was started over 1,000 years ago in Korea and has been developed and enjoyed by Korean people ever since.

The taekwondo competition included four men's divisions and four women's divisions. There were 103 taekwondo athletes from 51 countries entered following a wellorganized evaluation process in accordance with the IOC standards for Olympic competition. This process restricted the number of qualified athletes for the Summer Games but was nevertheless accepted by the world taekwondo community. Because taekwondo requires neither expensive gear nor specialized facilities for practice or training, it provided many small, less developed cotmtries with the opportunity to take part in the Olympics and thus contribute to world peace and harmony.

Citius, Altius, Fortius. These Latin words are the motto of the Olympics, meaning faster, higher, braver or

W

16

stronger. The Olympic motto fits perfectly the taekwondo competition as only the faster, stronger and braver will have the chance to prevail in taekwondo. A combative sport, taekwondo requires an athlete to be fearless and annealistic, have quick reactions, be able

The University of California Open Taekwondo Championship did not require equipment to protect the head or chest in the early 1970s.

to perform high kicks with flexibility, know a~d respect an opponent's techniques and, of course, to abide by the competition rules and regulations.

The Olympic Movement International competition conceived and developed within the Western frame of thought has now been joined with the Eastern philosophy of body, virtue, knowledge and training through

action which will globalize athletic competition and promote cultural harmony between the East and West. This globalization got underway when judo was introduced for the first time in the 1964 Tokyo Olympics and Japanese was added as the third Olympics' language after French and English. In the 1988 Olympics, taekwondo was introduced as an Olympic sport and Korean became the fourth Olympic language because all taekwondo competition requires the use of Korean in its technical terminology, including ceremonial exercises at the beginning and end of competition.

Taekwondo in America Taekwondo was introduced to the United States much later than the Japanese martial arts, judo and karate, and the Chinese martial arts, kung fu and tai chi. In fact, taekwondo was first introduced as Korean karate and popularized by soldiers returning from the Korean War as well as the Vietnam ¡war, including Chuck Norris.

The pioneering spirit and diverse lifestyles of the American people are well-suited for the promotion of exotic combat-oriented martial arts as was reflected in popular Hollywood movies in the 1960s, such as the James Bond and Our Man Flint films. In 1974 taekwondo was endorsed by the United States Amateur Athletics Union (AAU), which automatically became affiliated

with the World Taekwondo Federation.

The United States Olympic Committee replaced the AAU as taekwondo's governing body in 1978 underâ&#x20AC;˘the congressionally approved Amateur Sports Act. Its stated mission was to have taekwondo become an active part of the Olympic movement, along with a specific objective of promoting taekwondo among American society not only as an Olympic sport, but also an action philosophy which incorporates training of the body, mind and spirit.

Even though the United States Taekwondo Union (Taekwondo National Governing Body of the United States Olympic Committee) is just one of the 160 members of the World Taekwondo Federation, it has contributed significantly to the globalization of the taekwondo movement. The United States has participated in all world championships while hosting two senior world championships and the world university championship, enabling taekwondo to emerge as the most popular martial art form in the United States. In fact, there are as many taekwondo training centers nationwide as there are Chinese restaurants. More than 100 tournaments are held every weekend throughout the year, including the annual national senior championship, and the annual national collegiate championship. The junior national championship draws more than 4,000 competitors and there are easily 500 taekwondo demonstrations conducted by YMCAs, schools, colleges, and sports and civic organizations every weekend.

Taekwondo in America is advancing rapidly on all fronts, including an ever growing number of tournaments, symposiums, and certification clinics for instructors and coaches. In fact, more than ~0 grandmasters, eighth- or ninthgrade black belts, held a technical seminar recently in Chicago for the promotion of taekwondo development.

Meanwhile, on college campuses, tae18

kwondo has gained widespread popularity as a sport, club activity, physical education course and recreational sports program.

The American people's attitude toward sports, health, and leisure and their high income, points to a bright and optimistic future for taekwondo on all counts. The continuous display of taekwondo's dynamic techniques in action through literally hundreds of tournaments every weekend gives athletes an opportunity to test their skills under rules and regulations established by the World Taekwondo Federation. This structured format helps to elevate the quality of contestants in local, regional, national, international and Olympic competition, while being in perfect step with the Olympic creed: the objective is not ro win but to participate, just as the

From left to right: Ken Min, founding president ofUSTU (United States Taekwondo Union); Sohn Kee-Chw1g, Olympic marathon gold medalist; Sammy Lee, Olympic diving gold medalist; and Hwa Chung, former president ofUSTU.

most important element in life is not the triumph but the struggle.

Personally, I strongly believe that the philosophy of taekwondo and the Olympic ideals are synonymous. As a matter of fact, taekwondo training requires the highest level of sportsmanship as was vividly demonstrated by an incident involving Esther Kim and Kay Poe during the U.S. Olympic Trials held

in Colorado Springs this May which was reported worldwide by TV and print media. Esther Kim forfeited her final match to Kay Poe who was unable to compete after she had dislocated her left kneecap in her semifinal match. Poe was in no condition to compete in the final match for the USA Olympic Team berth but was rated a better chance to win in the Sydney Olympics because of her stronger record in international competition. This display of sportsmanship by Kim touched millions of Olympic followers worldwide, including IOC President Samaranch, who invited Kim and her father, who was Master Instructor for both Kim and Poe, to the Sydney Olympics as his guests.

A simple way to define taekwondo is the constant effort to develop a positive lifestyle for oneself and society by shunning and eliminati'ng vices while striving to enhance admirable qualities. It is a comprehensive, integrated and unique system of self-defense and personal improvement with universal appeal. As a practical means of selfdefense, a complete regimen of physical conditioning, and an aid to improve concentration and mental performance, taekwondo is enjoyed by men and women, as well as boys and girls, and it is not surpl'ising that it is the world's fastest growing martial art form.

Taekwondo training involves the entire individual-body, mind and willwhile requiring a great deal more than mere physical technique. Tire practition.er will learn to develop strength, stamina, speed, flexibility, coordination, and balance. However, the road to true mastery also requires that physical achievements be balanced with the development of mental traits including patience, humility, self-control, perseverance, concentration, and respect. With proper instruction and training, anyone can attain their full potential through the art of taekwondo, achieving the skills required to reach black-belt ranking.

Taekwondo training is comprised of pwnse (structured routines for defense and offense), which ensures a healthy and aesthetic performance, and. kyukpa (breaking) that tests the formidable power, total concentration and indomitable confidence of the athlete against inanimate objects such as wooden boards, roof tiles, bricks or rock It is possible for any person to fully develop and control their latent power through taekwondo. For example, the aerobic kick develops physical fitness through self-defense skills, staged combat techniques, and proper breathing methods.

The ethical spirit of taekwondo may be traced directly to the five-point code of conduct of the Hwarang, an elite corps of warriors during Korea's Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), that emphasized fidelity, courage, patriotism, obedience to lawful authority and a deep and abiding respect for all living things.

Taekwondo's rapid development in the United States is due to its suitability for American society, which has enabled it to gain a firm foothold in a new social climate with a wide diversity of participants. It is a philosophy put into action through training of the body, mind and spirit that can positively influence an individual's everyday life. In response - to shooting incidents that have occurred at schools and workplaces around the nation, urban communities and gun control groups are supportive of self-defense techniques without weapons, which is typified by taekwondo, free-fighting defensive skills utilizing bare hands and feet to fend off an assailant.

Taekwondo in America, and perhaps all over the world, is the most popular martial art sport with a flexible approach to curriculum implementation.

For example, the University of California at Berkeley offers six different martial arts; judo, taekwondo, wushu, hapkido, karate and tai chi.

However, taekwondo is the most popular with more than 1,000 students each year enrolled in physical education

classes plus club instruction after school.

Taekwondo instructors use the tool of rank promotion (developed by Kukkiwon) to motivate students to take up the challenge of pursuing taekwondo training which conforms to the American ideal of sportsmanship. There are now more than 100,000 black belt taekwondo instructors who will be devoting themselves to the development and promotion of taekwondo philosophy and Olympic ideals throughout America for a long time to come. +

A summer camp the University of California at Berkeley holds annually at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming (below).

The University of California at Berkeley's taekwondo team. In this year's National Collegiate Taekwondo Championship, the team won 20 National Collegiate Taekwondo team titles (bottom).

19

Taekwondo on the World Stage Lee Kyong-myong Professor of Sports Diplomacy, Chungcheong College

owadays, the distinctive exclamations of taekwondo practitioners can be heard even in the most remote corners of the globe. Taekwondo, begun in ancient times as a martial art, has since become a sport enjoyed by all age groups, from children and teenagers to adults and the elderly. It attracts people from all walks of life; students, lawyers, housewives, doctors, professors. Taekwondo, along with the triathlon, made its world debut as an Olympic medal sp01t at the 2000 Sydney Games, bringing the total number of official Olympic sports to 28. Taekwondo has a large following all over the globe, contributing to the promotion of Korean culture around the world The basic goal of taekwondo training involves a systematic development of

skills related to both offense and defense, since it is essentially a means of self-defense to be used for proper purposes. However, concerns have been raised that in transforming taekwondo into a competitive sport, its offensive techniques are being overly emphasized at the expense of attention to its defensive riature.

A majority of the taekwondo enthusiasts who enjoy this martial art as an everyday sport train intensively in groups with a sense of community.

Their dedicated training is focused on achieving a balanced development of the body and the soul; their goal being to acquire self-defense skills as well as self-discipline and enlightenment through meditation and self-reflection.

On the other hand, the appeal of taekwondo as an Olympic sport lies in the

Taekwondo has become a martial art of the world. Practitioners from around the world training at the Haedong Gym in Seoul (above, right)-

20

~

..

. -.:J~

realization of individual goals through the challenge of competition, and the development of effective techniques along with swift and preGise physical movements. The biggest difference between the two relates to how the participant views himself. However, for both, the training regimen concentrates on artistic expression, aesthetic movement and the philosophical manifestation of the human body, in addition to preservation of the uniquely pure and clean spirit that is the essence of taekwondo.

Most Asian martial 31ts help the practitioner to preserve the moral rectitude of traditional culture and society in the midst of fast-paced changes going on in the modern world by muturing respect for discipline and dedication while learning from the master. In the course of taekwondo training, the student learns the etiquette of the East and shows respect to the Korean flag. In other words, students of taekwondo learn to immerse themselves in a "battle with oneself" through the martial 31·~ thereby developing self-endurance and transforming the physical movements into a form of art.

guage difficulties and cultural differences. In order to cultivate an interest in taekwondo, they demonstrated their art in parks and other public venues-anywhere they could show people the refined techniques of their sport, from basic moves such as fist striking and kicking, to competitive matches to showcase self-defense skills, and demonstrations of breaking layers of bricks and bo31·ds with one's fist, the side of one's hand, or a kick, which always drew much applause and admiration from onlookers.

It has been only some 30 years since taekwondo was first introduced abroad.

In this relatively short period of time, taekwondo has enjoyed truly remarkable growth worldwide. There are now 3,0o _~ Korean instructors and 50 million people around the world who engage in regul31· training and have developed an appreciation for the culture of taekwondo.

The first generation of Korean instructors are now septuagenarians with graying hair, while some of their great-grandchildren are following in their footsteps as taekwondo teachers.

Success oi Korean Instructors ,

Coaches Boost Popularity

The Koreans who have ventured abroad to teach taekwondo come from diverse backgrounds. They include those who have left their homeland as overseas workers, students or professional coaches and are now spreading the art of taekwondo and Korean culture in all corners of the world. The students they teach are just as diverse in terms of age and background.

Today, people are learning taekwondo all over the world while the number of Korean instructors and local coaches is ever increasing. The local coaches have been taught by the Korean instructors and fulfill their leadership roles with great pride.

A majority of the Korean instructors who went overseas in the 1960s experienced tremendous hardship due to lan22.

U.S. President Bill Clinton, King Carlos of Spain, former heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali, the late Bruce Lee and Hollywood star Chuck Norris are among the most well-known students of taekwondo. Lee Jun-ku, a Korean instructor in the United States, has been especially successful, being the only Korean included in the list of "The 200 Most Successful In1migrants" by the U.S. Im111igration and Naturalization Service. Over 250 former and current U.S. senators and congressmen have lem·ned taekwondo from Lee. Nowadays, he is seeking to develop an entirely new concept of "taekwon ballet," a method of promoting spiritual wellness by performing taekwondo to music. Meanwhile, taekwondo master Lee Haengung is said to be greeted by President Clinton as "Grand Maste~ ' with a deep

bow. In addition, professor Min Kyungho initiated the first-ever taekwondo martial arts program at the University of California at Berkeley, while the Canadian Taekwondo Association honors its president Lee Tae-eun each year with "Lee Tae-etm Day" on May 31, as officially designated by the city of Ottawa. Master Kwon Jae-hwa, who teaches many actors, models and other celebrities at his taekwondo center in Manhattan, is also well-known in Europe, with a wide range of followers.

In Latin America, Master Lee Ki Hyung has been teaching in Peru, Kim Yong Min in Brazil, and Master Moon Daiwon in Mexico, where he is known as the "Godfather of Taekwondo," in addition to Hong Sung Chon who teaches in the Philippines and Master Lee Jungnam in New Zealand. In Africa as well, taekwondo instructors include Kim Young-tae, who made his way to the Ivory Coast in 1%8, Master Yoon Mogg in Kenya, Master Jeong Ki Young in Egypt, and Master Kim Yong Kwang in Libya. In Europe, Master Suh Yun-nam has been teaching since 1967 in Germany, where he is a media celebrity thanks to his book on his unique method of promoting wellness through taekwondo. Master Seo Myung Soo who teaches in the Netherlands, Master Park Sun-jae in Italy, Master Lee Kyongmyong, who introduced taekwondo to Eastern Europe and Austria in the 1970s, Master Lee Kwang Bae in Yugoslavia, Kim Yong Ho in France, Chung Sun Yong in Portugal, and Choi Won-chol in Spain have all contributed much to the internationalization of taekwondo. In teaching taekwondo to local residents, they also act as conduits for the dissemination of Korean culture, including the use of Korean words for taekwondo commands. Their taekwondo training also involves the practice of Korean etiquette and principles of good sportsmanship in matches, which helps to promote Korean culture in these countries. They also do volunteer work in a v31·iety of areas in their local communities by pro-

~

""

moting anti-drug campaigns, providing guidance for troubled teens, and aiding the handicapped, thereby leading the way toward a safer, more nurturing environment.

During the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, taekwondo was inaugurated as an official Olympic sport, becoming the second Asian martial art following judo so designated. A total of 103 athletes competed in four weight classes during four days of competition. Of the eight gold medals at stake, Korea won three, while host country Australia, along with the United States, Cuba, China and Greece, the host of the 2004 Summer Olympics, each won one. Though there were some concerns that Korea might sweep all the golds, this proved to be unfounded. The excellent management of the competition, highly refined techniques of taekwondo, enthusiasm of the audience and distribution of the medals among different countries all contributed to strengthening the justification for taekwondo to be sanctioned a permanent Olympic sport at the 2004 Games in Athens.

As for the internationalization of taekwondo, the first notable step was taken in May 1973 w ith the establishment of the World Taekwondo Federation, headquartered in Seoul,

In the over 80 kilogram men· s taekwondo final held at the Sydney Homebush State Sports Center, Korean Kim Kyong-hun side kicks Australian Daniel Trenton (top).

Korea· s national taekwondo team is giving a demonstration at Kukkiwon, the world taekwondo headquarters in Seoul, to celebrate the inclusion of taekwondo in the Sydney Olympics (above).

which th~n joined the General Association of International Sports Federations as an international organization in October 1975. The following year, taekwondo was recognized as an official sport by the CISM (Conseil International Sportive Militaire). Then, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), during its meeting in Moscow in 1980, designated taekwondo as an Olympic sport for the first time.

The 1988 Seoul Games and the 1992 Barcelona Games featured taekwondo competition as a demonstration sport, then during the IOC Session in Paris, on September 4, 1994, it was finally approved as an official Olympic sport to be introduced in the 2000 Sydney Games. Today, taekwondo has become a truly international sport, with more than 160 countries being members of the World Taekwondo Federation.

The internationalization of this traditional Korean martial art has indeed flourished , thanks to the dedicated efforts of visionary taekwondo masters around the world, who built a foundation for its widespread popularity, while overcoming many hardships and obstacles.

Taekwondo is now not-· on ly a Korean martial art but also a sport enjoyed by people the world over. As both an elite sport and a practical, everyday recreational activity for the public, it is helping to enhance the quality of life of all of its diverse adherents. Appreciation of the culture and philosophy of taekwondo, and dissemination of its fundamental concepts will continue to enrich the spirit of taekwondo practitioners around the world. + 23

For whatever reason, there is no mention of subak in historical documents after the 15th century. Its techniques, which only utilized the hands from the Goguryeo Kingdom until the early Joseon Dynasty, were later changed to incorporate use of the fe~ but the hands still continued to play the key role. The techniques were then transformed into taekgyeon, which calls for use of the feet more than that of hands. Subak, which had thus disappeared from Korea, was revived only with the founding of the Korea Subakdo Association in June 1960.

Subyeokchigi is a martial art form that places its foremost emphasis on

26

A painting depicting taekgyeon, one of the two most powerful native Korean martial arts, the other being subyeokchigi (above).

Nalgaedeulgi (wing lifting), upward movement that symbolizes an act ofloyalty; nalgaenaerigi (wing lowering), downward movement that symbolizes an act of charity; nalgaenaegi (wing thrusting), forward movement that symbolizes an act of sharing (right).

The basic movements of subyeokchigi (below).

i ,

I

I

I

/

From the top, dolgaechigi, pivoting; chaeksanggeori, tackling the leg from the inside and striking the fuce at injung (between the nose and the upper lip) with a fist; chottaegeori, toppling an opponent by kicking the leg with the inside heel.

training of the mind. It discourages unnecessary aggression, while striving to convert such tendencies into lifeaffirming vitality. Nevertheless, it is not a feeble martial art that does not teach any offensive maneuvers. In fact, it is a very powerful martial art compared with other forms in regard to its techniques and effectiveness. However, its techniques are not intended to be offensive, but rather for defending oneself from being assaulted. Subyeokchigi is thus based on the dualism of yin and yang (the opposing influences of the universe), and a principle of creating harmony among heaven, earth and humans. Its true strength lies in its ability to generate energy from v,rhich sound and light are emitted to overcome· the darkness of aggression that is inherent in other martial arts.

In subyeokchigi, not every technique corresponds to an offensive maneuver, but every offensive technique must correspond to the fundamental movements that generate gi, or energy. This is the fundamental ideal of subyeokchigi, which includes no techniques only for the sake of aggression. This is intended to discourage indiscriminate aggression and to promote proper use of energygenerating techniques.

The central axis of the human body becomes aligned when you extend your arms forward with the palms clasped together. Subyeokchigi maintains that the internal energy of the human body is concentrated along its central axis. According to subyeokchigi theory, sound and light are created at the moment the palms come together.

AlthougtJ_ the sound is audible, the light is not visible to the human eye.

Subyeokchigi, however, clearly recognizes the existence of this light. The light and sound that are thus created eliminate the darkness and the bottledup energy both within and outside the body. This helps to improve concentration, and generate energy. The body is thus energized at the very instant the palms strike each other.

In subyeokchigi, clapping the hands together generates energy, after which subsequent movements are performed to a basic three-beat rhythm. The palms and the soles of the feet are the gateways to energy creation, with the stomach being the center of the body where the energy accumulates. Subyeokchigi incorporates these elements within a single movement.

Energy can be generated by clapping the hands sharply, or by stamping forcefully on the ground. The clapping of the hands and stamping of the feet allows the energy naturally created within the body to accumulate in the stomach. Subyeokchigi is regarded as an ideal form of exercise for the body and mind. In Korean, sonbbyeok refers to the surface of the palm along with the fingers . Therefore, clapping the sonbbyeok together is the most convenient and effective way for the body to create and concentrate energy, since sonbbyeok is an extremely productive generator of energy.

Training in subyeokchigi mainly involves two different methods. One approach is based on the techniques centered on hand clapping and hapjang, a position in which the hands are joined together at the palms. The other is based on offensive techniques known as gyosu and gasaechigi. Gyosu refers to the back of the hands pressed against each other, whereas gasaechigi is a position in which the hands are crossed to form an X. Bringing the palms together signifies peace and harmony, whereas the hands being crossed in the shape of an X symbolize conflict and aggression.

Gyosu and gasaechigi are often employed as offensive techniques in subyeokchigi, but they are always based on a spirit of harmony and adaptability obtained through hand clapping and hapjang. After going through a lengthy training, what remains deep inside the body is not a sense of conflict and aggression developed through gyosu and gasaechigi, but rather that of harmo-

28 •• •

J.

ny and reconciliation resulting from the hand clapping and hapjang.

The most ideal approach to subyeokchigi training would b@. to learn gyosu and gaesaechigi after building a solid foundation based on harmony and adaptation.

¡~

"\

tesy inherent to the mattial att is based on reflecting deeply about this correlation, while training for, and performing the body movements that are most appropriate for reaching a courteous state of mind Subyeokchigi is a noteworthy aspect of Korea's ancient cultural heritage as

well as an effective training regimen that promotes the natural forces of life.

Encountering the world of martial arts practiced by ancient Koreans, and preserving the spiritual traditions of the training techniques and movements are the fundamental goals of today's subyeokchigi adherents. +

Subyeokchigi and Courtesy The most significant aspect of subyeokchigi training is not the trainee's proficiency in the physical techniques, but his mental discipline. In subyeokchigi, courtesy refers to a form of training that focuses on attaining a proper state of mind, not the etiquette which people observe in their everyday life. The courtesy of subyeokchigi involves striving to achieve a forthright and proper state of mind, while harmonizing and pacifying the energy within the body.

The basic framework of subyeokchigi courtesy involves first straightening the body, second, steadying the breathing, and third, relaxing, or pacifying the mind The first step refers to straightening the body for a presentable appearance. The traditional martial art of subyeokchigi does not attempt to forcibly strengthen the body, but instead seeks to achieve a proper alignment through natural movements. Steadying and straightening the body is always the foremost couttesy to be acquired Second, steadying the breathing relates to a calm and peaceful breathing process. This is closely associated with attaining the proper state of both the body and the mind.

The breathing steadies naturally once the body and the mind reach a peaceful state. Third, the mind has to be pacified When the mind is in turmoil, the body quivers and breathing becomes rough.

The body, breathing, and mind are not disparate but interrelated, which means that they all need to be straightened, steadied and pacified simultaneously.

Because the human body and mind are inseparable, the movements of the body influence the state of the mind, while the state of the mind influences the movements of the body. The cour29

Jeong Gyeong-hwa Human Cultural Asset

The fundamental principles of taekgyeon can be summarized as the circle, space and angle. The hand movements, the most basic taek¡ gyeon movements, are circular in flow and direction. The circle can be called a two-dimensional expression of a three-dimensional form, a sphere. As the hands move in a circular motion in various direc¡ tions, they form a sphere in the air.

30

aekgyeon, which dates back

T

more than 2,000 years to the Goguryeo Kingdom (37 B.C.-AD. 668), is said to be the origin of all Korean martial arts. It was formally systemized by the late Sin Han-seung, who was named Korea's first human cultural asset, and on June 1, 1983, taekgyeon was designated Important Cultural Asset No. 76, the only martial art to be so recognized As skilled equestrians, ancient Koreans were a courageous and rugged people who enjoyed competing in horseback-riding and archery contests. The resolute mind-set of the Goguryeo people, who ruled over a vast territory, had its roots in the graceful and aesthetic martial art, taekgyeon.

There are few records concerning taekgyeon, but according to refet:ences in historical texts such as Goryeosa

(History of Goryeo), Sejongsillok jiriji (Cultural Geography in the Veritable Records of King Sejong), jaemulbo (Dictionary of Names of Things in the Universe), ]oseonsanggosa (Ea1iy History of Korea), Donggukyeojiseungnam (Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea) and others, taekgyeon was promoted by the state as a martial art for the defense of the country. From the ]oseonsanggosa by Sin Chae-ho, we can see that the ruggedness of the Goguryeo people was related to the establishment of its so-called seonbae system. It reads: In March and October every year, there was a competition of sword dancing, archery, deokgeon (taekgyeon) and so on. during the reign of King Taejo (r.

918-943) of the Goryeo Dynasty. The art of subak (hand clapping) from Songdo (Gaeseong) was a part of the games and this crossed to China and became Chinese boxing (gwonbeop) and then crossed to Japan to become judo.

However, with growing contempt for

Kaljaebi or kaljaegi, a technique for striking an opponent's neck with the hand 31 .

. ~

~

martial arts during the ]oseon Dynasty, nearly all traces of the sport have been lost.

As such, the stalwart spirit of the Goguryeo people, who the Chinese feared at the time, was naturally cultivated through such national events as the seonbae competition Indeed the strength of a nation throug~ history has been determined

Galgigi, 32

and kicking the opponent's fuce

by the durability of its people and it was the martial arts that formed the foundation of Goguryeo and the most basic source of its vitality.

Taekgyeon, which started in Goguryeo, was the power that enabled the hwarang (youth corps) to unify the Korean peninsula under Silla rule (57 B.C.-A.D. 935). During the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), it was promoted by

the state as the official martial art for national defense and thus was a regular subject in the national military service examination. But with priorities being focused on scholarship and education during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), taekgyeon underwent a steady decline.

In 1910, with Japan's annexation of Korea and its efforts to obliterate Korean culture, taekgyeon practitioners went under-

ground and trained covertly in the mountains to avoid arrest by the Japanese police.

The distinctive movements. of taekgyeon, sometimes deliberately deceptive, and other times proud and swaggering, are not found in other martial arts. Its techniques, which include kicking, or even tripping an opponent, are all the result of the natural essence of this martial art that is unhurried and relaxed Taekgyeon is graceful in appearance but stalwart in spirit with simple but precise movements that create a smooth flow of movement for natural methods of attack and defense. Following a sequence of yells, the two opponents face each other awaiting their chance while their movements seem as natural as a sail blown about by the wind The dancing steps and arm movements of taekgyeon are like a bird spreading its wings and then flapping them as it flies through the air. While the body seems to be swaying easily, it can rise quickly into the air to strike an attack Swinging the arms up and down as well as left to right, the attacker grasps his opponent as suddenly and swiftly as an eagle snatching its prey. He grabs his opponent by the scruff of the neck and then trips him with his feet, having him rise up suddenly and just as quickly fall.

As for Japan's karate, its movements are very rigid and structured, marking out straight lines, based on clear stopping and starting points. In contrast, taekgyeon uses flowing and subtle movements that follow graceful curved lines. It does not involve the long drawn out motions of Chinese boxing, but rather movements that are sudden and resilient. As compared to Chinese boxing, or gwonbeop, literally meaning "fist method," which relies primarily on the fists, in taekgyeon the feet are the main weapons, though the palms and the area between the thumb and forefinger of the hands are used to thrust and inflict damage. movement of the stepping motion (pum-

Bitjanggcori, a defensive movement intae~o

(hwalgaejit), and the foot actions serve to

divert the opponent's focus and weaken his defensive capability. Keeping the body flexible enables the blow of an attack to be absorbed, thus helping to protect the body.

As a martial art that was very much a part of the everyday life of the Korean people, during the Goryeo period it was adopted as an official subject in the national military service exam. For those skilled in taekgyeon, this could open the doors to government posts and promotions. During the Joseon Dynasty, commoners cherished taekgyeon.

Competitions were held on holidays such as Dana (the fifth day of the fifth lunar month), with the martial art being an outlet for their joys and sorrows and a way to bring the commoners together.

Graceful, Yet Stout in Spirit In general there are two types of mararts: those with graceful body

motions and those with rigid move- ~ ments. In Chinese boxing, graceful and lii rigid movements are combined or flexible defensive postures and aggressive attacks are used depending upon the school But taekgyeon is different in that the distinctions between powerful and gentle, fast and slow are meaningless. In taekgyeon, the body is never tensed in any way as this prevents the flowing arm movements and flexible techniques.

Therefore, to say it is gentle externally and tough internally does not just mean that it is graceful in appearance, but that the flowing body movements improve one's ability to escape from danger.

Martial arts vary from country to country according to differences in geography, ways of life and the characteristics of the people. Chinese boxing, for example, possesses a flexibility and nature that is derived from the vast expanse of China's territory. The movements flow smoothly, as in a dance. But the stance involves a lowering of the body's center and the movements are sweeping. For these reasons, it is believed that Chinese boxing was not so much intended for engaging in combat but rather as an exercise for good health and physical discipline with a focus on form In the case of Japan, the martial arts there reflect the island's propensity for compactness and straight lines.

In Siljeongongsudogyobeom (Manual for Attack and Defense) by Choe Yeong (1923-1994), founder of the Japanese Geukjin Hwoegwan, it is recorded that the Chinese boxing introduced to Japan eventually developed into karate. But according to ]oseonsanggosa, the art of subak from Gaeseong, which was part of the seonbae competition, then crossed over to China to become Chinese boxing, that subsequently reached Japan and became judo. Japanese martial arts, whether influenced by Korea or China, are today very different from Korean and Chinese martial arts. In Japanese martial arts, the center of the body is kept high while the stance is upright as well Most of the movements are rigid and

along straight lines, which indicates that it was oriented toward attack rather than defense.

In taekgyeon, the center. of the body is maintained at a level between those of Japanese and Chinese martial arts. A center that is neither high nor low, and a stance that is half crouching, allowing for exceptional agility, stability of movement and ready defense.

Natural Grace and Style Taekgyeon was a part of everyday life that developed into a means of selfdefense which led to the creation of various martial art forms. It can be said that martial arts are the origin and foundation of life. That is to say, combat, mu, can be seen as a manifestation of the natural energy, gi, or qi in Chinese.

There are all manner of living things big and small, moving ceaselessly about the universe. Such life itself is akin to a military battle.

Mu comes from the concept of the way of life, do, and thus as a synthesis of gi, is the underlying life force of all things that live and breathe.

In China, Korea and Japan, the term martial art is referred to in Chinese char<\Cters as mus~ muye and mudo, respectively. In turn these can be translated as "martial techniques," "martial arts" and "martial way," which reflects how the martial arts were used in each country. If musul is regarded as a form of selfdefense, then muye is an expression of the mind and body, a form of art with subdued aggressiveness of musul. As for mudo, it is a way to express the natural magnificence of the soul through the body.

From ancient times, Koreans have known how to appreciate leisure, elegance and style. The Silla hwarang would take to the mountains to study and train in the martial arts, thus preparing themselves to protect the nation in times. of war while contributing to its advancement in times of peace. Korean culture is known for its reverence of curved lines, as the Korean people have

traditionally adored rounded forms, shapes without angles. As such, the motions of taekgyeon and its arm and leg movements feature a unique resiliency and flexibility that allows for natural physical reaction without any tension or rigidity of the body.

Combining Defense and Attack The taekgyeon techniques, which consist of kicking and tripping an opponent, are unique in the way that attack and defense maneuvers are harmonized.

There is a saying, "movement within stillness and stillness within movement."

Similarly, the best defense is a good attack and the best attack is a good defense. The triangular patterns of the feet and hand movements of taekgyeon diffuse the target of a potential attack while enabling free movement in any direction.

Whereas most martial arts are focused on either grasping and throwing or kicking, Taekgyeon imposes no such restraints on its techniques which combine grabbing and throwing or kicking and tripping for unconstrained and diverse attack and defense. In taekgyeon, all parts of the body, including the head, arms and legs, are used as weapons with the feet and hands moving as if dancing in triple time. The hands are used to strike and throw, the feet to kick, trip and block, the body to push, and the head to butt.

Taekgyeon is a traditional martial art that reflects the character traits of the Korean people in terms of its integrated nature and wholeness. Though it appears to be very simple, the movements are related to taekwondo, judo, geomdo (tra-

Nangsang, a foot technique executed high in the air (top) Dusangjaebi, a hand technique for grabbing an opponent's topknot (middle) Sonsimnaegi, a taekgyeon training movement to control breathing and promote gi (bottom)

34

.. ~

~

ditional fencing), and even Chinese martial arts such as tai chi and wushu. Also, since taekgyeon can be used as a form of self-training, anyone, regardless of time or place, can practice it as a form of exercise. Its basic principles are centered on flexibility and a musical rhythm.

Taekgyeon can help to keep one's muscles supple and joints limber, and is not only good for keeping the entire body in shape but also for a more fit appearance.

Martial arts based on powerful kicking movements have the potential to cause joint damage. These forms are favored by the young but are not very . suitable for the elderly. But taekgyeon, like ssireum (traditional wrestling), is a less rigorous martial art with techniques that involve tripping with the feet and grabbing the opponent by the scruff of the neck, and can therefore be taken up by the elderly and women.

Principles of Taekgyeon The fundamental principles of taekgyeon can be summarized as the circle, space and angle. The hand movements, the most basic taekgyeon movements, are circular in flow and direction. The circle can be called a two-dimensional expression of a three-dimensional form, a sphere. As the hands move in a circular motion in various directions, they form a sphere in the air.

In taekgyeon, when two opponents stand face to face they form a rectangular space that is the ideal form for marking the division of a plane. When the two opponents stand with their feet apart they form a rectangle and thereby secure their own space for mov~ent The most basic foot movements of taekgyeon can be described as an angle.

The angle is the most stable structural form for bearing loads from various directions. The steps of taekgyeon form a triangular pattern, moving the feet forward left and righ~ and for this reason it has also been called samgak bobeop, "triangular stepping technique."

Based on these main principles, taekgyeon consists primarily of stepping pat36

terns pumbapgi, sweeping arm motions hwalgaejit, and foot movements. Like

with the body being turned slightly to the right. In this case, the back foot is many Korean folk sports and entertainturned out at 45 degrees while the front ments, it was not organized into a formal foot points straight forward. With the system but did have a certain order body presented at an oblique angle, it is despite an apparent lack of order and an ideal defensive stance for absorbing the blow of an attack training, which included self-practice, practice with a partner, and combat with The right step is also a defensive a competitor. stance designed to make changes in one's In the pumbapgi stepping motions stance by moving the right foot when there are three basic steps: the natural attacked. With the right foot being step, right step and left step. In any marpushed forward, the right step is a mirtial art, the stance is critical for keeping ror-image counterpart of the left step. the body balanced for either attack or The steps in taekgyeon are therefore based on three stable stances with the defense while maintaining stability and feet positioned in three points of a triangle. While executing the three basic steps, the feet are moved in continual triple The distinctive movements time. With both knees slightly ben~ these ¡of taekgyeon, sometimes steps create creeping motions that are unique to taekgyeon. deliberately deceptive, The other key point of taekgyeon is and other times proud and its hand movements. There are five basic swaggering, are not found in hand movements-thrusting of arms, pushing sideways, vertical motions, horiother martial arts. Its tech¡ zontal motions, and turning-compleniques, which include kicking, menting movements of the feet. The or even tripping an opponent, fundamental foot movements include a series of kicks, kicks to the head and are all the result of the natural midsection, side kicks, straight kicks and essence of this martial art that ascending kicks, all of which seem to is unhurried and relaxed. spring naturally from a supple body.

Taekgyeon can be divided into two main types: seogi taekgyeon and gyeollyeon taekgyeon. The former is defenseoriented with the most aggressive eleprecision for whatever action may be necessary. The natural step involves the ments removed so that two opponents fundamental stance that allows for quick can practice sparring with less risk of reaction to an attack This starts from an injury. The latter is an attack-oriented version in which lethal attacks can be upright position with the heels together and feet apart at 45 degrees, and then the . unleashed It is also known by the popuright fqot being moved to shoulder lar name of ssam taekgyeon, "fighting taekgyeon." The historical text Haedongwidth. This is a relaxed stance for looking out into the distance. jukjipyeon reveals that this type of taekThe second stance is the left step. This gyeon was used to take revenge on enemies or to settle personal scores, which is a defensive stance that makes changes led to its being officially outlawed. By in one's stance by moving the left foot to this we can see that taekgyeon was fend off an opponent. From the basic stance, the left foot is pushed a half step ¡ indeed a true combat-based martial art.

The basic moves may seem to be simple forward, with both knees slightly bent but with solid training in the fundamenand two-thirds of the body's weight on the back foot and one-third on the front tals, it is a martial art that enables an end-

less variety of movements and creative application of techniques.

The most systemized form of taekgyeon, where all the movemerns can be seen clearly in one glance, is called lxJndaeboegi. Although taekwondo features a structured format of attack and defense that is used for competition, taekgyeon has developed no such formal system. The only thing that would come close is bondaeboegi, which includes a series of offensive and defensive moves not based on a specific framework but rather spontaneous execution of techniques related to pumbapgi and hwalgaejit In regard to taekgyeon competition in the old days, matches were held between neighborhcxxls, with one side called the upper side and the other the lower side.

Some say that the upper and lower sides were so designated based on relative skill but this is not so. The terms upper and lower actually referred to the location of neighborhcxxls, that is, according to their proximity to the royal palace. So if the Wangsimni and Jongno neighborhoods competed, then the Jongno team would be the upper side. A team could either be upper or lower depending on the location of the opponent Future generations should learn about taekgyeon based on a proper understanding and appreciation. In an effort to preserve the original form of taekgyeon and ensure that it is passed on to future generations, the government provided some 2.2 billion won in state funding for the constmction of a taekgyeon hall in Chungju, the home of taekgyeon. The hall was built on a 6,828-square-meter site and includes a total floor space of 960 square meters. The hall, which was dedicated on May 31, 1997, serves as a training ground for taekgyeon, the root of Korea's martial arts. â&#x20AC;˘

]illeochagi, a thrust-kickinto an opponent's lower abdomen (above right) Kaljaebi (right) and deotgeori, a tripping technique to fell an opponent (far right)

37

FOCUS

Rediscovering the Cultural

Treasures of North Korea YounBum-mo Art Critic/ Professor, College of Arts, Kyungwon University

he recent flurry of diplomatic exchanges between North and South Korea has allowed us to think about the cultural remains and relics in North Korea in more realistic terms than ever before. Due to the constant state of confrontation between the two sides, it was inevitable that the culture of North Korea was neglected in the South like that of a remote nation In truth, it was even more out of reach than the culture of faraway exotic lands, since access was absolutely prohibited. Regardless of how renowned a work might be, if it was located in North Korea, we had to settle for making subjective assessments based on a photo plate. This was a truly unfortunate situation. The reality of being a scholar of Korean att and having only a handful of photographs to develop a lee-

T

38

ture around was utterly discouraging.

The true value of a work of art can be properly appreciated only when it can be viewed in its original form and studied firsthand. Especially when the subject work is a brilliant masterpiece, the weight of the message it delivers can be tremendous, often impossible to perceive without personally observing the work Now the tightly shut doors have begun to gradually open up, with South Korean scholars now getting a chance to see for themselves the relics in North Korea .that they had been forced to neglect as if they were in another world I was among the individuals fortunate enough to visit Pyeongyang and see for myself the diverse artistic legacy of Korean culture in the North, an experience that gave me much to think about and resulted in the publication of a

book, A journey to Explore the Art of Pyeongyang. What I witnessed there was truly a rich scene of artistic activity and heritage, a treasure chest of the at-ts.

I saw an array of relics that deserve international recognition--all genuine treasures, from the tomb murals of Goguryeo to stone pagodas, from remarkable wooden buildings to celadon ceramics. Of particular note, I found that a larger number of cultural relics had been better preserved than expected, while the artistic quality of many of these items was much higher

This painting of the deceased occupant of the No. 3 Anak Tomb is regarded as the best tomb mural for its large-scale and rich depiction. Anak is located in Hwanghae-do province.

than I would have imagined It is indeed a shame that such outstanding works of art are kept locked away, without being shared with the international community. However, the world is changing in tills new millennium.

The region that North Korea now encompasses was the center of activity during the Goguryeo (37 B.C.-AD. 668) and Goryeo (918-1392) eras, so the art works from these kingdoms definitely stand out as the most brilliant. This, of course, does not suggest that there are no valuable works from Balhae or ]oseon (1392-1910). But it could well be argued that Gogmyeo and Goryeo, with their capitals in Pyeongyang and Gaeseong, respectively, were the two kingdoms wruch enjoyed a most noticeable flourishing of Korean arts. The art of Goguryeo is also representative of the artistic style of the north, in contrast to the att of Silla in the south. The kingdom of Goguryeo, wruch was originally founded in the region north of Manchuria, gradually extended its territory southward, while relocating its capital to Pyeongyang from Jiban, a valley along the Amnokgang (Yalu) River.

Goguryeo was founded by Jumong during the first century B.C., earlier than Baekje or Silla. As the nation began to develop a new culture after the introduction of Buddrusm in the fourth century, in 427, the second year of the reign of King Jangsu, its capital was moved to Pyeongyang. Goguryeo engaged in an aggressive campaign to expand its territory, but was defeated by Silla in 668.

Gogmyeo was a nation characterized by a progressive and resolute spir~ perhaps because its lands were mostly rugged and mountainous. Its artistic legacy conveys a majestic and dynamic spirit.

Goguryeo Tomb Murals Among the three kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, only Gogmyeo left behind magnificent tomb murals of such splendor which are indeed wotthy of being shared with the world. Tomb murals became widespread

A painting of the wife of the deceased occupant of the No. 3 Anak Tomb (top) A hunting scene from a wall painting in the Deokheung-ri Tomb (above) 39

..

during Goguryeo because of the stone bmial chambers of its earthen tombs. The walls of the burial chambers inside the tombs provided an ideal surface for painting. Moreover, the people of Goguryeo believed in eternal life and invested much effort in decorating their tombs, which they referred to as eumtaek, "dark house," so that the dead could enjoy the same comfort and pleasure in their next life This belief led to the construction of extravagant tombs. Most of the Goguryeo tombs are located around Jiban, along the northern banks of the Yalu River and around Pyeongyang, near the Daedong River. Among the largest tombs along the Yalu are Muyongchong, Gakjeochong and Samsilchong. The Gangseo Sammyo tomb and the tombs in Jinpa-ri, Yaksu-ri, and Susan-ri are the largest around Pyeongyang. Of the great number of Goguryeo tombs, about 90 contain murals.

Some tomb murals include inscriptions in black ink that provide evidence ¡ of the date when the tomb was constructed. The No. 3 Tomb in Anak, Hwanghae-do was built in 357 while the tomb in Deokheung-ri, near Pyeongyang, was completed in 408. Judging from these dates, it seems that decorating the walls of tombs with murals came into vogue around the fourth century.

40

The No. 3 Tomb in Anak, Hwanghae-do, is regarded as the most outstanding Goguryeo tomb for its grand scale and the richness of its paintings. It is incredibly large, measuring almost 33 meters from north to south, and contains more than five chambers, including a front chamber and a side chamber. It appears to be an underground version of the luxurious houses of the Goguryeo aristocracy. The tomb is well-known for its vividly realistic depictions of everyday life during Goguryeo, featuring the dead person when he was alive. The painting of a parade featming the deceased reveals the zealous spirit of the Goguryeo people.

This painting has attracted the attention of scholars because of its inscription as well as the portrait of the deceased and his wtfe. There has been much debate about the identity of the person bmied here. the South Korean scholars' Dongsu theory (that claims that it is the tomb of an ordinary Chinese provincial official named Dongsu) has differed from the North Koreans' theory that this is the tomb of King Micheon, which they recently changed to King Gogukwon The Deokheung-ri Tomb, discovered in 1976, is situated in the Gangseo district of Nampo, at the outskirts of Pyeongyang, not far from the Gangseo Sammyo tomb. It is smaller than the

Anak No. 3 Tomb and its murals are not as detailed, but nonetheless it is also noteworthy for its ink inscription, husband-and-wife portrait and scenes of Gogmyeo life. According to the inscription, comprising some 600 characters, the tomb was built in 408 for someone named Jin, who had served as a ]asa (provincial governor) of Yuju, which is the region around present-day Beijing, China. The 13 tae5u-rank officials depicted in the center of the painting worked north and south of the Great Wall. The painting portrays scenes of everyday Goguryeo life, including one of the deceased on an outing riding in a wagon. Although the wall and ceiling paintings are peeling in places, which is truly disheartening, they are further evidence of the splendor and grandem of Goguryeo tomb murals. I was able to view the murals and can still vividly recall what a moving and thrilling experience this was.

The tomb murals of late Goguryeo, from the sixth century, were characterized by paintings of the Four Deities,

PyohWISa Temple (below) and Bodeogam Hennitage (opposite) onMt Geumgangsan, a hallowed mountain with a host of Buddhist temples

and the Ohwoebun, as found in the area that is now the Jiban (Jian) prefecture of China's Jilin province. In addition - to paintings of the Four J)eities, the tombs include paintings of the sun and stars as well as gods and spirits. Their decorative elements, such as lotus flowers, painted in bright colors with dynamic brush strokes are awe-inspiring indeed The vivid colors and grand staging of scenes reach a turning point in the Gangseo Sammyo tomb, becoming more simple and moderate in style thereafter. This was the high point of Goguryeo tomb .murals, as seen in the confident strokes of the Painting of the Four Deities. The Painting of the White Tiger and the Painting of the Vermilion Pheoni:x of the Gangseo Jungmyo tomb (6th-7th century) are, along with the Paintings of a Somber Warrior in the form of Tortoise and Snake and the Azure Dragon at the Gangseo Daemyo tomb, among the finest examples of the Four Deities paintings. The paintings of the Gangseo Daemyo tomb, which was built in the seventh century, are now considered representative of Goguryeo painting. The murals were painted directly onto the granite surface of the walls rather than the walls being first plastered as in other tombs. The Painting of the Azure Dragon and the Painting of a Somber Warrior in the form of Tortoise and the Snake convey a wonderful sense of animation as though they are about to take flight , with sophisticated brush strokes and perspectives well deserving admiration. It is truly a world-class treasure that exemplifies Goguryeo's rich tradition of tomb murals.

In early Goguryeo tombs, the wall paintings depicted scenes of everyday life, but over time they came to focus on the Four Deities paintings. There are

Bohyeonsa on Mt Myohyangsan, a timehonored temple with a breathtaking view, has long been reputed to be one of the five greatest temples in Korea (right).

42

â&#x20AC;˘â&#x20AC;˘

43

! "'

Seonjukgyo Bridge in Gaeseong

about 45 tombs with lifestyle-themed paintings, including 28 in the area around Pyeongyang, each realistically depicting Goguryeo life. Decorative patterns were added to such paintings and the realistic scenes eventually gave way to paintings of the Four Deities. In addition to husband-and-wife portraits, the genre paintings included scenes of parades, banquets, dancing, singing, hunting and houses. The Four Deities of course functioned as guardians of the tomb.

Goryeo Temples Buddhist temples in North Korea can be classified by their locations: the Geumgangsan, Gaeseong, Pyeongyang and Myohyangsan regions. The most beautiful temples can be found in the Geumgangsan region. Regarded as the home of the Dharmodgata Bodhisattva, Geumgangsan came to be revered as a sacred land where numerous temples were built. Jangansa, Pyohunsa, Jeongyangsa, Bodeokgul, Mahayeonsa, Myogilsang, Yujeomsa, Baryeonsa and Singyesa were among the temples built in this region, but, unfortunately, most of these were destroyed during the Korean War.

The Gaeseong region includes the Anhwasa, Yeonboksa, Myoyeonsa, Gaeguksa, Cheonsusa, Wangnyunsa and Heungguksa temple sites, while in Pyeongyang, there are the sites of the Geumgangsaji, Yeongmyeongsa, Jeongneuigs~ and Gwangbeopsa temples. Of these, Gwangbeopsa was recently rebuilt But the restoration work seems to have been carried out without regard to the traditional layout of Buddhist temples, with the Gate of Emancipation placed before the Four Heavenly Kings Gate, for example. A similar mistake related to the reconstruction of Jeongneungsa Temple involved a wooden pagoda being rebuilt using stone. Any restoration or renovation work involving cultural treasures should always be overseen by scholars or related specialists.

Meanwhile, the Myohyangsan region is highlighted by the Bohyeonsa Temple. Ansimsa fell victim to the Korean War. Bohyeonsa was often cited as one of Korea's five greatest temples thanks to its scenic views and storied traditions. Its beautiful octagonal 13-tier stone pagoda truly epitomizes Korean stone pagodas. The temple site also features the Tower of Ten Thousand Years and a Hall of Sakyamuni, both reconstructed to replace the original structures destroyed during the war. It should be noted that the temple houses a valuable

collection of cultural relics recovered after Korea's liberation from Japanese rule, including numerous Buddhist images, a bronze bell from Yujeomsa Temple in Geumgangsan, and the Dharani stone emblems of Buljeongsa Temple.

Among the remaining temples in North Korea, those built during the Goryeo Dynasty are the most deserving of attention Today, less than 10 wooden buildings from the Goryeo era are extant in both North and South Korea.

They include the Geungnakjeon, Hall of the Amitabha Buddha, of Bongjeongsa Temple in Andong, which was built in the late 12th or early 13th century, the Muryangsujeon, Hall of the Amitabha Buddha, of Buseoksa in Yeongju, and the main hall of Sudeoksa Temple in Yesan, all in South Korea, along with the Eungjinjeon Hall of Seongbulsa Temple in the Jeongbang Mountains, the Bogwangjeon Hall of Simwonsa Temple in Bakcheon, and the Bogwangjeon Hall of Simwonsa Temple in Yeontan, Hwanghae-do, all in North Korea.

The Eungjinjeon Hall of Seongbulsa Temple in Sariwon is a seven-kan structure built in 898 and then reconstructed in 1327. It is typical of Goryeo architecture with the colorfully painted dancheong patterns adorning the building's interior woodwork being particularly

44

.. ~

~

I /·

noteworthy. In addition, there are several intricate dragon and lotus flower paintings with a predominantly red and green color scheme. The Bogwangjeon Hall of Simwonsa Temple in Bakcheon, built in the 9th century and reconstructed in 1368, is a gabled structure which is characteristic of the late Goryeo period The Bogwangjeon Hall of Simwonsa Temple in Yeontan, built in 1374, is also a gabled structure. The graceful curves of its roof lines and the ornamentation at the top of the columns of these buildings create an elegant appearance, representative of the refined aesthetics of traditional wooden architecture.

The Joseon Art Musewn Along each side of the Kim ll Sung Plaza, situated in the heart of Pyeongyang, stands the Joseon History Museum and the Joseon Art Museum.

Displayed in these museums are North Korea's most prized cultural treasures, which have been generating considerable attention of late. It was previously thought that since most of the important cultural relics had been stored in the South during the Korean War there were not many notable treasures in North Korea. However, today, a diverse range of invaluable cultural relics and art works is on display in the Pyeongyang museums that should be exhibited in Seoul as part of an inter-Korean exchange of cultural relics. At this time, with the two sides headed toward rapprochement, an exchange exhibition of art works would have a tremendous impact. As the relics are from periods well before the North-South division, these works can be used as valuable research materials allowing us to trace our shared national identity.

I was fottunate to have the opportunity to tour the Joseon Museum of Art with the museum's director as my guide.

One thing that I found disappointing was that there was no recent publication about the museum's collection, something which would have been most helpful for the study and research of the

art works on display. However, I was ~ pleased to find that I could use a special- ~ edition deluxe hardcover book printed in Japan in 1980. (As for books on relics in North Korea, the Book of ]oseon Cultw-al Relics is a good reference.) The museum's collections focused mainly on art works, from reproductions of Goguryeo tomb murals to paintings of present-day North Korea. Surprisingly, a large number of the works on display are reproductions, the rationale being that the originals are part of the "eternal legacy'' of Korean people and therefore should be kept safe in storage, while reproductions are adequate for everyday enjoyment. This may be the only art museum in the world with such a policy. In a capitalist society, such reproductions would be called "fakes" and roundly criticized-an example of how different the two systems are in regard to the exhibition of art works, not to mention political ideology.

The·:following paintings in particular caught my attention: Portrait of Buddhist Monk Naong (Goryeo Kingdom); An Gyeon's Dragon (15th century); Yi Am's The Cat and the Dog (15th century); Portrait of the King (16th century, artist unknown); Afforestation in Times of Flood (16th century, artist unknown); Kim Sik's Child on a Cow(18th century); Kim Du-ryang's Cow Herdsman (17th century); Kim Myeong-guk's Setting the Bat Free (18th century); Choe Buk's Midsummer (18th century); Kim Deuksin's Farmer and Nobleman (18th-19th century); Kim Hong-do's Returning from Picking Medicinal Herbs, Guryong Wateifall, and Leopard Skin (18th*19th century); Stn Yun-bok's Pine Tree and Hawk (18th-19th century); Jang Seungeop's Kingfisher by the Pond and Crab (19th century); Yang Gi-hun's Red Plum Blossoms (19th century); and Yi Doyeong's Autumn Night (20th century).

The names of the artists and dates were provided by North Korea. Joint research between South and North Korean scholars would be most appropriate in the near future. In addition to the paintings,

there were numerous metal crafts and celadon ceramics filling the display cases.

North Korea has carried on the legacy of traditional painting with its Joseon paintings that adopt the use of color, rejecting the literati tradition of blackand-white ink paintings for a more realistic approach. This is surely a unique phenomenon in the history of art around the world Of course, underlying the creative spitit of every Notth Korean artist is the North's juche ideology, which is something we have to accept However, their works lack diversity in terms of methodology, theme, and style of expression, which might be the result of the artists' limited scope of work; for example, solo exhibitions are very rare for North Korean artists. There were no oil paintings on display at the Joseon Museum of Art and there was apparently no special treatment for those ·artists from the South who chose to go North during the war. Needless to say, such genres as abstract art and nude paintings are excluded outright from the creative process.

I compiled this survey of cultural relics in North Korea focusing on art works.

Due to the limited amount of material and the restrictions faced in carrying out the research, the completion of this pro~ ect will have to be put off to a later date.

As mentioned earlier, not having viewed all the works in their original form and having garnered insufficient results from my research efforts, I have to admit to the limitations of this study. This situation, hopefully, can be overcome through joint North-South research projects in the future. One thing clear is that art in Notth Korea is far superior to what has been thought, both in terms of quality and quantity. World-class treasures such as the Goguryeo tomb murals are masterful pieces that should be shared with the people around the world so that they can appreciate the attistic achievement of the Korean people. Furthermore, it is our responsibility to preserve the tradition of the Goguryeo murals for future generations. + 45

. Yi Gyeom-ro PROPRIETOR OF TONGMUNGWAN Yu Hong-june Professor of Art History, Yeungnam National University

uring the last few years, Seoul's Insa-dong district has been rapidly transformed into a street of art and reborn as one of the city's new hot spots. Constantly filled with people, be it a weekday or a holiday, it is difficult to walk unimpeded here, while on Sundays when the streets are blocked off to vehicle traffic, the street vendors and sightseers can create pedestrian gridlock Insa-dong has emerged as one of the most popular destinations for foreign tourists, and everyone seems to agree that this is the place which most vividly showcases Korea's traditional culture.

The Seoul Metropolitan Government recently completed a six-month-long renovation project that included replacing the street's asphalt surface with traditional-style brick tiles in hopes of maintaining the highbrow reputation that people have come to associate with the area.

It is generally believed that Insadong's rapid emergence as one of Seoul's major tourist attractions is due to the fact that the area is known as a home for the traditional arts and art galleries. But in fact this is a relatively recent trend, which began less than 30 years ago. As recently as the early 1970s, there were only three or four art galleries in all of Korea.

It was in 1971 that the Gallery Hyundai, regarded as the country's first commercial art gallery, opened in a small building on a corner of the Insa-dong Intersection. As the ranks of Korea's middle class swelled in the late 1970s, an art boom swept society while galleries

D

46

began to open up one after another, like bamboo sprouts after a rain. By 1978, there were about 30 art galleries in Korea, more than half of them located in Insa-dong. Antique shops began to flourish there as well and it was during this time that Insa-dong distinguished itself as an art-related district.

It is generally believed that lnsa-dong's rapid emergence as one of Seoul's major tourist attractions is due to the fact that the area is known as a home for the traditional arts and art galleries. But in fact this is a relatively recent trend, which began less than 30 years ago.

Before this transformation, Insa-dong was an area with bookstores specializing in old and rare books. Amid the rubble of the Korean War, stores selling used books began to line the streets of Insadong, which had been known for its bookstores since before liberation from Japanese colonial rule. During the Japanese occupation (1910-1945), there were two major neighborhoods that catered to the book business, Namchon and Bukchon.

The more prominent of the two was Namchon, stretching from what is now Chungmuro 1-ga and 2-ga (called Bonjeong in colonial times) to presentday Myeong-dong (Myeongchi-jeong in colonial times). Mungwangdang and Gunseodang were two bookstores in the area that dealt with old and rare

books, while Daepanokho and Ilhanseobang dealt with new books and Hwanseon specialized in books imported from the West. Most of the Namchon storeowners were Japanese.

Koreans owned most of the bookstores in Bukchon. Major stores such as Bakmunseojeom, Yeongchangseogwan and Hangseongdoseo lined the streets of Jongno 1-ga and 2-ga while in Insa-dong, there were Samjungdang, H4engnimseorim and Tongmungwan, which was then called Geumhangdang.

According to a list compiled by the Gyeongsong (Seoul's name under colonial rule) Used Bookstores Co-op, which was formed in December 1940 with about 60 member stores, there were over a hundred used bookstores during this period The commercial landscape underwent drastic change when the Japanese merchants closed shop following the August 15 liberation, and after the Korean War, it was in Insa-dong that the used books business took root again.

Tongmungwan was among the leading stores established during this time.

The reason that Insa-dong became a popular site for used bookstores during the colonial days was not because of people's interest in old and rare books but rather the demand for secondhand books. Back then, many middle and high school students could only afford to purchase used textbooks instead of new, while around Anguk-dong, an area adjacent to Insa-dong, there were a large number of schools, including Kyunggi, Choongang, Whi Moon, Chungdong, Daedong School for Commerce,

Yi Gyeom-ro in Sangamsanbang, the office and exhibition hall ofTongmungwan

Pungmoon Girls' High, Sookmyung Girls' High School, Duksung Girls' High School and Changduk Girls' High School. At the beginning of each semester, students buying and selling textbooks would crowd the used bookstores and after the bustle of this seasonal event, the storeowners would end up with enough profit to finance their operations for a year.

Amid this flourishing trade in used textbooks, there were a handful of shops that maintained their reputation as purveyors of old and rare books, which served to promote Insa-clong's highbrow character. During the 1960s, the used textbook stores eventually all moved out to Cheonggye 6-ga while Insa-clong came to be recognized as a street for antiquarian bookstores. By this time, half of the shops that lined the major thoroughfare of Insa-dong dealt in old and rare books.

With. the growing availability of copying machines in the 1970s, however, the used book business suffered a substantial falloff in sales, and as ever more art galleries and antique dealers made their way into Insa-clong, the bookstores were gradually replaced as art galleries took over the area. Today, there are less than 10 antiquarian bookstores in business, catering mostly to longtime regulars. When heading toward the rosadong intersection from the Anguk-dong intersection, one passes by the shop windows of Tongmungwan, Yeongchangseogwan, Munuseorim, Hangukseojeok, Gomundang and Hogodang, all with stacks of old books in their windows and their wooden nameplates covered 47

J /

..

with the dust of age. These stores have been instrumental in building the Insadong of today.

It wouldn't be fair to bl ~ me it all on the fast-changing trends and lifestyles of our times, but I can't help feeling something has gone wrong, in that our lives are growing more and more distant from books. I must say that I am most grateful and have tremendous respect for these old bookstores that are preserving the tradition and integrity of Insa-dong.

Of them, Tongmungwan is cettainly a leading player. It has been in business since the Japanese colonial period when it was called Geumhangdang, and after liberation, it was transfonned into a store specializing in old and rare books related to the field of Korean studies. Many rare ancient documents have turned up on the shelves of this shop. There was a time when scholars from various fields of Korean studies-Korean language, Korean history, folklore, att history, at路chaeologywould frequent this store with great admiration, while at one time it acted as a liaison office for the Academic Society for Korean Language and Literature.

Account books with records of all the

48

sales Tongmungwan made between 1955 and 1975 still exist. Within these pages can be found the names of hundreds of prominent scholat路s and institutions from the late Lee Hee-seung, a renowned scholar of Korean language, to university libraries across the country, along with the titles of each purchased book, its price and the date of purchase.

These records provide a behind-thescenes account of the cultural goings-on of a recent era. All this while, the proprietor of Tongmungwan has been Yi Gyeom-ro, who turned 91 this yeat路.

Yi Gyeom-ro was born on October 10, 1909 in Gyeongbang village, Jurim-~ Samhwa-myeon, Yonggang-gun in Pyeongannam-do, now part of North Korea. His father was Yi Du-hwang, a merrj'ber of the Jeonui Yi clan. Yi Gye.om-ro was the youngest of four sons and two daughters while his mother was from the Gim clan of Cheongju.

His father was a drapery merchant whe traveled to marketplaces around Pyeongyang, selling his merchandise from the back of his donkey. Although they did some farming as well, the family was not well off. As a child, Yi learned Chinese characters from his

brother. In 1918, at the age of 9, he entered the Satnhwa Public Elementaty School and began his formal education, which was possible only after his brother reluctantly signed him up at the urging of family elders when a school teacher visited the village to recruit new students. At that time, there were fouryear and six-year elementary schools; Samhwa was a four-yeat路 school.

Yi's most vivid memory of his school years is of the large drum that stood above the ma.in gate of the school building. The general schools of this period usually occupied former traditional-style government buildings. His school had taken over a governor's office from the days of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), with the tower of the government complex now being the front gate. The upper level of the tower housed a la.rge drum, standing taller than Yi. The year he entered second grade, the Japanese colonial authorities began to tear down old traditional buildings as patt of their policy to eradicate Korean culture, so the tower was removed while the huge drum was relegated to being used as a starting signal for track events during athletic competitions. For the young Yi,

/¡

the low rumble of the drum was the sound of hope and courage. Thanks to the sound of the drum, perhaps, this boy went on to live his entire life w.ith a special feeling for the pulse of his country, setting out into the world with hope and courage like the self-made hero of a dramatic rags-to-riches story. After graduating from elementary school in 1925, the 16-year-old Yi was bound for Tokyo with grand dreams. His father had passed away the year after he was born and his family soon lost their house and had to move in with a relative. At his age, it was difficult. to find work as a merchant or a farmer so he just left with no plans. He went to the station in Jinjidong, between Jinampo and Pyeongyang, bought a ticket for Tokyo and traveled to Busan without any problems. However, due to the recent Great Gwandong Earthquake Incident, entry into Japan by Korean nationals was being closely scrutinized, and in the end, he failed to board the boat at Busan.

Yi's only choice was to travel to Seoul to look for work But he could not find even a simple errand job, and when he ran out of money, he had to sleep in the streets. He finally headed back to

Pyeongyang. He reached Pyeongyang after walking for 10 days, but when he got there, he was too embarrassed to return home. It was then that he remembered a saying he learned while studying Chinese characters: "If a man leaves home in pursuit of a goal, he doesn't return home until he reaches that goal, even if he dies trying." So Yi decided to stay in Pyeongyang and got a job at a soup shop run by an old couple.

After saving up for a year, Yi ventured to Seoul again. As they say, in life, fate is a series of coincidences. On the streets of Seoul, Yi ran into a classmate from his elementary school named Yi Tae-sik who introduced Yi to the owner of Seonmundang, a bookstore. in Gyeonji-dong, near Insa-dong, where he was abl_e to land a job. This chance encounter introduced him to the field to which he would devote his entire life.

And, as coincidences go, he never saw Yi Tae-sik again.

As the owner of Seonmundang was a very hard man to please, most of his employees never stayed for long. But Yi worked under him for nine years. After spending every day surrounded by books, handling them, reading them and

estimating their value, all of which involved patience and dedication, Yi acquired a special appreciation for his work In 1934, when he turned 26, Yi was able to purchase the bookstore Geummundang, located in Insa-dong where the Sudo Pharmacy currently stands, when the owner, his life in jeopardy due to wine and women, put it up for sale to raise money to flee to Dalian, China. It was a small shop, about 16.5 square meters, but one can easily imagine how proud and elated the young man must have felt at having his own store. He had to come up with a new name for his store, but he didn't have any good ideas. In order to save the costs of putting up a new sign, he just changed one Chinese character in the original name-mun to hang-making the name Geumhangdang. This was¡ how Tongmungwan started out.

Having earned enough money on his own to become a bookstore owner at the age of 26, Yi then brought his mother to Seoul, married a girl from his hometown who was of the Pyeongchang Yi clan, and moved into a house in Hwa-dong, thereby settling down to a stable life. Business at the bookstore was good and three years later, in 1937, he moved his shop to Tongmungwan's current location. The small parcel of land, 62.7 square meters, became the flagship of antiquarian bookstores in Korea as well as a living testimony of what has made Insa-dong into what it is today.

His store's main source of -income came from the trading of textbooks every semester. But he came to learn that dealing in rare and collectible edi-

Tongmungwan first opened in Insa-dong under the name of Geumhangdang during the Japanese colonial period. After the conntty was liberated, it became the foremost bookshop specializing in Korean studies and contributed much to the unearthing of rare books and documents (left, opposite page).

49

tions and antique books was valuable work and could be profitable as well.

With the August 15, 1945 liberation from Japanese colonial rule, he ..changed the name of his store to Tongmungwan to mark a new statt as a bookstore specializing in Korean studies, with emphasis on Korean language and literature. At this time, books of all kinds were being disposed of by Japanese households as the owners packed up to leave while there was a sudden boom in the publishing business, especially in regard to political materials, reflecting the clash between the left-wing and right-wing ideologies. Yi also published a book during this period under the Tongmungwan imprn~ a biography titled Sacred Hero, Admiral Yi Sun-sin, written by Lee Yun-jae, a renowned scholar. Every wellknown Korean studies scholar frequ~nt­ ed Tongmungwan in search of books and research materials, which enabled Yi to develop personal relationships with many of these academics. The regulars were so numerous it would be difficult to list them all. They included Lee Hee-seung, Lee Hong-jik, Kim Jae-won, Lee Yo-song, Hwang Su-young and Yu Hee-gang.

50

Among them was an American naval officer named Marc Scherbacher who was serving as the cultural liaison officer for the U.S. military and had given himself the Korean name of Seol Baek.

When the Korean War broke out in 1950, Yi and his family had to leave everything behind and flee southward to safety like everyone else. During the January 4 retreat, Yi met Lee Hong-jik, a scholar, and sought refuge in Yongin with his family. They later went south to Busan. Even while on the road, he carried on his back the 80-volume Collection of Vmious W1itings from the ]oseon Kingdom published by the

Antique Document Publication Society.

At a refugee shelter in Busan, Yi Gyeomro ran into Scherbacher, who was then in c~arge of handling supplies for the UN. ~ forces, and sold him the collection.

Tht'ough Scherbacher, Yi was issued a pass card which authorized crossing of the Han River, thus enabling him to travel bad~ and forth to Seoul and sell books.

He was issued the pass as an assistant to Mrs. McCune, an employee of the U.S. Library of Congress who was here to purchase books related to Korea.

Life in Seoul began to normalize in

1953 following the cease-fire agreement while Tongmungwan kicked off a new era as an antiquarian bookstore specializing in Korean studies. Old and rare books that had been scattered far and wide during the war made their way to Yi's bookstore with many priceless editions passing through his hands and ultimately being delivered to libraries, collectors and scholars, including Worincheongangjigok (Songs of the Moon's Reflection on a Thousand Rivers), Dusieonhae (Korean Translation of Tu-h1's Poems) and the Buddhist scripture Neungumgyeong, to name just a few. In Yi Gyeom-ro's book Hidden Stories from the Bookstore, published under

the Tongmungwan imprint in 1987, he vividly recmmts these stories, all centering around books.

Yi has continued to publish books under the Tongmungwan iniprint. An edition of Worincheongangjigok that was photo-printed on special handmade paper has become a collector's item. He also published small pocketbooks called yeomnangbon under the "Landscape Painters Series," along with other books that went on to become classics such as Collection of Treatises on Korea 's

History of Art and Culture, a collection of writings by Ko Yu-seop that was published after the writet"s death. · Yi is also an avid collector of dd letter types, ancient maps and book tableaus with flower patterns called neunghwapan. When Tongmungwan went into debt related to the construction of its current four-story building in 1967, Lee Songeun, the president of Yeungnam National University, purchased Yi's entire collection, which has now become a source of pride for the school.

Yi is also a leading scholar of bibliography in Korea. His expertise encompasses the history of books in Korea, practices of the book industry and bookmaking processes. He has been publishing articles on these topics for a good part of the 75 years that he has been involved with books.

To welcome in the year 2000, Yi opened an office/gallery space named Sangamsanbang on the upper floor of Tongmungwan. The name comes from the Chirnabawi Peak of Mt. lnwangsan, which sits right above Yi's house in Ogin-dong. Since passing on the store's daily management responsibilities to his grandson, he now spends his days in the

new room organizing his collections for exhibitions. Following ''Paper in the Daily Lives of Our Ancestors" and 'Kyojijeon," Yi is now at work on a show of rul:r bings made from calligraphy masterpieces. The other day when I visited him at Sangamsanbang, the elderly Yi greeted me with his eyes and then, opening a book to a place that was marked, he nonchalantly uttered these words, which sounded like words of enlightenment coming from an old Zen master: "The old books that I have been taking care of are Vi is also a leading scholar of bibliography in Korea. His expertise encompasses the history of books in Korea, practices of the book industry and book-making processes. He has been publishing articles on these topics for a long time.

now takillg care of my old age."

Yi can recount many warm, affectionate stories about ·scholars of Korean studies. The anecdotes in Hidden Stories from the Bookstore are interesting sketches of behind-the-scenes incidents,

and since there's practically no Korean studies schoiar who has not established a friendship with Yi, there is an abundance of intriguing stories to be told about Yi and his career.

I turned 52 this year, only about half of Yi's age, a mere youngster compared to him. Since first meeting this stalwart in 1967 at the opening ceremony of the new Tongmungwan building, we have now been acquainted for over 30 years, and he blesses me with special gifts from time to time. The other day a letter arrived at my office at Yeungnam National University in Daegu. There was a sheet of beautiful colored paper within an elegant mulberry paper envelope, along with some copied documents. A note from Yi read

I used to greet your face once a week, at least once a month; this spring·however, I have not seen you all season.

Perhaps you're busy with your writing or prifer not to come to Seoul, held by the beauty of the flowers in Yeongnam.

I am enclosing some copies of documents I came across while going through my research materials and hope you will work them into a fine piece of writing as you always do.

They say the plumpness of Buddha's face depends on the stonemason's hand Hal Hal Regards.

Today Tongmungwan owner Yi Gyeom-ro still arrives at work at 10 o'clock evety morning at Sangarnsanbang and heads to his home beneath Mt. Inwangsan's Chimabawi at 4 -o'clock Whenever I see Yi leisurely strolling the streets of lnsa-dong with his cane and a bright smile on his young face, his frame slender, I can only think that it is because of people like him that Insadong lives on, and Korea lives on. + Tongmungwan proprietor Yi Gyeom-ro being interviewed by Pro£ Yu Hong-june (opposite) Tongmungwan's storefront on the lnsa-dong street (left)

51

.. ~

~

Traditional Artisan

"THE SECRET IS THE CARING HEART'

YiGi-nam

THE GOCHUJANG GRANDMA OF SUNCHANG Lee Hyoung-kwon Head, Cultural Properties Research Institute

he one food item Koreans can never do without is gochujang, no dining table can be complete without this condiment Any Korean who has been abroad on an extended trip can recall missing the spicy, palateburning taste of this fermented chili pepper paste. The mere thought of a bowl of barley and rice vigorously mixed together with turnip kimchi and, of course, gochujang can arouse even the most travel-weary Korean. No wonder one of the first things that Koreans pack before leaving the country is a ·travel-pack of gochujang.

The reason gochujang is so pleasing to the Korean palate is that it is not only a seasoning which spices up food but also a condiment with a special aroma and taste. At the same time it is salty, hot, flavorful-and sweet, while able to eliminate the odor of meat that many Koreans dislike.

Because gochujang and doenjang (fermented bean paste) are Korea's most popular fermented food items, every Korean family has its own recipes passed down from generation to generation.

Nevettheless, from time immemorial, the Jeolla-do provinces and especially Sunchang in Jeollanam-clo province have been associated with exceptional gochujang.

Not too ho~ not too salty and with a refreshing after-taste, gochujang from Sunchang is said to have been popular as early as the time of Yi Seong-gye, the

T

52

founder of the Joseon Dynasty (13921910). Legend has it that the king stopped for a meal at a farmet S house while traveling to Manilsa Temple to visit his mentor Monk Muhak. The farmer served him barley and rice mixed with gochujang which the king enjoyed so much that he ordered the farmer to supply his goc ~ ujang to the court regularly. Thus began the fame of gochujang from Sunchang.

0

The traditional Sunchang Gochujang Village in Sunchang,Jeollabuk-do province

However, it was not such a long time ago that gochujang became an essential part of Korean cuisine. Though the chili pepper had been first introduced to Korea around the time of the 1592 Japanese invasions, it has been widely cultivated only since the late 17th century. So gochujang has been a staple of the Korean kitchen for some 300 years. The story about gochujang from Sunchang involving Yi Seong-gye is obviously an

exaggeration though it was indeed sent as tribute to the royal kitchen.

Since being introduced to Korea not all that long ago, the red pepper cettainly became an integral part of the Korean diet at a remarkable speed, in kimchi, the fermented cabbage which has become a symbol of Korea worldwide, and in gochujang as well as a host of vegetables piclded in gochujang.

However, preparing gochujang, which involves a maturing process of more than six months in eatthenware crocks, is no simple task. Moreover, the situation is getting ever worse with the dearth of young people who are willing to lecu·n the proper way of preparing gochujang, as they are so used to the convenience of commercially prepared foods. Concerned that authentic gochujang might disappear altogether from the Korean dining table in the near future, I visited a longtime maker of gochujang in Sunchang to learn her secrets.

A congestion-free drive along the . expressway (#88) that stretches from Daegu to Gwangju, and a right turn right after getting off at the Sunchang interchange, brings you to Ganam-ri village of Sunchang. Although a "gochujang village'' has been created in necu·by Baeksan-ri to attract tourists, it is in Ganam-ri that you can meet Mrs. Yi Gi-nam, famed for her savory gochujang and pickled vegetables.

Mrs. Yi's house itself tells much about herself. Built with sturdy timber, mostly

A smile never leaves the childlike fuce of the 77 -year-old Mrs. Yi.

thick pinewcx:xi, it is neat and well tended with no traces of being weather-beaten despite its many winters. Even the latticework of the windows is marked with a simple elegance. It is obviously the home of a very well-to-do country gentleman. It looks out over expansive fields of rice that belong to the family, while in its comtyard is a cluster of more ¡than 100 eatthenware vessels, all containing sauces such as gochujang, doenjang, and pickles being aged under the watchful eye of Grandmother Yi. Even now she is busy weaving her way between the pots to oversee the village women who are tending them With her a good-

! ..

I

I

-<.

natured smile and wrinkled face, the 77year-old Mrs. Yi looks as endearing and friendly as one's own grandmother.

It was from the day she married Gwon Ho-gil in 1941 that her lifelong love affair with the gochujang of Sunchang began. Her husband's family was the head family of the Gwon clan who had resided in Sunchang for hundreds of years and owned large fields of farmland. She realized from her early days of married life that her most important responsibilty as a daughter-in-law was preparing food for her big family.

Moreover, this was a time when the greatest virtue of a Sunchang woman was her ability to prepare flavorful sauces and fermented condiments because the taste of virtually every dish depended on the quality of these basic ingr~dets.

"My first memory of being in this house is of boiling soybeans and pounding them in a stone mottar with a mallet day. in: and day out to make meju (bean cake) for fermenting. My mother-in-law was a real perfectionist She scolded me to tears whenever she found the food to be even a wee bit off her liking. Having a tigress for a mother-in-law on top of a never-ending line of visitors who stopped by the house since it was the head residence of the clan, if mine wasn't the harshest life of a daughter-in-law, I

don't know what is." Although experiencing such a demanding life, Mrs. Yi possesses such a gentle demeanor that she has probably never uttered an unkind word to anyone.

Powdered chili pepper, powdered meju, salt and water are the main ingredients of gochujang. For starch, Mrs. Yi uses rice powder, glutinous rice powder, barley powder or flour, but she prefers glutinous rice powder, saying it is the best for making the most delectable gochujang.

According to nutritionists, the flavor of gochujang comes from its harmonious blend of the sugar produced through the hydrolysis of the starch, the aroma of amino acids produced from the fermented soybeans, the spiciness of the chili pepper and the salt However, the flavor will differ according to the quantities of the ingredients used and the conditions and environment of the maturing process. It is thus natural that gochujang tastes different from household to household and region to region, which explains the unique taste of gochujang from Sunchang.

"Our timing is different to begin with. Gochujang is usually prepared in the third lunar month in most other regions but here in Sunchang we start making it in the last lunar month of the year. That way we can slow down the fermentation and allow the gochujang more time to mature. The climate is ideal for making gochujang because it is cool, with freezing temperatures well into April. And we have good quality water. People say that our-gochujang is . so tasty because of our climate and water."

Mrs. Yi's gochujang making actually Bright red chili pepper and meju, fermented bean paste, are essential for making gochujang.

54

â&#x20AC;˘

starts in July when she boils soybeans for meju. She mixes boiled beans with steamed rice powder at a ratio of 10 bushels of beans to 6 bushels of rice, then pounds and grinds the mixture into mush in a mortar. She rolls the ground mixture into meju about twice the size of her fist, covers them with rice straw and hangs them from the eaves of her house for about a month for mold to develop. She removes meju sometime before the Chuseok holiday. She breaks them up in a mortar into chestnut-size pieces, leaves them in the sun till they are dry to get rid of the odor, grinds them again into finer granules, sieves and dries them again and finally stores them away until the gochujang-making season.

Come the last lunar month of the year, she mixes the ground mixture with boiled water and lets it stand overnight She then mixes it with well-soaked and steamed glutinous rice and pounds the mixture into mush in a mortar. She lets the mixture stand for a day in a cool place until it becomes watery. Then she stirs in chili pepper powder and salt Mrs. Yi makes it a point of using only pepper powder made from sun-dried peppers because machine-dried peppers are less flavorful She seasons the gochujang with two-year-Did soy sauce in addition to salt to prevent it from going sour.

Once the gochujang is prepared it needs to be aged for more than six months. During these months, the storage crocks should be left uncovered on dear sunny days so that the gochujang is exposed to airborne bacteria that aids the fermentation process.

Pickled vegetables are another forte of Mrs. Yi. In truth, they require even more care than gochujang to prepare because vegetables need more than three years of aging to attain a truly mature flavor. Vegetables are first soaked in salt for a year before they are pickled in gochujang. Mrs. Yi discards the original gochujang once its flavor has permeated the vegetables and then covers the vegetables, which have

become sweet and spicy, with new gochujang.

Turnip, cucumber, persimmon, bamboo shoots, perilla leaves, garlic, bell flower roots, fatsia shoots, dried corbina -all are pickled in gochujang for three long years. It is incredible to think about how much time and effort women like Mrs. Yi will invest to enrich their dining table.

The fam~ of Mrs. Yi's gochujang and pickled food items has not been publicized through glossy advertisements but rather spread by word of mouth. Such unforgettable flavors, passed on by generation after generation of daughters-inlaw of the head family of the Gwon dan, are rooted in the climate and culture of Sunchang. It is indeed the flavor of Korea that is maturing in Mrs. Yi's numerous earthenware pots. +

From the top: Pickles made from persimmon, turnip pieces and dried corbina 55

ON THE ROAD

Kimjoo-young Novelist

56

oreans are not as familiar with the sight of the Dumangang (Tumen) River as they are with its name. The river, called Tumen in China, originates from the Seokeulsu·· that flows from the eastern foot of Daeyonjibong ·Peak on the southeastern side of Mt. Baekdu. It then joins the Sohongdansu flowing from the Macheonyeong mountain range and the Seodusu of the Hamgyeong mountains, becoming the third longest river in Korea.

From the ancient past, people living in the northern regions of the Korean peninsula, such as Musan, Hoeryeong, Jongseong, Onjeong and Namyang, relied on the Dumangang for much of

K

their daily food, mainly by fishing with scoop-nets. No other river in Korea is so steeped in the history of sorrow and hardship of the Korean people as the Dumangang, from the Goguryeo, Balhae, and Joseon periods to the present day. To me, the landscape unraveling along the Dumangang that I viewed through the car window was as familiar as worn clothes. The small houses with straw-thatched roofs and ancient tree trunks for chimneys, the bright red peppers hanging on plastered walls like spiral squibs, threatening to burst under the sunlight, and the yellow ears of corn resembling the front teeth of laughing children were all as familiar as the old black-and-

white photos hanging on my parents' bedroom wall.

My trip along the Amnokgang (Yalu) River, which began in Sinuiju, took me to Dandong, the mouth of the Amnokgang, and its upper reaches at Baekdusan. The valleys of the ¡ Amnokgang are deep, but they become ever so gentle during. the course of its journey to the West Sea. Although the water volume of the Dumangang is less than that of the Amnokgang, it flows more vigorously during its quest to join the East Sea. Due to the heavy rain that refused to let up for two consecutive days, I had to forgo a visit to Sungseon which is nearby North Korea's Musan, and to Samhap, a mere stone's throw

Across the mud-colored Dumangang River lie the flooded com fields and buildings of Namyangju, North Korea (top).

Chinese tourists taking pictures alongside the Dumangang River (above)

57

Cheonji Lake at the top of Mt. Baekdu, one of the fountainheads of the Dumangang (top) Upstream of the Dumangang flowing from Cheonji Lake (above) and rafts on the Amnokgang River (right)

away on the bank opposite to Hoeryeong. Many parts of the road were blocked due to landslides. On the morning that I arrived in Haegwan, the Dumangang had flooded and I could hardly contain my excitement. I could see North Korea's submerged cornfields and buildings in Namyangju, just beyond the muddy waters of the turbulent Dumangang. I felt I could reach out and touch them. Ancient Koreans

believed that dreaming of a river was a fortuitous omen. A flooding river or sea signified good fortune, but the greatest luck of all was supposed to be when a river flooded a house. Physically, a river can separate two areas, while at the same time link them together as well. A river's ability to symbolize both separateness ,and connectivity would not be totally unfamiliar to the 2 million ethnic Koreans who reside in China's three northeastern provinces. Jumong, the first king of Goguryeo, was said to have been born from Yu Hwa, the daughter of flabaek, a river god. His f~ther was Hae Mosu, son of Heaven. Goguryeo thus promoted a motif that combined Heaven and a river god for the creation of its founder. Actually, the Korean peo-

pie of long ago were more comfortable with waterways than land routes. They invariably developed cities and settlements alongside rivers, since they did not fear water, and also because of an ancient tradition under which rivers were thought of as open, -rather than closed, space. Even when building a small hut, they always sought a site with a mountain at its back and a river flowing in front -a reflection of their deep-rooted yearning for open space.

Korea is currently witnessing a historic turning point. The truce village of Panmunjeom has become a North-South gateway, while work to restore the Gyeongui railway linking Seoul with Sinuiju is now underway.

Some North Koreans that I saw raft-

58

..

. ~

ing on the Amnokgang waved to me first, and shouted a greeting. The young children playing in the waters of the Dumangang and the women doing their laundry did not look upon me with hostility, as was their natural reaction in the past. I could see no sign of glowering North Korean and Chinese border guards anywhere near the national boundary stone marker that I came across in Gaolouzixiang, on the way from Dandong to Kuandian. I enjoyed an unobstructed view of a seemingly endless stretch of open space that connected with the Asian continent. Along the way from Yanji to Hunchun, I noticed many signboards of restaurants and shops written in Korean.

I was planning to venture all the way to

Fangchuan, at the mouth of the Dumangang. I stopped in a field of eulalia with a marker reading Xinjicun, and had lunch, watching the Dumangang flow by. As I left the provincial gate of Jilin behind, a railway track appeared on the left side of the road To the righ~ the lapping waves of the Dumansang accompanied me. The pleasant aroma of ripening corn coming from the fields in North Korea tickled my nostrils. I finally reached Hunchun, the home of the Balhae Kingdom, founded by a Goguryeo general on the vast plains north of the Dumangang.

Even after the kingdom's collapse, the people of Jurchen, who had been under the influence of Goryeo, continued to live at the river's edge. In fact, the

remains of Paryeon Castle, an ancient earthen fortress built by the Balhae Kingdom, can still be seen there today.

The people of Balhae used this castle as a gateway to Japan and Russia. The main road passing through the urban areas of Hunchun still retains the ancient street name used during the Baihae Kingdom: Longyuanjie. After departing from Hunchun, an unanticipated expanse of moorland began to unfold before me-so vast that it appeared to go on forever. The road through Jingxin and Jiushaping was lined with countless sand dunes, and I soon reached Quanhekou. On the opposite side was North Korea's Wonjeong-ri, noted for its abundance of blue crabs.

The areas around the lake and marshes 59

I

were completely blanketed with pussy willows and tall oak trees. Finally, I could see the iron fences built by Russia along the left side .of the road.

Though not indicated on ordinary maps, there is a spur of land as thin and sharp as a pine needle that juts out toward the East Sea. On this tiny strip of land the national boundaries of North Korea, China and Russia are so entangled that it would not be easy to distinguish on whose land I was walking. I heard that one or two of the countries had actually built roads on another country's land in some places. I finally reached Fangchuan, my final destination. The distance from Dangdong, the mouth of the Amnokgang, to Fangchuan is about 7,000 ri (approximately 17,000 miles, 28,000 Km). There, I laid my eyes on the East Sea revealed by the morning sunlight 13 days after departing from Seoul. Only then did I truly realize that the Dumangang-brimming with the tragedies of the Korean people--could be said to be the origin of the East Sea, as no other river flowing into the East Sea is as large as the Dumangang. I climbed some stairs to reach Wanghaige, adjacent to the Chinese sentry post at the North Korea-China

Korea is currently witnessing a historic

<.

turning point.

The truce village of Panmunjeom has become ¡ a North-South gateway, while work to restore the Gyeongui railway linking Seoul with Sinuiju is underway.

Hassanjin, a town of rolling hills, marshes and lakes, is a starting point of a bridge spanning the Dumangang (top).

Pacyeon Castle, an ancient earthen fortress of the Balhae Kingdom (above) 60

~

~

8 ~ ~:J

East Sea viewed from Wanghaige (top) A view of Russia (above) and North K~rea (below)

boundary. This was the first time that I had looked out upon such a vast landscape that extended endlessly in every direction. Beyond the marshes in the far distance, I could make out a long railway bridge, linking North Korea with Russia's Posiet, that seemed to be suspended in the air. The North Korean train station that I could see, where freight trains were standing immobile as if they were fixtures in a painting, was Honguiri, which I had never visited before. The next stop was Awudi. For breakfast I had a box lunch beneath Wanghaige. While looking out at the endless expanse of the East Sea, I unconsciously turned back to view the enormous continent behind me. The panorama of Wanghaige that seemed to

continue forever showed me that the roads open to us were many and varied should the Korean people be able to combine their spirit and wisdom. The lingering crow of a rooster, coming from which of the three countries I could not tell, brought home this point even more poignantly.

By coincidence, I experienced several unforgettable encounters with North Korean women during my journey to the national boundaries of Korea. In one instance, I had a brief encounter with a woman in her forties, with the flooded Amnokgang flowing between us. The woman was doing her laundry beside children bathing in the river. Even from afar, I could notice that she was wearing threadbare clothes and looked haggard

When I asked if I could come across the river to -visit her village, she stopped her washing, and then began to signal with her hands excitedly in a gesture indicating I should not I felt something twisting in my hear~ which moved me more than the conversation I had with her, while the image of this scene remained with me for a long time. Her gesturing was intended to be a warning, with a concern akin to that of a mother for her child, that fording the river was not a carefree adventure to be embarked upon so spontaneously, as well as apprehension that the reception I might find there would fall short of my expectations. Perhaps my preconceived notions of the plight of North Koreans influenced my arriving at these two impres61

'

'

¡-

sions, but anyway I interpreted her gestures as a signal that I should think about returning at some other time.

Late one afternoon, I stopped by a market in Yanji, Jilin province, where I always visit whenever I come to the thriving city beside the Dumangang.

Along the first floor of the market building are lines of street peddlers selling an assorted variety of daily necessities. There ¡ are also a number of ingenious reproductions of paintings by renowned North Korean artists. On the second floor there were many clothing stores frequented by baggage merchants from North Korea. In fact, these shops cater to North Korean visitors.

Since it was nearly sune~ the corridors were virtually empty as the shops were about to close. My eyes came upon a woman who appeared to be in her forties, standing at one of the shops. I intuitively sensed that she was from North Korea, and approached her, pretending to look through the clothes on a rack Unexpectedly, the woman advised me in Korean to choose dark colors, rather than bright ones such as white or yellow. Seizing on this opportunity for conversation, I promptly asked her why. She then suddenly clammed up, and appeared to be embarrassed I had to repeat the question twice. The young proprietor of the shop gave me an answer instead: detergent to wash bright clothes is not readily available in the North. I felt as if someone had struck me physically and also that I had been poking at the wounds of my compatriots. The woman seemed to look so similar to the woman I had seen across the Amnokgang earlier. I decided to give her two sets of dark colored undergarments which would not need to be washed so frequently, one for her and one for her husband. Only then did I realize that all the clothes displayed on the rack outside the shop were darkcolored. According to a proverb, you eventually reach the head of a snake if you keep following its tail. There was no reason for me to continue to delve 62

into their wounds by asking further questions about their hardship. Didn't I have ample insight into their situation, just from the woman who had signaled so demonstrably from across the Amnokgang?

About the time my trip was nearing its end, I had a lo~g talk with a young Notth Korean woman in her twenties. I trust that readers will understand if I do not disclose her name and hometown.

She was the youngest of five children and hailed from a North Korean village alongside the Amnokgang. Because of an ethnic Korean man from Yanji, China, who visited her village several times, she now had no nationality and

was living in a strange city in China. She was attractive and had a gentle nature.

She and the young man were attracted to each other, and eventually promised to share their future together. Though he vowed to return to her village soon, he did not return nor send any word Despite her docile appearance, she was determined to be with him. With a friend, she crossed the river, and after numerous difficulties, managed to find her way to Yanji and to the young man.

The two soon got married, and moved in with his parents. This all ended in tragedy in just a year. One day, she was suddenly taken to a farm in a small rural village. Another nuptial chamber with a

.,

man she had never seen before was waiting for her there. She endured a week of hell at the farm, but she never once gave in to this man The elders of the farm, weary of threatening and pleading with her, finally confessed that she had been sold by her husband She was so naive that she had no idea why she had been taken to the farm. The people, realizing that she was duped and there was no way to change her mind, let her go free. The overwhelming sense of betrayal that she felt toward her husband did not take her back to Yanji, however. As an illegal alien bereft of nationality, large cities were the only place where she could live anonymous-

ly in relative safety. In due time, she became a highly fashionable urban woman, with no trace she had once been a country hick However, she did not entirely forget her past. She was now more knowing of the world, though sh~ could not overcome the desire to show her husband in Yanji her newfound lifestyle. She dressed up in her finest clothing and paid a visit to her in-laws, even bringing them gifts. Her parents-in-law and husband were speechless at her transformation, and they cautiously invited her to live with them again. Her ulterior motive in retmning to Yanji had been to hear that very suggestion. She pointedly, and

The marketplace in Yanji is bustling with shoppers.

scornfully, turned down their offer, and returned to the city without ever glancing back She smiled bitterly, saying that she had never felt so good during the three years she spent there since she crossed the Amnokgang for a new life in China. But she now has a new goal in life: to overcome the status of an illegal foreigner in two years and then to live in South Korea. This resourceful vagabond has set her sights on South Korea as her ultimate destination. â&#x20AC;˘ 63

.'

orean gins.eng has long been an export 1tem of the country well known for its high quality in markets around the world. However, ginseng accounts for only a small percentage of Korea's total agricultural production In Samguksagi (Histoiy of the Three Kingdoms), a history book written dming the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), it notes that in 513, ginseng was presented as tribute to the emperor Liangwu of China's Liang Dynasty on behalf of Muryeong, the 25th king of Korea's Baekje Kingdom. In Sinnongbonchokyeongjipju (Shennong Bencaojing), a pharmacopoeia written by Tao Hongjing of the Liang Dynasty L400 years ago, ginseng is desoibed as a plant that has three branches and five leaves, grows in the shade, and can be gathered among linden trees. In the jomnal, medicinal herbs are ranked in three categories according to their usage and value. Ginseng is given a high value, and is said to be non-toxic

K

Ginseng harvested in Gemnsan (left) A painting at the foot of Mt. Jinaksan depicting the legend of the Gang family (below), and Gaesarngak, a memorial to the ginseng plant in Seonggok-ri where the son of the Gang family first cultivated ginseng (bottom)

65

and not harmful to the bcxiy no matter how much is consumed Ginseng, an Indigenous Herb

A ginseng field (top) A fanner harvesting ginseng (above)

66

The scientific name of the ginseng grown in Korea is Panax ginseng, which means a universal remedy, or cure-all, but it is commonly refetTed.to as Gotyeo ginseng. Ginseng has been regarded as an ¡ intriguing herb in both the East and the West from long ago, and is even men- â&#x20AC;˘ tioned in Geupchwipyeon by Shi You of China's Yuan Emperor era of the Western Han Dynasty (BC 48-33). Since ginseng cultivation began in the 16th century, the efficacy of ginseng has been noted in almost evety medical jomnal in the East while numerous doctors in Korea and elsewhere have cited its outstanding attributes. One of the scientifical-

ly proven medicinal properties of ginseng is its ability to enhance the body's homeostasis. Research also indicates that ginseng is effective for relieving stress and fatigue, helping fight diabetes and cancer, and stimulating brain activity, as well as treating hypettension, attetiosclerosis, and gastroentetic disorders.

In patticulat¡, ginseng is extremely sensitive to its environmental conditions in terms of temperature and soil composition. Although ginseng is produced in both Japan and the United States, Korea is recognized as having an ideal environment for growing ginseng. Thanks to the geographical location of the Korean peninsula and its related environmental conditions, Gotyeo ginseng is known for its superior quality as compat¡ed to that of other nations. The vegetative period for

ginseng is 180 days in Korea, which is relatively longer than the 120-130 days in other locations. This helps ginseng develop a root with a firmer texture and incompat¡able fragrance. Goryeo ginseng is divided into two different strains based on where it is grown: Gemnsan ginseng in South Korea and Gaeseong ginseng in North Korea. Plump and soft Gaeseong ginseng diff}:rs from the thin and white Geumsan ginseng, which is also called bakjesam Ginseng is grown everywhere in Korea, except the island of Jejudo, but ginseng coming from the tich s.:111dy soil of Geumsan has earned quite a notable reputation Gewnsan Ginseng

Geumsan, located in Chungcheongnam-do province, has a terrain over 70

The red berries of a ginseng plant (above)

67

On market day, this elderly woman is selling ginseng she raised herself (below).

Business is good _today as a vendor sells a generous amount of ginseng to a customer (bottom).

路-

68

percent mountainous, providing excellent conditions for growing ginseng and herbs with moderate temperatures and sufficient rain and sunlight. Located in the middle of the Korean peninsula near the southern branch of the Han River, the open fields in Geumsan are too steeply sloped and soil conditions are not conducive to growing vegetables. With the bleached soil there being acidic and nutrient-poor, the residents of the area have been forced to cultivate ginseng and herbs for a living rather than grains.

There is a legend about Geumsan ginseng involving a young man of the Gang family. According to the legend, about 1,500 years ago, this man lived alone with his mother. His father had passed away long ago and his mother was ailing. The man went to a Buddhist retreat in the mountains every day to pray for his mother's recovery. One day, the guardian spirit of the mountain appeared in the young man's dream and told him to dig up the root of an herb with three reddish fruits growing near a rock wall and then to have his mother take this. The man did as he had been told in his dream, and miraculously his mother recovered quickly thereafter.

Following his mother's miraculous recovery, the man started to collect the herb's seeds and give them to his neighbors. Over the years, the plants grown from these seeds were used to cure sick people, and the local residents started to call the plant insam, "human plant," because the shape of its root resembled the human body. They believed that it was a gift from the gods and built Gaesamgak, a memorial to the ginseng plant in Geumsan to celebrate its curative powers and mark the site where the son of the Gang family first cultivated ginseng.

The Geumsan area produces four types of ginseng: susam, water ginseng; baeksam, white ginseng; hongsam, red ginseng; and taegeuksam. Susam is ginseng roots that are dried without processing, whereas baeksam refers to gin-

seng roots that ar路e peeled and dried in the sun, which produces a light yellowish color. There ar路e three types of baeksam: jiksam, straight roots; goksam, curvy roots; and misam, small roots. Hongsam refers to ginseng roots that are steamed unpeeled and dried, whereas taegeuksam ar路e roots that are boiled in water.

To enhance its medicinal efficacy, Geumsan ginseng is harvested in early July and processed in late October.

Called "summer ginseng," it is known for its high saponin conte~ ginseng's key component. Summer ginseng contains 5.2 percent saponin whereas ginseng gathered in winter has only 3.4 percent.

Herbal Market The Geumsan market, which is located in Jungdo-ri, begins to stir at two o'clock in the morning when people and trucks loaded with all manner of herbs arrive from all the provinces to buy and sell herbal products. Upon arrival at the market area, which is about a three-hour drive from Seoul, people are greeted by huge mounds of ginseng. The fragrance exuded by the vast concentration of herbs and ginseng is overwhelming.

Statting from the Geumsan Bridge, a number of ginseng and herbal shops Geumsan, cover large areas of Jungdo-r~ which is called "the street of ginseng." It is the place to go for a wide variety of high quality ginseng. The five-day Geumsan market which opens every five days (the 2nd, 7th, 12th, 17th, 22nd, and 27th of each month) attracts throngs of customers while providing .the festive atmosphere of a traditional Korean bazaar. There are four major markets: the Old Market, where ginseng has been traded since ancient times, the International Ginseng Market, the Susam Market and the Herbal Market.

They are all situated along the street that leads to Muju. Eighty percent of all the ginseng grown in Korea finds its way through Geumsan. Ginseng and other herbs can be found in the eightstory Geumsan Ginseng Shopping

¡~

Center as well as the Geumsan Ginseng Yangnyeong Market, which sells some 200 different kinds of herbs. On market days, the streets and roads aie filled with vendors displaying their goods on vinyl mats including friendly old ladies hawking their homegrown herbs.

Nowadays, most people prefer modern and new things; however, the Geumsan market still manages to attract customers from all over the world. As soon as you enter downtown Geumsan, you get the feeling of being at a Chinese herb clinic due to the advanced development of the herbal medicine industry in this area. Another reason for visiting is to experience the annual Geumsan Ginseng Festival that has been held in September or October in Ilwon, Geumsan since 1981. It was started to celebrate the harvest and to publicize Geumsan ginseng internationally. With its local legend of the filial son of the Gang family and its central location, the Geumsan Ginseng Festival is a favorite of many, not only as a folk festival but also as a useful means of promoting Korean traditions and the effectiveness of Korean herbs and ginseng. It offers a diversity of things to see, do and eat while continuing to gain prominence as an international event. Based on the efforts of traditional Korean cooking expetts, Geumsan has constantly developed and refined a variety of foods made with ginseng. Visitors can try ginseng liquor and ginseng tea as well as tasty ginseng dishes. Among the favorites are ginseng chicken soup, fried sweet ginseng cake, ginseng pickles, and ginseng kebabs.

For sometime now, Geumsan ginseng has been exported to Japan, Southeast Asia, North America and Europe. Moreover, the provincial government of Chungcheongnam-do has set up overseas ginseng exhibition halls in Japan, the United States and China to boost the popularity of ginseng and enable ginseng connoisseurs to have convenient access to the best quality ginseng, Geumsan ginseng. +

Dealers from across the country flock to the ginseng auction (top).

A bottle of ginseng wine containing ginseng roots (above)

69

CUISINE

Sujeonggwa Persitntnon Punch Koo Chun-sur Director, World Food Research Institute

uring Ko.rea's cold winters, strong winds blow across the peninsula from the northwest Therefore, it was common to build houses facing the southeast with mountains behind to block these winds. Moreover, many houses had a couple of persimmon trees in their backyard. Areas such as Jinyeong, Gyeongsang-do province, that are relatively warm in winter due to ocean breezes, produce sweet persimmons whereas tatt persimmons grow in the colder mountainous at·eas and the n<Drthern at·eas of the Korean peninsula. As a result of their temperature-sensitive nature, persimmons can be delightfully sweet and colorful or tatt. And thanks to the moderate climate of the major persimmon-producin_g area, Jinyeong, its persinm10ns are superior in taste to those from at·eas in central Korea, such as·Seosan.

Some Western countries produce persimmons, but the bulk of persimmons come from Asia, especially Korea, China and Japan. In Vietnam, persimmons are grown in mountainous regions. Persimmon trees can be grown quite easily, at·e highly resistant to insects, and require little eat·e. However, it is difficult for persimmon trees to thrive in the mid-northern areas of the Korean peninsula since they cannot survive the extreme cold weather in that region any better than they can hot tropical conditions.

D

When tatt persimmons ripened and fell to the ground from trees in the mountains of Korea, people used to gather them and cook them in a huge pot with salt to counteract their tartness. But because there were so many persimmons, people started to peel, string and dry them in the shade. Dried persimmons thus became popular snacks and delectable treats for guests. Interestingly enough, they were also used to stop babies from crying, as is told in the traditional Korean tale, "The Tiger and the Persimmon": One day, a hungry tiger approached a farming village in search of food. As the tiger came upon a small house, he heat·d a mother inside the house screaming to her crying baby, "Stop! There's a tiger outside." The tiger was surprised that the mother knew he was there and expected the baby to stop crying. Surprisingly, the baby continued to cry.

Then the mother said: '1ook, here's a dried persimmon." And the baby stopped crying immediately. The tiger became frightened and ran away because he thought he came across something that was more powerful than himself.

The leaves of persimmon trees are used for making tea.

Persimmon trees naturally complement traditional Korean houses while the city of Yeongdong, in central Korea, has planted them along its streets. Because persimmons are known to contain tannin, an anti-carcinogen, they have become a populat· fruit in the West At markets in Vancouver, Canada, tons of persimmons from New Zealand can be found, showing that persimmons are no longer craved by only Asians.

Koreans have a tradition of inviting over friends and relatives for an elaborate meal. Along with sild1ye, a fermented rice beverage, a persimmon punch called sujeonggwa is often served as a dessett. Sujeonggwa combines tl1e rich flavor of persitnmon with two spices. Cinnamon and ginger at·e sit1m1ered in water to form a flavorful liquid to which dried persinunon is added. To prepare sujeonggwa, peel and thinly slice 50 grams of ginger, boil well, strain to remove the ginger, and set the liquid aside. Then boil 30 grams of cinnamon sticks in six cups of water, strain, and set the liquid aside. After the boiling process, combine the two liquids and dissolve one and a half cups of sugar in the liquid and cool. Peel and remove the seeds of 20 persitnrnons and then cut into slices. Add the persimmons to the liquid and refrigerate for three hours before serving. When . the persimmons have softened, add pine nuts and the punch is ready to serve. · Before yeot (traditional Korean taffy) and sugar were intrcr duced to Korean cooking, sweet foods were a rarity. For this reason, persitnrnons and sujeonggwa were favorites of Koreans and they still at·e. By the way, gam, the Korean word for persinunon, means "sweet'' +

The ingredients of sujeonggwa: dried persinunon, ginger, cinnamon, and pine nuts

..

Sliced ginger and cinnamon are boiled at low heat for a long time, then slices of dried persimmon and a few pine nuts are added to the liquid, to make a refreshing sujeonggwa drink.

71

I

DISCOVERING KOREA

Traditional Charcoal Used in Daily Life ChoTae-soo Researcher, Forestry Research Institute

harcoal came into use when people first learned to use fire.

Judging from the presence of charcoal among many primitive relics and remains that have been excavated, it is believed that humans have used charcoal from antiquity. In Korea, charcoal could be obtained easily as a byproduct of the unique traditional under-floor heating which allowed it to system called ond~ become a highly essential, and widely used commodity.

An entry in Samguksagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) on the ninth day

C

<.

Wood is bwned in a controlled fire until it gets a silvery sheen. When it is removed from the kiln, it takes on a whitish look and is thus called Baektan, white coal. It is the best quality charcoal (left).

of the ninth month of the sixth year of the reign of King Heongang (r. 875-886) of the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.-AD. 935) states that commoners in Gyeongju used charcoal instead of firewood for cooking purp0ses. This testifies to the fact that chari:oal has been mass-produced and used as a daily necessity since the ant:ient past In what was a traditional custom that was practiced until quite recently, Koreans hung a straw rope called gumjul, "Forbidding Rope," across the gate to a house to announce the birth of a child. The rope was usually inter-

twined with charcoal, among other things, to frighten away evil spirits and disease. Why did ancient Koreans choose charcoal, of all things, to mark an auspicious event? It seems that in their daily life they had come to understand that charcoal has the ability to absorb and pwify, a fact that has been scientifically proven in modern times. The gumjul appears to have been a manifestation of the resourcefulness of ancient Koreans who tried to use the qualities of charcoal to symbolically absorb misfottunes and to allow only purified spirits to enter the house of the newborn

Ancient Koreans also placed pieces of charcoal inside soy sauce jars to prevent the sauce from spoiling and to make it tastier. They also put charcoal at the bottom of wells to purify the water. The wooden printing blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana preserved in the specially designed depositories at Haeinsa Temple, and the Seokguram grotto shrine built during the Silla period, have withstood the passage of thousands of years, thanks in large part to the charcoal buried beneath them The value of charcoal, which had declined with the development of modern civilization, is receiving renewed interest today. Charcoal is now being used for various purposes in fields ranging from industry to agticulture and fisheries, to purify water, adjust humidity, eliminate odors, condition the soil, and even to improve the quality of meat In addition, new forms of charcoal have been developed for today's urban lifestyles.

~

~-

-~,

~

";'

~

Types oÂŁ Charcoal The charcoal produced in Korea can be largely distinguished into two types,

Eleven charcoal kilns sit side by side in Podong-ri Village in Hoengseong at the foot of Mt. Chiaksan in Gangwon-do province. It is the largest producer of charcoai in Korea that is sold under the brand name Gangwon (:harnsut (charcoal) (top).

Wood collected from all over the country is piled up near the charcoal kiln (above middle).

The kiln is stuffed about 2 meters high with oak wood (above).

73

It is believed that humans have used charcoal from antiquity. Especially 1n Korea, charcoal could be obtained easily as a byproduct of the unique traditional under-fl9or heating system called ondol, which allowed it to become a highly essential, and widely used commodity.

The entrance is sealed after the kiln is filled and the fire is started (below).

74

depending on the method of production.

In one method, wood is left to burn for five to seven days in a kiln. The charred wood is then taken out of the kiln, mixed with damp sand, and covered in ashes until it stops burning. In another method, wood is burned in a kiln for five to seven days and then left in the kiln with the air vents plugged for another five or seven days to let the wood stop burning naturally. Charcoal produced by the first method is called white charcoal because the smface has a gray tint due to the ash residue built up on it Charcoal produced by the second method is called black charcoal because it is black, having no ash residue as no ash was produced in the cooling down process. Most of Korea's charcoal is produced in Gangwon-do province, mainly in the Hoeseong and Wonju areas, which mostly produce white charcoal. The Chi.mgcheong-do and Jeolla-do provinces produce mostly black charcoal Trees, the raw material for charcoal, are widely distributed throughout Korea.

Traditionally oak wood has been preferred for its superior hardness and otl1er qualities that mal<e it an appropriate form of fuel. The preference persists today, even though charcoal is often used for purposes other than fuel, which means the majority of charcoal is produced from oak wood. Dam yang, ]eolia-do, which is renowned for bambooware, also makes bamboo charcoal using the black charcoal production method.

A Porous Absorbent When viewed through a microscope at 1,000-degree magnification, you can see that charcoal has cm.mtless large and small pores lil<e the six-sided cells of a beehive Certainly, tl1ere are differences depending on the type of wood, the production method and the temperature to which the wood is fired, but the combined surface area of porous charcoal usually reaches 200-300 square meters per gram, equivalent to a modest-sized tennis court In other words, charcoal is a highly porous substance. The secret to charcoal's

ability to eliminate contaminants lies with its countless pores. Charcoal's huge surface area gives it countless bonding sites, enabling certain chemicals ta become attached to the surface and trapped.

When the air is humid, charcoal absorbs much moisture through its pores, and discharges moisture when the air becomes d1y. As such, it is an outstanding substance for naturally adjusting humidity.

lnirared Light When burning, 2-3 percent of a piece of charcoal turns into white ash. The ashes emit "near infrared" rays which are invisible to the naked eye and whose wavelength reaches 2-5 11m. The infrared rays within this particular wavelength reportedly absorb substances rapidly, and also give off heat in the form of energy.

Electrical Resistance All kinds of electronic appliances, including mobile phones that have become an indispensable pa1t of daily life,

emit harmful electromagnetic waves.

There are no special means of preventing the harmful waves, other than covering the appliances with conductors that resist electricity, such as metal, to prevent their emission to the outside, or their infiltration.

Although wood, the source of cha~¡ol, has an extremely low conductivity that allows virtually no electricity to pass through, charcoal, the result of wood carbonizing at high temperatures exceeding 1,100 degrees Celsius, has a high carbon conte~ exceeding 96 percent This quality allows its transformation into a substance with a greatly improved conductivity.

Charcoal produced by burning wood at high temperatures is found to have an electric resistance simla~¡ to that of copper.

Because lt is lighter than metal, prospects are bright for its being used for diverse purposes in this field.

Negative Electrons Every substance is made up of atoms.

At the center of an atom is the nucleus,

After the charcoal is removed, the entrance is enlarged to allow the kiln to cool (above).

The chan-ed wood, or charcoal, is covered with earth to cool and later sorted and stored in straw sacks (below).

75

Workers suffer from chronic respiratory ailments because of charcoal dust. Slices of cooked pork downed with a glass of soju are good for clearing their stuflY chests (above).

a core made up of protons and neutrons, and circulating around it are electrons. The number of protons and neutrons are usually balanced, which allows the electrons to be electrically neutral.

When electrons are removed, the atom comes to have only a positive electrical charge. This process is called oxidation, which means a substance is no longer fresh. For instance, when kimchi ages, or when it is no longer fresh, it turns sour due to oxidation. The human body oxidizes every day, but also restores itself constantly through a process called metabolism. When metabolism slows down, the body begins to rot. This is why metabolism should be promoted to keep the cells of the body healthy. To that end, it is desirable to supply them with negative electrical charges.

Charcoal is a lump of carbon, and carbon contains highly active negative electrical charges. Moi¡eover, carbon reportedly transmits electrical charges to its surroundings. In other words, charcoal boasts a highly restorative function, and thus it is conducive to preserving a substance in a fresh state for a long time.

~3

.-

Charcoal in Daily Life In the past, charcoal was mainly used for heating and cooking. It is attracting new interest today as a health supplement because of its aforementioned qualites.

Activated charcoal, or charcoal that been treated with oxygen to open up millions of tiny pores between the carbon a,toms, is used to purify tap water, eliminate the odor of excrement at livestock farms, and also in organic farming to restore the productivity of soil by neutralizing and conditioning the land that .has become acidic. The following is an introduction to the various ways activated charcoal is used today.

---

76

Barbecuing

Although charcoal is used for many purposes, it is primarily used as a cooking fuel. Charcoal has been used for cooking, for such a long time, because burning charcoal produces 7,000 calories of heat per gram. When charcoal burns, it does not belch smoke, and it burns long, hot and steady without bursting into flames.

Nor does it produce any smell of burning.

The near infrared rays that burning charcoal produces also help to make barbecued food tastier.

Pillows and Mats

Pillows and mats filled with oak or bamboo charcoal crushed into tiny pieces are popular nowadays. They take advantage of the negative ions produced by charcoal and the infrared rays charcoal gives off when heated As charcoal powder can permeate the cloth covering the pillows and mats, it is necessary to use double covers.

Deodorizers

Charcoal functions to absorb and break down all kinds of smells, such as .ammonia and sulfur gas, through negative ionization-atoms or molecules that have lost or gained one or more elec-

trons, which become electrically charged. The ethylene gas that fruits and vegetables release in the process of breathing is one reason they wither.

When charcoal is placed in a refrigerator, it absorbs the gas, and thus helps to eliminate smells and to keep fruits and vegetables fresh.

Potted Plants

With its millions of pores, charcoal not only helps to store moistme for the roots of plants, but also helps with aeration and water drainage. Moreover, charcoal serves as an outstanding host for the microorganisms beneficial to plants. Accordingly, when pea-size pieces of charcoal are mixed with potting soil in a ratio of about 5 to 10, it can help to create an environment conducive to healthy plant growth Needless to say, if charcoal is mixed with the soil in a garden, it can help to putify the water and als_o condition the soil to grow trees and plants that are highly resistant to pests.

help to block the harmful waves to a certain extent Other Uses

Charcoal is also placed in cooking rice to make it more appetizing, and it can be placed in bath water. A charcoal bath is considered effective for improving general health and well being. In Oriental medicine, charcoal powder is sometimes mixed with medicinal herbs and made into pills. +

Charcoal is packed by size for sale. The greatest amounts are sold to restaurants for grilling meat (below).

I

~

Ornamental Purposes

It must be evetyone's wish to create a beautiful home. It is also natural to covet unique ornaments. It would be even better if such ornaments could promote the health of residents.

Ornamental charcoal can satisfy these two conditions.

Charcoal in its natural state can be used as a natural work of art, if it is placed in a potted plant. Using the recently introduced bamboo charcoal for dec01¡ative pmposes can create an even more exotic ambience. Ornamental charcoal can help to eliminate odors and adjust humidity in a house, and when placed around a TV or other appliances that emit electromagnetic waves, it can 77

.'

/

Trees tumed to charcoal by the fire that raged days and nights on the hills and mountains that stretched to Mt. Geumgangsan in the north and to Mt. Seoraksan in the south (top).

A woman wipes tears from her fuce in front of the burned rubble that was her home only the night before (above).

80

ronment that is especially conducive to wildfires.

Korea's East Coast is home to an abundance of pine forests. The forests . and mo,untain areas nearby the villages alongside the road are predominately covered by pine trees. Records indicate that pine trees require a noticeably longer time to grow in the areas around Daegwallyeong, a mountain pass near Gangneung which boasts lush forests of pine trees. It is not clear whether such slow growth is related to some characteristic unique to the pine trees in this area or is a reflection of an inferior

growing environment. However, it is believed that conditions along the East Coast make it difficult for C)ther species of trees to thrive there.

Are pine trees vulnerable to fire? Do they have their own "strategy" for survival? If so, is it beneficial to humankind?

Most would believe that pine trees are vulnerable to forest fires; fire burning along the ground can spread rapidly to the upper foliage of trees; pines trees burn easily since they contain oily substances such as turpentine, and fire can spread quickly because the forests composed of pines serve as a ready passage-

way for fire to move through a forest This is why the pine trees growing on hillocks along coastal areas were almost completely destroyed by fire.

Then why do pine trees dominate and how do hilly areas nearby the coas~ they survive forest fires? The East Coast was in a barren state for a considerable period in the past Evidence of this is the many areas without any stratum A, the layer that contains more nutrients than other layers of soil. In sho~ these areas are simply covered with fallen leaves and branches on top of stratum B. Consequently, not many species of trees

can survive in such barren soil.

Although the hilly areas do not provide ideal growing conditions for pine trees, they are able to easily find space to take root and survive, because other tree species offet: little competition in this difficult environment Then what strategy do the pines utilize to maintain their dominance of these areas? The seeds of pine trees are able to penetrate the earth's surface to reach minerals and then sprout and eventually create a forest With the passage of time, as the soil becomes somewhat more fertile, this enables oak trees to take root When the

parts of a forest occupied by pine trees are destroyed, oak trees suddenly proliferate there, as if to fill the gap. As for pine trees, this means that other species of trees are taking over their living space (a natural ecological process), and hence it is possible that pine trees somehow subject themselves to fire, in order to return the land to a barren state so that descendants of its own species from neighboring areas can again prevail But this is not to say that this hypothesis can also be applied to mountainous terrain. This is because of the pronounced ruggedness of the terrain in mountainous areas. For instance, the ridges are often eroded so severely that even the bedrock is exposed, while soil continuously slides down the slopes to accumulate in the valleys. This causes the types of nutrients contained in the soil to change as well. Moreover, in many cases, broadleaf trees are already growing in such valleys. On the other hand, pine trees typically favor western slopes or hills receiving plentiful sunlight. Pine trees also tend to dominate other species in the areas of valleys along and nearby streams. The pine forests growing in mountainous regions with precipitous terrain are relatively more resistant to wildfires. This is because fire will move more rapidly through areas of steep terrain. A forest fire moving rapidly along the ground surface will often sweep by after just burning fallen leaves. This is how the bark of pine trees can manage to escape serious damage in a forest fire.

Generally, fire scars are seen only on the upper trunk sections. Last year, I went to Sogwan-r~ Uljin-gun, to inspect the fire damage there. I practically had to crawl on my hands and knees to climb up the steep slopes from the forest road I found that even young pine trees had not suffered any fire damage.

Although pine trees do not grow rapidly in such areas, they are able to withstand the ravages of fire, while growing steadily for hundreds of years to mature into trees with sturdy trunks 81

.'

Tender sprouts shooting up among the charred trees (top) A great tit sings on a charred branch (above).

Autumn comes to the hills ravaged by the fire.

A meek sun shines between clouds and the -skeletal trees (right).

and uniform annual rings. The crossbeams used in the restoration of the ancient Gyeongbokgung Palace in Seoul came from such trees. According to a report, the pine trees in Sogwang-ri, Uljin, an area known as a treasure trove of pine trees, suffer a forest fire once every nine years. Could this be the result of human intervention, or just a natural process?

When a wildfire breaks out, usually all or part of the upper foliage of the plants and trees are destroyed It is possible to predict from the extent of fire damage what types of plants are likely to try to take over the burned-out area D1Iring the 1960s and 1970s, Korea concentrated on reforestation efforts through nationwide tree-planting campaigns, while pleading for people to not 82

eliminate even a single blade of grass or a tree branch to ensure the success of efforts to turn desolate landscape into verdant forests. This process also led to changes in the fuel resources used, with mainly fossil fuels being consumed instead of wood. The forests were allowed to flourish while Korea underwent sweeping social change, characterized by a precipitous decline in rural residents, as hordes of people migrated to urban areas. The government committed large-scale funds and resources to forest maintenance to provide jobs for laid-off workers after the nation suffered a financial crisis in late 1997, but this makework effort was short-lived, and as a result, many forest areas are being left unattended.

Such developments in Korea's afforestation efforts also influence the structure of forests. When dead tree branches do not fall to the ground, or dead trees are not disposed of, they remain in the forests and serve as accelerants for the spread of forest fires, which enables a fire burning along the ground to rapidly reach the upper foliage of trees.

The proper care of forests requires efforts to increase the amount of direct sunlight passing through the overhead canopy, which is needed to aid the decomposition of fallen leaves, as well as the growth of shrubs and herbs. This increased sunlight helps to fortify the forests by promoting the growth of trees and plants.

Forest fires inevitably occur within a natural ecosystem, causing disruption to the ecological cycle of vegetation. When a forest is affected by fire, the ecosystem reacts quickly to adapt to new conditions.

In pine or broadleaf forests where only the lower portions -of trees are burned by fire, a miracle of regenera-tion takes place throughout the entire forest. Pine trees bear fruit and scatter their seeds to propagate more pine trees to fill the vacant space, whereas oaks sprout buds to expand their realm. In the Goseong-gun area, bud sprouts on the stumps or roots of trees grow into stems. These form clusters that vary in number in accordance with the species of trees and plants that were burned down, or based on the extent of dam-

age, amounting to as few as 3 clusters per 100-square-meter area to as many as 59. During the first year following a forest fire, oak trees that had coexisted with shrubs can grow 1.1-1.7 meters in height, and even up to 4 meters in some areas. Oaks, especially bristletooth oak (Quercus serrata), produce an incredible number of seeds within 4-5 years after a forest fire as if in an effort to ensure their proliferation. This is why under the ecological cycle, a burnt-down pine forest is transformed into an oak forest. After an initial trans-

The snow tries to hide the charred scars of the mountains with its white blanket but soon melts away to reveal again the ugly remains of the damaged trees (top right).

A year after the disaster, the earth shows its resilience. Yellow violets open their timid petals in a nook of the unsightly hill (above right).

Planting and landscaping work are under way in earnest in the Goseong area the spring after the fire. Hope is restored in the hearts of the villagers that were as ravaged as the burnt forests (right).

83

I

....._

..,_

Four years after fire blackened the region, young pine trees sprout like a message of hope to humankind (top, above).

Without human interference, a thicket of young hazel trees and Japanese oaks thrive in place ofburned pine trees (top right).

Firsthimd witnesses of the havoc wrought by fire, children visit the hills near their village and water freshly planted saplings (above right).

formation, however, the type of forest that it will ultimately become depends on the environmental conditions. In mountainous areas with fertile soil, Mongolian oaks (Quercus mongolica) and oriental oaks (Quercus va.ria.bilis) are able to take root, but they cannot survive in steeply sloped areas or on the hillocks along the East Coast because the soil is too barren.

Such areas will probably return to pine forests eventually, with oriental oaks managing to grow only in limited areas, such as southern slopes.

In pine forests, the upper portions of trees that suffered fire

84 0

'

damage are likely to be afflicted with blight within three years. Although the trees may appear to be healthy as they still retain their leaves during the first year, the passageways in the stems through which nutrients are carried become clogged, or the roots begin to rot due to germ infiltration such that these trees soon wither and die. Efforts to deal with this phenomenon have become a source of controversy. There are those who insist that damaged trees should be left unattended after a fire, leaving the recovery process to Mother Nature, and others who advocate intervention efforts, calling for these trees to be cut down. In other words, the forest caretakers and academics have differing views on the issue. In the past, it was customary for damaged trees to be cut down immediately after a fire.

In severely damaged areas where all trees and plants are destroyed, the recovery process takes a different comse. The

areas that were once pine forests with many oaks and acacias (Robinia pseudoacacia) growing low to the ground would become pine or acacia forests.

But where there were virtually no plants growing along the ground, these areas are likely to become forests of shrubs, mainly bush clover (lespedeza), or in some cases, they remain totally desolate. The areas damaged by forest fire that remain bare will ultimately lose their topsoil in summer when the monsoonal rains fall, and end up barren if left to natl)ral influences. Some areas along the East Coast where the bedrock is exposed are the result of such a process. These areas will need to be restored through artificial means.

Eliminating air, a key combustion elemen~ or combustibles can help to prevent forest fires. Since most of the forest fires in Korea do not result from natural causes, people could be educated to reduce combustion factors, but this obvi-

ously has its limits. In practical terms, air cannot be cut off, except with chemical fire extinguishers. Accordingly, methods are needed to eliminate combustible materials. There are two ways to do this.

The first involves directly disposing of combustibles, but this is costly. The second method involves regulating the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor. Adjusting the canopy openings to allow sufficient sunlight to pass through helps to accelerate the decomposition of fallen leaves and increases the growth of surface shrubs.

Taking measures to prevent high temperatures in forest areas is also an important part of fire prevention. This can be done by creating fire control lines. Fire control lines should be established; however, everything else should be left to the way of nature, thereby allowing a forest to naturally develop through a process of competing and harmonizing with its environment. The value of a forest could then be increased through proper maintenance.

It is hoped that many useful proposals will be presented to prevent wildfires, while our understanding of the forest ecosystem is further enhanced so that forest resources can continue to yield benefits and a sound ecological system be maint:1ined +

Kim Son-kyu, a photographer of the Munhwa Ilbo, has recorded the changes that have taken place in the Goseong area in the fuur years since it was devastated by fire in April1996.

85

! '\

The Bell of onsaTemple Lee Young-bae Professor Emeritus, Seoul National University

.,_......, he oldest bell of the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935) extant today is a modest size bronze bell cast in 725 during the reign of King Seongdeok (r. 702-737). It can be found hanging in the bell pavilion within the comtyard of Sangwonsa Temple on Mt. Odaesan in Gangwon-do province.

It is said that the first bells made in Korea were imitations of Chinese bronze bells that had been used as musical instruments during the Yin Dynasty.

The bells of China, Japan and Korea each feature a somewhat different style.

To compare the bells of the three countries, the following outlines distinguishing characteristics of Korean bells, as represented by the Sangwonsa bell Korean bells produced during the Silla period included a suspension ring in the shape of a writhing dragon, next to which, protruding from the body of the bell, was a flue pipe for determining the tone of the bell. Chinese and Japanese bells feature suspension rings made of two dragons, and do not have a flue pipe. The body of the Sangwonsa bell is adorned with patterned bands at its top and bottom and heavenly maidens (apsaras) playing musical instruments in between. The upper band includes two square boxes in which nine circular protrusions, or "nipples," are aligned in three rows.

There are four heavenly maidens, two on each side, in relief. Two of them 86

The bronze bell in the pavilion in the courtyard of Sangwonsa Temple on Mt. Odaesan in Gangwon-do province is the oldest bell in Korea, dating from the Silla period. It is National Treasure No. 36 (opposite page).

Apsaras (heavenly maidens) on the bell and its striking point (above)

are more intricately carved than the other two with their robes and necklaces sharply detailed along with vividly rendered musical instruments in their hands. Heavenly maidens are a feature not found on Chinese and Japanese bells.

As for its overall proportion arid ornamentation including the arabesque and lotus motifs, the Sangwonsa bell represents the essence of aesthetic purity and harmony. The heavenly maidens in particular epitomize the best of Silla sculpture.

Whereas Korean bells are adorned with exquisite patterns and heavenly maidens, Chinese and Japanese bells are decorated with simply outlined designs resembling a monk's clothing and are sectioned with lines. The bottom edge of Korean and Japanese bells is straight, while Chinese bells feature scalloped bottoms.

An inscription that begins on one side of the dragon head on top of the Sangwonsa bell and continues onto the other side indicates that the bell ¡ was completed in the third lunar month of 725 and required 3,300 kun (a traditional unit of weight, 1 kun being equivalent to about 600 grams) of bronze. The inscription also includes a work roster that lists the director of casting, monks Dojik, Chungchil, Chungan, and Jeongung as supervisors, and Daesajonamtak as the chief artisan.

composition of the bronze of Sangwonsa bell, which according to the inscription amounted to "all of 3300 clumps," included 83.87 percent copper, 13.26 percent tin, 2.12 percent lead and 032 percent zinc.

This composition indicates that the bell was cast with durability and clarity of sound in mind; its oscillation frequency has been calculated to be 102 cycles per second. Because the bronze of Korean, Chinese and Japanese bells include a tin content of 13 to 15 percn~ their sound is characterized by low tones with long-lingering vibrations, whereas Western bells have very high tones and little sustained vibration.

Whereas Korean bells are adorned with exquisite patterns and heavenly maidens, Chinese and Japanese bells are decorated with simply outlined designs resembling a monk's clothing and are sectioned with lines. The bottom edge of Korean and Japanese bells is straight, while Chinese bells feature scalloped bottoms.

The major components of bronze are copper, tin, lead, and zinc. It is believed that bronze was introduced to Korea from Han China around 2000 B.C, with the lost-wax casting technique being used in Korea as early as the 1st century B.C. In the case of the Sangwonsa bell, it is possible that the casting was undertaken in two parts. It is believed that the body proper was produced by centrifu-

gal casting, q method of casting using the lost-wax process involving a mold that is spun rapidly until its cavity is filled with molten metal through centrifugal force.

The apsaras and other decorations in relief on the surface, the dragon-shaped suspension ring and the sound flue may have been produced using piece molds.

All such bells were made of bronze, an alloy of tin and copper. The chemical

Based on the load-cell method, the Sangwonsa bell's weight was determined to be 1,290 kilograms (344 kwan or 3,440 kun). It was cast by order of King Seongdeok of Silla for use at Chinyowon, an educational institution for the children of aristocrats. It was used as a town bell in Andong, Gyeongsangbuk-do during the early Joseon period and moved to its present location at Sangwonsa in

1468.

Korea has produced bells of a form quite different from Chinese and Japanese bells. Their unique form and the sculptural patterns on their surface have been passed down for centuries as an expression of Korea's artistic and technological achievement. + 87

.'

IArt Review

1

Interpreting

Paik NamJune in a New Light Kim Young-;ai Art Critic

n exhibition chronicling the singular career of Paik Nam June, the Korean-born artist revered worldwide as the father of video art, recently opened at Seoul's Hoam Gallery and Rodin Gallery. The Worlds of Nam june Paik, featuril)g the same works that appeared in the artist's solo exhibition held under the same name at the Whitney Biennale earlier this year, holds special significance for Koreans. In a moving message that appeared on the exhibition web site (http://wwwhoammuseum.org), the artist stated: "Though my body is in New York, my heart remains in Seoul. I hope that people will recognize my sincerity." Just as Korea is of special meaning for Paik as the country where he spent his youth, the name Paik NamJune holds special meaning for Koreans. He has distinguished himself as a historic benchmark in Korea's art community and its pursuit of internationalization and globalization, with his career being a beacon for artists striving to attain international recognition His name conveys a message of hope and dreams for Korean children as well The Korean att community began to embrace the trends of world art in the 20th century, but could only carry on an unrequited love affair due to the countless tragedies wrought by this century, including the Japanese colonial occupation, World War II and the Korean War.

A

88

The Circle of Three Elements, a laser media work that portrays the depth of the spiritual world

IArt Review 1

Under such circumstances, Paik emerged as a prominent newsmaker <?f monumental influence among the artistic circles of the Americas and Europe, at a time when very few Korean artists ventured abroad He came to rub shoulders with such renowned European and American artists as Joseph Beuys, John Cage, Merce Cunningham and George Maciunas. The art works of Paik were introduced to Korea after his name began to lend prestige to major art events around the world in such diverse fields as Fluxus att, video art and laser works.

The occasional introduction of his works to Korea always signaled a veritable assault on the Korean art community, which was ruled by the artists who had established their careers mainly through the state-sponsored Korean Art Exhibition. One of Paik's earliest works, Prepared Piano (1958-1%3), was are-construction of John Cage's adaptation of Taoism called Useful Uselessness, into an "assemblage" and "happening" in the form of performance mt The work consists of a piano that was fitted with broken eggshells, a brassiere, and various odds and ends that Paik found and thought randomly significant. In One for ~ Violin Solo (1962), the artist crashed a violin onto the floor where it broke into , pieces, while in Opera Sextronique -"' (1967), the cellist Charlotte Moorman was even arrested for indecent exposure. These all sent shock waves rippling through the Korean art community, like an unruly carp thrashing about in tranquil waters.

During the 1960s when Korean art had just barely turned its interest to action painting, Paik was exhibiting art works focused on active "spectator pat·ticipation," as if heralding the arts of the 1970s. For instance, one of his early video works Random Access (1%3) creates music when you rub the head of a tape player over strips of audiotape attached to a wall. Exposition of MusicElectronic Television (1963), which was

one of the earliest video art exhibitions in the world, professed the aesthetics of "chance operation" of the John Cage school in which a work is completed by a viewer accidentally placing a magnet on a TV set His work Real Fish/Live Fish featuring tiny fish swimming against a background of moving images was broadcast live in 1975, with Good Morning, Mr. Orwell also being broadcast live in France, West Germany and Korea in 1984. During the 1997-2000 period when Paik consolidated his stature as a global artist of undisputed renown, he also staged an installation using lasers titled Three Elements. · It was only natural that Koreans developed a keen interest in Paik as he began to sweep the world stage with such avant-garde works of art. This all led to the so-called Paik Nam June Syndrol)le era, which spawned publications, stationery items, art products, chat·acters and even computer screensavers that sought to capitalize on his newfound fame. For example, in a series of publications ·entitled Persons I Wish to Emulate, Paik was i:he first person to be so introduced His at'tistic talents have been the key to creating the Paik Nam June myth, but his conduct has also played a vital role.

Paik can speak five languages, but none of them very fluently. One American critic even stated that it was only after listening to Paik for 20 minutes that he finally realized Paik was speaking in English.

Moreover, he does not speak Korean any better than his other languages. But what is important is that his rather awkward and unsophisticated demeanor helps to promote him as a comfortable person to be with, and to win people over, even his critics. Such traits also are the reason that TV anchors will introduce him as your typical next-door neighbor to viewers. It is quite interesting that his success has led five different countlies to revere him as their own attist

As is the case with many pioneering attists, Paik is lmown for his eccentricity as well In his 1%0 work titled Etude for Pianoforte, he tore John Cage's necktie and shitt, and shampooed his hair. In the 1963 Exposition of Music-Electronic Television, he proceeded to obliterate a piano with an axe. One of his works even included simulated sex acts performed on a piano. He also dipped his hair in Chinese ink, and then used it to paint on a piece of paper spread on the floor. Although such acts all involved legitimate artistic activities, such as Fluxus, few parents in the world would encourage their children to pursue their attistic interest if this meant pattaking in such bizarre activities.

Still, it is necessary to find ways to interpret his works in a new light This is because his works have their roots in Korea's philosophy of moderation and its archetypes, while also revealing Korean traits. By moderation, this involves the sense of tension manifested in Video Buddha (1976-1978), among others. This particular work reveals traces of influence from minirnalism,Japanese Monoha att, and Koreans' u·aditional pattiality for white. The work features a minimal number of images and props, and seemingly becomes complete through the pat·ticipation of viewers. It also signifies the Oriental and Korean ideology influenced

by Taoism.

By archetypes, this refers to the bundles of wiring-resembling tangled masses of yat·n-left exposed at the back of his video works, the consistency of video images that appear to have been selected at random, and also the chaotic composition in the installation of props seemingly placed arbitrarily, such as in TV Garden. Such works obviously represent Korea's archetypal way of thinking, which was developed in the course of its 5,000-yeat· history as an agrarian society.

As for traits, this includes the body scent or marks of human beings.

Regarding the Paik-Abe Video 89

.'

lA r

t

Review 1

Just as Korea is of special meaning for Paik as the country where he spent his youth, the name Paik Nam June holds special meaning for Koreans. He has distinguished himself as a historic benchmark in Korea's art community and its pursuit of internatio-

nalization and globalization, with his career being a beacon for artists striving to attain international recognition. :-

""

Synthesizer (1969-1972), a collaborative work with video engineer Shuya Abe, Paik said: "It is possible to create a screen in1age that is as precise as the works of Leonardo, as liberal as those of Picasso, as splendid as Renoir, as profound as Mondrian, as dynamic as Pollock, and as lyrical as Jasper Johns." From the audience's perspective of Electronic Opera 2 (1973), however, the screen images appear to have been patched together rather raggedly. Interestingly, people admire and respect the artist's ability to create a screen image with the touch of a human hand, much like the wooden furniture of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), through such an electronic work based predominantly on the functions of a syntl1esizer.

These qualities can be seen as representing the archetype, sentiment and sensibility of the Korean people.

Interpreting the works of Paik Nam June should begin anew from such a perspective. â&#x20AC;˘ 7V.Clock, a work that imitates the hands of an analogue clock to express d1e passage of 24 hours. It comprises 12 black-and-white monitors and 12 color monitors (right).

90

Grandmother ofthe Robot Family, a composition of used radios and T.V sets (above)

Q.

~

;;:

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

·Yi Sang 91

Yi Sang's Perpetual Audacity Walter K. Lew Poet, Literary Critic

ustomarily dubbed the "genius" Korean writer of the Japanese colonial era, Yi Sang was born Kim Hae-gyeong in Seoul in 1910 and died in Tokyo of tuberculosis in 1937, one month after his release from prison, where he had been incarcerated by the Japanese police on charges of being a political subversive.

As is alluded to in the sho11 story ''Record of a Consummation" (presented in this issue of KOREANA), Yi Sang had traveled from Korea to Japan in the fall of 1936 not to collude with anti-imperialist operatives, but to experience for himself the vaunted cosmopolitanism of Tokyo and absorb some of its latest modern knowledge. By Yi Sang's time, visits to Japan had been an impOrtant part of the education of many Korean writers, artists and.intellectuals across the entire aesthetic and ideological spectrum, including some of Yi Sang's colleagues in the "Circle of Nine" coterie (Gu-inhoe), such as the poets Chong Ji-yong and Kim Ki-rim and the painter Gu Bong-un. The Japanese police's fals~ accusations were especially ironic in that Yi Sang's work-and that of most of his Gu-inhoe colleagues-dearly distanced itself from the activities of writers conunitted to the immediate ove1tlu¡ow of colonial rule.

One reason that Yi Sang's writing has maintained its remarkable, steadily growing critical and cult status is that he brilliantly explored alternative means of being audacious and innovative during a time when political radicalism was being ruthlessly extirpated in both the Japanese metropolis and its Korean colony. Yi Sang cleverly exploited chan.nels that colonial modernity had, in fact, promulgated through its stimulation of an urban, cosmopolitan culture (both popular and bohemian) and its associated aesthetics of speed, mechanization, collage, Western fashion and eroticism, the "new woman," gender play, and anti-Confucian profligacy.

In Seoul, these trends were performed and disse1ninated in art galleries, department stores, cafe and bar-based demimondes, burgeoning mass media (radio, newspapers, magazines, cinema) and downtown thoroughfares like Jongno where Yi Sang and his friends strolled daily: forms or guises of modernity that often echoed the concurrent Japanese Taish6-era craze for the "erotic, grotesque and nonsensical" (ero-guro-nansensu in Japanese). These especially took hold of younger Korean in1aginations from the mid-1920s onward, when the Japanese colonial government instituted a more liberal 's ultmal" (as opposed to military) rule in response to the widespread March First Independence Movement of 1919 as well as other Korean nationalist and socialist activism Due to his declining health, Yi Sang quit his post as an architectural engineer in the Japanese Governor-General's Department of Public Works and subsequently opened several cafes in succession, each of which were financial failures. These ventures and his own illustrations for works such as Pak Tae-won's serialized novel One Day in the Life of the Novelist Ml: Gubo show that he was thoroughly immersed in the new urban culture.

In addition, Yi Sang's brief writing career (roughly 1929-1937) restlessly incorporated some of the most internationally influential cultmal and aesthetic currents of the time while transfonning them into a unique idiom that no Korean writer over the last six decades has been able to supersede, though most have been either captivated or repulsed by it.

Short stories such as the canonical ''Wings" (1937) perform an often comical yet trenchant 92

exploration of subjectivity, deceit, commodification, and urban regimentation under modernization Far from asserting a timeless Korean identity and culture, they utilize fragmented language, an often farcical wit, and nimble alternation of tone, scenes and identity of narrator and characters while making a dazzling variety of allusions, ranging from Chinese classics such as the Chuang-tzu to texts that had only recently become available in Korea, such as Hollywood films, phonograph recordings of Korean and foreign music, and both Eastern and Western Romantic and Modernist literature. The poems of Yi Sang's "CrowsEye View" series (1934) were so bizarre that they provoked many readers and editors of the newspaper that published them to successfully boycott against their continued serialization Although closely related to Japanese translations and adaptations of European Dada and surrealism (eg, maniacally repeated patterns of nonsense and the mixing of algebraic and linguistic expressions), some Japanese literary critics themselves have written that Yi Sang's subversion of lyricism and the pi<;:turesque went much further than his formal models in its explorations of dark realms of death and the uncanny.

The undercurrent of despair and absurdity in Yi Sang's work readily evokes allegorical meanings about the plight of Korean intellectuals urider colonial rule However, it is perhaps more accurate to say that skepticism about any society or convention runs throughout his writing, including disillusionment with the modernity that he has so strongly come to symbolize in Korean literary criticism. One significance of "Record of a Consummation" is that, like other works Yi Sang penned about trips he took to the countryside either purely for leisure or in hopes of alleviating his phthisic condition, it brings attention to the particular nature of the historical confrontation between the urban and rural, modern and ~ traditional, cosmopolitan and native Unlike Yi Sang's more celebrated works, "Record of a Consummation" ends in an emphatically Korean mode: the two former lovers singing " folk songs in which the sexual overtones '"M ~ Cl 'Ot 0 Iii 1t~il L! ':l:j T L..: 'Zij ~ , , , seem all the more ardent and futile in the aftermath of both Geumhong's "battles on life's front line" and tl1e narratot"s abnegation of his traditional roles as son, husband, and righteous ? man of letters. + ~l'W".n!r;:

"'ÂŁJ;:o)'!(cloJoJo]O\ ~!ÂŁ'@olt.>

,,

o}q t!

93

The Korea.Foundation Fellowship Programs FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN STUDIES

The Korea Foundation offers fellowships for Korean studies in the fields of humanities, social sciences and arts.

The program is intended to provide scholars and other qualified professionals overseas with an opportunity to carry out in-depth research in Korea for a period of three to twel've months.

Each successful applicant will be provided with round-trip airfare to Korea and a monthly stipend during the grant period.

Applicants should complete the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Studies application form and submit their academic research proposals to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 31 of the same year.

Support for Korean Studies Programs Abroad The Korea Foundation offers financial assistance to universities, research institutes and libraries abroad in their efforts to promote the study and understanding of subjects related to Korea. Projects submitted for consideration must be in the fields of humanities, social sciences or arts and within the categories listed below: 1) Establishment and expansion of Korea-related courses and faculty positions, 2) Fellowships for graduate students or research grants for faculty members, and 3) Library acquisitions and cataloging.

Applications must be submitted to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection wi ll be announced by November 30 of the same year.

For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please write to:

FELLOWSHIP FOR KOREAN LANGUAGE TRAINING

Korean Studies Support Team The Korea Foundation

The Korea Foundation offers grants for Korean language training to graduate students, scholars and other qualified professionals overseas who wish to learn the Korean language at a Korean university language institute for a period of six to twelve months.

Each successful applicant will be assigned to a Korean language course at a major Korean university, and will be provided with tuition and a monthly allowance during the grant period.

Applicants should complete and submit the Korea Foundation Fellowship for Korean Language Training application form to the Korea Foundation by May 31. The results of the final selection will be announced by August 31 of the same year.

For application forms, program guidelines or fwther information, please write to:

Seocho PO Box 227 Seoul. Korea Tel, 82-2-3463-5612 Fax 82-2-3463-6075. 6076

Personnel Exchange Team The Korea Foundation Seocho PO Box 227 Seoul. Korea Tel82-2-3463-5613 Fax. 82-2-3463-6075. 6076

KOREA FOCUS A BIMONTHLY ON CURRENT KOREAN AFFAIRS

In addition to KOREANA, the Korea Foundation publishes KOREA FOCUS as part of its effort to inform the world community about Korea and to enhance international understanding in this era of globalization.

KOREA FOCUS offers a comprehensive view of contemporary Korea in a wide-ranging selection of informative articles on Korea's current affairs. In this bimonthly, you will find timely essays and commenFOCUS~ taries on Korea's politics, economy, society and culture, opinions on world affairs, and a chronology of recent events in Korea.

Its articles are selected from leading publications in Korea, including major daily newspapers, newsmagazines and academic journals.

HOAEA

I_¡ ......::: I

~

.¡.

< '

_;

~

' ' :; ~

' .. f -= _

I sA KNOX Wrin kle Decline With Medimin A

'-'

IS/\ KNOX Wrinkle Decline Wrinkle Decline with Medimin A, Feel it, and See it, to Believe it. ~

m estic

/ J nt e m

a t i o na

l

Patent: KP98- JJ 079, PCT- KR99-00056. KP98-637 15

...

The Science of Circle CD Encounter between culling edge technol~w and circle symbolizing tolerance. harmony and unity The philosophy of Hankook Tires lies in the 'Science of Circle' which makes a better world with greater safety. happiness and comfortable driving for everyone.

Korea, Let's Run Faster

Step ahead again with the 'Science of Circle,' Stretch out again to the world with Hankook Tires It' s time to go forward again . Sluggishness is a thing of the past.

It's mea ningless that li ving with di sappointments or vague ex pectations of a better tomorrow. Onl y one way to overcome the current cri sis and revive the economy: Ultimate ability prepares you to be competiti ve in today's fi erce en vironment- be it a nation, a corporati on or an indi vidual.

Jo in us through the ' S c ien

~e

of Circle' to create a better world with Himkook ¡s

state -of-the -art technology and superb quality unparalleled anywhere.

The Science of Circle

HAN<m K Tl RES